ENGLISH WORD FORMATION A short introduction What are some of the most important aspects of En !ish" First of a!!

# the fact that En !ish is spo$en o%er &'( of the )or!d surface and for this reason it can *e %ie)ed as a + !o*a!, !an ua e- There are three main roups of En !ish spea$ers. a/ nati%e spea$ers0 */ spea$ers that use En !ish as a second !an ua e0 c/ spea$ers that need to use En !ish for a practica! purpose 1for e2amp!e# for )or$/Since En !ish is spo$en in man3 different countries# it is important to under!ine that there are differences amon the %arious +En !ishes, in the )ho!e )or!ds- For e2amp!e# American and 4ritish En !ish ha%e man3 differences especia!!3 as far as %oca*u!ar3 is concernedA!so from the point of %ie) of rammar and pronunciation one can find different uses- 1cfrp- &56&7 Mc8ourt,s *oo$ on En !ish %arieties and differences *et)een 4ritish and American En !ish/4asic features of En !ish. &- Simplicity of form. O!d En !ish 19::6&&::/# ;ust !i$e modern German# French# Russian and Gree$# had man3 inf!ections to sho) sin u!ar or p!ura! nouns# %er* tense# person# etc- 4ut o%er the centuries )ords ha%e *een simp!ified. no) %er*s ha%e %er3 fe) inf!ections and ad;ecti%es do not chan e accordin to nouns- More than a s3stem of si ns 1!i$e most !an ua es/ En !ish cou!d *e defined toda3 as a +s3stem of s3stems,. that is# it is the outcome of the interaction of %arious !in uistic components. a/ An !o6Sa2on 1Germanic/# */ O!d French# c/ 8!assic !an ua es 1Gree$# Latin/# d/ other !an ua es 1Scandina%ian# Dutch# Ita!ian# Spanish# Ara*ic/The *asis of En !ish# that is# the <core !an ua e= and rammar forms is Germanic 1for e2amp!e# the irre u!ar %er* forms/4ecause of the inf!uence and *orro)in s from other !an ua es# En !ish has an o%ere2tended !e2is0 there are man3 s3non3ms and dou*!ets made of )ords of Anglo-Saxon ori in to ether )ith )ords of romance or classic ori inE2amp!es. Nouns 1sostanti%i/ Germanic fo!$ freedom hatred !i$e!ihood !3in share shire si ht sna$e truth house )oman Latin origin peop!e !i*ert3 enmit3 pro*a*i!it3 mendacit3 portion count3 %ision serpent %eracit3 domici!e fema!e

&

moon he!p adjectives. deep far $in !3 same verbs. hide feed !ea%e

!unar aid

profound distant ro3a!# re a! identica!

concea! nourish a*andon to nouns of Germanic

E2amp!es of ad;ecti%es of Romance ori in correspondin ori in. noun *ear *rain *rother foot hand o2 tooth adjective ursine cere*ra! fraterna! pedestrian manua! *o%ine dentist

Germanic6root )ords are more co!!o>uia!# more popu!ar# more fundamenta!0 )ords of French# Latin or Gree$ ori in are more forma!# more refined or !earned# !ess emotiona!Sometimes the noun of Germanic ori in desi nates the !i%in anima!# )hereas the Romance noun desi nates its meat# as it )as ser%ed in Norman househo!ds. o2 ca!f sheep pi *eef %ea! mutton por$

?- Flexibility. in En !ish a )ord can operate# )ithout inf!ections# in different parts of speech. this is a )ord formation process ca!!ed <con%ersion=- Accordin to <con%ersion= man3 nouns and %er*s $eep the same form *ut ha%e a different rammatica! function- Loo$ at these e2amp!es. <time to o= 1<e, tempo di andare %ia=/ and <time a race= 1<cronometrare una ara=/0 in the first e2amp!e +time, is a noun )hi!e in the second it is a %er*- Let,s consider the )ord +round,. it can *e used as an ad;ecti%e. <a round ta*!e=0 a noun. <a round of drin$s=0 a %er*. <round the

corner=0 an ad%er*. <to turn round=- These are a!! e2amp!es of con%ersion. the form of the )ord remains the same *ut the rammatica! function chan es@- Openness of vocabulary. this means that En !ish admits )ords from other !an ua es- Most )or!d !an ua es ha%e contri*uted some )ords to En !ish at some time# and the process is no) *ein re%ersed. man3 En !ish )ords are no) part of the %oca*u!ar3 of other !an ua es- En !ish pro%es to *e a %er3 creati%e !an ua e0 throu h the %arious )ord6formation processes ne) )ords are *ein constant!3 created5- Words and specialized jargon En !ish toda3 pertains to man3 specia!iAed fie!ds. science# finance# economics# po!itics# socia! sciences# etc- In order to !earn the meanin of a )ord in a specia!iAed fie!d it is necessar3 to o *e3ond the +e%er3da3, meanin of that )ord- For e2amp!e# in the !an ua e of economics +*ear, means somethin different from its !itera! meanin 1orso/# and e%en from its fi urati%e meanin 1persona diffici!e/- +4ear, as a %er* means <specu!are a! ri*asso=0 in fact# a <*ear mar$et= means. <mercato de!!,orso=- So# to understand +*ear, correct!3 it is important to ta$e into consideration the conte2t in )hich the )ord occurs# $eepin in mind the specific semantic %a!ues. in the case of <*ear mar$et= there is a ne ati%e connotationWhen one !earns the )ord +*ear, as it is used in economics# one a!so has to et fami!iar )ith its opposite. +*u!!, 1<specu!are a! ria!Ao=/- <4u!! mar$et= 1<specu!are a! ria!Ao/# <*u!! operations=# <*u!! campai n=- From these e2pressions ne) )ords can deri%e# for e2amp!e the ad;ecti%e <*u!!ish= or the noun <*u!!ishness=. <tendenAa a! ria!Ao= o <ottimismo=In order to understand specia!iAed termino!o 3 in En !ish is it important to )or$ on one,s a*i!ities as a <pro*!em so!%er=- Specia!iAed !an ua e can *e %er3 d3namic and fu!! of ima ination- For e2amp!e# !et,s consider these instances in )hich the ad;ecti%e + reen, is used. <The3 are supporters of reen issues 1pro*!emi am*ienta!i/0 < reen acti%ities=# < reen po)er= 1potere de! denaro/0 <to *e a reen hand= 1essere un !a%oratore inesperto/- Indeed# from these e2amp!es it is possi*!e to percei%e the reat e2pressi%it3 and creati%it3 of !an ua e and a!so of specia!iAed ;ar on5- Word formation. is the process *3 )hich ne)# simp!e# comp!e2 or com*ined )ords are formed )ith e2istin )ords or )ith !in uistic e!ements# !i$e prefi2es 1for e2amp!e# dis6 # or suffi2es !i$e B!ess# or )ith parts or )ords !i$e arch6# eo6# 6crac3# 6!o 3/- The most common procedures of )ord formation are. compoundin # affi2ation# con%ersion# c!ippin # *!end# and acron3m3a/ !ompounding "parole composte#- A compound )ord is formed *3 the com*ination of t)o# independent )ords# as in +*rea$fast, 1prima co!aAione/ )hich is the com*ination of +*rea$, and +fast,# t)o comp!ete )ords8ompound )ords can *e solid# as in +trademar$,# $yp$enated 1uso de! trattino tra !e paro!e/ as in +shop6!iftin , 1tacche io/ or open 1%a!e a dire# due paro!e separate/ as in +fin er fish, 1ste!!a di mare/Man3 compounds are se!f6interpretin )ords 1paro!e morfo!o icamente trasparenti/# !i$e +sa!es person, 1commesso's in un ne oAio/- On the other hand# the meanin of other compound )ords is !ess c!ear# !i$e +)indfa!!,

1!ettera!mente %uo!e dire +frutto a**attuto da! %ento,# e %iene usato per indicare un + uada no inatteso,/A so!id compound pro%es that the )ord is a permanent part of the !e2icon and that is used >uite often- Ho)e%er# the uses of the different compound )ords 1so!id# h3phenated or open/ is rather e!astic- For e2amp!e# in 4ritish En !ish there is the tendenc3 to use the h3phen# )hi!e in American En !ish the h3phen is not %er3 commonIn compoundin usua!!3 the modifier preceeds the )ord that is *ein modified. rin 6fin er 1dito anu!are/0 fin er6rin 1ane!!o da dito/0 ear6rin 1orecchino/0 fish fin er 1*astoncino di pesce/0 fin er fish 1ste!!a di mare/Different parts of the !an ua e can *e com*ined to create a compound. &%er*Cnoun. pass6*oo$ 1!i*retto di deposito/ ?nounC%er*. )indfa!! @nounCnoun. headhunter 1+cacciatore di teste,# chi cerca diri enti >ua!ificati/ 5ad;ecti%eC%er*. !o)er6priced computers 1computers piu, economici/ (ad;ecti%eCnoun. t)o6part3 1*ipartitico/ Dad%er*C%er*. hard6)or$in 9prepositionCnoun. after6hours 1dopo*orsa/ Ead;ecti%a! phrases. do)n6to6earth 1rea!ista/# on6the6;o*6trainin 0 a non6 profit6ma$in 6or aniAationOther ne) *ut common e2pressions are. se!f6centered# c!ass6 conscious# race6conscious# additi%e6free# nuc!ear6free# student friend!3# user friend!3# career oriented# etc*/ Affixation 1affissaAione/ is a procedure *3 )hich *3 addin a prefi2 or a suffi2 to a )ord the meanin of the )ord chan es- A!so# throu h a suffi2 a )ord can chan e rammatica! cate or3- What is important to notice is that the function of the affi2es and suffi2es is not comp!ete!3 neutra!- In fact# affi2es and prefi2es can contri*ute to the connotati%e meanin of a )ordSome )ords ma3 ac>uire a ne ati%e meanin # a co!!o>uia! and informa! one# an ironica! one# !oca! one# etcAffi2es and prefi2es in En !ish can ha%e %arious ori ins. Germanic# Romance# Latin# Gree$- From c!assic !an ua es in particu!ar there are the fo!!o)in prefi2es. auto6# macro6# micro6# techno6# te!e6# omo6# eco6# phi!o6The affi2es can *e. 6crac3 1as in democrac3/# 6pho*ia# 6 raph3# 6!o 3# 6path3These !ast e2amp!es of affi2es are common in )ords main!3 used in the sciences# cu!ture# techno!o 3 and po!iticsThere are a num*er of recent )e!!6$no)n prefi2es. eco6 1ecos3stem# eco6conscious/ euro6 1euroamerican# euro*onds/ macro6 1macro*iotics# macrophoto raph3/ me a6 1me a*3te# me ade*t/ te!e6 1te!econference# te!emar$etin / Some recent affi2es are rather creati%e. 6teria 1da +cafeteria,# roceteria 1dro heria/# )asheteria 1!a%anderia// 6 ate 1da Water rate# con si nificato di scanda!o. Iran ate# Saddam ate# etc-/Let,s !oo$ at the %arious uses of the prefi2 +under6+.

&- It can *e com*ined )ith %er*s and nouns in order to form other %er*s# nouns# or ad;ecti%es- It indicates eneric !ac$ of somethin . underestimate# undersiAe# under%a!ue# under)ei ht?- 8an *e com*ined )ith nouns and %er*s and indicate thin s that are under. under)ear# under round# undersea@- With num*ers it indicates eneric a e. under6t)ent3# under6thirt35- When com*ined )ith ;o*s. undersecretar3# under raduate(- It can *e used for socia! and cu!tura! terms. underdo 1perdente# dere!itto/Let,s !oo$ no) at suffi2 Bish- It has a num*er of uses. &- In )ords that indicate peop!es# !an ua es or re ions. 4ritish# 8ornish# Spanish?- When used )ith ad;ecti%es forms ne) ad;ecti%es that denote some features of the ori ina! ad;ecti%e. *ro)nish 1su! marrone# marroncino/# *i ish 1a**astanAa rande/# sma!!ish 1a**astanAa picco!o/@- It is used )ith nouns to form ad;ecti%es. st3!ish# fe%erish5- It is used )ith nouns that denote time# dates or a e and adds a connotation of appro2imation. monda3ish 1intorno a !unedi,/# thirt3ish 1su!!a trentina/(- It is used )ith names to descri*e a st3!e. c!intonish 1+a!!a 8!inton,/# chi!dish 1infanti!e/Germanic prefi2es and suffi2es are ;ust a fe). a6# *e6# un6# fore6# mis6- Most of the other prefi2es and suffi2es come from Latin# Gree$ and FrenchFrefi2es enera!!3 inf!uence meanin *ut do not chan e the )ord rammatica!!3- The most common prefi2es are. un6# in6# dis6#de6# non6- The3 a!! indicate the opposite meanin of the )ord the3 precede. unemp!o3ed# i!!o ica!# immature# discredit# deco!oniAe# dere u!ate# non6profit# etcThe ma;orit3 of suffi2es deri%es from French and other c!assic !an ua esThe fo!!o)in ones deri%e from Germanic. 6dom 1$in dom/ 6er 1producer/ 6fu! 1*eautifu!/ 6hood 1chi!dhood/ 6!ess 1home!ess/ 6!3 1c!ear!3/ 6ness 1*usiness/ 6ship 1re!ationship/ 6ate 1ma istrate/ c/ !onversion 1or Aero affi2ation/ This is an interestin )ord formation process and it is t3pica! of En !ish- What happens is that a )ord chan es rammatica! cate or3 1for e2amp!e# from noun to %er*/ )ithout chan in its shape- So# there is no need to add a suffi2 or a prefi2- It indicates a %er3 d3namic process# *ecause throu h con%ersion it is eas3 to create ne) )ords- In enera!# the !an ua e *ecomes more !i%e!3. nouns *ecome more d3namic )hi!e %er*s and ad;ecti%es *ecome more sta*!eLet,s !oo$ at these e2amp!es. o)n 1proprio/# to o)n 1possedere/

top 1cima/# to top 1essere in testa/ moon!i ht 1chiaro di !una/# to moon!i ht 1a%ere un secondo !a%oro/ num*er 1numero/# to num*er 1numerare/ face 1%o!to/# to face 1affrontare una situaAione/ d# !lipping A )ord can *e +cut, and made shorter 1and thus more effecti%e/- Let,s !oo$ at these e2amp!es. &- *ac$6c!ippin %amp 1%ampire/ perm 1permanent )a%e/ ad 1ad%ertisement/ ?- fore6c!ippin copter 1he!icopter/ p!ane 1air6p!ane/ ca* 1ta2i6ca*/ phone 1te!ephone/ @- midd!e c!ippin *i$e 1*ic3c!e/ pop art 1popu!ar art/ 5- fore and *ac$ c!ippin f!u 1inf!uenAa/ tec 1detecti%e/ e# %lend A *!end )ord is formed )hen t)o c!ipped )ords are united to form a )ho!e )ord- For e2amp!e# the )ord O2*rid e comes from the union of O2ford and 8am*rid e- There are man3 instances of this procedure in En !ish# especia!!3 in the !an ua e of ne)spaper and ma aAines- 4ecause most of these )ords are ne)# it )ou!d *e a!most impossi*!e to find them in a dictionar3- Let,s consider the fo!!o)in e2amp!es. s!ur* 1s!umCsu*ur*/ chunne! 1channe!Ctunne!/ mote! 1motorChote!/ smo 1fo Csmo$e/ sitcom 1situationCcomed3/ medicare 1medica!Ccare/ docudrama 1documentar3Cdrama/ Rea anomics 1Rea anCeconomics/ sta f!ation 1sta nationCinf!ation/ f# Acronymy 43 this procedure )ords are formed *3 the sin !e initia! of !etters of other )ordsFor e2amp!e# Guppie 1Goun Hr*an Frofessiona!/# Nato 1North At!antic Treat3 Or aniAation/- Sometimes these acron3mies can *e %er3 effecti%e and memora*!e. No) 1Nationa! Or aniAation of Women/# and can *e treated !i$e rea! )ords- This means that the3 can ha%e the p!ura! form. Guppies0 the possessi%e

form. Nato,s0 the3 can ha%e prefi2es and suffi2es. 3uppif3# 3uppish# Wasp3# ufo!o 3 1from HFO/# FR6man 1uomo de!!e re!aAioni pu**!iche/# etc-