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Education System in Iran INTRODUCTION

Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran, the educational system of the country has gone under qualitative and quantitative changes. As far as quantitative changes are concerned, this education profile provides an overview of the Iranian education system. A critical assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the Iranian education system requires an in-depth analysis of its structure, which goes beyond the scope of this profile. This profile, nevertheless, seeks to provide basic information about the education system in Iran for those who are interested in becoming familiar with this system, particularly those post-secondary institutions abroad, which have admitted many Iranian students in recent years. According to the Iranian Ministry of Culture and Higher Education, there are approximately 50,000 Iranian students currently studying abroad. This profile, thus, describes the structure of the education system in Iran which is basically divided into five cycles namely, pre-school, primary, middle (or guidance), secondary and post-secondary. Three outstanding characteristics of the Iranian education system must be mentioned at this point. First, elementary education is mandatory under the Iranian constitution. Secondly, due to increasing number of applicants, admission to post-secondary institutions is through a nation-wide entrance examination and thus only the most talented students can enter universities. Finally, in general, education (in primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels) is free of charge though private schools and universities authorized by law are allowed to charge tuition fees. Through a description of the structure of the Iranian education system, this profile first describes in detail the pre-school, primary, intermediate, and secondary cycles. Secondly, it focuses on post-secondary education and provides extensive amount of information about the Iranian universities and colleges, various fields of study at universities, and different courses which are currently offered. Finally, some data in the form of tables and graphs will be provided which demonstrate the number of students (male and female) currently studying at various post-secondary institutions as well as the distribution of students along fields of study and universities. Furthermore, by means of a graphic illustration, the number of students as well as education staff before and after the Islamic Revolution (1969 to 1990) are compared.

SCHOOL EDUCATION
The school system is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Training. In addition to schools, this Ministry also has responsibility for some teacher training and some technical institutes. The Ministry of Education employs the highest number of civil servants -42 per cent of the total- and receives 21 per cent of the national budget. A total of 15,018,903 students were enrolled in 87,024 schools with 485,186 classes throughout the country in the academic year 1990-91. The breakdown was as follows: 509 schools for disabled children, 3,586 kindergartens, 59,280 elementary schools, 15,580 intermediate schools, 4,515 secondary schools, 380 technical schools, 405 business studies and vocational schools, 64 agriculture schools, 238 urban and 182 rural elementary school teachers' training colleges, seven vocational and professional teachers' training colleges and 19 institutes of technology. There are also 2,259 adult education schools. The structure of the educational system under this Ministry is divided into the following cycles: Pre-school Education cycle

A one-year program for children five years old in which they receive the basic notions needed to enter primary schools. There is no exam at the end of this cycle and children proceed automatically to the following cycle. Primary Education cycle The five-year primary cycle covers grades 1-5 for children 6 to 11 years old. This phase is both free and compulsory. Students take exams at the end of each year on which their promotion to the following grade is based. At the end of the grade 5, students take a nation-wide examination. Those who pass the exam are qualified to proceed to the next cycle. Middle (Guidance) Cycle This cycle covers grades 6 to 8 for children 11 to 13 years old. Like the preceding cycle, this cycle also provides students with general education. In this phase, the abilities as well as the interests of students are recognized, so they become prepared to decide which branch (academic or technical/vocational) they intend to choose in the next cycle. At the end of guidance cycle, students take a regional examination under the supervision of provincial boards of education. Those who pass the examination are eligible to proceed to the next cycle i.e., secondary cycle. Secondary Education cycle This is a four-year stage which covers grade 9 to Grade 12, from age 14 to 17. Secondary education is divided into two main branches namely, academic/general and technical/vocational. The choice of either branch is up to pupils themselves. The academic branch, also known as the "theoretical branch" is divided into four mainstreams namely, literature and culture, socio-economic, physics-mathematics, and finally experimental sciences. The technical/vocational branch is particularly designed to train technicians for the labor market. This branch covers three mainstreams namely, technical, business/vocational, and agriculture. There are specific subject and performance requirements for admission to some secondary programs. National examinations are conducted at the end of each grade during the secondary cycle. For the curricula and educational system see the diagrams in appendix A. The Ministry of Education has been studying a new secondary education system for several years. The new plan which was approved in 1990 aims at upgrading the quality of secondary cycle by making use of latest educational developments. Having finished their guidance cycle, students can proceed to secondary cycle choosing either vocational/technical or academic branch. Accordingly, the secondary education cycle is reduced to three years during which students are required to complete 96 units in order to be awarded the High School Diploma. The secondary graduates who are interested in post-secondary education must complete one preparation year to be entitled for attending the university entrance examination known as KONKUR. This nation-wide examination serves as the general National Entrance Examination for admission to universities. At the end, some points worth mentioning. First, English as a second language is introduced from grade 7. Second, private schools were permitted to re-open again in 1988 as "non-profit" institutions. Third, although education is free and compulsory for the first five years of schooling, there are differences between urban and rural areas as well as different regions in the country with respect to the availability of schools and various programs. Fourth, the Ministry of Education supervises some educational researches and curriculum development. Fifth, the Ministry of Education has jurisdiction over some post-secondary programs such as teacher training programs which will be mentioned later. It has also the responsibility for providing textbooks for all pre-university educational courses and prints 747 titles in 100 million copies a year. Finally, the Ministry of Education runs a number of schools outside Iran, mainly in the Persian Gulf countries as well as some European countries in which 13,703 students are enrolled.

HIGHER EDUCATION
The two Ministries responsible for most post-secondary education are the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education (MCHE) and Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MHME).However, as indicated before, the Ministry of Education also has jurisdiction over some post-secondary programs such as primary and guidance teachers training colleges and Higher Institutes of Technical and Vocational Education. In what follows first some basic information about the teacher training programs will be provided and then other post-secondary programs will be described. Teacher Education The primary as well as guidance schoolteachers are trained in a number of various institutions under the auspices of the Ministry of Education. Secondary school teachers are trained in universities under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education. Teacher training centers affiliated with the Ministry of Education train primary and guidance schoolteachers. There are several centers, which perform this task as follows: Rural Teacher Training Centers Because of the shortage of teachers in rural areas, the Ministry has established specific institutions for training teachers who will be teaching at rural areas. After finishing the guidance cycle (grade 8), students will be trained in special institutions for the duration of four years. After graduation, they will teach in schools in rural areas. Furthermore, under a new plan, the Ministry will be sending conscripts as teachers in rural areas. One thousand conscripts started their work at rural areas in the academic year 1989-1990. Primary school teacher training institution (grades 1-5) After finishing grade 10 in the high school, some students who are interested in teaching will be admitted to this special teacher-training program which lasts only two years. The graduates of this program are entitled to teach in either rural or urban primary schools. Guidance cycle teacher training centers (grades 6-8) For the purpose of training qualified teachers for grades 6-8, the Ministry admits students who have already graduated from the high school and hold their diploma through a nation-wide examination. They are required to study for another 2 years in teacher training institutions. Both primary and guidance teacher training institutions offer wide range of courses which lead to the award of an Associate Diploma. These institutions offer courses in 14 streams. Each student is supposed to specialize in only one stream. The major streams are as follows: Primary education Persian language English language French language Experimental sciences Social sciences Mathematics Vocational and technical training Islamic ethics and Arabic language Art Fostering affairs (Child development) Physical education

Children with special needs: The geniuses blind and partly blind deaf and partly deaf mentally retarded, teachable unsociable and physical defects

Secondary school teachers are trained at tertiary-level institutions, which are affiliated to the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education. In order to qualify for teaching in high schools, teachers must have a Bachelor degree for both the academic and technical streams. There are two ways to qualify: One is that a holder of a Bachelor degree in a field other than education completes a one-year teacher-training program; The other is that a secondary school graduate completes a four-year program leading to a Bachelor of Education. The latter can be done in two stages in two years each. At the end of the first two years, a graduate may choose to receive the Associate Diploma, which qualifies him/her to teach at the guidance cycle level. The main universities, which are devoted to the task of training secondary school teachers, are listed below. It should be remembered that only students with High School Diploma who pass the national entrance examination (KONKUR) are entitled to continue their post-secondary studies at these institutions: TARBIAT-E MOALEM (Teacher Training) University, Tehran . Faculties of Education at major universities : Colleges of Education, Ministry of Education : (Vocational and technical teachers) The faculty of education at the University of Tehran trains educational specialists and not classroom teachers. Several major universities, e.g. Tabriz, Mashhad and Isfahan offer postgraduate degrees in education.

Other Post-Secondary Programs Since the victory of the Islamic Revolution, new universities and colleges have been established, offering wide range of specializations. Moreover, since 1987, masters and doctorate courses have been offered in many different disciplines. In 1989 the MCHE reported that there were over 100 institutions of higher education of which 30 were universities, 14 were university complexes and colleges, 5 were nongovernmental private colleges and 36 were higher education centers and government agencies. The number of students standing at 175,675 in 1979, has increased to more than 344,045 in 1991-92, of which 96969 (28.18%) were women and 247,076 (71.82%) men. Full and part time, and hourly paid teaching staff numbered 14,160 and 9,216 people respectively, of whom 19,326 were men and 4,050 women. In addition, there are so many Iranian students who study abroad. The Iranian government has sent many top graduate students to foreign universities, since an important component of its educational strategy has involved foreign training for students in a variety of fields. Of almost 50,000 Iranian students who study abroad, there are approximately 4000 sponsored scholarship students, one fourth of which attend Canadian universities. The main branches currently offered in the Iranian universities comprise Natural and Basic Sciences, Humanities, Medical and Health Sciences, Arts and Literature, Engineering, and Agriculture. The highest number of students, 25.5 per cent, was found in engineering branches. This figure is followed by 24.2 per cent for medical and health field of study, 13.4 per cent for pedagogic and teachers' training, and 8.2 per cent for literature, humanities and academic theology. The admission is based on the results of National Entrance Examination (KONKUR).

In order to be recognized as formal, higher education institutions, which are operated by either Ministries other than the MCHE/MHME, or by private groups should be accredited. Either the MCHE or MHME should also approve their programs. Recently, the MCHE has given permission to some non-profit postsecondary education institutes to operate providing that the Ministry approves their program. One thing that has not changed since the Islamic Revolution is that admission to university remains extremely competitive and thus very difficult. Although all universities work with full capacity, demand for post-secondary education still far exceeds supply. For example, of the 752,343 applicants in the academic year 1989-90, only 61,000 or one-twelfth were admitted to various post-secondary institutions. In order to alleviate this problem at least partly and in order to enable all talented, interested individuals to pursue their higher education, two measures were taken. First, an Islamic Azad (open) University was established after the revolution in 1981. Its activities quickly expanded throughout the country, so that today thousands of students are benefiting from its high educational standards. Not relying on government funding, it charges students with tuition fees. About 180,000 students in 80 towns and cities were enrolled in this university in 1988-89, studying single subjects or taking full time day or evening courses. Applicants do not have to produce specific educational certificates to enter this university, but its entrance examinations match those of other universities.The certificates issued by this university should be recognized upon evaluation by the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education. The other way to alleviate this problem has been to establish correspondence universities. The PAYAAME NOOR University was set up in 1987. It, too, charges tuition fees and principally aims at providing teachers and civil servants the opportunity to continue their education. Courses are given through television and correspondence and students write exams at local university offices. Courses and Awards Associate Diploma Admission Requirements: Students with high school diploma should take the nation-wide entrance examination in order to be admitted to this program. Program Some universities and higher education institutions as well as primary and guidance teachers training centers award the associate degree. Students should complete 72-78 units, which normally takes two years. Bachelor Degree Admission Requirements: Admission is based on completion of secondary school, plus the "Konkur" university entrance examination. Program Full-time bachelor students will normally be expected to finish their degree in 4-5 years. No part-time programs are available and there are time limits on the completion of all degrees. The following standing must be held as a degree is being completed: (A) Registration for a minimum of 14 units, and depending on academic performance, registration up to a maximum of 21 units per semester. (B) The completion of a minimum of 153 units.

(C) An overall Grade Point Average of 12 out of 20. Master Degree Admission Requirements: The master program is intended for high achievement graduates from honors undergraduate programs. Students, who have completed a bachelor or an equivalent degree with an average of at least 14 out of 20 or above, may be admitted to the program. Bachelor holding students who want to be admitted must pass the entrance exam. Program Full-time master students will normally be expected to finish their degree in two years by choosing one of the following options depending on the field of study:

A.

The completion of 38 units;

B. The completion of a minimum of 30 units, and a thesis; C. The completion of a minimum of 22 units and a research-based thesis.
Continuous Master Degree This degree is offered in the fields of dentistry, medicine, pharmacy and veterinary medicine as well as some other fields. Since this degree is taken up after high school graduation, it requires the completion of 210-290 units with a dissertation. Doctoral Degree Admission Requirements: A master degree, or an equivalent degree, with at least high second class standing (overall average of 16 out of 20 or more) is required. Graduates with master degree must participate in the Ph.D. entrance examination in order to proceed to doctoral program. Program Full-time doctoral students will normally require a minimum of three years (and a maximum of 6 years) of study following a master degree. Since the whole master and Ph.D. programs comprise 60 units of course work altogether, the Ph.D. student is required to complete up to 60 units. Thus, if the Ph.D. candidate has already completed 30 units during his/her master studies, he/she is required to take the reminder, which is 30 units. If the Ph.D. candidate has completed 28 units during the master program, he/she is required to take 32 units during the Ph.D. program and so on. The Ph.D. student must successfully complete the required units with an overall average of 14 out of 20 in each semester. When all course work is done, the candidate sits for comprehensive examinations. Writing a dissertation is the final requirement to be fulfilled by the Ph.D. candidate in order to be awarded the degree.

THE GRADING SYSTEM


Promotion through the Iranian education system is based on end-of-year examinations at primary, intermediate, and secondary cycles, and end-of-term examinations (sometimes both middle- and end-ofterm examinations) at post-secondary cycle. At primary, intermediate, and secondary schools, system of grading is based on a 0-20 scale. An average scale of at least 10 is required for promotion. At the postsecondary level a system of grading based on a 0-20 scale is used too. The letter grade equivalents are A = 17 20

B = 14 - 16.9 C = 12 - 13.9 D = 10 - 11.9

The minimum grade for a subject credit in undergraduate programs is 10, in graduate programs is 12 and in PhD. programs is 14. The Grade Point Average (GPA) of 12 in undergraduate programs and 14 in graduate programs is required. Students from institutions under the jurisdiction of MCHE or MHME should be able to obtain transcripts unless they owe to their university. Official transcripts are issued and translations sealed by either the related Ministry or the Justice Administration of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Some universities such as Amir Kabir University, Sharif University of Technology and Shiraz University issu e

transcripts only in

English. This includes transcripts issued directly to students.


Religions: Shi'a Muslim 89%, Sunni Muslim 9%, Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, and Baha'i 2% Government: Islamic republic The Iranian Language Iran has a heterogeneous population speaking a variety of Indo-Iranian, Semitic, and Turkic languages. The largest language group consists of the speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, who in 1986 comprised about 70 percent of the population. The speakers of Indo-Iranian languages are not, however, a homogeneous group. They include speakers of Persian, the official language of the country, and its various dialects; speakers of Kirmanji, the term for related dialects spoken by the Kurds who live in the cities, towns, and villages of western Iran and adjacent areas of Iraq and Turkey; speakers of Luri, the language of the Bakhtiaris and Lurs who live in the Zagros; and Baluchi, the language of the seminomadic people who live in southeastern Iran and adjacent areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan. Approximately 28 percent of the population speaks various dialects of Turkish. Speakers of Semitic languages include Arabs and Assyrians. Iranian Society & Culture Islam and Shi'ism Islam is practised by the majority of Iranians and governs their personal, political, economic and legal lives. Islam emanated from what is today Saudi Arabia. The Prophet Muhammad is seen as the last of God's emissaries (following in the footsteps of Jesus, Moses, Abraham, etc) to bring revelation to mankind. He was distinguished with bringing a message for the whole of mankind, rather than just to a certain peoples. As Moses brought the Torah and Jesus the Bible, Muhammad brought the last book, the Quran. The Quran and the actions of the Prophet (the Sunnah) are used as the basis for all guidance in the religion. Among certain obligations for Muslims are to pray five times a day - at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening. The exact time is listed in the local newspaper each day. Friday is the Muslim holy day. Everything is closed. Many companies also close on Thursday, making the weekend Thursday and Friday. During the holy month of Ramadan all Muslims must fast from dawn to dusk and are only permitted to work six hours per day. Fasting includes no eating, drinking, cigarette smoking, or gum chewing. Expatriates are not required to fast; however, they must not eat, drink, smoke, or chew gum in public. Each night at sunset, families and friends gather together to celebrate the breaking of the fast (iftar). The festivities often continue well into the night. In general, things happen more slowly during Ramadan. Many businesses operate on a reduced schedule. Shops may be open and closed at unusual times. Iran is the only country of all Muslim countries that is officially a Shi'ite state. The others being considered Sunni states. When the prophet Mohammed died, the question over who should be his successor divided the Muslim population. What has now become the Sunnis believed the leadership of the community did not have to come from the Prophet's family, while Shi'ites disagreed. Although most Islamic countries contain members of both sects, Iran and Iraq have the highest numbers of Shi'ites. Family Values . In Iran, the family is the basis of the social structure. . The concept of family is more private than in many other cultures. Female relatives must be protected from outside influences and are taken care of at all times. It is inappropriate to ask questions about an Iranian's wife or other female relatives. . Iranians take their responsibilities to their family quite seriously. . Families tend to be small, only 1 or 2 children, but the extended family is quite close. . The individual derives a social network and assistance in times of need from the family. . Elderly relatives are kept at home, not placed in a nursing home. . Loyalty to the family comes before other social relationship, even business. . Nepotism is considered a good thing, since it implies that employing people one knows and trusts is of primary importance. Public vs. Private . Iranians see themselves as having two distinct identities: "zaher" (public) and "batin" (private). . When they are in public, they must conform to accepted modes of behaviour. It is only within their homes among their inner circle that they feel free to be themselves. Family members are always part of the inner circle. . The inner circle forms the basis of a person's social and business network. Friendship is very important and extends into business. The

people from the inner circle can be relied upon to: offer advice, help find a job, or cut through bureaucracy. Taarof (Iranian Politeness) . Taarof is a system of politeness that includes both verbal and non-verbal communication. . Iranians protest compliments and attempt to appear vulnerable in public. . They will belittle their own accomplishments in an attempt to appear humble, although other Iranians understand that this is merely courtesy and do not take the words at face value. . In adherence to taarof, if you are ever offered something, like a tea or sweet, even if you want it, at first decline it until their insistence becomes greater.

Etiquette and Customs in Iran


Meeting Etiquette . Introductions are generally restricted to members of the same sex since men and women socialize separately. . Greetings tend to be affectionate. Men kiss other men and women kiss other women at social events. If they meet on the street, a handshake is the more common greeting . When Iranians greet each other they take their time and converse about general things. . The most common greeting is "salaam alaykum" or more simply "salaam" (peace). Gift Giving Etiquette . Iranians give gifts at various social occasions such as returning from a trip or if someone achieves a major success in their personal or business life. . On birthdays, businesspeople bring sweets and cakes to the office and do not expect to receive gifts. . It is common to give monetary gifts to servants or others who have provided services during the year on No Ruz (The Iranian New Year). Money should be new bank notes or gold coins. . If you are invited to an Iranian's house, bring flowers, or pastry to the hosts. When giving a gift, always apologize for its inadequacy. . Gifts should be elegantly wrapped - most shops will wrap them for you. . Gifts are not generally opened when received. In fact, they may be put on a table and not mentioned. Dining Etiquette If you are invited to an Iranian's house: . Check to see if the host is wearing shoes. If not, remove yours at the door. . Dress conservatively. . Try to arrive at the invited time. Punctuality is appreciated. . Show respect for the elders by greeting them first. . Check to see if your spouse is included in the invitation. Conservative Iranians do not entertain mixed-sex groups. . Expect to be shown into the guests' room. It is usually lavishly furnished with European furniture. . Shake everyone's hand individually. . Accept any offer of food or drink. Remember to do 'taarof'. Table manners: Iranians are rather formal. Although some meals in the home are served on the floor and without eating utensils, it does not indicate a lack of decorum. In more modern homes, meals are served on a dining table with place settings. . Wait to be told where to sit. . Eat only with the right hand. . Try a bit if everything that is served. . Meals are generally served family-style. . Most tables are set with a spoon and fork only. . There is often more food than you can eat. Part of Iranian hospitality is to shower guests with abundance. . Expect to be offered second and even third helpings. Initial refusals will be assumed to be polite gestures (taarof again!) and are not taken seriously. . Leave some food on your plate when you have finished eating. Restaurants generally have two sections - "family" where women and families dine and "men only". Tips of between 10 and 15% are appreciated in hotel restaurants.

Business Etiquette and Protocol in Iran


Relationships & Communication . Iranians prefer to do business with those they know and respect, therefore they expect to spend time cultivating a personal relationship before business is conducted. . Who you know is often more important than what you know, so it is important to network and cultivate a number of contacts. . Expect to be offered tea whenever you meet someone, as this demonstrates hospitality. . Since Iranians judge people on appearances, dress appropriately and stay in a high standard hotel. Business Meeting Etiquette . Appointments are necessary and should be made 4 to 6 weeks in advance. . Confirm the meeting one week in advance and when you arrive in the country. . It is a good idea to avoid scheduling meetings during Ramazan (Ramadan) as the need to fast would preclude your business colleagues from offering you hospitality. . Arrive at meetings on time, since punctuality is seen as a virtue. . The first meeting with an Iranian company is generally not business-focused. Expect your colleagues to spend time getting to know you as a person over tea and snacks. . Be patient - meetings are frequently interrupted. . Written materials should be available in both Farsi and English. . Do not remove your suit jacket without permission. . Do not look at your watch or try to rush the meeting. If you appear fixated on the amount of time the meeting is taking, you will not be trusted. Business Negotiating . It takes time for Iranians to become warm towards foreign businesspeople. Until then, they may appear somewhat stiff and formal. . Personal relationships form the basis of business dealings. . Decisions are made slowly. . Iranians are deliberate negotiators who can drive a hard bargain. . Do not use high-pressure tactics. They will work against you. . Iranians may display emotion, or even walk out of the meeting, or threaten to terminate the relationship in an attempt to convince you to change your position. . Iranians often use time as a negotiating tactic, especially if they know that you have a deadline. Be cautious about letting your business colleagues know that you are under time pressure. . Companies are hierarchical. Decisions are made at the top of the company, either by one person or a small council. Dress Etiquette . Business attire is formal and conservative. . Men should wear dark coloured conservative business suits. . Ties are not worn by Iranians but it would not be seen as negative if you did so. . Dress well to make a good impression. . Women should always dress modestly and cover their hair. Titles . Address your Iranian business associates by their title and their surname. . The title "doktor" is used for both M.D.s and Ph.D.s. Engineers are called "mohandis". These titles are are preceded by the formal titles listed below and are used with the surname. . The title "agha" (sir) is used when addressing men. It may be used before or after the first name. The phrase "agha-yeh" is put before a surname. . The title "khanoom" (madam) is used when addressing women. It may be used before or after the first name. The phrase "khanom-eh" is used before the surname. . Wait to be invited before moving to first names. Only close friends and family use this informal form of address. Business Cards

. Business cards are only exchanged by senior-level people. . Since rank and position are very important, make sure your business card includes your title. . Have one side of your card translated into Farsi. . Present your card so the Farsi side faces the recipient.

Intercultural Management - Iran Being a Manager in Iran

To ensure successful cross cultural management in Iran, you need be aware of the strict protocols and rituals that exist. When managing in Iran, it is important to keep in mind that each person has a very distinct role within the organization, and maintaining that role helps to keep order.

The Role of a Manager


In Iran, as in other hierarchical societies, managers may take a somewhat paternalistic attitude to their employees. They may demonstrate a concern for employees that goes beyond the workplace. This may include involvement in their family, housing, health, and other practical life issues. It is the supervisors job to regularly check on the work of a subordinate and to provide regular constructive feedback. This may include monitoring work quality and the timing of its completion.

Approach to Change
Irans intercultural adaptability and readiness for change is minimal. This means that change is difficult to bring about and is not received with any enthusiasm. Projects will need to be carefully analyzed every step of the way to assure that all the risks have been assessed and understood. Failure in Iran causes a long-term loss of confidence by the individual as well as by others. Because of this attitude, intercultural sensitivity is going to be required, especially when conducting group meetings and discussing contributions made my participating individuals.

Approach to Time and Priorities

People in Iran will not want to upset others in order to force adherence to a deadline, and while appointments and schedules need to be set well in advance as a sign of respect for the individual, you need to understand that those schedules are seen as flexible, not necessarily needing to be adhered to. When working with people from Iran, its advisable to reinforce the importance of the agreed-upon deadlines and how that may affect the rest of the organization. Global and intercultural expansion means that some managers may have a greater appreciation of the need to enforce timescales and as such, agreed deadlines are more likely to be met.

Decision Making
Many companies are family-owned. Decisions are usually made at the top of the company, either by the most senior ranking person or by a small council of senior level staff. Decisions are often reached after discussions with everyone who will be affected. Once a decision is reached, it is handed down to subordinates to implement. Employees do not question the decisions that have been reached. Managers or those in a position to do so will make decisions, while in general their subordinates will wait to be told what to do. Risk-taking is limited to those in decision making positions. Employees are generally treated with respect. In turn, employees treat their manager with the respect and deference attributable to their position. Meeting deadlines is often secondary to maintaining personal relationships. Intercultural sensitivity is necessary and you must remember that managers do not publicly chastise employees because it would cause the subordinate to lose dignity and respect.

Boss or Team Player?


If you are working in Iran intercultural sensitivity is essential. It is important to remember that reputation plays an important role. The risk becomes amplified in a team or collaborative setting. If you would like to encourage participation it is important first to clearly establish a nonthreatening work environment and communicate fully that their participation is desired. Successful cross cultural management will rely on the individuals interpersonal skills and ability to maintain cordial relat ionships with their subordinates.

Communication and Negotiation Styles


It takes time for Iranians to become warm towards foreign businesspeople. Until then, they may appear somewhat stiff and formal. Cross cultural management will be more effective when working with the understanding that personal relationships form the basis of business dealings and decisions are made slowly. Iranians are deliberate negotiators who can drive a hard bargain. Do not use high-pressure tactics as they are generally counterproductive. Iranians may display emotion, or even walk out of the meeting, or threaten to terminate the relationship in an attempt to convince you to change your position. Do not emulate this behavior. Iranians often use time as a negotiating tactic, especially if they know that you have a deadline. Be cautious about letting your business colleagues know that you are under time pressure. Companies are hierarchical.

. Dance Contexts Dancing in Iranian society does not occur on a daily basis. It is not viewed as a casual activity, and occurs only within appropriate physical and social parameters. While such occasions may involve ceremonial activities, such as circumcisions or weddings, dancing is usually not an integral part of any overt orthodox Islamic religious

practice. An excpetion is the sam' (chanting) rituals of some Sufi orders, both in Iran and elsewhere (see below). Dance in Iran can occur in a variety of contexts, including social events, performances, rites of passage, exorcisms, and ceremonial events. These can be associated with both calendar-cycle events, and with non-calendrical, irregularlyscheduled events. The following are typical calendrical events: national and political holidays, religious festival days, and pre-Islamic calendar-cycle/agricultural events such as those associated with solstices, equinoxes, harvests, and tribal migrations. The following are some typical non-calendrical events: rites of passage (e.g., circumcisions and weddings), performances by dance groups, and ceremonial events such as theguati le`b (described in section 4E, below). With the exception of some of the ceremonial contexts, these are not rigid categories, however; no dance form is limited to a single context, and no single context necessarily excludes another context; i.e., a gathering to observe a rite of passage might become a social event. Because town-dwellers are usually more conservative and overtly religious than village or tribal people, dancing in towns is usually more restricted in frequency or variety. For example, in more restrictive social contexts, urban men and women may not dance in mixed couples or groups. The anonymity of town and city life, however, facilitates behavior outside of these restraints; while some spurn dance altogether, others attend nightclubs where professionals dance. Major Iranian Dance Types A. Improvisation. In improvisational dance, the dancer, whether part of a group or dancing alone, creates the dance on the spot by choosing movements from a well-defined movement vocabulary. This vocabulary and the limits of dance style, within the social mores, human relationships, and contexts of the dance culture, are understood by the participants; within these limits, a dancer may make innovations. There is no other structure to the dance. Improvisational dance is one of the most common types of dance found in Iran. It can involve a single dancer, couples, or groups. It can occur in the performance context, or be part of a social event. One of the most common features among all the various improvisational dances of Iran is that the dancers do not usually touch, are not joined to one another by any type of handhold, and, even when dancing in a circle, do not follow pre-arranged patterns.

Solo Improvisation. Probably the most ubiquitous style of dance in Iran is the solo improvisation. This type of dance has been part of professional and family home entertainment from Central Asia to the Mediterranean for centuries. The most common dance form found among urban Iranians today is often referred to as "Tehrani" (raqs-e tehrn). This dance form is related to social dance of the Uighurs, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Anatolian Turks, Armenians, and the peoples of the eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans (e.g., Bulgarian ruenica). This dance can be performed as entertainment for others, or can be done as a social dance by individuals, couples, or groups. It is important to note that regardless of how many dancers participate, each one is essentially dancing solo. Depending on how restrictive the social situation is, groups or couples can be mixed or same-sex. In raqs-e tehrn, the arms are held at approximately shoulder level; the emphasis is on delicate hand turns, coy facial expressions, and gentle hip and foot movements. All movements are improvised to dance music in a 6/8 rhythm calledreng. In its most elaborate form, this dance style forms the basis for much of professional Iranian dance. This is the current major Iranian dance form for Iranians living outside Iran, and can be seen at all Iranian emigrant events where dancing by guests forms part of the entertainment. Solo improvisational dances can be found throughout Iran in villages and tribes. For example, in Baluchi women's dances, women improvise while dancing to (usually) a 6/8 rhythm. In addition to their delicate hand movements, they keep time to the music by hitting their heavy metal bracelets together. Group Improvisation. When done in groups, the "Tehrani" style can evolve into a dance game. In the game, all the participants stand in a circle, moving slightly to the rhythm, clapping or snapping fingers. One person is propelled into the center of the circle to dance, until this dancer chooses someone else to dance alone in the center. This continues until all participants have danced, or until the group breaks up into smaller groups or couples. This dance game can also be found in Turkey and the Balkans. The group dancing of the tribes of the Southwest (discussed in Section D) can also be considered a type of group improvisation, in that each dancer, though following in a line, is free to choose her own movement patterns. Couple Improvisation. Couple dances, especially mixed couples, are more common among Christians than Muslims. Many of these dances are found in the areas of heaviest Caucasian influence, where the Christian Georgians have developed these dances into a refined style. Dances done in the Caucasus are often in a 6/8 rhythm, and have strong movements for men, and graceful movements for women.

Armenian couple and solo dances show their origins in the Caucasus mountains, and are similar to Georgian, Lezghian, and other Kavkaz dances. In some of these dances, men and women dance together in couples. The basic position for both men and women is with the arms held at shoulder level, with one arm in front of the body and the other to the side. The man's dancing is very strong, and can be done on half-toe, or, as in Georgian dance, on the tops of the toes, with the toes curled under. The woman's styling is softer than the man's, with more delicate arm and hand gestures. B. Professional/Performance Professional/performance dance must be examined as a separate category, as it involves both a dance context (i.e., performance) and a dance style. Professional/performance dance can be further divided into traditional and nontraditional. The traditional performance dance style is based on the raqs-e tehrn solo improvisation style, elaborated into an art for viewing by others. The movements involve extreme upper body flexibility and grace, a variety of facial expressions, including moving the eyebrows independently. In professional dance, the dancer may also manipulate objects such as tea glasses or finger cymbals; these may also be used to mark the rhythm. These professional dancers were known as motrebi or lt. Throughout Iran, particularly in urban areas, groups of these motrebi or lt included musicians, singers, dancers, actors, and others. One person might fill several of these roles (a musician might also act a role in a play, and sing; see Blum, p. 165). Dance also forms an integral part of traditional r-hawz theater pieces, and each role has its characteristic dance style; e.g., Hajji Firuz, roles played by men dressed as women, and so forth. These groups performed on the street and were available for hire at weddings and other parties. These entertainments could be highly vulgar, and involved suggestive lyrics and movements. Motrebi-style dance flourished as popular and court entertainment throughout the Qajar period, until the early part of the 20th century, when Westernization ( garbzadegi) and the strict attitudes of Shah Rez Pahlav caused Iranian arts to fall out of public favor. Professional dance became the province mainly of low-class nightclub performers, prostitutes, and non-Muslims (Nazemi, personal communication, 1993; for a discussion ofMotrebi groups in Mashad, see Blum, pages 155 to 162). Professional dance began to enjoy a return to respectability and fashion when Mohammad Reza Shah (reigned 1320 to 1357 / 1941 to 1978) married Sorayya; musicians and dancers were again invited into the court. This gave rise to the nontraditional dance performance, based on the European model of set choreographies, scenery, and concert-hall venues. In 1346 / 1967, a government-subsidized dance

group, Szmn-e foklor-e Irn(which performed in the United States as "The Mahalli Dancers of Iran"), was founded, which performed both Iranian folk dance choreographed for the stage, and balletic presentations of Iranian epic tales (e.g., "Haft Peykar"). Another professional dance group, Bla-ye mell-e Prs, was founded by 'Abd-Allh Nzem, who researched and set choreographies of Iranian village and tribal dance, and brought outstanding performers from tribes and villages to Tehran to appear on television. Traditional performance dance also began to make a come-back with the revival of traditional r-hawz theater. C. Line or Open-Circle Dances, Holding Hands. Line or open-circle dances with the dancers holding hands form one of the most common dance types in the Near and Middle East, and in Europe. One feature common in all dances where hands are held is that improvisation is limited. The emphasis is placed on footwork and body positions, rather than on facial expressions, emotions, or upper-body movements. This type of dance is also found in Iran, particularly in the west. One of the most common of these dances, found in Azerbaijan, is the basic "6-count" dance, where the dancers, holding hands at waist level, move in the line-of-direction as follows: (1) step-right, (2) step-left, (3) step-right, (4) kick-left, (5) step-left, (6) kick-right. This is the basic step for the Israeli hora, the Bulgarian horo, and many other similar dances found in Europe and elsewhere in the Middle East. In Western Kurdish dances, the dancers stand very close to one-another, almost hipto-hip. The fingers are locked, elbows bent so that the arms are at right angles, resting at the waist; the arms can also be straight, and held behind the body. The main movement of these dances is from the hip down, with the legs moving very vigorously. The upper body, meanwhile, forms a solid mass, all along the line of dancers. The body may bend at the hips, moving forward and back, with all the dancers moving en masse. The general effect is similar to the Arabic debka, and shows more influence from the Arab world than from Central Asia. One of the most popular dances among the Assyrian Christians is sheykhn, which starts with a hand-hold similar to that described above for western Kurdish dance. The sheykhn begins with the dancers facing the center of the circle. The dancers move a few steps in, very close to each other, arms at their sides, kick into the center and step back out. As the dancers reach the original circle, they turn to the right; the hands are hooked together at the fingers, the right arm is bent in front of the body, and the left arm is bent in the back. The dancers move a few steps along the line-ofdirection, until they face the center, ready to begin the pattern again. There are, of

course, many variations of the basic step, and each village may have its own special set of variations. D. Open-Circle Dances, Not Holding Hands. When the hands are not held, a greater variety of dance forms, including improvisation and dancing with objects, is possible, both because the hands are free, and because the dancer is free of the immediate influence of others. The dances of Khorasan and Baluchistan are examples of this type. Each dancer performs the same steps in unison, but they are able to accomplish a variety of positions, such as squats, turns, and changes in direction that are not possible when holding hands. The Turkoman men's dances of this area include rhythmic vocalizations by the dancers as an accompaniment to the dance. An excellent description of the dances of the eastern Kurds in Bojnurd can be found in Hamada. Another area of Iran where open-circle, non-hand-holding dances are found is in the Persian Gulf. The folklore of this area shows the strong influence of the neighboring Arab cultures, such as from Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, and also from Africa (probably through slaves brought from Africa to the Gulf) (personal observations; A. Jihad Racy, personal communications, 1982 - 1983; Aisha Ali, personal communication, 1992). The standard musical rhythm to which these dancers are performed is 6/8, but various patterns of accenting the measure can be employed. When the accent comes on beats 1, 5, and 6, there is a characteristic rolling feeling which carries the movement from measure to measure. The poly-rhythmic drumming patterns, which can vary during any one piece of music, show an African influence. The basic dance movements are improvised, and can be done either solo or in a line. The steps are a simple step-together-step, facing and moving along the line of direction. The emphasis is on the tiny, sharp, swift and strong shaking of the shoulders, which is actually accomplished by moving the torso, rather than the shoulders. Hands are at shoulder level, with palms facing out. The dancers may also clap with the rhythm, and may employ poly-rhythmic clapping patterns (personal observations). Dancing with Objects. When dancers are not physically linked (e.g., by holding hands), their hands are free to move in a variety of ways, including manipulating objects, such as sticks and scarves. Stick dances (b-bz) are discussed elsewhere in this publication (c.f., b-bz). There are numerous examples of women's scarf dances in southwest Iran, among the Qashqai, Lori, and Bakhtiari tribes. In these dances a scarf is held in each hand. These dances are said to have originated in miming the actions the women carry out in their daily lives, such as weaving and spinning. While progressing slowly in the line-of-direction, each woman chooses patterns to dance, or makes up patterns as she pleases. The Qashqai define two types

of women's dances: the qor haley, the slow and heavy dances, in which the emphasis is on a heavy, falling step, and on downward movements of the arms; and the lakke haley, the light and fast dances, which are faster and have lighter arm gestures and an upward emphasis (M. Gorguinpour, personal communication, 1989). The lakke haley can also involve a repeating musical pattern when the dancers remain in place for a few measures (for example, turning in place, dropping to the knees, and coming up slowly while shaking the shoulders). After the repeated pattern, the dance continues. Even daily objects, such as trays, can be used. An example from northern Iran is the "rice dance", done by women in Gln. In this dance, the women dance with flat trays held in front of the body, or on the head, and mime the actions associated with preparing rice for cooking: winnowing out chaff, checking for and removing stones, and so forth. E. Ceremonial The following dances are loosely categorized under the term "ceremonial". These dances are so closely linked to their contexts that they cannot be separated from them. The forms of these dances are less important than their contexts and purposes. Calender-Cycle Rituals. Beneath the layers of Islamic and Central Asian influence, Iran may be seen as inhabited largely by Indo-Europeans. Many of the Indo-European (and therefore, pre-Islamic) calendar-cycle events are still observed in Iran. Some examples of these are the Nowrz (new year, vernal equinox) and shab-e yald (winter solstice) celebrations. There is documentation of events in northwest Iran, some of which involve dance, associated with winter, fertility, and the bringing about of the end of winter. These events are directly related to European rituals such as the Kukeri and Lazaruvane of Bulgaria (personal observation; c.f. KatzarovaKukudova and Djenev, pages 53 to 57), the Morris Dancing of England, and similar rituals in Anatolia (see, for example, And). In these events, groups of men go from house to house dressed as various characters (including women), singing, reciting poetry, dancing, and collecting money or food. The intent is to bring good luck and fertility, and to ensure the end of winter and the advent of spring (see Enjavi). Zurkhane. The zurkhane, literally "house of strength", can be considered a partceremonial, part-performance context for dance. The building consists of a court, around which the men who will perform arrange themselves, and a gallery for the ostad ("master") or morshed (spiritual leader) and the musicians. Nowadays, the musical accompaniment consists of a drum and recitation of portions of Ferdowsi's Shahname. There are various rhythms employed, and a variety of

movements associated with them, including displays of strength in manipulating heavy objects (such as weights and chains) and acrobatics (Rezwani, p. 212-214). Sam`. Part of the religious ceremonies, sam', of the dervish sects of Iran (e.g., the Nematullahi, Oveysi, and Aliollahi orders) involves a type of dancing. The members gather in the khaneq, and listen as the morshedrhythmically recites the mystical poetry of Hafez and Rumi. The members begin to move, and then repeat certain words, such as "Allah" or "Ali", rhythmically. The members then stand up and begin to dance in place, until some collapse into trance or exhaustion. They believe that by moving in this way they exorcise evil from their bodies and join in union with God (Varzi, personal communications). Trance or Healing Dances. In parts of Iran, musical exorcisms are performed to relieve those afflicted with evil spirits. These exorcisms involve playing music and guiding the afflicted to a trance, in which state the afflicted dances and eventually throws off his particular evil spirit. In these dances the form of the dance has little significance; each dancer moves as he or she is compelled to by the music. Rather, it is the healing intent of the dance which is most important. The guati le`b is one such exorcism, described in detail in During, which is performed by the Baluch. One of the practitioners of such exorcisms has bemoaned the decline of music and dance in Iran, as the lack of regular doses of music and dance make fertile ground for the guat spirit to invade (During, p. 45). 5. Rhythms for Dance Music The most common rhythm used for dance in Iran is 6/8, referred to onomatopoetically as shir-e mdar (personal observation; the onomatopoetic character of the name was first suggested to the author by Mortez Varz, personal communication, 1980). This rhythm, and variations on it, can be found in dance music all over Iran. The 6/8 meter is subdivided in a variety of ways throughout Iran. The subdivision of the meter always follows the accent of the musical melody. Some interesting rhythmic variations occur in solo improvisational dance. For example, the first beat of the measure can be prolonged, almost to the point of being held for two beats (thus creating a 7/8). This lopsided rhythmic change occurs between the musician, the dancer and the audience, according to the mood of the gathering. The more emotive the performers or responsive the audience, the longer the first beat is held. This variation is often associated with the Motrebi-style of dancing, as is sometimes referred to as Motrebi.

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