Instructing in An International Setting, Clayton R. Wright C97 Ref09

Instructing in an International Setting:
A Handbook for Those Who Will

Provide Training in Developing Countries
Clayton R. Wright, PhD
November 1997
Disclaimer

Although this publication provides readers with many suggestions on how to
cope with an international training assignment, the author's purpose is not to
provide professional medical or legal advice. Rather, the intention is to provide
general information that readers can use to make more informed decisions.
Before embarking on an international training assignment, please seek
professional advice from certified medical personnel, lawyers, and other qualified
professionals. The publisher and author do not accept responsibility for any
deleterious effects that result from actions taken by people who read this
publication.

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obtained. Please bring any errors or omissions to the attention of the author.

You are free to copy, distribute, and transmit the work provided appropriate
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the author at crwr77[at]gmail.com. The author retains moral rights to this work.
This publication cannot be used for commercial purposes or re‐sold to
anyone.

Wright, Clayton R. (1997). Instructing in an international setting: A handbook
for those who will provide training in developing countries. Edmonton, Canada.
Source: crwr77[at]gmail.com
Instructing in an International Setting, C. R. Wright

Instructing in an International Setting:
A Handbook for Those Who Will
Provide Training in Developing Countries

Contents

Preface ........................................................................................................................ viii

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... ix

About the Author ......................................................................................................... x

1.0 International Training: Scope and Opportunities .......................... 1/1

1.1 Why Should Anyone Be Concerned with Developing Countries? ........ 1/1
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1/1
What Is a Developing Country? .........................................................................1/2
How Are Developed and Developing Countries
Interconnected? ............................................................................................. 1/9
Does Training Benefit Developing Countries?................................................. 1/11

1.2 The Needs of Developing Countries......................................................1/12
Categories of International Assistance ............................................................ 1/12
Characteristics of Good International Training Projects ............................... 1/17
The Concept of Sustainable Development ...................................................... 1/18

1.3 Your Motives and Skills........................................................................1/20
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1/20
Motives: What Contributions Can I Make?................................................... 1/20
Skills: What Skills Do You Need? ....................................................................1/22
How Will Your International Training Activities Benefit a
Developing Country?....................................................................................1/25
How Will You and Your Organization Benefit?..............................................1/25

1.4 Dealing with Cultural Differences....................................................... 1/29
Defining Culture ............................................................................................... 1/29
Cultural Assumptions........................................................................................1/30
Cultural Values and Artifacts Held by Others ................................................ 1/31
Making Cultural Adaptations ........................................................................... 1/41
Sage Advice ....................................................................................................... 1/42


1.5 Preparing a Proposal for an International Education or Training
Activity..................................................................................................1/44
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1/44
Writing the Proposal .........................................................................................1/45
Content of the Proposal ................................................................................... 1/47

2.0 International Training Team............................................................ ….2/1

2.1 Introduction...........................................................................................2/1

2.2 The Benefits and Challenges of Teamwork ......................................... 2/2

2.3 The Roles of the International Training Team .................................... 2/8
The Role of the Project Manager ......................................................................2/8
The Role of the Team Leader ........................................................................... 2/11
The Role of the Training Team ........................................................................2/13

2.4 Selecting Training Team Members ..................................................... 2/15

2.5 Orienting Training Team Members ....................................................2/23
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2/23
Orientation to the Training Assignment .......................................................2/24
Health, Legal, and Social Concerns................................................................2/28
Travel and Accommodation Arrangements ..................................................2/30
Team Development ..........................................................................................2/31
Country Awareness..........................................................................................2/42
Culture Awareness........................................................................................... 2/43
Language of Instruction ..................................................................................2/46
Code of Conduct for International Trainers..................................................2/48

3.0 Planning Instruction for an International Audience ...................... 3/1

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 3/1

3.2 Needs and Audience Analyses ...............................................................3/3
What Must Be Accomplished? ..........................................................................3/4
Assessing the Needs and Expectations of the Host Country
and the Host Organization .......................................................................... 3/5
Needs of the Prospective Students....................................................................3/6
Student Characteristics ......................................................................................3/6
Student Expectations.........................................................................................3/10
Is Training the Solution?...................................................................................3/16
Learning From the Past.....................................................................................3/16


3.3 Goal and Objective Statements ........................................................... 3/18
Goal Statements.................................................................................................3/18
Objective Statements ........................................................................................3/19
DACUM ............................................................................................................. 3/23

3.4 Blueprint the Training Program .........................................................3/26

3.5 Select Content ...................................................................................... 3/31

3.6 Identify Appropriate Instructional Strategies.................................... 3/33
Approaches to Instructional Delivery ............................................................. 3/33
Motivational Techniques ................................................................................. 3/35
Some Advice From Experienced International Instructors .......................... 3/37

3.7 Instructional Strategies ....................................................................... 3/41
Low‐Risk Instructional Strategies ....................................................................3/41
Medium‐Risk Instructional Strategies ............................................................ 3/45
High‐Risk Instructional Strategies ..................................................................3/49
Developing Ownership .................................................................................... 3/52

3.8 Locate and Select Learning Resources.................................................3/54
The Selection Process....................................................................................... 3/54
Simple Resources .............................................................................................. 3/58
Common, But Less Accessible Resources .......................................................3/62
Complex Resources...........................................................................................3/64
Adapting Learning Resources for an International Audience ......................3/69

3.9 Design Evaluation Procedures and Follow‐up Activities.................... 3/71
Evaluation Instruments.....................................................................................3/71
Test Planning .................................................................................................... 3/73
Types of Test Questions................................................................................... 3/75
Follow‐up Activities..........................................................................................3/76

3.10 Pilot Test..............................................................................................3/78

4.0 Presentation Skills ........................................................................... …. 4/1

4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................4/1

4.2 Using English in an International Setting ........................................... 4/4

4.3 Working with Interpreters and Translators ........................................ 4/6


4.4 Planning the Presentation................................................................... 4/11
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4/11
Develop an Audience Profile........................................................................... 4/11
Review the Purpose of the Presentation ........................................................4/13
Outline the Presentation .................................................................................4/13
Select and Prepare Visuals and Other Media ............................................... 4/17
Select and Arrange Facilities .......................................................................... 4/19
Make Arrangements for Materials and Equipment...................................... 4/21
Plan an Evaluation ..........................................................................................4/22
Rehearse the Presentation.............................................................................. 4/23

4.5 Delivering the Presentation ............................................................... 4/24
Establish the Learning Climate ......................................................................4/24
Provide Effective Instruction..........................................................................4/27
Listen Actively .................................................................................................4/30
Use Effective Oral Questions and Provide Positive Feedback ……..…………4/32
Revitalize and Close the Presentation ........................................................... 4/35

4.6 Handling Your Nonverbal Behavior ...................................................4/37

4.7 Dealing with Challenging People and Situations.............................. 4/40

4.8 Presentation Skills Checklist ............................................................. 4/49

5.0 Writing Instructional Materials....................................................... …..5/1

5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................5/1

5.2 Designing Print‐based Materials.......................................................... 5/2
Audience............................................................................................................. 5/2
Objectives........................................................................................................... 5/2
Outlines .............................................................................................................. 5/3
Designing Independent Study Materials ......................................................... 5/3
Preventing Inaccuracies .................................................................................... 5/5
Copyright............................................................................................................5/6

5.3 Writing Style .......................................................................................... 5/7

5.4 Readability.............................................................................................5/11
Applying a Readability Formula ...................................................................... 5/11

5.5 Editing .................................................................................................. 5/14


5.6 Formatting Instructional Materials..................................................... 5/16
Accessibility....................................................................................................... 5/16
Organization ..................................................................................................... 5/18
Legibility............................................................................................................ 5/18
Layout ................................................................................................................ 5/19
Packaging ..........................................................................................................5/20

6.0 Travel Advice…. ...................................................................................…6/1

6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................6/1

6.2 Health Advice ........................................................................................ 6/2
Introduction ........................................................................................................6/2
Medical Check‐up...............................................................................................6/3
Medical Insurance ..............................................................................................6/3
Dental Check‐up................................................................................................ 6/4
Jet Lag ................................................................................................................. 6/4
Immunization .................................................................................................... 6/6
Water Precautions ............................................................................................ 6/10
Food Precautions ............................................................................................... 6/11
Diarrhea and Vomiting .................................................................................... 6/12
Other Precautions .............................................................................................6/13
When You Return Home ................................................................................. 6/15

6.3 Financial and Legal Arrangements......................................................6/16

6.4 Customs Regulations ...........................................................................6/19

6.5 What To Take....................................................................................... 6/20
Medical Supplies...............................................................................................6/20
Clothing.............................................................................................................6/24
Personal Items...................................................................................................6/27
Gifts....................................................................................................................6/30
Other Items ........................................................................................................6/31

6.6 Safety Advice........................................................................................ 6/36
Introduction ......................................................................................................6/36
Getting Yourself Ready.....................................................................................6/37
Airport Security ................................................................................................6/39
Hotel Security ...................................................................................................6/39
Touring ..............................................................................................................6/42
Travelling With Children.................................................................................6/47
Terrorism and Hijacking ................................................................................. 6/48
Natural Disasters ..............................................................................................6/50


6.7 Culture Shock .......................................................................................6/53
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6/53
Phases of Culture Shock .................................................................................. 6/53
Dealing with Culture Shock ............................................................................6/54

6.8 Dealing With Stress............................................................................. 6/56
Before You Leave .............................................................................................6/56
While You Are Away .......................................................................................6/57
Upon Your Return ...........................................................................................6/58

6.9 Conclusion........................................................................................... 6/60

7.0 The Last Words.................................................................................. …..7/1

8.0 References......................................................................................... …. 8/1


Preface

This publication provides practical information and strategies for those
individuals who want or need to plan, prepare, and deliver instructional sessions
in developing countries. When I was first introduced to international training, I
found that it was necessary to seek out a variety of resources and to contact a
number of agencies in order to obtain the basic information I needed. It was a
time‐consuming and frustrating experience.

I have been preparing this publication since my first working experience in a
developing country. I believe it contains most of the basic information that
novice international instructors will need. In addition to reviewing the contents
of this publication, those who are going overseas should research the history,
politics, culture, and educational system of the country or areas in which they
will be working.

Although this book can be read from cover to cover, it can also be used as a
trainer's reference manual. Each chapter has been designed to stand alone. A
few points are repeated in each chapter, not only for emphasis, but also for ease
of access. Numerous cultural illustrations are presented throughout the text.

I trust that you will find this publication helpful in your international training
ventures. Your comments and suggestions on how this text can be improved
would be most appreciated.

Clayton R. Wright
November 1997

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the people who provided
suggestions or kindly reviewed portions of this text. All the individuals listed
below have participated in international and/or intercultural training activities.

Paul Ancel, Chair, Travel Consultant Program, Grant MacEwan Community College,
Edmonton, Alberta

Debbie Ball, formerly the Supervisor, Distance Education Programs, Confederation
College, Thunder Bay, Ontario

L. Sandra Carlton, Coordinator, Centre for Advanced Process Technology, Lambton
College, Sarnia, Ontario

John Cruickshank, President, Vancouver Community College, Vancouver, British
Columbia

Donald McDonell, Coordinator, Distance Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa,
Ontario

Patricia McWilliams, Program Officer, The Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver,
British Columbia

Bob Schmidt, Regional Animateur, Canadian Catholic Organization for Development
and Peace, Edmonton, Alberta

Richard Schwier, Professor, Curriculum Studies, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan

Tom Toulson, formerly the Director, International Education and Contract Development
Services, Vancouver Community College, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Hélène Wirzba, Medical Doctor, Cambodia and India

Ouida Wright, formerly the Assistant Deputy Minister of Education, Ministry of
Education and Training, Province of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario

This publication would not have been possible without the encouragement and
inspiration provided by Dr. T. C. Day, Ronald McDonald, Jeanette O'Brien,
Kathryn Steward, and Michael Wright. A special thanks goes to Catherine
Conroy who reviewed every page and provided many helpful suggestions.
Additional assistance was provided by Linda Arnoldussen, Judith Johnson, and
Dietlind Lefebvre, who were involved in the preparation of some of the articles
referred to in this manuscript.

About the Author
(1997)

Clayton R. Wright, PhD, is the Coordinator for the Program and Instructional
Development Department at Grant MacEwan Community College, Edmonton,
Canada. He has taught a variety of subjects in junior high, secondary, and post‐
secondary institutions. He won a Canadian Governor General's Award for
Proficiency in the Art of Teaching.

Recently, he organized and facilitated a series of international education
workshops throughout Canada for the Association of Canadian Community
Colleges (ACCC) and served on ACCC's International Management Certificate
Steering Committee. He has worked with educators in or from Brazil, China,
Colombia, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Papua New
Guinea, Peru, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, Uganda, and the Ukraine.

Dr. Wright also presents conference sessions and workshops on topics such as
total quality management strategies, computer‐based instruction, course
development, distance education, international education, program design and
development, and the design of independent study systems. The improvement of
the quality of teaching and learning in face‐to‐face and distance education
settings is his primary focus. His articles have appeared in the Alberta
Association of Continuing Education Journal, Canadian Journal of Educational
Communications, The College Quarterly, Educational Technology, Distance
Education, Media News, Media Message, Performance and Instruction Journal, and
TechTrends. For six years he and Catherine Conroy co‐authored Change, a
technology newsletter, which reached 1,500 readers in Canada, Great Britain, New
Zealand, and the United States. His Course Developer's Manual is used in post‐
secondary institutions in Canada, the Caribbean, China, Columbia, Hong Kong,
Kenya, Malaysia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Uganda, and the United Arab
Emirates.

(Since 1997, Dr. Wright has been actively involved with a number of provincial,
national, and international collaborative efforts aimed at advancing educational
systems through the use of learning technologies and gained additional
international experience with the Association of Canadian Community Colleges,
the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, the
Commonwealth of Learning, the Commonwealth Secretariat, United Nations
Children's Fund, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Dr.
Wright is committed to the improvement of social and economic conditions
through education and has lectured, led workshops, facilitated Developing a
Curriculum (DACUM) occupational profiles, and conducted educational
evaluations in many countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and South America.)

1.0 International Training:
Scope and Opportunities


Contents

1.1 Why Should Anyone Be Concerned with Developing Countries?........ 1/1
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1/1
What Is a Developing Country? .........................................................................1/2
How Are Developed and Developing Countries Interconnected? ................. 1/9
Does Training Benefit Developing Countries?.................................................1/11

1.2 The Needs of Developing Countries .....................................................1/12
Categories of International Assistance ............................................................ 1/12
Characteristics of Good International Training Project ................................. 1/17
The Concept of Sustainable Development ...................................................... 1/18

1.3 Your Motives and Skills........................................................................1/20
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1/20
Motives: What Contributions Can I Make?................................................... 1/20
Skills: What Skills Do You Need? ....................................................................1/22
Developing Country? .....................................................................................1/25
How Will You and Your Organization Benefit?..............................................1/25

1.4 Dealing with Cultural Differences....................................................... 1/29
Defining Culture ............................................................................................... 1/29
Cultural Assumptions....................................................................................... 1/30
Cultural Values and Artifacts Held by Others ................................................ 1/31
Making Cultural Adaptations ........................................................................... 1/41
Sage Advice ....................................................................................................... 1/42

1.5 Preparing a Proposal for an International Education or Training
Activity............................................................................................................. 1/44
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1/44
Writing the Proposal .........................................................................................1/45
Content of the Proposal ................................................................................... 1/47

International Training: Scope and Opportunities 1/1
1.1 Why Should Anyone Be Concerned with
Developing Countries?

Introduction

People who live in North America or Western Europe may not realize that 80
percent of the world=s population live in developing countries. AOne percent of
the world controls 60 percent of the resources; 80 percent of people scrabble for
15 percent of its resources@ (Vidal, 1996). Almost five billion people live in
extreme poverty and under conditions that Westerners would consider
unacceptable, if not deplorable. They generally have limited access to our
standards of education and health care and often little hope for a better life.

Because we live in a global village, the actions of a few people in other countries
eventually affect all of us. For example, if large portions of the South American
rain forest are removed in order to provide grazing land for cattle, the world's
climate patterns are also altered. If large‐scale social unrest occurs in the Middle
East or Asia, we all feel the demoralizing and negative effects of war. If goods can
be made less expensively in China, Indonesia, or Mexico, then major job markets
shift accordingly.

We in the West cannot afford to ignore the needs of the majority of people who
share our biosphere. We must share our knowledge and resources with them.
We must help them to increase their choices and options in life. By doing so, we
all benefit.

If you are interested in working in a developing country, first take the time to
learn a little about it. You may be surprised to find that people in other countries
have many of the same aspirations as we do; they just have different ways of
doing things.

This chapter provides an overview of developing countries, identifies potential
international development activities, and asks you to assess your personal skills
and expertise with respect to international development activities. The
information presented in this section must not be considered the
definitive anthropological, historical, political, or economic statement on
all or any developing country. Readers are advised to consult other sources for
more in‐depth information on a particular country or world region.

What Is a Developing Country?

In the mid‐1950s, the following terms were adopted to describe and categorize
countries:

! First World ‐ Westernized, industrial, and politically stable countries. Most
of these countries are located in North America and Western Europe.
However, it now also includes Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, New Zealand, and
Singapore.

! Second World ‐ The countries that were formerly part of the communist
Soviet Bloc. Ukraine is one of the largest second world countries.

! Third World ‐ These countries are less industrialized than those mentioned
above and are primarily located close to the equator or in the southern
hemisphere.

The terms Adeveloped@ and Adeveloping@ are used throughout this publication.
They replace the terms Afirst,@ Asecond,@ and Athird world.@ Developed countries
are those previously referred to as First World countries. Developing countries
are all the remaining countries.

Frequently, developing countries are characterized as being one‐dimensional
countries, which are impoverished, politically unstable, and economically
depressed. But are they really one‐dimensional? According to Bharadwaji (1993),
India for example, exhibits the following paradoxical characteristics:

! Stability coexisting with traditional states;

! Spirituality juxtaposed with materialism;

! Scientific sophistication and high illiteracy rates;

! Constitutionally enshrined human rights coexisting with strong governmental
interventions;

! Brimming granaries while nearly one‐third of the population may not have
enough money to buy bread each day;

! Entrenched traditionalism and revivalism, assailed by a strong movement
toward modernization and ambitious dreams of a glorious future (p. 373).

Do any of these paradoxes exist in your country?


Citizens of developed countries should not assume that they are better than
people in developing countries. Developing countries may have a slower pace of
life as well as stronger communal bonds and deeper spiritual and cultural beliefs
that many materialistic societies might envy. Despite their history of economic
growth and scientific progress, developed countries are experiencing an
increasing number of homeless people, high divorce rates, more drug abuse and
addiction problems, rising crime rates, and difficulties in providing access to
universal health care for all their citizens. Where some western economies are
faltering, several Pacific Rim countries are experiencing rapid economic growth.
Whether they live in a developed or a developing country, all people need food
and shelter, all people have aspirations, and most would want a better life for
their children.

Many of the challenges developing countries face may be rooted in some of the
following factors:

! Severe climatic conditions. People who live in countries situated on or near
large bodies of water must often contend with climatic events such as annual
floods, hurricanes, and typhoons. These severe storms can quickly destroy
significant portions of low‐lying or island countries. In their aftermath,
tremendous amounts of physical and monetary resources are usually spent on
restructuring or rebuilding. These cycles of destruction and rebuilding can
quickly deplete a country, and its people, of precious resources and
motivation.

! European domination and exploitation. Throughout history, countries
such as England, France, Spain, and Portugal have conquered and ruled
overseas empires. These conquered or colonized nations often became
sources of raw materials as well as inexpensive labor for their European
protectors. More importantly, these situations decreased the opportunities
for the colony=s citizens to learn how to develop their own national goals and
individual potentials. When the Europeans finally left or were forced out, the
colonists had to re‐establish their culture and to readapt to self‐governance.
For a number of nations this process took time, and in some cases, is still
continuing.

! Industrial exploitation. In the past, nations exploited other nations.
Today, it is business and commercial industries that move in and extract a
country=s raw materials such as lumber, bauxite, and rubber. These items are
frequently processed and refined in developed countries and the finished
goods shipped back to the developing nation and sold there. In this way,
more money tends to leave than remain in developing countries. In addition,
companies often hire people in developing countries to assemble or
manufacture commercial products such as clothing and electronic goods

because labor rates are substantially lower in developing countries. In these
situations, the industry realizes a more significant benefit than the local
laborers.

! Limited economies. Many developing countries do not have diversified
economies. Some are based solely on agriculture or tourism. If these single,
major economic generators fail, the country is likely to suffer severe economic
hardship.

! Tribal conflicts. In a number of countries, especially in Africa and several
South Pacific islands, tribal conflicts often inhibit the establishment of a
stable government. In some cases, the geographic boundaries between
countries do not take into account the cultural differences between the
various tribes or groups.

Despite these challenges, the citizens of developing countries, like people
anywhere, have dreams and aspirations. They too want their children to be
healthy, they too want good jobs, and they too want their country to prosper. It
is these aspirations that keep the people of all nations working and striving to
improve.

Developing countries are often characterized by some of the variables outlined
below. Note however, that no one variable is sufficient to categorize a country
as developing. Each variable can also exist, to some extent, in developed
countries.

! Extreme poverty and high unemployment. The standard of living in
developed countries is 50 times higher than in the poorest countries (Head,
1991). One billion people earn less than one U.S. dollar a day (Husain, 1993).
About one‐third of the population of India earns less than $25 a month
(Stackhouse, 1992, March). In 1993, the average per capita, annual
income in Indonesia was $650 U.S. (New Strait Times, 1993, September 23), in
the Philippines, which has a foreign debt of $32 billion U.S., the average
annual income was $700 U.S. (New Strait Times, 1993, September 10), and in
Afghanistan, $150 U.S. a year (Dhahlburg, 1996). Today, 36 nations, including
Cambodia and Laos, are poorer than they were 25 years ago (Husain, 1993).

The population of many developing countries earn their living from some
form of agriculture. In Zimbabwe, for example, 80 percent derive their living,
either directly or indirectly, from agriculture (Uniworld/Unimode, 1996,
October). In an effort to seek better employment, many poor people migrate
to urban areas where they frequently wind up living in high‐density housing
settlements that lack adequate water and sanitation. Africa is now reported
to have the fastest rate of urbanization. Extremely large urban slums exist in

countries such as Bangladesh, Indonesia, Argentina, and Brazil. In Dharavi,
an urban slum area of Bombay, 500,000 people live in a confined area that has
open sewers and little fresh water. The average family has ten square metres
of living space. It is estimated that half of Bombay's ten million residents live
in slums, and this figure may increase to eight million by the year 2000
(Stackhouse, 1993, January).

Not everyone who lives in developing country is poor. A few local
businesspeople and entrepreneurs in Jakarta, Manila, and Buenos Aires earn
substantial sums of money, and 60 percent of Thailand's wealth is owned by
15 percent of the population (The Asia Report, 1993, February). However, this
wealth does not filter down to the majority of the country=s people; it is not
distributed equitably. When money is spent on services for the general
public, it may be spent disproportionally or on urban megaprojects. For
example, some countries spend more on universities that cater to only a small
segment of the population than they do on public schools that are accessible
to everyone.

The western world has tried to respond to the financial needs of developing
countries. The World Bank, for example, has loaned $300 billion U.S. to
developing countries over the last 50 years. However, the World Bank states
that of the 1,870 programs they financed in 1991, 374 have developed serious
problems, primarily due to the unfavorable economic conditions in Africa,
Latin America, and parts of Asia (The Globe and Mail, 1993, April 27).

With the collapse of the Soviet Bloc, some poor countries may find it more
difficult to obtain foreign aid. Canada, the United States, and other countries
have indicated that they will shift their development funding priorities to the
former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe. This shift is
partly based on a belief that the effects of such funding will be more visibly
apparent in Europe than in Africa.

The shift in aid funding affects not only African countries but also other
developing countries such as Peru. After five years of deep recession, 70
percent of Peruvians now live in poverty (New Strait Times, 1993, September
6). Consequently, the country has chosen economic development over the
preservation of its culture and environment. Some would argue that Peru is
selling its culture and degrading its environment. These choices will
eventually affect all of us.

! Poor levels of nutrition and health. Many people in developing countries
would be surprised to know that they should eat three meals a day that
include selections from four basic food groups. Only 57 percent of
Venezuelans, for example, can afford to eat more than one meal a day (The

Globe and Mail, 1992, February 5). Approximately 1.3 billion people around
the world do not have access to safe drinking water and 1.7 billion live without
adequate sanitation facilities (The Globe and Mail, 1993, December 15).
According to the Washington‐based Worldwatch Institute, more than one
billion people are unable to feed themselves (Kesterton, 1997). By the year
2025, in order to feed their additional two billion people, developing countries
will need 75 percent more food than they consume now (Stackhouse, 1996,
July 11).

In rural Somalia, women often walk up to five miles a day to obtain drinking
water and firewood (International Labor Office, 1989). Many women and girls
in developing countries spend an average of 5 to 17 hours a week drawing and
carrying water (The Globe and Mail, 1993, December 15). Currently, about
one‐quarter of Zimbabwe's nine million people require food aid (Manthorpe,
1992), and by the year 2000, it is expected that at least 37 African countries
will be unable to feed their own people (Montgomery, 1993, p. A10). Life
expectancy is also falling. Currently, the life expectancy in countries such as
Afghanistan, Morocco, and Pakistan is only 45 years (Taylor, 1993). When
people spend most of their day obtaining food and water, they often have
little time or energy left to devote to training or education. A shorter life‐
span also decreases opportunities for improving skills or applying knowledge.

Compared to developed countries, most developing countries have high birth
and infant mortality rates. However, Husain (1993) reports that for every
additional year of education a woman receives, the infant mortality rate drops
by ten percent (Husain, 1993). Educated women tend to marry later and have
a better understanding of family planning and the needs of their children.
Family planning practices are now reducing the birth rates in Africa and
China (Berry, 1993) as well as Indonesia. During the last 20 years, the birth
rate in Indonesia has been reduced by 45 percent and the use of
contraceptives has increased from 10 percent to 49 percent (Wallace, 1993).

Developing countries use foreign aid to improve the nutrition and health of
their citizens. However, only eight percent of Canada's $3 billion foreign aid
budget and a similar percentage of other developed nation=s foreign aid
budgets are allocated to humanitarian assistance (Paris, 1992). The rest of
this money is usually spent on consultants, equipment that will be sent
overseas, and companies that want to establish overseas ventures.

! Immature or unbalanced economies. Although most developing countries
have rural or agriculturally based economies, some also have small regions of
intense industrialization. These countries often have correspondingly high
military spending, inflation rates, and debt loads. Their governments usually
spend up to three times more on military forces and equipment than they

spend on health and education. Defence spending and debt servicing account
for 80 percent of Pakistan's annual budget (Stackhouse, 1992, March).

All nations have experienced some degree of inflation over the last ten years,
but developing countries often experience frequent and more extreme bouts
of inflation. For example, Peru's inflation rate was 7,650 percent in 1990 but
only 57 percent in 1992 (The Globe and Mail, 1993, October 4, p. B7);
Argentina had an inflation rate of 5,000 percent in 1989 and 16 percent in
1992; Brazil's inflation was running at 25 percent per month in the early 1990s;
Mexico's inflation rate was 160 percent in 1987 and 22 percent in 1992
(Naisbitt, 1992); and Zaire had the top inflation rate of 1992‐‐a gigantic 4,129.2
percent (The Globe and Mail, 1993, December 31)!

Most developing countries have high debt loads that will continue to be a
barrier to their economic growth and development. Argentina, for example,
has a national debt of $60 billion U.S. (Leduc Nisku Economic Development
Authority, 1993, May). According to Corcoran (1991), developing countries
have a total of $1.3 trillion in never‐to‐be‐repaid debt. Despite a general
growth in the world=s economy during the late 1980s and early 1990s, almost
one‐third of the world=s population has experienced a decline in their
standard of living (Stackhouse, 1996, July 17).

! Unstable political climate. Political upheavals can result in positive or
negative change. However, political instability generally produces a climate
of uncertainty in which it is difficult for the society or the economy to grow
and develop. Since 1932, Thailand has experienced 16 successful or attempted
coups. Argentina has endured four military uprisings since 1987.

During military regimes, political upheavals, or periods of authoritarian
government, the right to vote is frequently restricted and/or voting fraud is
prevalent. During the rule of Philippines= President Marcos, many voters did
not believe that the doctrine of one man, one vote was followed.

The governments of developing countries may make promises that they are
unable to keep. Their justice systems may be weak, underfunded, or corrupt.
Corruption and patronage may abound not only in the courts but also
throughout each governmental department. It is estimated that Zaire=s
president Mobutu Sese Seko has pocketed nearly 20 percent of all the official
international assistance paid to his country since 1965 (Dyck, 1991).

According to The Globe and Mail (December 17, 1993), "Political rights and
civil liberties are declining world wide despite an increase in the number of
democracies ... Half a billion more people are living in countries ranked as

'not free' this year, although the list of nominal democracies has increased
from 99 to 107 ... In all, 55 countries were declared not free."

! Low adult literacy rates. The consequences of illiteracy are far‐reaching. If
people are illiterate, they are less likely to be healthy and their ability to learn
is limited. Developing countries spend only an average of $26 per capita per
year on education compared to the annual $1,272 per capita spent on
education in Canada (Canadian Link, 1991, November p. 19). Pakistan spends
only $10 per person per year on health and education, and their school
enrolment rate is only 37 percent primarily because families do not want to
lose their cheapest laborers‐‐their children (Stackhouse, 1996, July 17). Some
Pakistani families simply cannot afford to send their children to school;
others object to schooling because of personal religious beliefs.

Generally, the literacy rate of most African countries is low; however, this low
rate is due in part to the scarcity of paper and lack of reliable power. Without
an abundance of paper for printing, ideas must be transmitted by word of
mouth, and printing presses, photocopiers, and radio and television stations
need electricity to operate. If inexpensive hydroelectric power is not
available, then expensive diesel fuel must be used to run the generators. In
addition, equipment such as photocopiers must usually be purchased
overseas with hard currency that few developing countries possess.

In developing countries, the literate people are also those who are more likely
to emigrate. The World Bank estimates that A23,000 academic staff emigrate
from Africa each year in search of better pay and working conditions@ (Maser,
1996).

! Male‐oriented societies that show respect for age. In many developing
countries, men are the dominating individuals. The status of women is
generally low. In countries such as India and Pakistan, girls may be
neglected, undernourished, and poorly educated because they are perceived
to have little value. In India, raising a girl is considered an expense. Rural
families are often unable to provide girls with suitable clothing and the
necessary feminine rituals or dowries that, in some cases, may cost the
equivalent of 10 to 15 years of a man's wages (Primetime Live, ABC News, 1994,
January 6). Therefore, the incidence of female infanticide remains high,
occurring in possibly 50 percent of Indian families (Prasad, 1993). It is
estimated that Aat least 400 women are tortured or killed in dowry disputes
every year in Bangladesh@ (The Edmonton Journal, 1997, February 8).

In many developing country societies, older people are valued, particularly
older men who act as advisors or counsellors. Parents tend to live with their

adult children, and thus, strong family ties are nurtured and social traditions
are maintained from generation to generation.

! Strong belief in spiritual power. A significant number of people in
developing countries tend to have very strong beliefs in spiritual power and
religious traditions. Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Hinduism are four
major religions that affect the daily lives of many in developing countries.

! Limited respect for human rights. Many governments publicly profess
adherence to the internationally accepted human rights standards. However,
few developing countries have allowed their human rights commissions to be
monitored or reviewed by international agencies. To date, Burma, China,
Indonesia, Pakistan, and Thailand have not signed the United Nation's
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

! Lack of a scientific infrastructure. Very few developing countries have
scientific academies or institutions that generate and test ideas. Without
such institutions, creativity cannot easily be nurtured (Husain, 1993).
Although science and technology are often imported from other countries,
they may not be appropriate for the local culture.

How Are Developed and Developing Countries Interconnected?

Many Westerners think that events that occur in developing countries may be of
little concern to them. But, in reality, incidents that occur half‐way around the
world may directly affect the social and physical security and affluence to which
Westerners have become accustomed. Countries are interdependent. Consider
the following situations:

! Population. In 1990, 14 percent of the world's population lived in Europe and
North America. According to a United Nations report, only 6.4 percent of the
population will be living in these areas by 2150 (Clements, 1992, August).
About 94 million children are born each year, and the majority of these births
occur in developing countries. The anticipated population growth in
developing countries will seriously tax our entire planet's resources.

! Debt. If developing countries fail, billions of dollars in outstanding loans will
never be repaid. If these loans are not paid, the developed countries will be
forced to deal with the effects of these substantial financial loses.

! Jobs. We have a global economy. If a product can be made less expensively
in one part of the world than another, it will be. For example, designer
clothes that were once made in New York or Paris are now made in Vietnam
and Indonesia, where workers earn from $1 to $9 per 12‐hour day. Job markets

are constantly moving to developing countries where production costs are
considerably lower, due in part to the fact that local social and environmental
standards are also lower. If these standards were raised, this pattern of
shifting job markets might be altered.

! Immigration. If countries do not provide job opportunities for their own
citizens, the people will be forced to seek employment elsewhere. Consider
the plights of the Vietnamese boat people and Cuban refugees. Note,
however, that developed countries may benefit from this migration when they
welcome emigrants who are highly talented and motivated.

! Trade. World trading systems affect our economic growth. Without
international trade, many companies would not be profitable.

! Environment. Everyone should be concerned about the global environment.
When vast areas of forests and grasslands are destroyed, as they have been in
parts of South America, East Africa, and North America, the world=s climate
and atmospheric conditions are also altered. There may be less moisture and
oxygen in the air and greater amounts of dust particles that affect our ability
to breathe.

! Politics. Development can lead to democracy. When people are no longer in
a survival mode, they can spend more of their energy pursuing their dreams.
In order to do so, they need some control of their environment. Democracy
allows people to obtain this control. The greater the difference between the
"haves" and the "have‐nots," the greater the possibility of political and social
unrest. Many people in developing countries are oppressed by their own
governments. However, people may soon direct their attention to the foreign
governments who provide the weapons used to keep them in check.
Currently, developed countries provide developing countries with military
weapons valued at $39 billion U.S. per year (Head, 1991, August).

! Value of life. What does it say about the human race if we continue to allow
children to die of malnutrition and preventable diseases when we have the
resources to save them?

Today, we all live in one global village. When we assist others, we may be
helping ourselves. When we help others to minimize air pollution, we all get
cleaner air. When we help others with their economic problems, more resources
can then be used to provide better health and educational services and more
opportunities for all.


Does Training Benefit Developing Countries?

After years of donating and lending billions of dollars to developing countries,
there is little concrete evidence of any significant return on these investments. In
1987, an estimated 75 percent of all agricultural projects audited by the World
Bank were failures (Dyck, 1991, July 16). The failure rate continues to be high
because developed countries receive substantial sums for supplying consultants,
equipment, and materials. Nearly 60 percent of all Canadian aid money is spent
in Canada (McParland, 1993). Similar figures exist for the United States and
other countries. Developed countries often look only at the number of dollars
spent on aid, rather than at what is actually accomplished. If this scenario is to
change, it is the local recipients who need to be trained, educated, and
introduced to new skills and ideas. They must be actively committed and
involved in sustainable development projects that they will be able to maintain
with minimal foreign assistance.


1.2 The Needs of Developing Countries

Categories of International Assistance

Each developing country has specific needs that must be addressed. However,
developing countries generally ask for assistance in the following categories:

! Humanitarian assistance. Foodstuffs and health supplies are frequently
requested. Although developed countries are quick to provide food to less
developed countries, by doing so, they do not help the needy economies to
become more self‐sufficient. Medical assistance is usually requested to
address short‐term problems such as outbreaks of infectious diseases or
injuries due to natural disasters or man‐made catastrophes such as wars.
More long‐term approaches to humanitarian aid must be sought.

! Primary and secondary education. Without suitably educated and trained
citizens, nations cannot progress. Developing countries often ask
international agencies to review their educational systems and to recommend
improvements. However, if the educational system is improved but
employment opportunities are not available, then people become frustrated.
This scenario has occurred in several countries such as Tanzania. Recently,
representatives from Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia,
Mexico, Nigeria, and Pakistan signed a document declaring education,
particularly education for girls, their highest political priority (Stackhouse,
1993, December 16).

! English, mathematics, and science literacy. These skills are essential for
conducting business in the global marketplace. Every nation=s citizens must
acquire literacy skills. Many Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand
realize that it is important for their people to learn English so that they can
use imported, western equipment and participate effectively in international
business affairs.

! Affordable access to technical and vocational training. Developing
countries frequently ask for help to establish training programs that will lead
to self‐sufficiency and assist them in achieving industrialized nation status.
Due to a lack of reliable power, financial resources, skilled instructors, and
primary and secondary schooling, it is often difficult to establish sophisticated
technical institutions in developing countries. However, it is possible to
provide technical training that is relevant to the needs of the country and
provides equity in educational opportunities. Botswana, for example, has
recognized that training provides political and economic independence.
Consequently, it has started to establish training programs to serve the needs

of instructors, the public service, the private sector, and individual
entrepreneurs. Technical and vocational education must be sustainable or
else it will fail soon after the foreign advisors who established it leave the
country.

! Overseas training. Many developing countries seek overseas training
opportunities for their promising citizens, particularly in the areas of
technology, agriculture, natural science, and administration. People who
receive overseas training may acquire new skills and ideas, but they may not
be able to apply all of their expertise in their homelands; their skills may not
be applicable, colleagues may resist their "foreign" know‐how, or they may
not have opportunities to share their recently acquired knowledge with
others. Some returning graduates may become disenchanted with their
native country and decide to emigrate to a country where they can use their
new skills, thereby depriving their homeland of expertise that it can ill afford
to lose.

! Cooperative education programs. Developing countries often seek
partnerships with foreign businesses and industries that will allow them to
have some control over their education and training programs. A developing
country may also ask a foreign firm to establish factories and provide on‐site
training for the local people. In return, the developing country may provide
the foreign firm with inexpensive land, appropriate infrastructures such as
roads, and tax concessions.

Developing countries may also make cooperative arrangements with foreign
educational institutions. For example, students receive the first two years of
their training at home under the guidance of the foreign institution. Those
who successfully complete these studies would then be accepted at the
overseas institution for their third and fourth years of education. Programs
such as these are beneficial to the developing country because its expenditure
on overseas training is minimized and the students who finish their training
overseas are most likely to succeed.

! Linkages with business and industry. Official links with foreign business
and industry may provide developing countries not only with sophisticated
technology and information, but also with access to the international
marketplace through the expertise and distribution networks of multinational
corporations. For instance, to gain access to world‐wide distribution
networks, many companies in Mexico find it advantageous to be affiliated
with a large company like General Motors.

! Technological upgrading. Developing countries usually require new
technologies. However, once these new systems are in place, developing

countries may not want to rely heavily on foreign guidance to sustain and
maintain them. Further, developing countries often have resources that,
although not new or sophisticated, are usually suitable to their own situation.
Developing countries would like others to recognize their expertise and to
incorporate it into foreign technological systems.

! Management development. Effective and efficient management processes
and systems are essential. However, these systems should be adapted to the
societal imperatives and cultural norms of the developing country. For
example, it can be difficult to establish collaborative management methods in
countries such as Indonesia, where hierarchical structures and a high regard
for older workers are part of the traditional culture.

! Rural Development. The extreme poverty often seen in some urban areas of
developing countries may also prevail in the shantytowns scattered
throughout the country. Unless rural areas are developed more fully, people
will continue to migrate to the cities where they will put more pressure on an
already overtaxed urban landscape. In order to reduce this population
migration, developing countries often seek rural development assistance that
will help them to improve rural sanitation, irrigation, and agricultural
practices as well as develop local enterprises. If rural areas are improved,
people may be less likely to move to the tin, wood, or cardboard shacks of the
urban slums, where crime is common and a factor that seriously affects the
development of newly democratized countries (Vidal, 1996).

Developing countries generally ask for assistance in the areas identified above.
However, Westerners may view these countries' needs somewhat differently. The
following discussion identifies (from a western perspective) the possible roles
that developed countries play in assisting developing countries, recognizing that
each recipient of foreign assistance has different priorities, aspirations, and
resources.

! Providing food and proper nutrition. Without proper food and nutrition,
children may become malnourished and unable to concentrate on their
studies. Providing an adequate food supply should not only make people
healthy, but should also allow them to think beyond their immediate needs
and to pursue non‐survival activities such as education and training.
Westerners must acknowledge, however, that some cultures do not believe in
interfering with the natural order. Many tribes who live close to nature (such
as the African Bushmen) consider droughts and food shortages part of the
natural cycle of life.

! Protecting the environment. Many Westerners believe that the global
environment must be protected. They strongly object to clear‐cut logging in

the Philippines, Thailand, and the Amazon, air and water pollution in Asia,
the excessive use of pesticides in South America, and the lack of population
control in many countries. Although developing countries acknowledge these
concerns, they also note that developed countries have used similar
environmentally harmful methods during their transition from agricultural to
industrial societies, and that they continue to do so today. Therefore, if
Canada can clear‐cut its forests to provide economic growth, why can't they?
If the Rhine River is full of pollutants from vast industrial complexes, and
industries and households in the United States contribute to acid rain, why
must developing countries adhere to strict environmental standards? What
right do Westerners have to impose on the developing world standards that
they continue to ignore at home?

! Securing human rights and establishing participative governance.
Many developing countries do not have individual rights and gendered
equality enshrined in their constitutions. Even when they do, these policies
are not always followed. Social justice and non‐corruptible, multi‐party
democracy is not often found in countries that lack an enlightened, educated
populace. Furthermore, their social structures tend to be hierarchical, and it
is assumed that those at the top of the hierarchy know what is best for the
country. Some Westerners would like to see the way of life in many
developing countries change overnight. They fail to realize that the
establishment of social justice and democracy often takes time and sometimes
involves periods of political instability. They forget that England's equitable
judiciary and parliamentary systems took several hundred years to evolve.

! Providing educational opportunities to all members of the society.
Developing countries generally spend twice as much money on defence than
they do on primary education, and advanced education is frequently
restricted to a few privileged individuals. Most developing countries need
meaningful education that they can use immediately and an educational
system that does not produce a petty bourgeois class of highly skilled but
non‐functioning individuals. Westerners often introduce sophisticated
training methods that are abandoned by the locals soon after the Westerners
leave. Developing countries need education and training systems that are
relevant and accessible to all. In order to provide accessible education,
countries such as India have established an elaborate distance education
system that attempts to meet the needs of many of its people.

! Facilitating the development of an effective and efficient social and
bureaucratic infrastructure. In order to foster social equality and
economic prosperity, many developing countries may need to establish
honest and efficient bureaucratic structures with only a few levels of
authorization. However, this can be a significant challenge, as current

bureaucratic structures are often tightly woven into the fabric of the country=s
society. In order to get many things done, including passing through
customs, one may be required to provide a Agift.@ This Agift@ supplements the
custom officials= low wages. A Canadian agricultural expert in North Africa
was placed in an awkward situation when local custom dictated that he hire
the brother of one of the African workers. The brother had no experience in
maintaining or operating farm machinery, yet the Canadian was asked to hire
him because once a relative obtained a job, he was expected to find work for
other members of his family. These examples illustrate how societal norms
help some people to survive in developing countries. Changing existing social
practices to ones that are more efficient and effective, from a western point of
view, will take time and patience. Few Westerners, however, would
recommend following China=s recent approach to remodelling its society. In
an effort to make bureaucratic processes more efficient, China has severe
penalties for businesspeople and public service workers who accept graft or
steal from their employers.

! Promoting economic development. The perceived success of capitalism
encourages Westerners to suggest that free‐enterprise systems be established
in developing countries. These systems may provide economic growth, but
they may also adversely affect the existing social norms that foster the sharing
of scarce resources. Successful free‐enterprise systems require
entrepreneurial and management expertise that developing countries may
lack. In addition, the rapid industrial growth that is occurring in some Asian
countries may lead to environmental degradation. Westerners have the
economic and management skills that many developing countries need, but
these skills must be adapted to suit the needs of the developing country.

! Providing timely, relevant information. Developing countries often need
access to information that can be used to improve health care or to produce
higher agricultural yields. Westerners not only need to provide them with the
hardware and software, but must also show the indigenous workers how to
use databases, simulations, and expert systems. In countries where the
governments control the access to and the free flow of information, it may be
difficult to provide useful information to the people who actually need it.

! Establishing a scientific/research community. By establishing its own
scientific and research community, a country can offer its skilled citizens
opportunities to apply and further develop their skills. If these opportunities
are not provided, these skilled people may emigrate to other countries.
According to various UNESCO documents, developing countries spend less
than one‐half of one percent of their gross national product (GNP), or one
tenth of what developing countries spend, on research and development.


The needs of developing countries are significant and diverse. If all these needs
were to be addressed at once, a country may be unable to provide all the
necessary resources, and those projects that were started would be completed
poorly. International development efforts must be coordinated and, if feasible,
linked to global issues such as environmental preservation and the prevention
disease.

Change does not occur quickly. Some developing countries are trying to
accomplish in one or two generations what took industrialized countries 200 to
300 years to achieve. Only a few countries, such as Singapore, have succeeded
without resorting to measures such as the use of child labor, which has occurred
throughout history. While some developing countries yearn to be industrialized,
industrialized countries are becoming information providers and brokers.
Perhaps developing countries should strive to become information brokers rather
than industrial heartlands.

While providing assistance, industrialized countries must ensure that developing
countries are not exploited. Industrialized countries should provide a neutral
forum in which ideas can be discussed and solutions generated. Developed
countries must recognize the existing expertise in a developing country, provide
encouragement and support, and never say, "That isn't how we do it at home!"
By helping others, developed countries may also help themselves. For example, if
developed countries believe that immigration may have a negative impact on
their own economic and social systems, then they should encourage developing
countries to create job opportunities that will keep their skilled workers at home.

Characteristics of Good International Training Projects

In order to meet the needs of developing countries, all international training and
development projects should:

! be analyzed to ensure that what is proposed will address the concerns
identified by the stakeholders;

! be relevant to the specific needs of the country and be carefully planned to
address those needs;

! take into account the cultural and societal norms of the developing country;

! recognize and use the developing country's expertise and resources;
! take into account the country's infrastructure;

! foster self‐reliance and self‐esteem;


! be of high quality;

! be mutually beneficial to the developing and developed countries;

! use appropriate technology that serves a need rather than implements showy,
capital‐intensive technology;

! integrate micro, grassroots activities into long‐term, macro plans;

! facilitate the development of indigenous businesses and industries;

! account for all funds disbursed;

! contribute to sustainable development.

The Concept of Sustainable Development

One of the characteristics of a successful international training activity is that it
contributes to sustainable development. Sustainable development can be defined
as development that meets the needs of the present, but does not compromise
the needs of future generations.
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) states that the concept
of sustainable development can be modified to address changing conditions such
as increased knowledge. According to Loubser (1993), the main characteristics of
sustainable development are as follows:

! Sustainable development takes a long‐term perspective. For example,
economic, social, and education and training decisions must have a long‐term
impact. A successful training program deals not only with immediate,
individual needs, but also with long‐term, national needs.

! Sustainable development respects diversity and pluralism. Diversity and
pluralism contribute to resilience and flexibility. If the training program
presents a variety of ways to solve a problem, it is more likely that the trainees
will be able to adapt their newly acquired skills to unpredictable
circumstances.

! Sustainable development uses an integrated approach. All human and
natural processes are intimately linked. Therefore, training programs must
take into account how the training will affect various human and
environmental factors and how these factors will affect training. For example,
if the training program enables rural trainees to obtain jobs in the city, what
effect will the trainees' move to the city have on their families or rural

communities? Perhaps the training that is provided should be designed to
meet the needs of the local community, thereby encouraging people to
remain in rural areas.

! Sustainable development requires equity and justice. Equity has three
dimensions: within countries (social classes and gender), among countries
(rich and poor), and between generations. Training programs must be
designed to address the needs of all people, male or female, rich or poor, and
young or old. Although a specific training program may be designed for only
one group of people, training opportunities for other groups of people must
also be provided. Training programs designed to meet today's challenges
must not affect future training endeavors. If a training program is poorly
executed, it may discourage others from mounting similar programs in the
future.

! Sustainable development relies on participatory approaches. People
must be involved in decision‐making. Participants in training programs must
have a role in deciding how the training will proceed. If they are involved,
they will assume ownership for their training and be more likely to use their
new skills at the end of the training program.

CIDA is not the only agency or country promoting sustainable development
activities in developing countries. The United States also seeks to sponsor
projects that promote sustainable development (CNN Headline News, 1993,
November 27).

Sustainable development may not be possible in societies that have little regard
for diversity or pluralism, or do not promote equity and justice. Further,
developed countries that sponsor sustainable development projects may
encounter resistance from developing countries that have had negative
experiences with previous international development projects.


1.3 Your Motives and Skills

Introduction

You have learned from the previous sections that the needs of developing
countries are often significant and varied. Perhaps you could assist by
participating in training sessions in developing countries. However, before you
embark on what can be a most rewarding experience, you should take the time to
assess your motives and skills. You may discover that an international training
activity is not for you. If you do decide to take part in international activities, you
will have an opportunity not only to share your expertise and assist others, but
also to sharpen your training skills and to find out more about yourself.

Motives: What Contributions Can I Make?

There are a number of good reasons to participate in international training
activities; some are personal, some are professional, and some may be related to
pressures from colleagues, family, or friends. Before you accept an international
training assignment, it is important that you know why you want to go overseas.

To help you to clarify your motives, answer the following questions honestly:

1. What is your view of the world?

! Do you respect the diversity and individuality of world cultures?

! Do you acknowledge the value of human beings and their aspirations as
an essential aspect of global interdependence?

! Do you recognize that change takes time and that sustained change
requires the commitment of those who will be most affected by the
change?

! Do you recognize that most people want to improve their condition in
manner that is congruent with their personal beliefs and culture?

2. Why do you want to work in a developing country?

! Do you really want to assist others?

! Do you want to change the world? Is this a realistic expectation?

! Do you have specialized knowledge or skills that are needed overseas?
How will your knowledge and skills help?

! Do you want to explore different cultures?

! Do you want to rejuvenate yourself or do you simply want to change your
present routine? If you are just looking for a change, could you achieve
that end without travelling to another country?

! Do you hope to gain experiences that can help you later in your personal
and professional life? Can you describe what you think these experiences
might be?

! Do you want to impress your colleagues or friends?

! Did your supervisor ask you to take part in this international activity?
Why did your supervisor ask you to participate?

! Do you want to prove yourself to your supervisors?

! Did an external agency contact you with regard to an international
training project? What are the goals of the agency? Are their goals
congruent with your view of the world?

! Will you get a promotion if you go?

! Will other job opportunities open up for you if you go?

! How will your future job prospects be affected if you don=t go?

! Are you escaping from unpleasant work conditions or family difficulties?
When you return from your international assignment, will you still face
the same difficulties?

! What opportunities exist overseas for personal and professional
development? Are these challenges available at home?

3. Does your supervisor and/or your institution/employer support your
international training activities?

! What encouragement have they given you?

! What support will they provide?


! What professional or personal recognition do you expect to receive for
participating in an international training project?

4. Will your family support your international venture?

! Will they understand your motives for going?

! Will they give you emotional support?

! What effect will your absence have on your family?

! Does your family want to accompany you on your trip?

5. If you go, are you prepared to live in a non‐Western culture?

! Can you cope with rigid rules?

! Can you eat unfamiliar food? Can you do without certain foods such as
salad and milk? Can you reduce your food intake if necessary?

! Can you tolerate others' points of view on topics such as time, the family,
women's issues, politics, religion, the environment, and so forth?

! Can you do without the comforts of home? Can you tolerate conditions
that would normally be considered unsanitary?

6. If you do go, what positive and negative consequences do you anticipate?
What might happen to you emotionally, financially, physically, or otherwise?

7. If you don't participate in this international venture, how will you feel?

8. Upon your return from your international trip, how do you expect you will
feel?

9. Is this international training project something that you really want to do?

Skills: What Skills Do You Need?

If you want to participate in a successful international training project, you
should possess a variety of skills.

Answer the questions below. Do you have what it takes to be an effective
international trainer?

! Do you have a genuine interest in learning about others?

! Can you gain the trust and respect of others?

! Can you respect others, despite their poverty and lack of education?

! Are you competent in an area of expertise that may be of benefit to a
developing country?

! Do you have the ability to train others?

! Do you consider yourself superior to others?

! Are you flexible? Can you adapt? When you encounter difficulties, do you
see them as a threat or as an opportunity to be creative?

! Are you resourceful? Can you work around obstacles and still accomplish
your goal?

! Do you have a wide range of knowledge? Do you have the appropriate
educational qualifications? Do you have an expertise beyond your subject
area?

! Are you a realist? Do you find it difficult to translate philosophical intentions
into actions?

! Can you separate process from content?
! Are you a team player? Can you follow as well as lead? Are you organized?

! Are you curious? Are you mentally alert?

! Do you have a positive outlook? Are you enthusiastic about life?

! Do you respect others and their beliefs?

! Do you have empathy for others? Are you sensitive to the politics, customs,
and religions of others? Do you appreciate the needs of others?

! Are you humble?

! Can you act in a diplomatic and tactful manner?

! Do you listen actively? Do you talk too much?


! Are you patient?

! Do you have a sense of humour? Can you laugh at yourself?

! Are you emotionally stable? Are you able to work effectively under stressful
conditions? Do you let anxiety get the better of you? Can you cope with
ambiguity and uncertainty? Are you patient?

! Can you cope with cultural isolation or homesickness? Can you be alone for
extended periods of time?

! Can you speak the language of your international clients? If not, can you
learn basic phrases? Have you worked with others who speak English as a
second language?

! Are you in excellent physical and mental health? Can you cope with insects,
extreme heat or cold, high humidity, crowded places, noisy environments,
unsanitary conditions, and lack of privacy?

! Have you travelled in underdeveloped or developing countries before?

! Have you worked in another country? Did you enjoy the experience?

! Can you identify the characteristics that make your country unique? Can you
identify the commonalities between your homeland and the country in which
you want to work?

! What challenges might you face overseas? Can you cope with them?

! What challenges will you encounter upon your return from a foreign
assignment?

Thirteen educators, who had recently returned from conducting training in
various developing countries, were asked to identify the skills that international
trainers should possess. Their abbreviated responses are listed below. The
responses have not been prioritized.

ability to be a team player* excellent teaching skills*
caring attitude excellent mental health
cultural acuity excellent physical health
diplomacy and tact flexibility*
emotional stability* language skills
empathy* leadership ability
enthusiasm motivation

patience* sensitivity to religious
positive self‐image differences*
previous overseas experience sociability
sense of humour* technical competence*
sensitivity to cultural differences tolerance of others' views
willingness to work hard

Empathy, emotional stability, flexibility, a sense of humour, patience, teaching
ability, technical competence, a willingness to work hard, the ability to function
as a team player, and sensitivity to cultural and religious differences were the
traits they most frequently mentioned. Of greatest importance, were flexibility
and a sense of humour. International training activities do not always proceed as
planned. You must be prepared to expect the unexpected and laugh at yourself
when things go awry.

Developing Country?

! Are you aware of what assistance is wanted or needed overseas?

! Have you accurately assessed these wants and needs?

! Have the local people accepted ownership of the solutions suggested?

! Did the local people want or ask for outside assistance?

! Can you do what is required? Do you have the expertise? Do your solutions
take into account the realities of a specific culture and environment?

! Will your solutions be effective for a long or short period of time?

! Will the local people be able to sustain your solutions after you leave?

How Will You and Your Organization Benefit?

There are many benefits to participating in international training projects.
Consider which of the following benefits are relevant for you and your institution
or employer. Please feel free to add to these lists.


Benefits for Yourself

Overseas training:

! Increases your understanding of yourself.

! Encourages you to re‐examine your values and identify what is important in
your life.

! Increases your understanding and appreciation of your country.

! Broadens your experience and increases your knowledge of the world around
you.

! Expands your foreign language communication skills.

! Acknowledges your moral duty to share knowledge and skills with others,
especially those less fortunate than yourself.

! Provides you with the opportunity to train individuals who may then train
others.

! Increases your sensitivity to different cultures and values.

! Enhances your ability to adapt and be flexible when faced with unfamiliar
events and circumstances.

! Increases your understanding of global issues such as those related to the
environment and gender.

! Increases your circle of professional contacts.

! Encourages you to develop new areas of expertise.

Benefits for Your Educational or Training Institution

Overseas training:

! Promotes your institution's profile locally, nationally, and internationally.

! Demonstrates the willingness of your institution to help others in need.

! Opens the door for future international training activities, including student
and instructor exchanges.

! Enables your faculty to take part in a rejuvenating professional development
experience.

! Provides your faculty with first‐hand knowledge about the subjects they
teach. This knowledge can then be shared with other faculty members.

! Links the institution with international training and philanthropic agencies.

! Provides information that can be used on subsequent trips or to market your
institution's services overseas.

! Enables others to follow and conduct additional training. Someone has to go
first.

! Uses and expands existing institutional resources.

! Increases the institution's and surrounding community's awareness of and
sensitivity to a multi‐cultural world and the needs of developing countries.

Benefits To Your Non‐educational Employer

Overseas training:

! Establishes new contacts and opens up potential markets.

! Ensures that all employees will have similar skills and work toward achieving
the same standards, if your company has offices in a foreign country.

! Provides information that can be used on subsequent trips.

! Provides knowledge of the global marketplace.

! Provides specific marketing information, especially information regarding
target audiences and their needs.

! Provides an opportunity to market your company's products and services.

! Provides information that can be used by your company to open or expand
into foreign markets.

! Increases your company's global contacts.

! Provides professional development opportunities for your staff.

Before going on an international assignment, be sure that you are comfortable
with the decision to go. You will not be of help to yourself or others unless you
are first satisfied that you have something to offer others and that you will benefit
from the experience. Your motives and the benefits that may materialize must be
realistically identified in your own mind. You must not only know that going
overseas is the right thing to do, but you must also feel that it is the right thing
for you to do. Be true to yourself.


1.4 Dealing with Cultural Differences

Defining Culture

In order to work effectively in an international environment, the most important
skill that you will need is the ability to deal with cultural differences. You must
be culturally sensitive and able to adapt to another way of life.

Culture is the set of values and assumptions that are commonly held and acted
upon by members of a particular social, geographical, or ethnic community and
passed on from one generation to another. These values and assumptions are
used to interpret the world and guide individual and group actions. Each culture
has its own unique characteristics.

What we normally associate with culture are artifacts that we can see, hear,
smell, or touch. Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992) state that these
artifacts are really the tip of an iceberg. Below the surface are the values and
assumptions upon which the artifacts are based. Values are the principles or
rules that guide the society and assumptions are the suppositions or beliefs that
are commonly held by a society. Because they are taken for granted, they are
difficult to understand or explain to others. They are deep‐rooted and not easily
changed.

Consider how you might feel if you were suddenly placed in an environment in
which your cultural values and assumptions did not apply? How would you
react? If you found yourself in a culture that believed that you were guilty until
proven innocent, wouldn't you feel a little uncomfortable? Would you react
negatively to this situation?

The above is just one example of the many cultural situations in which
international instructors often find themselves. They arrive with one mental map
or strategy for coping with their new environment, but they must live in a place
where their personal assumptions, values, and rules do not apply. They must
learn to hold both forms of assumptions and values in their mind. They must
learn to accept what they cannot change, to adapt to their new surroundings, and
to develop new routines that make them feel more comfortable. The ability to
adjust is the key to survival.

One culture is neither better nor worse than another, but because of
ethnocentrism, most people inherently believe that their own culture is superior
to that of others. Ethnocentrism helps us to identify with people in our cultural
group and to take pride in ourselves. Unfortunately, this pride may also prevent

us from understanding others and appreciating that another way of living is
equally acceptable.

Cultural Assumptions

According to Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992, pp. 37‐41), cultures differ
in their assumptions on five basic issues.

! Humanity's relationship to the environment. In some cultures, humans exist
to dominate nature and extract its wealth; in other cultures, humans are
expected to coexist harmoniously with the natural world.

! Human nature. Some cultures may consider people to be basically good,
while others make the assumption that people are inherently evil and must be
directed to do good.

! Human relationships. This category of assumptions describes how people
relate to each other. For example, do people exist to serve themselves or
others? How much power and authority should one person have? What are
the rights and freedoms of individuals?

! Human activity. Should people respond to the world in an active, passive, or
fatalistic manner? In some cultures, it is assumed that people can only do
certain things; the Creator or Almighty determines the rest. In other cultures,
people assume that they can determine their own destinies.

! Reality and truth. Some cultures believe that truth can be objectively
determined, while others define truth as what is socially acceptable.

Now, take the time to examine the assumptions on which your culture is based.
If you are an American or Canadian, your list of assumptions may look like this:

! We believe that people have the right to alter nature and use its wealth for
themselves. However, most North American Aboriginals and
environmentalists would disagree with this assumption.

! We believe that people are innocent until they are proven to be guilty. In
order to prove guilt, decisions should be made based on relevant, accurate
facts.

! We believe that individuals have certain rights and freedoms and have limited
obligations to others. However, commitments should be honored.


! We believe that we can determine our own destinies. If we work hard and,
perhaps, have a little luck, we will realize our aspirations.

! We believe that truth can be objectively determined. Facts and evidence can
be used to help us find the truth.

! We believe that time is finite and should be used effectively, not wasted.

Knowing the assumptions made by your own cultural group, consider how they
might affect your daily activities. For example, if you believe that time is finite
and extremely valuable, then you will most likely plan to spend your time
effectively, be punctual, and lead a fast‐paced lifestyle. Others may not hold this
view; they may consider time to be limitless. They may not wear watches, but
instead, use the position of the sun to determine time. By examining our own
cultural beliefs, we become more comfortable with ourselves. Consequently, we
are better able to cope with those who challenge our beliefs.

Cultural Values and Artifacts Held by Others

Prior to working overseas, you should determine the cultural conventions of the
country in which you will be living. You will not be an effective instructor or
trainer unless you are aware of how to interact effectively with your foreign hosts
and students. Remember, values generate beliefs and rules of correct behavior.
If you can understand their cultural assumptions and values, you will be better
able to predict their behavior. It may even be helpful to learn how these values
may have originated.

The following discussion of the values and beliefs of different cultures will help
you to appreciate and prepare for living and working in an unfamiliar culture.
After reviewing the items below, consider making a similar list focusing
specifically on the culture of the country in which your training activities will
take place. Although these items are listed separately, they are often interrelated
and sometimes inseparable.

Attitudes and Beliefs

The major beliefs that members of a culture share shape their view of the world.
In North America, we tend to separate church and state, yet many cultures do
not make this clear distinction; religion dictates how they view the world and
conduct themselves. Westerners tend to have a Judeo‐Christian tradition; the
Middle East, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Malaysia have an Islamic tradition; and
Oriental cultures are strongly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism.


Each religion describes how its devotees should behave. For example, Muslims
are expected to practice the five pillars of Islam. Islam was founded by the
prophet Mohammed in the seventh century. Through the angel Gabriel, the
teachings of Allah were made known to Mohammed and recorded in the Koran.
The Koran provides the foundations for an entire way of life and covers a wide
spectrum of issues including faith, rights and obligations, crime and punishment,
and personal and public law. The Koran and the teachings of Mohammed were
combined to form the hadith, which is the basis of the Islamic religion. It states
that Muslims must actively profess their faith in Allah and Mohammed; pray five
times a day; pay the zakat or contribute to the well‐being of the poor; fast
between dawn and dusk during the month of Ramadan to celebrate the divine
communication of the Koran to Mohammed; and, if possible, make a pilgrimage
to Mecca, the heart of Islam.

The Koran also dictates that Muslim women dress modestly and refrain from
contact with unrelated males. Consequently, if you work in an Islamic country,
your business day or instructional classes must take into account the need for
your colleagues or students to pray. You may find that, even in the hottest
weather, Islamic women are fully covered and expose only their faces, hands, and
feet.

If you will be working in China, then you should know that the teachings of
Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher, influence daily life in this country.
Confucius stressed order, the cultivation of the "superior man," the primacy of
family, and the importance of cooperation. The emphasis on order means that
things are often seen more in terms of "black and white" rather than shades of
grey. Social etiquette is important and informality may be regarded as being
disrespectful. In a Confucian culture, people are clearly ranked by their status. It
is also important for Chinese people to maintain their self‐image and reputation;
therefore, "saving face" or avoiding and preventing embarrassment is essential.
Personal relationships are also exceedingly important, especially family ties and
friendships. In China, the most successful person is the one who has the most
guanxi or connections. Thus, if you teach Chinese students, whether they be in
China, Hong Kong, or Taiwan, you must remember that their obligations to
family and friends come before their obligations to you as an instructor. In
addition, you must learn to address them formally, to refrain from singling
anyone out, and to present organized, well‐structured lessons. Unfortunately,
many Chinese are accustomed to rote learning and are often reluctant to try
more participatory activities.

Individual and Group Aspirations

Westerners generally believe in, but may not practice, egalitarianism‐‐the belief
in human equality, particularly with respect to social, political, and economic

rights. We encourage individual aspirations and praise individual achievements.
Perhaps North Americans firmly believe in the will of the individual because we
are more scientific and depend less on spiritualism than other cultures do to
explain actions in the world. Americans may feel that nations are born as a result
of the strong will and entrepreneurial spirit of individuals who live in a
competitive environment. However, many of the world's people do not share this
view; they believe that the group, whether it be family or collective, is more
important. In the Philippines and Venezuela, for example, people think first
about the welfare of their families, then about individual desires. In China,
although the elders or heads of households or business leaders may make the
decisions, they welcome advice from others (providing it is not offered in front of
strangers and that appropriate respect is given to those who must make the final
decisions).

In many cultures, there is a hierarchy that gives order to relations and defines the
status of individuals. The hierarchy determines obligations and how individuals
relate to one another. For Westerners, one of the most contentious issues is the
status of women in developing countries. In some countries, the women are
treated as equal; in others, they are subservient and may be treated like chattel.
"Although women's primary responsibility in China is still centred in the
household, their roles in leadership, management, and the profession are more
extensive than they are for women in the rest of East Asia. In fact, women make
up 24 percent of Chinese cadresCsupervisors, bureaucrats, the professionsCand
are one‐third of all scientists and engineers" (Cyr, 1993, May/June, p. 8). In many
parts of India, women are not highly prized and female infanticide is common.
In some Hindu and Islamic cultures, women may often live a life separate from
men, yet share the same roof. Their movements may be severely curtailed and
they may have limited educational opportunities. In some African countries,
although women perform much of the manual labor, they may not be encouraged
to participate in business decisions that affect their work. Many Westerners feel
that women in these countries should enjoy the same rights as men. Not
everyone would agree with this premise. Islamic fundamentalists, for example,
believe that it is this emphasis on individual rights that is destroying Islamic
society and family values. They want the Koran, as they interpret it, to be
enforced; that means that women have a significant role in the Islamic family and
society, but their role is not the same as that of men.

When living and working abroad, it is important to acknowledge and respect the
different cultural views regarding the aspirations of individuals and groups and
the roles of men and women in a particular society. You may not have the same
beliefs and values as your foreign students, but you must realize that you are a
guest in their country. You must decide if you are there to try to change society
or to impart knowledge and skills.


If you are there to perform the latter task, you will probably want to avoid
addressing human rights and women's issues in a vocational or engineering class.
However, it is possible to teach by example. If you are a member of an
international instructional team, you could answer a student=s question yourself
rather than defer to the team leader. By doing so, you demonstrate that it is
possible to be a respected team player. If women are on the team performing the
same duties as men, then the students may perceive that women are just as
capable as men. However, it is important to note that female instructors may not
be welcomed in some cultures. Students may not ask them questions, and female
instructors may not be perceived to have the same expertise as the male
instructors. People=s attitudes can change, but this change usually takes time.

Spoken and Written Communication

For most of us, the most noticeable feature that distinguishes one group from
another is language. You might assume that, because you speak English,
everyone in the English‐speaking world will understand you. However, this is
not the case. In North America, the terms "hood" and "trunk" refer to the front
and back of an automobile. However, the British use the terms "bonnet" and
"boot" to refer to these same parts. The English word Apreservative@ translates to
Acondom@ in many languages, and when British people use the phrase Aknock
someone up,@ they mean Awake someone up.@ The differences in terminology
relate to differences in culture. A language is deeply rooted in a specific culture.
Each culture has its own slang, colloquialisms, jargons, accents, and so forth. Not
only are different dialects of the same language spoken in various countries, but
several languages may be spoken within one country. For example, will your
Chinese students speak Cantonese or Mandarin?

English is thought to be a precise language because a single word can convey an
idea. In languages such as Chinese, the meaning of a word is determined by its
context. The context may be ascertained by listening to the tone of voice or
considering the other words or characters in a phrase or sentence. Therefore,
other cultures (particularly those in Asia and the Middle East) may pay more
attention to how you say or write something than to what you actually say or
write.

Do remember that many cultures punctuate their speech with varying lengths of
silence. This custom is usually disconcerting for most Westerners, who like to fill
every silent pause with a word or two. Other cultures use silence to think, to
reflect on what has been said, to read your reception of their message, and to
exchange non‐verbal messages with their colleagues. After some experience and
practice, you may be able to decipher what is occurring during these periods of
silence. You may also use silence yourself to allow students time to think. This is
particularly important if English is the students' second or third language.

Non‐verbal Communication

In many cultures, non‐verbal cues such as eye contact, facial expressions, hand
gestures, silence, and body stance convey more than the spoken word. Many
cultures place a much greater emphasis than Westerners do on the effective and
correct use of gestures and body language. Arab, French, Italian, and Latin
American cultures tend to be more flamboyant with their physical gestures, while
the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Southeast Asian cultures tend to be more
conservative.

In the Middle East, Latin America, and many Asian countries, people stand close
together when they speak; they allow less interpersonal space between people
than Westerners are accustomed to having. Many Westerners believe that they
have a right to personal space and privacy; many Asian cultures would wonder
why Westerners would want to be alone. They acknowledge the need for privacy
during meditation and study, but Asians prefer not to isolate themselves from
others, especially family members.

Direct eye contact may be minimal. Some Asian and Arab students would not
feel comfortable looking directly at an elder, an authority figure, or anyone who
has a higher social status. Therefore, you would never say, as we do in the West,
"Look at me when I am talking to you!" In some Asian cultures, direct eye
contact may be considered rude and aggressive; in Spanish and Portuguese
cultures, extended eye contact may signify romantic interest.

Gestures are a not a universal language. The "thumbs up" gesture commonly
used in North America to signify success or that everything is OK is considered
extremely rude in West Africa. In North America, you might pat young students
on the head to acknowledge their good work or to encourage them to proceed.
However, in Thailand, if you pat anyone on the head, you may offend them.
There, the head is sacred and should not be touched. In Islamic countries,
women should never be touched. You should never point with your toes in
Thailand or with your finger in Malaysia. In the Middle East, it may be acceptable
to for men to touch each other, but such contact will be chastised or frowned
upon in other cultures. The list of questionable physical gestures and motions is
endless. Do make an effort to determine which gestures are acceptable in the
country in which you will be working, and refrain from using a gesture until you
know how it will be interpreted. A warm smile is usually accepted almost
everywhere, but note that it may indicate embarrassment, nervousness, or anger
in China and parts of Southeast Asia.


Negotiation

Negotiation is an important part of everyday life throughout the world, and it is
especially so in developing countries, where bargaining is an accepted way of
determining the cost of a taxi ride or the price of fruit at the local market. You
may need to negotiate your overseas subsistence allowance, your accommodation
arrangements, the place in which you will conduct your workshops, the number
of breaks your students are entitled to, the list of topics to be covered in your
lesson, and so forth. When the stakes are high, you must pay closer attention to
conducting effective negotiations.

Frank (1993, p. 34) identifies the following "commonly made mistakes which
should be avoided in international negotiations."

! "Insufficient understanding of different ways of thinking." Some think of
negotiation as a "win‐lose" situation while others may see it as a "win‐win"
situation. Some want to discuss the substantive issues immediately, while
others must ensure that all procedural and relationship issues are discussed in
detail prior to debating the substantive issues.

! "Insufficient attention paid to the other party's need to preserve face"
(especially in China and Southeast Asia).

! "Insufficient knowledge of the domestic background of the country ... its
history, culture, government, status of business, image of foreigners, etc."

! "Insufficient recognition of political and other criteria," such as religious and
cultural requirements.

! "Insufficient recognition of the other side's decision‐making process, i.e. who
is really making the decisions, who is implementing them?" Has the
negotiator been selected because of his knowledge of what is being discussed
and/or of the negotiating process, or because of his relationship to someone
else? Will decisions be made by consensus, in a democratic manner, or by an
authoritarian ruling?

! "Insufficient understanding of the importance of personal relationships and
personalities." Does the negotiator represent herself or a group of
individuals? Will the negotiations satisfy individual or group aspirations?
Are any inter‐team dynamics being played out during the negotiations?

! "Insufficient allocation of time for negotiations." North Americans often do
not take into account the need of others to spend time to develop a
relationship and a degree of trust. Others may regard negotiations as

a process that is valuable in its own right, not merely as a means to an end.

! "Insufficient attention to planning, to international communications and
procedures." Protocol is exceedingly important to many cultures. North
Americans may fail to take proper protocol seriously or take it seriously only
during the beginning phase of negotiations.

! "Insufficient attention to the twofold role of the negotiators on the other side
who have to defend their positions and 'sell' any compromises
internationally."

Time

North Americans tend to be time conscious; we are always aware of the hour of
the day and the time spent to complete an activity. Our lives are fast‐paced.
Foreign visitors who tour New York, Los Angeles, or Toronto are often
overwhelmed by the tempo of our lives and the punctuality we expect. In other
cultures, time is less important. Many people in Latin America have a more
flexible attitude toward time; they may arrive an hour late for classes or meetings.
In African countries such as Ethiopia, people may arrive in the afternoon for a
morning appointment; they have stopped en route to help a cousin or friend. In
several African countries, time is considered plentiful; one does not need to set
limits on it. Some cultures expect only low‐status individuals to arrive at a stated
time, while high‐status or older individuals may arrive later. When setting
appointments, it may be wise to ask, "Will that be North American time or local
time?" However, this question may lead to a discussion regarding different
cultural values.

North Americans often refer to seasons in reference to time. For example, "We'll
meet again in the fall, or we=ll complete that project during the winter."
Westerners understand what is meant by spring, summer, fall, and winter, but
the terms wet season or dry season may be more meaningful to people of other
cultures. Do consider how your concept of time may be perceived by others.

Social Interactions and Customs

North Americans tend to have a casual attitude toward protocol and
appearances, but this may not be the case in other countries where people are
expected to act and dress according to their station and age. A person whose
behavior and appearance are unconventional by local standards may be
considered disrespectful.

Greetings vary from country to country. A firm handshake may be expected in
North America, but a limp handshake is often given in Middle Eastern countries.

A bow may be an acceptable form of greeting in the Orient; the depth of the bow
varies according to the status of the individual being greeted. In Thailand,
individuals put their palms together in front of their chest in the prayer position
or wai, then bow slightly. The placement of the palms and the depth of the bow
are determined by the status of the person being greeted. In Algeria, kissing both
cheeks is an acceptable greeting used by both men and women. Folding your
arms while speaking with a person in Fiji shows respect; this same action may be
considered arrogant behavior in many western cultures.

Different cultures express appreciation in different ways. For example, many
French, Spanish, and Middle Eastern people tend to openly and spontaneously
express appreciation. Many Asians, on the other hand, rarely express their
feelings in an open or expressive manner. They may not express appreciation for
an expected level of service.

Clothing also varies from country to country. Climate does not always dictate
whether or not the body should be fully covered. Muslim women, regardless of
whether they live in tropical or temperate regions, are expected to cover most of
their bodies. A sarong may be acceptable dress in some South Pacific countries
and a colorful batik shirt may be worn to semi‐formal events in Malaysia.
Westerners who try to adopt the local dress may embarrass themselves and
offend their hosts if they wear the local costume in an unacceptable manner.
Unless they have been invited by their hosts to wear local apparel and then
instructed on the proper arrangement of these garments, North Americans
should wear North American‐style clothing that is appropriate to their situation.

Religion plays an important role in many countries. Many religions require
visitors to leave their shoes at the door of the church, temple, or mosque; women
may also need to cover their heads with a hat or scarf and wear dresses rather
than shorts or pants. You may also be expected to remove your shoes before
entering the home of your host. In Thailand, guests first remove their shoes and
avoid stepping on the doorsill (where a spirit lives) when entering a home.

Gift giving provides a way of introducing oneself, showing respect, or solidifying
a friendship or a business deal. Flowers are an acceptable gift in Bolivia, Jordan,
and Indonesia. However, in Kenya, they are appropriate only when expressing
condolences. Flowers may be given as gifts in Brazil, but they should not be
purple, as that color reminds local people of death. Timepieces such as watches
and clocks are favorite Western gifts, because they are small, can range from
inexpensive to extravagant, and can be engraved with a name or company logo.
However, in China, clocks carry connotations of bad luck or death. Further, any
significant gift to a Chinese person may cause him or her embarrassment as well
as trouble with colleagues or the law. Gifts given to overseas hosts should be
chosen carefully. A pen, for example, is small, inoffensive, and can be used by

everyone. Consider giving a small gift, brought from your homeland, to the
eldest, high‐status host or give one gift to a group of people.

It is obvious that social customs vary a great deal from country to country and
even within a country. A wise international instructor finds out as much as
possible about the customs of a specific country, carefully observes interactions
overseas, and when in doubt, asks for advice.

Food and Eating Habits

Westerners are accustomed to a variety of restaurant chains where familiar foods
can be obtained quickly. After all, time is money! But elsewhere, meals are to be
savored and enjoyed. In Morocco, you may be invited to your host's home for a
sumptuous feast, and in Latin America, you may attend an elaborate dinner that
begins serving at 9 or 11 p.m. As the guest of honor, you may be served sheep's
eyeballs in the Middle East or fish‐head curry in Malaysia. (In those countries,
food must be eaten only with the right hand, as the left hand is considered
unclean.) Chinese hosts may invite you to dine on dog meat and ask you to use
chopsticks and a spoon, while hosts in countries previously associated with the
British colonial period may provide you with a knife and fork. Hindus will not
serve beef and Muslims will not serve pork.

Meals are also the time for people to propose toasts to one's health and family
and to friendship. It is always advisable to have a few toasts prepared to honor
your hosts. Except in Islamic countries, alcoholic beverages are usually provided
for toasting. In Russia, toasting with a little vodka can continue throughout the
evening.

Work Habits and Practices

People work to accomplish tasks, to provide food and shelter for themselves and
their family, and to acquire possessions, recognition, and power. How people
work can vary from culture to culture or from country to country. People in
western, industrialized societies may work in a competitive environment in
which decisions are made by a few. Workers may be praised or criticized
individually or collectively as a group. Non‐monetary rewards are appreciated,
but monetary rewards are usually sought. People may move from one company
to another in order to obtain the recognition and income that they believe they
deserve. Workers are recognized for their skills, and their relationship to others
in their company may not significantly affect their job status. Decisions are
frequently made according to personal motives and the need to earn a profit.
Religious and political factors may not be involved in the corporate decision‐
making process.


Many other cultures have a collective view of work. People work in a cooperative
manner to attain family or group goals and to achieve balance and harmony. In
North Korea, individuals labor collectively to accomplish political goals. In
China, traditional workers are devoted to their employers and do not question
their decisions. In Tanzania, hiring and promotion are based primarily on family
connections.

You would not openly criticize or disagree with anyone in a Southeast Asian
country, as the individuals being addressed would lose face in front of their
colleagues. You too would lose face because you had treated them in an
insensitive and disrespectful manner. It is also not acceptable to raise your voice
or to show anger. Consequently, you must convey all your concerns in private
and carefully point out what should be done. You may receive a "yes" in
response, but the yes may only mean that "I heard what you said, but I may not
understand you, and I may not do what you asked." Asians rarely give definitive,
negative answers; instead, they offer explanations or avoid responding to the
questions posed. They may not admit error or failure. Because it can be difficult
to obtain definite answers from members of certain cultural groups, Westerners
may feel frustrated. However, the reason for this apparent evasiveness is often
simply the need to save face.

Money may be the ultimate reward for many individuals in the West, but a
change in status or the recognition that one is better serving the ACreator@ may
be the preferred reward in other cultures elsewhere. People like to receive
recognition and move up in the social hierarchy. However, there may be limits as
to how high they can climb. In some parts of Africa, your position in the
community or company may be determined by your tribal affiliations, status, or
education. Your ability to perform a job well may not be considered in
promotions. Money may not be the ultimate reward, because once some Africans
have enough funds to support their extended family and friends, they may not be
motivated to earn more money. In Tanzania, many people have no real concept
of saving for the future or putting profit back into their business. Any excess
money they receive may be siphoned off by local administrators, the government
or politicians, or must be shared with less fortunate family members. People may
be rewarded for hard work but they may also be rewarded simply because they
are lucky or because they have influential friends or relations.

The decision‐making process can be a lengthy procedure, especially in countries
where there is a strong need to get to know a client before business is discussed,
where it is deemed essential to avoid uncertainty or risk, where politics and
religion play a significant role in people's lives, or where decisions are made by a
centralized authority. In the Middle East, where religion and authority are
important variables in everyday life, it may take hours, days, or weeks to reach a

decision. In several countries, personal decision making and self‐management
are unacceptable ways of conducting business.

Some developing countries are still heavily dependent on resources provided by
hunting, farming, and/or fishing. Others have become industrialized and
produce manufactured goods. Still others have embraced technology and have
become information providers and service specialists. Developing countries tend
to be involved in harnessing natural resources and in the production of goods
that are exported to developed countries. As developing countries become more
technologically oriented and establish free‐market economies, more competitive
and self‐reliant characteristics may be incorporated into their culture. Note the
dramatic changes in Hong Kong and Singapore over the last thirty years. No
culture is static; each changes and evolves over time.

Making Cultural Adaptations

With so much to learn about another culture, how does one cope when it is
necessary to work overseas? If you are open‐minded and perceptive, you will be
able to discern the small or subtle details that will help you to communicate and
interact effectively with others. Of course, you must leave your ideological
baggage at home, or at least put it aside for a time. It is difficult to examine a
new culture if you are constantly comparing it with your own ideology.

Below are a series of steps that may help you adapt to a different culture.

1. Be aware of your own culture. We all like a level of predictability that
allows us to deal effectively with our environment. Try to learn a little more
about your own culture before learning about others.

2. Recognize that you must make changes. Prepare yourself by anticipating
the changes you must make in order to cope with your new environment.
Frequently, ego, self‐esteem, and frustration get in the way of making
changes. It will take time for you to adapt to new surroundings in which
many of your regular routines have been disrupted. You will need to establish
new reference points that will help you get through each day.

3. Observe the behaviors of your foreign hosts and students. Note the
sequence of their behaviors and their consequences. Develop some new
guidelines for dealing with your new environment without destroying the
criteria that provided guidance in your own country. Try to understand why
people do what they do. Conflicts may exist between your native and newly‐
acquired guidelines. If the conflicts involve ethics, then it is likely that the

native guidelines will predominate. You must be at peace with your
conscience.

4. Practice the new behavior until you are confident that you can do it.
Persistence is important. Practice will strengthen your use of the new
guidelines.

5. Use the behavior in a real situation and be confident that you can actually
perform it. Even if mistakes are made, you must persevere and avoid making
the same mistakes again. You must be willing to try. You learn by making
mistakes, recognizing the mistakes, and observing others; continue making
corrections until your actions become routine and predictable.

Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992, p. 99) identified the regions of the
world that present the most adjustment problems for Canadians and Americans.
These areas are listed below in order of decreasing adjustment difficulty.

1. Africa
2. Middle East
3. Far East
4. South America
5. Eastern Europe and Russia
6. Western Europe and Scandinavia
7. Australia and New Zealand

Prior to your departure, learn as much as possible about the cultural assumptions
and values held by people in your host country. Are you willing and prepared to
adapt to these beliefs?

Sage Advice

Although this section has emphasized the differences among cultures, remember
that people are more alike than they are different. We all eat, breathe, and care
for our loved ones. We all work, play, and laugh. We all develop friendships
with others; sometimes these friendships last for years and change our lives.

When you travel overseas, be careful not to stereotype your foreign hosts. Do not
expect everyone with the same culture or nationality to hold the same
assumptions or to act in a similar manner. You wouldn't expect your next‐door
neighbour to believe in exactly the same things that you do or to act just like you.

It is impossible to learn everything about a culture in a short period of time and
even if you could, you might not fit in because you would still be regarded as a
foreigner. However, do your best; be flexible, patient, non‐judgmental, and
exhibit empathy for others. This may sound simplistic, but a smile is an almost
universal sign of warmth and welcome. It will help you to get through even the
most difficult and uncomfortable situations. Never give up on your quest to
understand others and always be sensitive to different points of view.

In addition to the references noted in this section, you may also want to consult
the following publications:

Brislin, R & Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural communication training: An
introduction. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Condon, J. C. & Yousef, F. (1987). An introduction to intercultural
communication. New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing Company.

Finkelstein, B. & Tobin, J. (Eds.). (1991). Transcending stereotypes. Yarmouth,
ME: Intercultural Press.

Fisher, G. (1980). International negotiation: A cross‐cultural perspective.
Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations. New York, NY: McGraw‐Hill.

Kohls, R. (1984). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural
Press.

Pye, L. W. (1985). Asian power and politics: The cultural dimensions of authority.
Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Storti, C. (1990). The art of crossing cultures. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Tyler, V.L. (1987). Intercultural interacting. Provo, UT: Brigham Young
University for International Studies.

You can also ask for a publications list from your government=s External or
Foreign Affairs Department or from Intercultural Press (P.O. Box 700, Yarmouth,
ME 04096), which is an excellent source of cross‐cultural and international skills
materials and information.


1.5 Preparing a Proposal for an International
Education or Training Activity

Introduction

After reviewing the needs of developing countries, determining that you have
skills that can help others, and assessing your motives, you may decide that
working overseas is something you want or must do. Therefore, you need to find
a suitable overseas assignment. If you work for an educational institution or a
company with an international focus, you can inform the personnel in the
international education or training office or division that you would be willing to
work overseas. If no opportunities are available through your current employer,
you may decide to contact an external agency. With a little help, you can even
draft your own overseas project proposal or respond to a request for proposals
(RFP). RFPs are usually issued by companies, agencies, or organizations that are
seeking experts to tell them what they would do to address a specific problem or
challenge.

Whether you participate in an overseas venture sponsored by your employer or
agency or respond to an RFP announcement, you must take time to speak to
people who have been involved in similar projects and to those who have worked
in the country in which your project will be conducted. If possible, speak to the
actual client who wants or would be interested in your services. Personal contact
with the overseas client or funding agency is definitely advantageous, and you
will be better able to ascertain if the project is appropriate for you. Further, if you
are accepted for the overseas venture, you would already be familiar with your
foreign host. Never underestimate the power of personal contact.

It is often assumed that you approach an international training activity in a
different manner than you would approach a local training project. In reality, the
approach is the same regardless of whether you deliver the training overseas or at
home. You need to ask the same questions and to address the same concerns:

! What are the needs of your foreign hosts and your potential students?

! What are the problems or challenges that must be addressed? What evidence
can you provide that these needs are important or relevant to your foreign
hosts and students?

! What are the desired outcomes of your proposed activities? What are the
goals and objectives of your activities? What criteria will be used to judge the
success or benefits of the activities?

! How will you address the needs of the hosts and students? What have you
done to date? Are there special or unique circumstances that must be
considered?

! What resources do you need? What resources do you expect the host to
provide? What will you provide? Are there any in‐kind contributions?

! Who will be involved in the project? What will they do? Are they qualified
for their assignments?

! How will you evaluate the success of your activities? What formative and
summative evaluations will be conducted?

! What future or follow‐up activities could you recommend?

! What are the timelines for the various activities?

! How much will your proposed activities cost?

What makes an overseas venture, such as an international training activity,
appear to be different is our unfamiliarity with the foreign environment, culture,
and context. As you learn more about other cultures, overseas ventures lose their
mystique.

Writing the Proposal

A proposal is a professional document that describes how you would address the
needs of your foreign hosts and students. It represents you as if you were
personally presenting this information. A professional proposal can take
considerable time to prepare. You need to gather a lot of information, organize
it, and then write and edit the document according to pre‐set standards. You
must then translate the document, print and bind the proposal, and deliver it on
time. These activities often require a major investment of your energy, time, and
money. Therefore, before you begin to write, ask yourself the following
questions:

! Do you know what your client, agency, or host actually wants or needs? Are
these requests realistic?

! Do you have the skills and resources to address their needs? If you are a
member of a company or institution, determine if the proposed activity is
congruent with your company's or institution's mission and/or mandate.


! Do you have, or can you acquire, the financial resources to prepare and
implement your proposal?

! Do you know anything about the country in which you will be working? Will
you enjoy the challenges you will face in this particular country? How will
people overseas receive you? Will you feel safe?

! If you are competing with others for funding, do you know who your
competitors are? What must you do to compete successfully? What criteria
will be used to select the successful proposal?

! If your proposal is approved or accepted, can you afford to go at the
determined time? How will the proposed activities impact on your current
commitments? Perhaps there are impending personal events, such as a
wedding, anniversary, or the birth of a child, which you may want to take into
consideration.

! Have you considered the benefits as well as the disadvantages of taking part
in the proposed activity?

! Do you really want this project?

If you feel comfortable with your answers to the above questions, then write the
best proposal that you can. Do not waste your time sending out second‐rate
work or preparing proposals for projects that you do not really want to do. Do
your best, and ask your colleagues for assistance.

Before putting pen to paper or fingers to keyboard, gather as much information
as you can about the country in which you would be working, your host, your
students, and the sponsoring organization. If you are going to submit your
proposal to an organization or agency, obtain a copy of its funding guidelines. If
you are going to send your proposal directly to an overseas client, ascertain if
they want a long or short document, a proposal written in expressive language
with many illustrations, or one written concisely and to the point. Your proposal
may have more appeal if it contains current, popular buzzwords or phrases such
as "sustainability" and "environmental viability." If possible, determine if your
proposal will be reviewed by a social expert, technical expert, or layperson, then
write at a level appropriate for the intended reader. Most readers like proposals
that have a simple writing style, numerous graphics, pertinent and up‐to‐date
facts, and summaries inserted throughout the document.

Once the proposal is written, ask a colleague to review the document to ensure
that it contains no content or technical lapses. Provide your reviewer with a copy
of the proposal evaluation criteria. All factual data should be verified. Ask an

editor to edit your proposal. The editor should not only check for grammar but
should also make sure that the proposal is well organized, understandable, and
interesting. Always review the editor's comments as he or she may inadvertently
introduce a meaning that was not intended.

You may also need to have the proposal translated into two or more languages.
Do provide your foreign clients with a document written in their native language.
Remember that the English, French, or Spanish spoken in one country may differ
considerably from that spoken in others. Therefore, hire a professional translator
who is familiar with the language as it is spoken and read in your client's country.

Print the proposal on high‐quality paper. If two languages are used, rather than
printing two separate documents, consider printing the original and the
translated version on alternate pages or placing the English version on the
bottom half of each page. Different typefaces and color can be used to highlight
titles or key words in the proposal. However, the use of a second or third color
can cost a substantial amount of money. In addition, you could inadvertently
make a blunder if you use a color that is offensive to your clients or is restricted
to royalty. Colors have specific meanings in different countries; unless you know
the significance of a particular color for your intended audience, restrict yourself
to black printing on white paper.

Bind rather than staple your proposal. A professionally bound document
indicates that you cared enough to present the best. If your document will be
going to a country with a tropical climate, consider having it coil bound; the heat
may melt the glue and loosen the pages.

Provide a cover letter with your proposal. The letter should briefly introduce
yourself and your skills, outline the content of your proposal, and indicate why
you are interested in the project. If you have spoken to someone overseas or key
members of the sponsoring agency or organization, mention their names and
titles here as well.

Make sure that your proposal arrives on time. Send it by registered mail and/or
by courier. You may elect to deliver the proposal yourself, not only to ensure that
it arrives on time, but also because you may have the opportunity to meet the
person who will make the final decision regarding the suitability of your proposal.

Content of the Proposal

Although different clients, agencies, and organizations may have their own
proposal requirements, all proposals usually contain the items described below.


Title Page
The title page should reflect the scope of the project. Include an RFP or agency
reference number, your name, your organization, and the date.

Executive Summary
This summary, comprising no more than two pages, is a concise overview of the
proposal. It identifies the project location, the organizations involved and their
relationship to other organizations the client may be familiar with, the contact
person, the goal or purpose of the project, the benefits of the project and its
relation to other projects, and the project's major activities, inputs, outputs, time
frames, and overall cost. The executive summary is usually written after the rest
of the proposal has been prepared. Remember that the executive summary may
be the only part of your proposal that is thoroughly examined by the proposal
evaluators. Therefore, ensure that it contains the 'essence' of your complete
report.

Project Need, Purpose, or Goal
Indicate the overall purpose of the project. What do you hope to accomplish?
There may be several goals, but each goal should subsume more specific,
measurable objectives. The overall goal statements may not be quantifiable, but
they should be directly related to the needs of the client.

Objectives
Objectives are precise statements of what will be accomplished. Active verbs are
frequently used and the results that are specified are usually measurable.
However, qualitative objectives that state, for example, that the students will gain
confidence are difficult to measure. You may want to include the number of
people involved, the training materials that will be produced, and the time frames
for each objective. From three to seven objectives are usually stated. Check that
all your objectives are realistic and attainable.

Project Benefits
Outline the benefits of the project to your clients and students. How will the
people or their actions change? What benefits will accrue to the community or
country? How will the project sustain the development efforts of the country? If
the sponsoring agency or organization has a specific focus, such as environmental
impact, be sure to emphasize the issue and indicate how your project will address
it. How will your project complement previous or existing regional development
projects?

Background
Provide a context for the training activities. Describe national and regional
concerns that may influence your proposed activities. Note the conditions or
environment in which your potential students live. For example, describe the

current cultural, social, political, and economic influences on their lives, and state
how appropriately designed training activities could enable students to respond
effectively to these influences and how these activities are congruent with
national and regional goals. If possible, conduct a thorough needs assessment
prior to writing your proposal. Frequently, however, the needs assessment will be
the first activity that you conduct following the acceptance of your proposal.

You should also describe existing overseas projects and indicate how your
proposed project addresses a training need that is not currently being met. If
politically and ethically acceptable, identify the people who provided your
background information. List their names, titles, company or agency
associations, and their contributions.

If you have not done so already, you must convince the proposal evaluators that
you and/or your organization have the ability to mount the project and are able
to apply lessons learned from previous situations to the tasks that need to be
completed. Include information about your experience and skills, especially
those that are applicable to the international project under consideration.
Provide facts. Indicate the number, size, and dollar value of other international
training projects with which you have been involved. If you will be mounting the
project in collaboration with another person and/or organization, then you must
provide information about them as well. In the proposal appendices, be sure to
include letters from them indicating their willingness to participate in the
overseas activity.

Audience
Although you may have provided some information about the people you will
train overseas in the background section, carefully describe your potential
audience in the audience section of your proposal. Identify the cultural and
religious beliefs that may affect your training activities. If possible, note the
current skills of your potential students, including their oral and written English
or other language skills. If instruction will be in English, try to assess your
students' command of English, keeping in mind that accurate information may
not be available until you reach the training site. In many countries, people with
different social or job statuses expect to be treated differently. Therefore, it is
important to ascertain the social or job status of your potential students.

Training Activities
Briefly outline your proposed training activities and indicate how each activity
addresses the concerns and/or needs of the audience. Your training plan should
outline who will do what, when, where, and how. It should include:

! the proposed training dates;


! a description of the training site, including the criteria for selecting the
particular site;

! a list of instructional or training objectives;

! a list of training activities that are congruent with these objectives;

! a flexible time allotment for each activity;

! an indication of how you will ensure that your audience develops ownership
for the training activities and the project outcomes;

! lists of the materials and equipment you will need;

! the evaluation instruments that you intend to use to assess the audience's
attainment of new skills;

! the names and titles of the personnel involved in facilitating the training
activities, including all qualified personnel from the developing country.

Although not required in your proposal, you may want to consider preparing a
list of back‐up or alternative activities that you could use in case your planned
training activities do not proceed as smoothly as you had anticipated.

Project Inputs
Make a detailed list of all the materials and equipment you will need to complete
your training activities. Specify which items you intend to provide and which
must be provided by your foreign hosts or agency. Be sure to include operating
supplies and spare parts. If you will require electrical power, verify that it will be
available and reliable. Any electrical equipment you use must be compatible with
the foreign current, which may be different from that which you are now using.

Human resource needs should also be specified. List all the people who will
facilitate the training sessions and those who will provide support. For example,
you may need an interpreter, a translator, and a driver. Provide a brief job
description for each of these positions and specify the necessary qualifications.

If you intend to use a collaborative approach to training activities, you may want
to involve other organizations and agencies. Rather than identifying specific
individuals, provide a general description of the organization's or agency's
capabilities. If you list specific individuals and they are not available when funds
for your project are approved, you may be embarrassed or, worse, the contract
with the sponsoring agency may be declared null and void because you promised
to provide specific personnel who are now unavailable. If you do identify specific

individuals, you could say, "If the project is accepted, at least two of the five
people listed below will be involved in the training." Allow yourself some
flexibility.

Include the résumés of your project managers, trainers, and key support
personnel in the appendices of your proposal. Depending on the size of the
project, you may also want to provide information about major equipment and
material suppliers as well.

Expected Results and Possible Deviations
Describe the anticipated project results by elaborating on the project benefits
already identified. These results must be directly related to each project
objective. Based on your previous experiences, state the measurable results and
list the project=s products such as training handbooks and student workbooks.

Most projects do not proceed exactly as planned; therefore, identify and plan for
possible deviations from the expected. For example, if you are told or assume
that your students' command of English is excellent, you may plan to use only
English‐language material. However, if you discover that your students'
command of English is rather poor, then your training activities may not proceed
as planned. Therefore, in your proposal, you may state, "If the students have an
excellent command of English, we will be able to . . .. However, if their command
of English is poor, we can expect to accomplish only the following . . .."

Evaluation Procedures
The effectiveness of each training project should be evaluated. The purpose of
the evaluation is to determine the extent to which the project activities are
achieving success. A good evaluation examines both the operation and the
products or outcomes of the project. Formative evaluations are used to monitor
and revise the project while it is in progress; summative evaluations are
conducted after the project is concluded to assess its impact, evaluate the
attainment of its objectives, and suggest follow‐up activities. Describe the
criteria that will be used to judge the success of your project, how the evaluation
will be conducted, and who will conduct it. Although a sponsoring organization
or agency may also perform a summative evaluation, you should conduct your
own or collaborate with external evaluators. Your intimate knowledge of the
project will help in the development of the evaluation instruments. Further, you
need to determine for yourself what worked and what did not.

Follow‐up Activities
Rarely does one international training project cover all the training that is
needed. Therefore, suggest appropriate follow‐up activities that could be
mounted. For example, suggest advanced or specialized programs, or
recommend that once the initial training is completed, the best students be sent

overseas for additional training. Or, if your training project focused only on
technical skills, such as motor vehicle repair, you might recommend that a
follow‐up session that involves developing entrepreneurial skills that students
need to establish businesses such as automobile or motorcycle repair shops be
initiated.

Final Report
The final report should summarize project activities and anticipated results.
Briefly describe the content of the final project report. Indicate who will prepare
the report and whether or not drafts will be available for the clients to review.

Timelines
Unless your client or sponsoring organization has specified the project timelines,
you should list all project events in chronological order. Graph your project=s
timeline so that you can illustrate how activities may overlap. Constructing a
realistic timeline that demonstrates your efficiency but allows for some flexibility
is a fine balancing act. You could provide alternative schedules or a range of time
required to complete each part of the project. If you can, identify possible
obstacles or delays and estimate how long it may take to overcome them.

Budget
A project budget must include all direct expenses, overhead or administrative
costs, and in‐kind contributions. In addition, the procedures for handling
financial matters should be outlined. For example, when should funds be
disbursed, in what currency should funds be provided, who will be the signing
authority, and who will audit the financial statements? Most funding agencies
have their own guidelines for completing budget statements. Some ask for
minute details, while others want only an overall figure. However, once a
proposal is accepted, all funding agencies will require detailed budget or financial
statements.

If you are responding to an RFP and you know that the competition will be fierce
and that there is a range of possible ways to complete a project, you may not
want to submit a detailed budget; you may choose to submit only an overall
budget figure. However, you could instead provide details such as the number of
person‐hours required to complete specific tasks. You might also indicate that, if
the proposal is accepted or under serious consideration, then the cost of the
training program can be discussed during the proposal negotiations.

Regardless of the guidelines provided by your client or funding agency, a project
budget usually includes the following expense categories:

! personnel costs, including salaries, wages, or honoraria for the project
coordinator, international trainers or workshop facilitators, interpreters,

translators, secretaries, graphic designers, media and/or computer software
designers, hardware technicians, drivers, and, if necessary, security personnel;

! personnel benefits, including items such as health insurance, disability
insurance, and vacation pay;

! travel and accommodation costs, including an allocation for travel within a
foreign country and a subsistence or per diem allowance for those who will
travel overseas;

! operating supplies, such as paper, printing and duplicating, training supplies,
film, videocassettes, and software;

! hospitality;

! equipment purchases, such as microcomputers;

! equipment rentals, including the renting of office, audiovisual, or technical
equipment;

! postage, freight, and telephone costs;

! facilities rental for office and/or training activities.

Once your budget is complete, review it carefully to ensure that there are built‐in
contingencies to cover legitimate unforeseen costs such as gifts for overseas
contacts. If the project will be conducted over a lengthy period of time, or if it
takes several months before your project is approved, remember to account for
inflation. Some organizations, such as educational institutions, charge an
administration fee or a percentage of the funds allocated to manage project
finances. You may not enter a line on the budget statement for gifts, inflation, or
administrative costs, but you could add a portion of these costs to each line of the
budget. For example, if your educational institution or business charges a ten
percent administrative fee, then add that ten percent in with the personnel costs.

Review your budget carefully. Have you included contributions provided or
promised by other agencies, organizations, or people? Are letters of support
included in the appendices? Is your project financially viable? Are the costs
reasonable for the benefits your project will produce?

Appendices
The appendices contain additional information that supports your proposal.
Consider including the items described below in the appendices.


! A description of the organization or persons sponsoring the international
venture. In order to provide credibility to your proposal, outline the skills
and experience of those with whom you will be collaborating. Show that their
capabilities are congruent with the project objectives. You may want to
include brochures or other forms of publicity material that describe your
company or those of your collaborators.

! Résumés of project managers and trainers. Carefully review each résumé and
ensure that it does not mention confidential projects or include work in
countries that your client is in conflict with. For example, those who have
previously worked in South Korea may not be looked upon favorably by North
Korean clients.

! Sample project materials. Provide samples of work that you have produced
for similar projects.

! Reference letters and letters of support. It is always advisable to include
letters that indicate that others are interested in and willing to provide
assistance to further your international training venture. Sometimes, funding
agencies ask that you obtain part of your funding from another source. The
proof of this support is provided in the appendices.

Writing a successful proposal can be an art. However, if you take the time to do
your homework, you increase the chances that your proposal will be accepted.
Contact your overseas client and others who have worked in the country in which
you would be working. Speak to people who have prepared similar proposals.
Follow the guidelines provided by the funding agency or by your client, and ask
them for any necessary clarification as you complete your proposal. Follow the
suggestions provided here and submit your proposal on time! Remember that
the proposal represents you and your ideas; therefore, write a proposal that
reflects your best attributes. When the proposal evaluators accept your proposal,
they also accept you and your capabilities.

Sources of Possible Funding
Listed below are a few organizations and agencies that provide funding for
international development projects. In addition, you should consider contacting
federal government agencies, external affairs departments, economic
development banks, post‐secondary institutions with international offices,
religious organizations, and your public library.


African Development Bank Caribbean Development Bank
P.O Box 1387 P.O. Box 408
Abidjan 01 Barbados
Ivory Coast West Indies
Tel: 320711 Tel: 61152

Asian Development Bank The Overseas Education Fund
P.O. Box 789 2101 L Street, N.W., Suite 916
Manila Washington, DC 20037
Philippines Tel: (202) 466‐3430
Tel: 831‐72‐11

United Nations Development The World Bank
Program 1818 H Street, N.W.
1 United Nations Plaza Washington, DC 20433
New York, NY 10017 Tel: (202) 477‐1234

United Nations Educational, World Health Organization
Scientific and Cultural Organization Avenue Appia
7 Place de Fontenoy 1211 Geneva 27
75700 Paris, France Switzerland
Tel: 91 21 11

The following publications provide information about international jobs, careers,
and associations:

Beckmann, D., Mitchell, T., & Powers, L. (1991). The overseas list: Opportunities
for living and working in developing countries. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg
Fortress Publishing.

Cumyn, A. (1996). What in the world is going on? A guide for Canadians wishing
to work, volunteer or study in other countries. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Bureau
for International Education.

Hachey, J. (1992). The Canadian guide to working and living overseas for entry‐
level and seasoned professionals. Ottawa, ON: Intercultural Systems.

Hubb, C. (Ed.). Transitions Abroad: The Magazine of Overseas Opportunities.
Denville, NJ: Transitions Publishing.

Irvin, L. (Ed.). (1992). Encyclopedia of associations: International organizations.
Detroit, MI: Gale Research Inc.


Leppard, D. (1990). The directory of work and study in developing countries. West
Hill, ON: Henry Fletcher Services Ltd.


‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

2.0 The International Training Team


---------
Contents

2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................2/1

2.2 The Benefits and Challenges of Teamwork .......................................... 2/2

2.3 The Roles of the International Training Team..................................... 2/8
The Role of the Project Manager.......................................................................2/8
The Role of the Team Leader............................................................................ 2/11
The Role of the Training Team.........................................................................2/13

2.4 Selecting Training Team Members ...................................................... 2/15

2.5 Orienting Training Team Members .....................................................2/23
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2/23
Orientation to the Training Assignment ........................................................2/24
Health, Legal, and Social Concerns.................................................................2/28
Travel and Accommodation Arrangements ...................................................2/30
Team Development ...........................................................................................2/31
Country Awareness...........................................................................................2/42
Culture Awareness............................................................................................ 2/43
Language of Instruction ...................................................................................2/46
Code of Conduct for International Trainers...................................................2/48


The International Training Team
--------- 2/1
2.1 Introduction

International training or instruction can be conducted by one individual or by a
group. Frequently, a small team of trainers is assembled to present international
training in a developing country. The delivery of international training usually
requires the following personnel:

! a project manager/coordinator who performs administrative tasks;

! a team leader who deals with the instructional content and manages the
team;

! a training team who deliver the training.

In some cases, one person is designated as both the project manager and the
team leader. Although the training team may comprise one person, there is still a
need for a project manager. The individual who functions as the project manager
may be a skills training and transfer manager, a staff member of the national or
international funding body, or a person from the agency or company sponsoring
the training team. Experience shows that it is useful to appoint an in‐house
project manager regardless of whether or not a project manager from the funding
body or external agency has been appointed. The delivery of international
training requires a fair amount of work in coordinating the project and also in
dealing with matters outside of the instructional parameters such as handling
protocol or arranging tours. The project manager provides this additional
support and allows the training team to concentrate on matters that pertain to
instruction.

A team leader acts as the spokesperson and decision maker in negotiations with
the host institution. The training team delivers the actual training sessions in the
foreign country.

This section provides an overview of an effective international training team and
outlines the roles of the project manager, the team leader, and the training or
instructional team. It also describes how to select and orient team members.
Throughout the chapter, emphasis is placed on the need for individual team
members to contribute their skills toward the accomplishment of shared goals.


--------- 2/2
2.2 The Benefits and Challenges of Teamwork

Although one individual may conduct international training sessions, frequently
a small group is involved. Providing international training activities usually
requires the expertise of several individuals. Further, most of these projects
require trainers or instructors to work long hours; many developing countries
have a five‐and‐a half or six‐day work week.

The actual composition of a training team is determined by a number of factors.
For example, when funds are limited, a decision must be made: Should one
person go overseas for six months or should three people go for two months?
The answer to this question is not clear‐cut. If one person goes for a longer
period of time, he or she will benefit from the extra time and learn about the
country's culture, more accurately determine the training needs of the country,
and develop trust and contacts. A stronger personal relationship between the
international trainer and overseas contacts may be established. However, if this
individual is incompetent or becomes ill, the time and resources invested in the
project may be wasted. As well, if a follow‐up training session is required, it may
not be possible to send the same person back to the international location.
Conversely, sending a team of trainers costs more than sending one person.
Therefore, in order to stay within a specified budget, training teams usually stay
overseas for shorter periods of time than an individual would. However, an
international training team can accrue the following benefits:

! Each team member can be a specialist, thereby focusing a wider range of
expertise on a country's training needs.

! The overseas activity has a greater chance of succeeding because it is not
dependent on one individual.

! Because team members can take turns instructing or consulting, no one
becomes stressed to the limit. Team members can support each other.

! While one member of the team is instructing, the others may assist and
observe.

! Team members can provide each other with constructive feedback. This
input is particularly important in foreign countries where solo trainers can
feel extremely isolated.

! While some members of the team are instructing, the others can clear
political hurdles and obtain the resources needed for future activities.

--------- 2/3
! If a team member is unavailable due to illness, another team member can act
as a substitute.

! If the project is extended, or if follow‐up activities are to be conducted, the
project manager can select from a number of people who have previously
worked in the country. Because people are familiar with what has gone
before, time will not be lost in reviewing the history of the project,
establishing new contacts, and gaining respect and trust of the foreign project
participants.

! If a host organization needs access to diverse or sophisticated skills, one
person may not be able to meet these needs. Therefore, a team must be sent
overseas.

It is not only international projects that benefit from a team approach. The team
approach can be used to address a variety of challenges. The advantages of using
a training team are listed below.

! Teams have access to a variety of different knowledge and skills.

! Different expertise can be focused on a problem.

! Complex problems can be addressed more successfully. Numerous solutions
to a problem can be generated. A team is more likely to develop more risky
and creative solutions than one person working alone.

! A synergy, as result of group interaction, is developed. This synergy helps the
group to generate new ideas based on previously developed ideas, which often
leads to inventive yet workable solutions. Synergy occurs when a group
achieves more than the sum of its parts, when members go beyond their
normal capabilities.

! A collegial spirit is fostered among the team members.

! High expectations can be set and met.

! High quality solutions or products can be designed and delivered.

The team approach can also have several disadvantages. Teams may:

! be difficult to manage. The larger the team, the more difficult it is to
communicate effectively, to coordinate efficiently, to share responsibility

--------- 2/4
equally, to make decisions, and to avoid personality conflicts. A negative
team member may adversely affect other members of the team.

! be time consuming. Because everyone needs to express an opinion, and
group decisions are usually made by consensus, the decision‐making process
can be lengthy.

! not get to the root of a problem. In order to solve problems effectively, the
various aspects of an issue must be probed. Because of the potential hidden
agendas of team members, only surface level issues may be examined. With
the assistance of the team manager, team members must look beyond politics
and personal biases and determine the cause of a problem. In successful
groups, all ideas should be presented and challenged.

! find it difficult to acknowledge individual contributions. Personal ownership
of an idea and recognition for generating a solution to a problem is contrary
to the effective operation of a team. The team gets credit for the solution, not
an individual. A person who wants to own an idea and receive recognition for
it may find it difficult to work in a team.

! challenge the security of the individual participants. People who have
difficulty accepting criticism or having their ideas rejected may not contribute
their very best to the team's efforts.

! result in a loss of personal individualism. Each team member is unique and
possesses personal knowledge, experience, energy, and motivation. In an
ineffective team, these unique attributes may be suppressed.

! encourage others to minimize their contributions. Because the work of a
specific individual is not highlighted, some participants may feel that they can
'hide' in the group and 'take it easy.' Others may hold back because they do
not want to offend anyone or they fear their ideas may be rejected.

! suffer from poor leadership. It can be difficult to find individuals who have all
the attributes necessary to make them effective team leaders.

Despite these drawbacks, teamwork can be effective. Teams do work. Teams can
produce a better product, develop a better solution, or conduct a better
international training session than one individual operating alone. The
shortcomings of teamwork can be easily addressed, and in many cases, avoided.
In international training, many of these problems are sorted out during

--------- 2/5
orientation sessions that emphasize interpersonal communications. These
orientation sessions are described later in this section.

It is the responsibility of the training team leader and every training team
member to strive to become a well functioning team. An optimized team has
several characteristics, and every successful team will exhibit most of these traits.
An optimized team is effective when it:

! has a definite, shared purpose or vision of what its members must
accomplish. Members must feel that the purpose is worthy of their efforts. A
team may be assembled to focus on a particular challenge such as how to
improve the classroom skills of technical instructors in Malaysia. However,
until the team forms and shares a clear vision as to what must be
accomplished, the team will not work effectively and efficiently. A vision
gives direction to all team activities; it acts as a motivating force. A vision
drives the generation of realistic, achievable goals that will require team
members to stretch and to meet specific timelines. A vision helps teams to
face challenges that may impede goal attainment.

! has a mixture of multidimensional members who are committed to the
team's purpose and goals. An optimized team is comprised of a mixture of
individuals who are confident, competent, and professional. In many cases,
they are respected in their fields of endeavor. If it becomes necessary, they
can assume the responsibilities of other team members. Effective team
members learn to trust and respect others; they are enthusiastic about life and
enjoy meeting and working with others. Persistence and patience are two
additional qualities effective team members possess. Individuals who have
high standards and who are willing to contribute their best to a focused
endeavor make excellent team members. They are also flexible and able to
adjust to changes. If the situation warrants, they can compromise without
feeling that they or their ideals have been compromised.

! has an effective leader. In addition to the above attributes, shared by every
member of the team, a team leader possesses the unique ability to skilfully
handle people, to adjust the dynamic nature of team growth, and to direct the
maturation of a project. An effective team leader is fully aware of the
multidimensional nature of the team and is able to integrate the skills of the
team members to balance both individual members= roles and relationships.
However, the leader is always willing to share the leadership with other
members of the group and to allocate time for team building. Concurrently,
the leader must recognize that not all members of the team may want to be
leaders; some may simply want to be given direction.


--------- 2/6
An effective team leader has the clearest vision of the project's outcome and
sets high standards, and he or she rewards those who take risks to achieve
these standards. If these standards are not met, the leader will allow for
variances and provide honest, constructive, and private criticism.

Because the team leader must deal with the unfamiliar and with events that
may change quickly, he or she must be flexible, yet decisive, and able to
handle stress. In international projects, these latter attributes are extremely
important. The leader of an international training team must always be ready
to deal with the unexpected. All effective leaders lead by example, know their
limits, and take responsibility for their actions.

! generates a trusting and harmonious climate. A team is optimized when
its members feel they belong to a cohesive group that fosters dignity, respect,
understanding, growth, and risk taking. Team members accept and recognize
individual differences and respect different roles. Everyone knows that they
can speak freely in a non‐judgemental setting where constructive criticism
and cooperation is the norm. By sharing ideas, which are considered by the
group, trust develops. In an optimized team, all members feel not only a
sense of personal accomplishment, but also a sense of belonging to something
greater than themselves. Their morale is high. Because of the cooperative
climate, team members are willing to learn about each other and to support
one another in order to achieve the goals of the project.

! exhibits open communication. In an optimized team, all communication
channels are open. Anyone can speak to anyone else, irrespective of their
authority outside the group. Different points of view are respected. Conflicts
do arise, but they are resolved in a win‐win manner. Honest and direct
feedback is accepted in a non‐defensive manner. All team members are
effective listeners. By communicating openly, teams are able to readjust their
activities so that common goals are attained.

! has an effective decision‐making process. An effective team is flexible and
creative. The team can tolerate ambiguity and is open to new approaches to
solving problems. Each member of the team feels empowered; each can
contribute to the team's success; each can make decisions. The team's
success not only depends on the actions of the individual but also on the
actions of the group. Every team member partakes in the decision‐making
process. After all opinions are considered, major decisions are based on
consensus. As the team works together, it becomes more efficient and the
potential of the team is maximized. Once made, decisions are acted upon
quickly. This decision‐making process takes time to mature. Unless adequate

--------- 2/7
orientation time is scheduled, international training teams will not achieve an
efficient, high‐level, decision‐making process until the end of their overseas
trip.

! produce high quality results. Optimized teams produce workable solutions
and products that meet standards that may exceed the predetermined,
acceptable criteria. Effective teams can produce solutions that are better than
those generated by an individual or an ineffective team. Effective teams
achieve high‐quality output because they have a definite, achievable vision,
and they are comprised of multidimensional team members who generate a
trusting environment that employs open communication and a consensus
decision‐making process.

! allocates time to critique its operations. Effective teams take time to
ascertain their strengths and weaknesses and to determine how they can
improve their operation.

It takes time and effort for an optimized team to mature. Frequently, this
maturity is obtained only after the team has taken part in an overseas activity.
However, the team is then ready to tackle its next overseas assignment.

--------- 2/8
2.3 The Roles of the International Training Team

Several personnel roles are involved in conducting international training. This
section describes each of these roles in detail.

The Role of the Project Manager

In the initial stages of the international training project, the role of the project
manager or coordinator may vary. In some instances, before an institution or an
employer agrees to undertake an international project, a project manager is
appointed to study the project's feasibility. During this stage, the project
manager identifies:

! the objectives of the project and the measures that will be used to determine
the success of the completed project;

! the assumptions or givens of a project;

! the human and other resources required;

! the availability of such resources, either internally or externally;

! the timelines required for the successful delivery of the project, which include
the logistics of advertising for interested participants, the selection process,
the preparation of appropriate materials, necessary travel arrangements, and
so forth;

! the estimated costs for the successful delivery of the project;

! the feasibility of undertaking the project, and if applicable, writes the
proposal.

In instances where the decision to undertake the project has already been made,
a project manager is appointed to oversee the entire project. The project
manager then proceeds to:

! identify how the training project fits in with other projects that are occurring
within the country;

! refine the project's objective, verifiable measures of success;


--------- 2/9
! list and sequence the project tasks and outline the method of their
accomplishment;

! ensure that the tasks and timelines are realistic, well articulated, and
understood by team members;

! develop and/or monitor training budgets and, if necessary, seek the
additional funds required to complete the overseas assignment;

! identify and select the training team (if not already done);

! appoint the training team leader and ensure that the role of the leader is
accurately defined and clearly understood by the training team;

! ensure that all members of the training team are aware of their roles and
responsibilities as well as the terms and conditions of their appointment;

! ensure that the contracts reflect the expectations of the training team and the
host organization, and that all contracts are signed appropriately;

! meet with the training team to review the timelines, the tasks to be
accomplished, and the methods used to accomplish these tasks;

! provide the training team with information pertaining to the characteristics
of the overseas audience;

! facilitate the preparation of quality instructional materials;

! eliminate roadblocks or distractions that may prevent team members from
focusing on the success of their overseas assignment;

! coordinate the training team's cultural, academic, and other orientation
sessions;

! chair the training team's orientation sessions or co‐chair these sessions with
the team leader;

! coordinate the collection and distribution of all materials to be prepared,
ordered, or distributed;

! act as the content and instructional consultant, if appropriate, or facilitate the
availability of such support for the training team;


--------- 2/10
! provide editorial support for the preparation of instructional materials and
ensure that all copyright clearances are obtained;

! facilitate the development of a team spirit among the members of the training
team;

! coordinate all travel arrangements including special travel requirements such
as immunizations, visas, and so forth;

! obtain, from each member of the training team, the names of their doctors
and contact persons as well as details regarding any particular health
problems such as allergies;

! arrange for or ensure that health and other appropriate insurance has been
obtained for each team member;

! anticipate challenges that the training team may encounter and suggest ways
to address these challenges;

! contact the appropriate embassy or consulate and inform them about the
details of the project;

! maintain contact with the training team while they are delivering their
overseas sessions and monitor the success of the overseas assignment;

! assess whether or not the needs of the funding and host agencies or
organizations have been met;

! coordinate wrap‐up sessions upon the completion of the project;

! write the interim and final project reports;

! share the experience of managing the overseas training project with others.

In addition to the above, the project manager must be aware of, and sensitive to,
the cross‐cultural issues and potential problems inherent in training in a foreign
country. Ideally, the project manager should be familiar with the culture of the
foreign country, know the contact person at the foreign organization personally,
and have previously lived or worked in that country. Despite all preparations, a
project manager must always be prepared for surprises. There will always be
situations that cannot be controlled or predicted.

The project manager may or may not be part of the actual training team.
Experience indicates that it may be difficult for the manager to also be involved

--------- 2/11
in delivering the training sessions. The logistics of, and the preparations for,
overseas training sessions are often subject to changes beyond the control of
either the project manager or the training team. The project manager, in
consultation with the host organization and the training team, must have the
authority to shorten or cancel an international project.

The Role of the Team Leader

If two or more individuals comprise the training team, a team leader should be
appointed. In most developing countries, one spokesperson represents the host
organization and/or the participants in the training session. In the same manner,
the team leader acts as the spokesperson for the training team and deals with the
host organization and it appointees. This procedure helps to avoid any
misunderstandings about the roles and obligations of the training team.
Disagreements among the training members can then be dealt with in‐camera,
without the possibility of the host organization misinterpreting the situation.

The team leader also acts as a buffer between the host organization and the
members of the training team; he or she ensures that a team member's request
receives the benefit of a second opinion before it is forwarded to the host
organization.

The team leader must help remind the members of the team that the success of
the training project depends on a group effort. Prior to their departure to their
destination, team members must recognize that, while abroad, some of their
individual rights and academic freedoms may become secondary to the interests
of the group. An effective team leader knows the limits of the democratic process
when standards are to be maintained and timelines and resources are restricted.

An international training team leader must:

! provide leadership to the training team and nurture an effective team;

! handle people skillfully and manage the dynamic nature of team growth;

! encourage open communication among all members of the training team;

! be aware of cross‐cultural differences and supervise the manner in which
activities are carried out in the host country;

! be able to conduct intercultural negotiations and handle situations
diplomatically;


--------- 2/12
! be well organized in order to handle a variety of tasks and individuals;

! support the needs of the members of the team and minimize team
distractions;

! encourage all team members to do their best and to assume ownership for the
team's efforts;

! help resolve differences that may arise among the members of the training
team because of politics, philosophy, game playing, manipulation, or
dishonesty;

! supervise the development of instructional materials and delivery systems
and ensure that they are congruent with the objectives of the overseas project;

! act as the training team's representative;

! keep the members of the training team informed of the requirements and
concerns of the host organization;

! obtain regular feedback from the host organization and students regarding
the training sessions and provide this information to the members of the
training team;

! ask members of the team about their concerns and work to resolve possible
difficulties or conflicts;

! ensure that quality training sessions are presented and that the concerns of
the host organization, the training participants/audience, and the training
team are addressed;

! approve any changes that members of the training team may wish to make to
the instructional content, before they deliver a session;

! monitor the overseas budget;

! confer with the project manager and prepare any reports required during the
course of the training session as well as at the end of the project;

! recommend future, follow‐up training activities;

! send thank‐you letters or cards to all key personnel who were involved in the
project.


--------- 2/13
Usually, one training team member is appointed team leader. Ideally, the team
leader is familiar with the culture of the host country as well as the host
organization. The team leader must be flexible, sensitive, personable, and
credible; he or she will have the most contact with the host organization and
must be able to work closely with his or her local counterparts. The team leader
must be a good listener; he or she will be the recipient of all complaints and
concerns. A team leader must be able to resolve differences without causing the
conflicting parties to lose face.

The Role of the Training Team

The primary role of the training team is to ensure that the objectives of the
international training project are met. Therefore, the training team members
must:

! review the objectives of the project and prepare the appropriate training
materials;

! ensure that courses and/or workshops do not overlap but form a whole;

! be sensitive to the host country's culture when preparing handouts,
determining instructional strategies, and forming methodologies;

! understand that the delivery of a successful training session requires a group
effort;

! facilitate the transfer of technology, that is, content and methodologies;

! be flexible and attend to the requests of the host institution, even when such
requests seem to be irrelevant in the context of the training session;

! maintain the goodwill between his or her country and the host country;

! try to work effectively within the local culture;

! be available, beyond classroom hours, to exchange information and ideas or
to discuss other related matters;

! be prepared to work during the host institution's hours of operation;

! be available to attend social functions as required by the host organization;

! try to influence change where appropriate;

--------- 2/14
! provide other team members with academic, social, and moral support;

! be tolerant of the needs of other team members as well as the needs of the
participants;

! not alter the contents of the training sessions without first informing the
other members of the training team and obtaining the approval of the team
leader.

The training team members must be sensitive to local requirements and
objectives. It is not unusual to find that the stated project objectives do not fully
reflect those of the host institution or that the objectives have changed over time.

Team members will also find that many members of the host organization will
take full advantage of their presence to obtain information about matters that
often appear to be extraneous to the objectives of the project or the host
organization. Team members should anticipate intrusions on their personal
time, particularly if they are living among the local participants or within the
physical confines of the hosting institution or business. Training team members
are often regarded as experts, and the participants as well as the officials of the
host organization may seize this opportunity to obtain as much information as
possible. Team members may also be asked to speak to other local organizations
even though they are under no contractual obligation to do so.

Members of the training team will find that they will rely on each other for
professional and social support while working within the unfamiliar
environment. Friendships as well as animosities will develop. Occasionally,
some members will not speak to each other after the project. However, during
the project, they must learn to accept personal differences and to maintain a
professional demeanor. They must consider the advice of the project manager
and heed the directions given by the team leader.


--------- 2/15
2.4 Selecting Training Team Members

The process for selecting international trainers must be fair both in intent and
perception. Opportunities to work overseas should be publicized and everyone
should be aware of the selection criteria. If management decides not to publicize
an international training activity and informs only a few individuals, some
potentially good people may be missed. Why? Because in every work force, there
are people with skills that could be useful on an overseas training activity. For
example, an employee may not have all the technical skills required but may have
been born and raised in the country in which the training will be conducted.
This employee may know the culture and speak the language. Such experience
and knowledge is crucial for the success of any overseas project. In addition, if
this employee joined the international training team, it might not be necessary to
employ an overseas interpreter or trainer.

Prior to the selection interview, potential applicants (and perhaps their families)
should be invited to an orientation session that describes the proposed
international training project. The session should be designed so that people can
ask open‐ended questions and have a chance to interact with others who have
worked overseas, especially those individuals and teams who have worked in the
country where the proposed training sessions will be conducted. Each potential
applicant could be provided with a series of self‐questions similar to those
presented in the motives and skills section at the end of Chapter One. Potential
international trainers must be given the opportunity to reflect upon the
information they receive during the pre‐selection orientation sessions.

Selecting team members for an international training assignment is more difficult
than selecting new employees. In addition to the standard trainer assessment
criteria, you must also be able to assess how potential international trainers will
work overseas in an unfamiliar environment and how they will work with other
team members, whom they may not meet prior to their departure overseas.
Although you want to choose the best candidates, the primary consideration
must be compatibility with team members.

Prior to conducting applicant interviews, you must:

! determine, as precisely as possible, the objectives of the proposed
international training;

! list any factors that may help you select the best candidates such as specific
skills, experience, and knowledge;


--------- 2/16
! determine the mix of personalities and competencies that you require.
Ensure that the team is made up of just enough people to get the job done.
The more people you have, the greater the cost and the higher the possibility
that inefficiencies will occur. You will also need to determine if you need to
select and prepare one or two alternate team members; a core team member
may get ill prior to departure;

! prepare a "short" list of possible candidates;

! distribute the selection criteria to all applicants.

During the interviews, you should ask the applicants questions that will provide
you with the answers to the following:

! What are their personal goals?

! Do they have a genuine interest in working overseas? Do they want to learn
about others?

! What do they hope to achieve by going overseas?

! What special skills do they have that may enhance the international training
project? Can they be effective team members? Do they exhibit good
interpersonal skills? Will they be able to work well with other training team
members? Do they have a sense of humour?

! What expertise do they have? Is this expertise required in the international
project? Are they competent in their own field of specialization? Can these
skills be strengthened prior to travelling overseas?

! Can they cope with change? Are they flexible? Can they handle the
unexpected? Can they adapt easily to new and different environments? Can
they operate efficiently in situations with minimal resources?

! What language skills do they have?

! Do they have experience working in a non‐North American or western
environment? Will they be able to work in a different culture? Can they
accept cultural differences? Have they had any cross‐cultural training?

! Do they understand key principles in international development such as
sustainable development?

! How do they cope with stress? Are they prepared to handle culture shock?

--------- 2/17
! Do their families feel comfortable about them going overseas? Are they
worried about leaving their families behind?

! Will their supervisors support their overseas venture?

! Are they physically and mentally fit?

! Do they have a realistic conception of what an overseas training assignment
actually involves?

! When are they available to travel overseas? Will they be able to participate in
all orientation sessions?

While you are listening to the applicants= responses to these questions, try to
determine whether or not they have what it takes to be successful international
trainers. A number of these attributes are outlined below. Note that no potential
international trainer will have all of these attributes; however, all attributes
should be present in the team you assemble for an overseas training assignment.
Successful international trainers:

! have a genuine interest in learning about others. Successful international
trainers respect and accommodate local culture and traditions. They do not
want to experience western culture overseas; if they did, they would stay at
home. Instead, they relish the differences and similarities between western
and foreign cultures. They are curious. They listen and observe more than
they talk. They understand that success in developing countries comes only
after personal trust is developed (usually through many face‐to‐face
encounters). This process may take longer to establish overseas than it does
in North America. Time usually means money in North America; however in
many other cultures, time is plentiful and meant to be savored.

! exhibit empathy and caring for others. Those who want to work
effectively overseas must be sensitive to individual, cultural, social, political,
and religious differences. They must be caring and intuitive. They must be
able to understand that what we consider to be appropriate behavior in our
culture may be considered inappropriate in other cultures. For example, if
North American trainees do not like an aspect of a training session, they are
likely to say so. The trainer is then able to address the concern. Conversely,
Thai trainees will not make any negative statements, only positive ones. In
Thai culture, it is not considered appropriate to criticize or question
instructors or their ideas. Therefore, unless the trainer can read the situation
from the Thais' point of view, it can be difficult to ascertain the true factors
affecting a training problem.


--------- 2/18
! are flexible and resilient. International trainers become accustomed to
accommodating the unexpected, coping with changes, and adjusting to
different ideas and beliefs. Frequently, in developing countries, regional
airlines do not fly on schedule. In fact, a trainer may find that his or her
reserved seat has been sold to someone else. Prior to the overseas departure,
a trainer may be told that microcomputers and other audiovisual equipment
are available. Upon arrival, there may be only one microcomputer, and the
available audiovisual equipment may not work. Successful international
consultants learn to adjust, to keep going despite the setbacks.

! have self‐confidence. International trainers have a strong belief in their own
self‐worth, their knowledge, their skills, and their limitations. The
international trainers' professional strengths and weaknesses are constantly
tested in situations that stretch the limits of their expertise. Trainers who
have confidence in their knowledge and abilities can achieve miraculous
results. Those who lack self‐confidence will find it difficult to tap into their
internal resources; they may be unable to deliver the type and quality of
training that their clients expect. They may also find it difficult to deal with
the ambiguity that frequently occurs during overseas assignments.

! have technical competence in their field of expertise. Overseas trainers are
perceived as experts. Therefore, they must have the depth and breadth of
knowledge that their overseas clients will expect and put to the test. In some
cases, trainers must have specific academic qualifications or professional
designations. The knowledge and skills presented by the international trainer
must be accurate and practical. If incorrect information is provided and
improper skills are taught, the limited resources of a developing county will
be spent needlessly. The developing country may take a long time to recover
from inaccurate and inappropriate training and may be reluctant to
participate in future international training activities.

! are excellent instructors. They know how to help others to improve their
skills. International instructors are adept at identifying learning needs,
selecting and organizing content, using appropriate delivery strategies,
assessing achievement, and providing relevant feedback and encouragement.

! have knowledge of English as a second language. Although English may
be the language of business, it is a second or third language to the majority of
the people in the world. English‐speaking international trainers must speak
slowly, use simple words, and avoid colloquialisms and acronyms. They must
not be seen as patronizing. Good international trainers also know that
nonverbal communication can be as important as verbal communication. In
Muslim countries, for example, one should never offer the left hand as a sign
of greeting or give an item with the left hand. The left hand is considered

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unclean. Only the right hand should ever be extended. International trainers
should have an interest in learning new languages.

! listen actively. In order to identify their learners' problems and then
determine practical, relevant solutions, trainers must listen carefully. In
training situations, consultants must listen not only to what is being said, but
also to what remains unsaid. The manner in which people respond to a
question is as important as the substance of their response. If a person's
response seems hesitant, a trainer must listen and observe the verbal and
nonverbal clues that may reveal the cause of the hesitancy. These clues often
provide insights into, and occasionally, the answer to the training problem.

! exhibit excellent questioning techniques. Good trainers are curious. In
order to ferret out the facts, to determine which facts are relevant, and to gain
an accurate and comprehensive view of the training problem, trainers must
frame their questions intelligently. They must ask a variety of questions that
will help them to define the problem as well as the potential solutions.
Although questions that yield yes and no responses may be appropriate,
trainers must also ask questions that encourage people to provide
information, express their opinions, and offer suggestions. If participants do
not respond to a question, trainers must be careful not to assume that the
participants do not know the answer. Frequently, participants are reluctant
to speak candidly about their thoughts to foreign trainers.

! demonstrate persistence and assertiveness. Trainers must not be deterred
by resistance. Once beyond the reticence, they often discover the real
problem and possible solutions. Frequently, in the quest for truthful
information, trainers must exhibit assertive, but polite, behavior.

! are patient. Most developing countries have a slower pace of life than that
exhibited in western countries. Decision‐making processes may be
convoluted and lengthy. International trainers must be patient. In Southeast
Asia and in several African countries, displays of frustration and anger will
not endear a trainer to the local populace.

! are objective and precise. Although we all have our biases, international
trainers must ensure that their personal likes and dislikes do not interfere
with the collection and distillation of training facts and data. They must
obtain, verify, and analyze information without becoming personally,
emotionally, or politically involved in the situation. On the other hand,
trainers who lack empathy may find it difficult to provide their international
learners with practical or appropriate instruction.


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! are self‐motivated and disciplined. Good overseas trainers are self‐starters;
they do not procrastinate, and they eagerly anticipate new and challenging
situations. Trainers must design their own agendas and be sufficiently
disciplined to complete the many detailed tasks within the allotted
timeframe. Effective trainers are instructional leaders.

! excel at problem solving. An international trainer's job is to solve problems.
Therefore, trainers must not only be able to focus on specific problems, they
must also be able to see the "whole picture." In addition to making correct
assessments of the past and present, trainers must be accurate forecasters.
The training they give will be implemented in the future, not the present.

! set high standards. Professional trainers have high personal standards for
quality, and they deliver their expert training (within the given constraints of
the project) to the best of their ability. Poor training, which often results
from low standards, can produce adverse affects.

! have a sense of humor. Mistakes can happen overseas as easily as they do at
home. Although trainers must be able to laugh at themselves, they must take
care not to offend anyone or give others the impression that the training team
is incompetent. Trainers must also be aware that humor is culture specific.
What is humorous in one culture may be offensive in other cultures.

! develop and maintain trust. In order to ascertain the essentials of the
training problem and to develop realistic and practical instruction, trainers
must gain, and then maintain, the trust of others. Developing trust and
forming solid relationships with their international audience are essential
parts of the training process. Trust is enhanced when team members keep
their promises. However, due to time, cultural, and language barriers,
developing trust can be a difficult task.

! can function as a team player. Most international training projects involve
a team of trainers. However, even if only one trainer travels abroad, he or she
must work with an overseas contact and perhaps an interpreter. This small
team is then responsible for delivering the training. A trainer must be able to
work effectively with others in collaborative settings.

! give credit where it is due. The success of a training project depends on a
number of people, and good trainers know this. They always thank others for
their help, not because it is the professional thing to do, but because they
genuinely feel that it is the right thing to do.

! work to the best of their abilities with limited resources. Conducting
training in a developing country is not a paid vacation. Many developing

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countries, such as China, have a five and‐a‐half or a six‐day work week.
During their overseas assignment, trainers must be able to work in an
environment where support services and/or physical resources, such as chalk,
are limited or nonexistent.

! are mentally and physically healthy. Effective international training team
members require stamina in order to deal with a variety of challenges
including anxiety, stress, culture shock, extreme heat and humidity, and the
unknown. One positive factor, which helps the mental well‐being of potential
overseas trainers, is knowing that their families support the overseas training
activity. If team members are extremely apprehensive about their families'
concerns, it will be difficult for them to function successfully abroad.

! have previous overseas training experience that can be effectively applied
to the upcoming international training project.

Note that portions of the above section have appeared in Wright, C. R. (1992),
Educational Consulting in Developing Countries, Media News, 19(4).

Additional information on the attributes of excellent trainers may be obtained
from the article "Characteristics of Excellent Trainers: A Psychological and
Interpersonal Profile" by James A. Leach in Performance Improvement Quarterly,
4(3), 1991. Although the article is based on questionnaires completed by
managers of Fortune 500 companies, many of the characteristics mentioned also
apply to international trainers. The following publication provides selection
procedures for international advisors: Cross‐cultural Effectiveness:
A Study of Canadian Technical Advisors Overseas by Daniel J. Kealey, (1990).
Kealey notes that if a spouse will accompany the trainer, then the spouse should
also be interviewed. "Although this is not common practice, it is a well
established fact that the adaptation of the spouse and family can make or break
an overseas assignment. While the profile of the effective spouse is generally the
same as that of an effective advisor, the characteristics most critical for ensuring
an overall effective adaptation for the non‐working spouse are initiative,
resourcefulness, interest in cultures, and a readiness to put one's own career on
hold" (Kealey, 1990, 65).

The above list of characteristics will help you select quality overseas trainers. If
you select the best, many of the problems international training teams experience
will be minimized. If you must decide between someone who is exceptionally
competent in a chosen field and someone who is good with people, select the
person with the people skills. You can teach technical competence, but it is
extremely difficult to improve human relationship skills in a short period of time.
Take care not to let politics affect your trainer selection. Individuals selected on
the basis of political expediency may not be the best people to address your
overseas training needs. If some of your potential candidates need strengthening

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in specific areas such as technical competence, determine whether or not these
deficiencies can be corrected during an orientation program.


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2.5 Orienting Training Team Members

Introduction

Although there is no greater teacher than experience, you should establish an
orientation program that prepares your team for their overseas assignment. The
program should be designed to ensure that the trainers know all the facts about
their international assignment. They should know:

! what they are expected to do;

! the health, legal, and financial concerns that will affect them both at home
and abroad;

! the travel and accommodation arrangements to and from the country and
within the country;

! who they will be working with;

! who they will be responsible to and for what;

! the history, geography, and politics of the host country and the host
organization;

! the differences and similarities between their culture and the overseas
culture;

! the language(s) of the host country;

! the specifics of the training assignment such as objectives, budgets, and
evaluation procedures;

! the basic guideline for working in an international setting.

During the orientation program, your international instructors should have an
opportunity to meet and develop relationships with people they will be working
with abroad. You must not assume that once you assemble a group of people,
they will automatically work efficiently and effectively together. Team members
must develop shared assumptions, values, and expectations. They must become
familiar with each other's skills and attitudes. It is also important to involve the
families of international trainers in the activity, especially if the families will be
accompanying their spouses overseas.

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The orientation program should include a variety of instructional delivery
strategies. Use simulations and case studies that present situations similar to
those that the instructors will encounter overseas. Besides presenting
information via films, videotapes, books, magazines, and individualized learning
materials, ask people who have lived or worked overseas if they could share their
experiences with the international training team.

To be successful, the orientation program should be conducted in a comfortable
and neutral environment that allows the trainers to honestly express their
concerns about their international assignment. Encourage them to discuss their
different points of view as well as creative solutions to problems they may raise.
Although it is difficult to teach, international trainers must learn to become
sensitive to cultures that are different than their own.

Usually during orientation programs, time is at a premium. There are a lot of
topics to cover, yet little time to cover them well. One solution to this problem is
to have each member of the international training team investigate a specific
topic and present their findings to other team members during the orientation
program. For example, one team member could research the geography and
history of the country, and another could find out how instruction is conducted
overseas. By sharing the responsibilities of the orientation program in this
manner, team members will have an opportunity to share project leadership and
to demonstrate their ability to help others.

Because this document was designed to meet the needs of those who are going
overseas for a short duration, the orientation program described here will have to
be adjusted to suit longer international training assignments. For example, if
your training team plans to be overseas for a year, then parts of the orientation
program, such as language training, should be greatly expanded.

Orientation to the Training Assignment

It is absolutely essential that everyone who is involved in the international
training activity has a clear vision of the purpose of the training activity. The
tasks to be accomplished must be delineated in detail and the acceptable level of
variances for completing each task specified. Everyone must know what is
expected and how the success of the overseas assignment will be measured.
Although more details will be learned as the training program develops, initially,
team members should receive the following information:

! background to the project. Trainers must know how the proposed training
session fits into the country's and your institution's or organization's long‐
term goals. If other projects are taking place in the host country, the trainers

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need to know how their assignment dovetails with these projects. Each
agency or organization associated with the project will have expectations for
the proposed overseas training assignment. If these expectations are unclear
or not readily available, the project manager should contact the appropriate
persons and ask them to stipulate their expectations. If their expectations are
unrealistic because of the lack of resources or time, then the project goals
must be redefined. The project manager must ensure that training is the
appropriate solution to the problem others want them to address. If the
purpose of the training activity is not made clear at the beginning of the
orientation program, trainers may not only waste time and resources, but they
may also become frustrated with the entire assignment. They may lose their
self‐esteem because they realize that what they are trying to do is
inappropriate or cannot be accomplished through training sessions.

! identification of overseas contacts. All overseas contacts should be
identified and their responsibilities and duties in their own country as well as
their roles in the training assignment. Their chain of command for decision
making must be determined. Who are the key people? Who can make
decisions? Who has influence? Many countries have highly structured chains
of command, which international trainers must be aware of. Who is
responsible for inviting and informing the potential trainees about the
training sessions?

The authority of the training team and the manner in which the team will relate
to the chain of command in the host country must also be delineated. Prior to
going overseas, the international training team should communicate with their
foreign hosts and ensure that all members of the team receive written
confirmation of the proposed activities. Always confirm any verbal conversations
with your overseas host with a written letter. The letter could be faxed.

! the instructional objectives. What skills must be taught, under what
conditions, and to what level of proficiency? What skills must the trainees
demonstrate at the end of the course that they could not do at the beginning
of the training sessions?

! audience profile. What skills do they currently possess? What are their
training expectations? Did the trainees request the training or did their
supervisors tell them to take it? What are their interests, abilities, attitudes,
motivations, and previous experiences? What skills do they possess? Are
they fluent in English or will interpreters and translators be needed?

You must determine the impact the local culture will have on your training
program. For example, in Muslim countries, training activities must be
designed to accommodate the Muslim's daily prayer schedule. Trainers

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should also know which topics or issues may adversely affect their
relationships with their overseas clients. For example, many people in
Southeast Asia and Southeast Africa are sensitive to discussions on the
environment, particularly topics related to the logging of the jungle. In other
countries, people may be unwilling to discuss issues related to the role of
women in society.

! overseas training methods. How is training conducted overseas? Are there
training methods favored by the overseas clients? How will the proposed
training affect not only the individual but also the host organization?

! ownership development. How can you help your trainees to develop
ownership for their training?

! availability of resources and working conditions. What resources are
available overseas? Is electricity available and reliable? If so, what voltage or
special electrical connectors are needed? What equipment is available? Does
the equipment work? Is it accessible to trainees? Are print and non‐print
materials available and up‐to‐date? Is the training room soundproofed? Can
sunlight be blocked out? Is air‐conditioning available? Are breakout rooms
available for small group discussions? Can the facility be modified to meet
specific training needs? How will refreshments and meals be provided?
What type of washroom facilities is available?

! training schedule. What must be covered in what time frame? Is this
schedule reasonable? Remember that everything will not proceed as planned,
and that the pace of life in many developing countries is slower than in North
America.

! instructional strategies. What strategies will be effective? Some strategies
such as role plays may not work well in many Pacific Rim countries, while
other strategies such as the lecture, demonstration, and case studies will be
well‐received. Always plan to provide abundant practice and effective
feedback.

! preparation of instructional material. Should the potential trainees
receive a substantial amount of reading material? Should the material be
translated into a foreign language? Can culturally neutral visuals be
prepared? List each task to be performed along with a suggested time frame
and the resources needed to complete it. It should be acknowledged that
trainers may not have adequate time to develop the best possible materials or
to establish the ideal training facility overseas.


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! evaluation instruments and procedures. How will trainees be evaluated?
Do evaluation instruments exist, or must they be developed?

! project success. What measures will be used to ascertain the success of the
project? Although this item is stated in the pre‐planning phase of the
overseas project, it should be restated here.

Finally, during the initial phases of the orientation program, each international
trainer must understand his or her personal role in the overseas assignment.
They should know why they were selected and what they are expected to
contribute to the assignment. Overall project timelines and procedural details,
such as the handling of honoraria, copyright, and travel expenses, must be
outlined.

By providing your training team with this information, they will be able to get a
sense of what is expected of them. They will be able to decide what they can
contribute, what they need to learn, and the possible timelines for each phase of
the project. As the team prepares for their trip, they should continually re‐
evaluate what they are doing and make appropriate adjustments every two weeks.
If possible, they should pilot their instructional strategies, materials, and
evaluation instruments prior to their departure. Upon their return from their
overseas assignment, the team should discuss what worked and what did not.
Debriefing is extremely important for the individuals and their institution or
employer. Information revealed during the debriefing can be used to evaluate the
current experiences and to plan for the next training session. A copy of the
debriefing report should be sent to the overseas host organization.

Under ideal conditions, one or two members of the training team would travel
overseas to complete the preliminary research and to conduct advance planning.
These team members would meet with their international contacts, assess their
needs, meet some of the potential training participants, assess their needs and
skills, determine what resources are available, and ascertain the conditions under
which the training team will be working. On their return, these team members
would be able to provide the rest of the team with first‐hand information that
could be used to develop the training program and materials.

If your personnel will be going overseas for an extended period of time, you may
want to use the "So, You're Going Abroad Survey" in Managing Cultural
Differences by P. R. Harris & R. T. Moran (1991, 557‐571). It provides a
comprehensive list of key issues that need to be addressed prior to departure
abroad. The authors recommend that the survey be completed over a six‐month
period.


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Health, Legal, and Social Concerns

In this phase of the orientation program, training team members need to address
any health and legal concerns that may affect their overseas assignment. Health
concerns should be reviewed early as trainers may find that they require a series
of vaccinations, which must be taken over a two or three‐month period, or they
may find that the country's hot and humid conditions may be detrimental to
their health. Team members should be asked to review the health advice section
included in the travel advice chapter at the end of this publication.

For safety's sake, team members should know about each other=s dietary
restrictions, food and other allergies, or religious obligations that may have an
adverse effect on their overseas activity. Team members must learn to recognize
the signs of stress and know how to help reduce stressful situations. Team
members must know how to help each other in cases of medical emergencies or
other life‐threatening situations. For example, are special medications required?
What can be done to relieve pain? Who should be contacted in cases of
emergency? Is there a list of local medical doctors and embassies? Does a
member want to be sent home if he or she becomes seriously ill? If someone
must be sent home prior to the termination of the project, how will this action be
handled? Who must be contacted and who will pay for this unscheduled trip
home?

These questions should be discussed openly among all team members.
Occasionally, some members will not want everyone to know about their
personal health concerns. However, the team leader must have this information
along with any actions that should be taken. One way to handle confidentiality
would be to put all such information into sealed envelopes. Each team member
would have an envelope. If an emergency does occur, the team members would
be allowed to open the appropriate envelope and follow the instructions
contained within. If no emergency occurs, at the end of the trip, all envelopes are
collected and destroyed. Although it is preferred that every team member be
aware of the potential medical emergencies that may occur, the envelope method
permits people to maintain their privacy, yet ensures that a crisis can be
addressed.

The financial and legal matters that must be attended to prior to going overseas
are discussed in detail in the travel advice chapter. Like the health concerns,
legal concerns should be addressed early in the orientation program. Most legal
arrangements, both individual and corporate, take time to complete. It takes
time to obtain passports, visas, and custom clearances. Those who travel
overseas should ensure that personal documents such as wills and insurance
policies are updated and, where necessary, that a power of attorney is assigned to
someone who will attend to their financial and legal affairs while they are abroad.

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This information should be provided to the project manager. Trainers should
also determine if their employer will guarantee them a position upon their
return. Will they guarantee the same job or any job? Who will replace the
international trainers while they are away? What will happen to the replacement
staff when the trainers return?

Instructors need to know what, if any, remuneration they will receive for taking
part in the international training activity and what expenses will be covered by
their employer, international agency, and/or foreign contacts. In most cases,
airfare, land travel, accommodation, meals, and medical services will be paid for.
However, instructors may need to pay out‐of‐pocket for the clothes and other
personal items they will need for their overseas assignment. These out‐of‐pocket
expenses can add up to a sizeable sum. Instructors must know what items they
will be reimbursed for and what they must pay for.

Instructors should also know how their overseas assignment expenses will be
handled. Will they receive all funds up front or must they submit expense
claims? Will funds be distributed on an expense‐expended basis, or will they
receive funds at a per diem rate? What funds will be provided to cover overseas
expenses such as interpreter and translator services, clerical services, telephone
and/or facsimile transmissions, instructional materials, social obligations, and so
forth? In countries where bribery is commonplace, how should these situations
be handled?

Frequently forgotten when addressing health and legal arrangements is a
discussion on the merits of contacting home on a regular basis. By making
regular calls home, team members can feel more comfortable with the health,
financial, and legal arrangements they made prior to their departure. They can
keep informed regarding the activities of family and friends. Consequently, their
stress levels are reduced. All trainers should make arrangements for contacting
home on a regular basis. Members of the training group can take turns calling
home once a week. The contact at home may then pass on messages to the
family members of the other trainers.

If instructors will be overseas for an extended period of time, make arrangements
for them to receive professional, institutional, and/or company newsletters as
well as relevant articles or clippings from the local newspapers. These items will
help the instructors to keep in touch with home‐base and facilitate the
readjustment process when their overseas assignment is completed. To help
them readjust to their home environment, provide them with mentoring,
counselling, and re‐orientation programs as well as opportunities to use their
recently acquired training skills.


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Unless the personal needs of instructors are discussed, the instructors may
become ineffective. Do discuss overseas living and social conditions. Ensure that
your instructors are familiar with overseas transportation, medical, and banking
systems and procedures.

Travel and Accommodation Arrangements

Prior to making their travel and accommodation arrangements through a
reputable travel agency, instructors should ask their overseas contacts to
determine when and where the training will be conducted and the availability of
appropriate accommodation. Usually these arrangements are made by the
project manager or team leader.

Frequently, the dates of an overseas training session have been set by the host
organization and cannot be substantially adjusted. However, instructors should
be aware of national, provincial/state, or municipal holidays in the country in
which they will be working. These holidays can seriously affect the training
schedule. For example, the Chinese New Year, which occurs in February, is not
celebrated to a significant degree in North America. But in parts of Asia, this
holiday may cause government departments and businesses to close for up to five
working days. Your potential trainees are not likely to attend training sessions
during such holidays. In southern hemisphere countries, summer vacations are
frequently taken in December and January; consequently, conducting training
there during these months may not be feasible.

If possible, adjust the overseas training schedule to allow time for flight delays
and time for the international training team to adjust to their new climate, to
recover from jet lag, and to visit the client's training and working facilities. This
latter experience will enable trainers to become familiar with the environment in
which their students work. In addition, note that the pace in many foreign
countries is much slower than at home. Extra time may be needed to accomplish
simple things such as obtaining bottled drinking water. It is not wise to schedule
the first training session for the day following a 21‐hour flight from North
America to Bangkok. The trainers will not work at their best. The extensive
amount of time and money invested to get them there will yield better results if
two or three days are scheduled for acclimatization.

Trainers need to know where they will be working and the condition of the
facilities in which they will be working. This information will help them
determine where they want to stay and what they need to maintain their
composure during their overseas assignment. Because time is usually at a
premium, most instructors like to be located close to their place of work. Others,
who wish to separate their working lives from their leisure time, may prefer to

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reside some distance from their workplace. Depending on a variety of factors,
including financial factors, instructors may be lodged at five‐star hotels, tourist
lodgings, institutional residences, or billeted to local homes. If team members
will be working in conditions where privacy is minimal or where air conditioning
is not available, they may need separate rooms and electric fans.

Team Development

Unless some time is spent developing an esprit de corps or on team building,
effective international training will not occur. Members of the overseas training
group must learn to act as team players rather than individuals. Team players
have shared values and assumptions and mutually acceptable goals; they work
together, as a unit, to provide the end‐product or outcomes of the project.
During the orientation phase, the activities described below should be
conducted.

Stages of Team Development

Team development is a continuous, non‐linear process that occurs not only
during project orientation, but also during project implementation. The process
has several sequenced stages. Although different authors have different names
for each stage of the team development cycle, the following terms are used here:
initiation, testing, organizing, performing, and maturation. The characteristics of
each stage are outlined below.

Initiation ! Members are introduced to each other.

! Members come to know each other on a superficial basis.

! Individuals have a general idea of why they are part of a team,
but they are unclear of the team's goals and values. They seek
specificity.

! Members try to ascertain the common goals of the group and
look for evidence of group leadership.

! Members attempt to determine how they fit into the group
and how they relate to others? Do they have attributes that
are shared by others? Can they contribute to the group's
activities? Do they feel that they belong?


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! Members usually act in a cordial, but superficially pleasant
manner.

Testing ! Members aggressively seek to discover the attitudes, values,
and skills of the other team members.

! Members attempt to ascertain their influence and power
within the group. Who will listen to them? Who will trust
their opinions? Who will follow them? Can they form
alliances with others? Can they develop a workable
relationship with the members of the group?

! Because team members attempt to ascertain their place within
the group, this stage is characterized by infighting. The
infighting may be prolonged and stressful.

! Members challenge the leaders. They want to know if the
designated leader has the qualities and competencies required
to lead them. Can the leader control the team? How are
differences among team members handled? Is the leader
decisive? Is the leader knowledgeable? Unless each team
member answers these questions satisfactorily, these concerns
will continue to be raised throughout the team's activities.

! Team leaders must listen to and address as many of the team
member's concerns as possible. At the beginning, it may be
possible for leaders to share leadership duties, but it is the
team leaders who are accountable for the success or failure of
their teams.

Organizing ! Initial roles are clarified.

! Team goals are redefined.

! Members design efficient procedures and may develop their
own verbal shorthand.

! Operating procedures are specified, yet these procedures
allow for flexibility.

! Members respect the contributions of others.

! Individuals are concerned with personal performances.


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! The team develops its own unique identity.

! The majority of or all team members re‐affirm their
commitment to the team's goals.

Performing ! Problem solving becomes a shared activity.

! Discussion is lively, but purposeful.

! The team works effectively. Members work together as a
group rather than as a collection of individuals.

! Progress is made. Tasks are being completed. The team's
raison d'etre is being realized.

Maturation ! Team members feel close to one another. Bonds may develop
that are demonstrated outside of team activities.

! Members feel comfortable together. As a group, they are
willing to act and speak informally.

! Members take ownership of team accomplishments.
Members respect each other's contributions and are willing to
defend the activities of individual members as well as those of
the team.

! Tasks are completed.

! Members seek new goals. They want to know "What's next?"

All teams pass through the stages outlined above. Some stages, especially the
testing stage, may be repeated throughout the team development process. It is
the responsibility of the project managers and team leaders to prepare for each
stage. They should be ready to respond to the concerns raised by team members
and to allow members time to become comfortable with their new relationships.
Team members must also be willing to progress through these stages. They must
keep a positive attitude and demonstrate a willingness to accept new people and
ideas. Additional ideas for developing teams are presented in the article "Team
Basics: How To Develop Teamwork In Training Organizations" by Bragg (1992)
and in Team Games for Trainers by Nilson (1993).


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Learning about Others

Team members need time to learn about each other. Although, this process can
be accomplished informally, it may be best if a formal approach is taken first.
Ask each member to describe to the others their personal experiences,
competencies, accomplishments, and if possible, their likes and dislikes on how
they prefer to work. This latter activity may be difficult to accomplish. However,
the Myers‐Briggs IndicatorJ can help to define the psychological and behavioral
orientations of people. This test identifies 16 classifications of people. Although
the test reveals what people are like, it does not reveal how individuals may react
in unfamiliar situations. You can use the Myers‐Briggs IndicatorJ as a starting
point for assisting team members to interact positively with others.

Initially, it can be uncomfortable for some individuals to talk about themselves in
front of a group of strangers. However, team members can meet with each other
individually and in small groups. In small group settings, they can demonstrate
their individual accomplishments, describe their contributions to professional
associations and/or union activities, distribute their publications, and discuss
their families, hobbies, and anecdotes. As team members become more
comfortable with each other, they will be more willing to address the entire
group.

It is important for the international project manager or team leader to describe
why each team member was selected. Then team members should each outline
the competencies that they bring to the team and state what they hope to
accomplish. If possible, these skills should be written on flipchart paper and then
posted on the walls in the meeting room. This visual presentation will help
reinforce the fact that each member brings special experiences and skills to the
team and that, as a team, they have a wealth of resources at their disposal.

Develop a Mission Statement

Once the team members have become familiar with each other, they need to
jointly develop a mission statement. A mission or vision statement is more than
a description of the group's purpose, final product, or outcome; it also describes
the why and the how of a project. An effective mission statement provides all
team members not only with guidance on how to achieve their desired results but
also inspires them to action.

One method used to develop such mission statements requires members of the
team to each write out what they hope to accomplish and to indicate how they
expect to feel at the conclusion of the project. How do they want to feel when
they return from their overseas assignment? They must clearly specify the
criteria they will use to measure the success of the project and the role each will

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play in achieving this success. All these ideas are shared among the team
members. Then, the team generates a mission statement that every team
member fully supports. This statement will be referred to throughout the
international project and must be adhered to by all team members, including the
team leader.

The team leader can draft a mission statement and distribute it to the team
members. This mission statement can be reviewed and adopted quickly.
However, this procedure is not recommended; it demonstrates a top down
approach to team management rather than a collaborative effort. If team leaders
want their members to work at an optimal level, they must be allowed to have
ownership in the development of the mission statements. Consequently, team
members must jointly develop mission statements rather than simply rubber‐
stamp a statement prepared by the team leader.

Determine Appropriate Decision‐making Processes

Training teams need to develop their own decision‐making processes. Members
need to develop, and be comfortable with, rules for brainstorming, evaluating
ideas, and reaching consensus. The Desert Survival GameJ, Wilderness
SurvivalJ, or other simulation activities, which cultivate team building skills, can
be used to develop the rapport and rules needed to foster collaborative decision
making. Team members should know the differences among the following
decision making models: unanimity, consensus, compromise, majority, and
unilateral. There are times when a unilateral decision must be made by the team
leader. Prior to going on an overseas venture, determine when unilateral
decisions are appropriate. Remember, if no decision is made, everyone loses.

Develop Trust

The international training team's success depends on all team members
contributing their best. People perform best when they work within an
atmosphere of trust; an environment in which open communication, idea
sharing, belonging, and empathy are highly prized. When members trust each
other, they are willing to take on reasonable risks and to address complex
problems. Mink, Mink, and Owen (1987, 63‐113) state that the following
behaviors help develop trust:

! Accept ideas.
! Tolerate faults.
! Maintain eye contact while speaking and listening.
! Avoid interrupting others while they are speaking.
! Criticize the idea, not the person.

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! Give negative feedback in private.
! Keep the confidences of others.
! Include others in activities.
! Offer to help others.
! Ask for genuine feedback.
! Play together.
! Provide accurate information.
! Do what you promise.
! Give credit when credit is due.
In an international setting, it may not be possible to exhibit all of these behaviors.
For example, establishing and maintaining eye contact may be difficult to do in
some Asian cultures. However, determine which behaviors are appropriate for
the cultural context in which the training team will be working.

Provide Effective Feedback and Deal with Criticism

Effective feedback allows team members to re‐examine the ideas and actions that
will lead to the successful completion of their mission. It is essential that
members learn how to provide feedback and to give and receive criticism. In
overseas situations, team members may experience extreme stress. Conflicts may
arise quickly. During any team activity, ideas are generated that may be
accepted, rejected, or modified. The manner in which ideas are generated and
implemented depends on the quality of feedback provided by team members.

Team members can provide effective feedback when they listen attentively to
what is being said, ask for clarification, and respond to the positive ideas first. If
criticism must be given, it should be provided in a timely, specific, and factual
manner. Although it may be difficult, only the ideas expressed should be
criticized, not the person. After presenting this type of feedback, team members
should re‐affirm their appreciation for the good aspects of all ideas expressed and
their positive support for the individual. A definite resolution to any conflict
should be clearly indicated. If appropriate, individuals should shake hands; this
gesture formally concludes the session and reinforces the team members' support
for one another.

Team members must also learn how to accept criticism. They must listen
attentively, without interrupting, to what is being said, ask for clarification,
paraphrase what was said, find something to agree with, and thank their
teammates for their contributions.

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Time is always at a premium during an overseas training assignment. Prolonged
conflict situations, which adversely affect the overall operation of the
international training team, must be addressed efficiently and effectively.

Manage Conflict

Conflict is an inevitable part of team work. When you assemble a group of
experts, persons with strong viewpoints, and individuals who are not accustomed
to working together for extended periods of time, conflicts are likely to occur.
Conflicts can be detrimental. They can be stressful and reduce the overall
effectiveness of the team. If your team members know that the success of the
international training project depends on a team effort and that the contribution
of each team member is vital to the project's success, then conflicts can be dealt
with effectively. During an overseas assignment, team conflicts must not be
displayed in public.

In order to manage conflicts, it is essential to determine the source of the
conflictCthe idea or feeling that initiated the strong reaction between two or
more team members. Sometimes, disagreements become so emotional that
neither party can calmly state the problem. Therefore, other team members may
be asked to describe what they saw, heard, or felt when the disagreement began.
Issues surrounding the conflict should be discussed openly, time to discuss the
issue must be adequate, and a win‐win solution should be sought. It is not
imperative that the team leader resolve the conflict. What is important is that
members have the opportunity to explore different points of view and to generate
a solution that seems to address the different positions.

In international training projects, conflicts frequently develop over the purpose of
the project, the distribution of resources, the project outcomes, and/or the
manner in which these outcomes will be achieved. Sometimes, conflicts are the
result of differences in personal values. In order to minimize conflicts, before the
project gets rolling, ensure that all team members are comfortable with the
project's mission, objectives, procedures, and outcomes. Involve all team
members in the formation of these items. Start slowly. Give people time to
adjust. Have the team deal with simple challenges before asking them to cope
with the more complex ones. Accept that some conflicts, such as those involving
personal values, may never be satisfactorily resolved.

Contrary to popular belief, conflict can be good. Conflict can lead to the
discovery of new approaches to problem solving. Team members are able to
explore different aspects of an issue. Some members may reconfirm their
previously held beliefs, while others may change their points of view. Finally,
successfully resolved conflict can re‐energize a team.

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Learn to Negotiate

Negotiating is a give and take strategy that every international trainer must
master. For example, upon arrival, the overseas organization may want to
change your project goals and activities. In North America, many goods and
services have a fixed price and there are a number of written and unwritten rules
that one adheres to. Overseas, many products and services such as taxi fares or
the price of fruit are negotiable. During a training trip to Southeast Asia, the
training team did not expect to have to pay for refreshments for their workshop
participants. From their point of view, they were the invited guests. The
overseas organization was the host; therefore they would organize and provide
refreshments. At the end of the training session however, the team leader found
himself embroiled in a discussion as to who would pay for tea break refreshments
and lunches. He had never experienced nor expected this situation, nor did he
fully appreciate the values held by the host organization. Following a lengthy
negotiation, the training team agreed to cover the cost of the tea breaks and the
host organization paid for the lunches. These and other, similar overseas
experiences make it necessary for you to learn more about the skill and art of
negotiating and to hone your negotiating skills so that win‐win situations can be
achieved.

Effective overseas trainers must learn to negotiate. Negotiating is a part of
everyday life in many foreign countries. This skill must be mastered not only by
the international training team leader but also by members of the training team.
Effective negotiators are honest, patient, persistent, flexible, tactful, excellent
communicators, and knowledgeable about the product or service under
discussion. In order to negotiate effectively, you may want to follow the steps
outlined below.

Prior to the negotiating session:

! Be aware of, and sensitive to, the cultural norms that may affect the
negotiating process, such as respect for status and loss of face. For example,
the Chinese expect that members of your negotiating party will have the
same status as members on their team.

! Ensure that what you want to negotiate is negotiable.

! Determine what is important to you. What personal and societal values are
nonnegotiable?

! Where appropriate, determine your physical, security, belonging,
recognition, and comfort needs. For example, your host organization may
ask you to travel to one of their rural sites. Will you feel more secure

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travelling by local taxi, hotel limousine, bus, train, or airplane? If you fear
for your life while travelling in a local taxi through a country where terrorist
attacks are common, how will this additional stress affect your ability to
deliver effective training? If recognition is important to you, must your
name appear next to the name of the senior official of the overseas
organization you are negotiating with?

! Determine the protocol requirements of the other party.

! Determine your long and short‐term goals. Use these goals as your internal
guide throughout the negotiation process.

! Determine your bottom line position. What is it that is unacceptable to
you? What does winning mean to you? If your bottom line position is not
met, be prepared to walk away from the negotiating table.

! Determine your preferred position or negotiating stance. What concessions
are you willing to make?

! Know the values held by those you are negotiating with. What are their
physical, security, belonging, recognition, and comfort needs?

! Determine the positions most likely to be held by your opponents. What
are their nonnegotiable items? What will winning mean to them? How can
you help them to "save face," (an important aspect of relationships in many
Asian countries)? Do they practice a win‐win or win‐lose paradigm? Do
they use a competitive or collaborative negotiation strategy?

! Determine how you will approach the negotiations. Be prepared to begin
negotiations in a cooperative manner. Many foreign nationals expect North
Americans to be bullish and competitive. They may be disarmed by a
genuine show of cooperation. Decide if you will seek commitment on
smaller items before addressing the larger issues, or decide to get an
agreement on the major issue first, then address the smaller issues.

! Determine what concessions you are willing to make that will appeal to
others. If you concede something, what will you expect in return?

During the negotiating session:

! Try to establish a rapport with your opponents. Generally, overseas
negotiators tend to take time to get to know their opponents first, whereas
in North America, we like to get down to business as quickly as possible. In

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an overseas setting, you are often not only negotiating a deal or reading a
settlement, but also developing a relationship. During the early stages of
negotiating, offer information that will help others to know you better, but
do not provide information that could be used against you later. Try to
develop trust during the early stages of negotiation. Do not appear to be
overbearing or overly aggressive.

! Observe the verbal and nonverbal cues that describe the atmosphere in
which the negotiations will occur. Adjust your negotiating strategy
accordingly.

! Restate the problem to be negotiated in terms that both you and your
opponents understand. Include in your restatement the priorities expressed
by both sides.

! Find ways to address the two different points of view. Look for a win‐win
solution. Put a position on the table that inspires trust and respect.

! Address the problem under negotiation; do not make personal attacks on
your opponents.

! Be prepared for surprises. New information will always be brought to your
attention. However, when surprises occur during the negotiations, do not
look surprised.

! If necessary, ask for a recess so that you can consult with your team
privately. Prior to reaching the final agreement, this recess can be an
effective ploy. But, if you have already achieved what you want, taking a
break may arrest your negotiating momentum.

! Be flexible!

At the end of the negotiation, when an agreement has been reached:

! Verbally summarize the decisions made.

! Smile and shake hands or bow, whichever is appropriate.

! As soon as possible, put the agreement in writing. Send copies to
everyone involved and, if appropriate, to everyone who may be affected by
the agreement.

! Do what you agreed to do during the negotiations.


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Acuff (1993, 97) states that there are ten negotiating strategies that tend to be
effective throughout the world. These strategies are:

! Plan the negotiation.
! Adapt a win‐win approach.
! Maintain high aspirations.
! Use language that is simple and accessible.
! Ask lots of questions, then listen with your eyes and ears.
! Build solid relationships.
! Maintain personal integrity.
! Conserve concessions.
! Be patient.
! Be culturally literate and adapt negotiating strategies to the host
environment.

For additional information regarding intercultural negotiations, refer to:

Acuff, F. L. (1993). How to negotiate anything with anyone anywhere around the
world. New York, NY: AMACOM.

Copeland, L. & Griggs, L. (1985). Going international: How to make friends and
deal effectively in the global marketplace. New York, NY: Random House.

Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.

Weiss, S. & Stripp, W. (1985). Negotiating with foreign businesspersons. New
York, NY: New York University Press.

The following journal also contains articles describing intercultural negotiation
methods: International Management, McGraw‐Hill Publications, 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, NY 10020.

If you would like to obtain additional information about team development or a
description of a number of activities that teams can use to develop their skills,
you can refer to several team building and team management books published by
Pfeiffer and Company/University Associates (8517 Production Avenue, San Diego,
CA 92121‐2280, USA). For example, The Encyclopedia of Team‐development
Activities and The Encyclopedia of Team‐building Activities together contain 94
activities that develop and nurture effective teams.

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Plan for the Future

Time should be allocated to discuss what will occur once the international
training project is completed. In order to bring closure, the project should be
formally concluded. Team members must know if they will be asked to continue
with stage two of the current international project, if they will return to their
previous duties, or if they will work on different, perhaps more complex projects.
Additional information regarding follow‐up project activities is discussed in the
final chapter of this publication.

Country Awareness

Prior to their departure to a foreign country, the international training team must
learn about their destination's history, geography, climate, economy, religion,
social customs, language, politics, and working conditions. Primary sources of
such information include:

! individuals who have previously travelled to that country. Especially,
helpful are those who have worked overseas in the environment your team
will be working in.

! letters from the host organization that provide specific details pertaining to
the training assignment.

! public libraries have numerous books that describe your destination as well
as publications such as Lonely Planet, Insight Guides, and the National
Geographic. Remember to search out non‐print media such as photographs,
slides, videotapes, and compact optical discs such as CD‐ROMs. Libraries at
post‐secondary institutions, which offer intercultural and international
business management or trade programs, are likely to have extensive
collections on foreign topics.

! international centres at colleges or universities.

! embassy or consulate officials. Many countries have official offices, which
are located in Ottawa, Ontario or in Washington, DC. Some countries have
local offices, which can be found in larger cities such as New York, San
Francisco, Toronto, and Vancouver.

! international development agencies such as the Peace Corps (806
Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20526) and the Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA, 200 Promenade du Portage,
Hull, Quebec, K1A 0G4).

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! international publishers such as Kennedy Center Publications at Brigham
Young University (P.O. Box 24538, Provo, UT 84602‐4538). They produce
108 Culturgrams, which provide essential information on countries
throughout the world.

! local international associations. Many foreign immigrants like to maintain
contact with others from their native country. Consequently, they have
established local associations that provide support and sponsor activities
that keep their cultural heritage alive.

! educational consultants can be found in major cities. Refer to the Yellow
Pages of your local telephone company. You may also find private
organizations, such as International Orientation Resources in Northbrook,
Illinois, or the Business Council for International Understanding,
Washington, DC that provide orientation to those who will be working
overseas.

! travel agents. Note that travel agencies can provide helpful information
about climate and other topics of interest to the tourist, but they may not be
able to provide information that is appropriate for those who must work in
a foreign country.

Culture Awareness

There is more to a country than its history, geography, climate, and economy.
Culture is a multifaceted attribute that distinguishes one country from another
(Wright, 1997, p. 35). In order to conduct effective training, the international
training team must determine how cultural differences may affect their training
methods. Trainers must acknowledge the similarities and differences between
their culture and the culture in which they will be working. Emphasis needs to
be placed on learning about the values, customs, personal communication
systems, politics, laws, education, religion, social systems, and power structures
that exist not only within the country but also within the host organization. For
example, if trainers need to resolve problems with their trainees, they must know
if the decisions or outcomes will be determined by an authoritarian figure, a
collaborative group, or fate. Knowing which decision‐making process to use will
help the trainer to determine the correct approach to resolving a problem.

Although people in other countries may envy the North American lifestyle, they
may also consider North Americans to be wealthy, rude, loud‐mouthed,
impatient, disrespectful of authority, disrespectful of beliefs different than their
own, self‐centered, and wasteful of resources. International trainers must know if
their potential trainees hold these impressions and then develop ways to

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counteract these negative impressions. For example, international trainers must
learn to be flexible, to tolerate ambiguity, to display sensitivity, and to show
empathy for others and their way of living. Trainers must learn to be polite,
patient, respectful of authority and different beliefs, conservative in their display
of wealth, and careful not to do everything the "North American way."

Frequently, people who travel overseas are advised to use common sense, but the
North American version of common sense is often different than the common
sense practiced elsewhere. In order to be effective, instructors must learn about
the idiosyncrasies that exist in other cultures. For instance, in Thailand, there are
different forms of nonverbal communication that Thai women may use when
greeting a man or someone of higher authority. International trainers must take
into account cultural specific male‐female interactions and determine how
female trainers will be perceived overseas. While investigating the culture of
their host country, trainers should learn which topics may produce
uncomfortable reactions from people in their audience. If issues such as racism
in Indonesia, logging in the Philippines, or the status of women in Saudi Arabia
are raised, you can expect the citizens in these countries to react in a negative or
perhaps hostile manner. Although such reactions may not be acceptable to you,
they should be respected. How would you feel if a foreign visitor told you how to
live in your own home or country?

In addition to reading books about foreign cultures, you can:

! Speak to people who have recently returned from your country of interest.

! Invite local cultural groups to speak about their non‐American culture.

! Socialize with people from different cultures by attending international
festivals and art exhibits or eating at ethnic restaurants.

! Visit the local cultural communities in your area or attend cultural
association meetings when an invitation is provided.

! Listen to international news broadcasts.

! Invite cross‐cultural experts from universities, businesses, government
agencies, or consulting firms to speak to your trainees and help organize
your training activities.

! Take an intercultural course offered by a post‐secondary institution that is
involved in international projects or offers MBAs that emphasize
international development.


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! Enrol in a political science or history course covering the country or region
of interest to you.

! Learn a second language.

! Complete a number of CIDA's intercultural communication skills modules
or attend their training sessions.

! Attend one of the intensive intercultural skills workshops offered by the
Peace Corps or CUSO, formerly the Canadian University Students Overseas,
(135 Rideau Street, Ottawa, ON K1N 9K7).

! Contact the Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research, a
United Nations nongovernmental organization (8000 Westpark Drive, Suite
130, McLean, VA 22102).

! Subscribe to the publication Intercultural News Network (16331 Underhill
Lane, Huntington Beach, CA 92647).

! Attend one of the conferences sponsored by the American Council on
International/Intercultural Education (ACIIE, One Dupont Circle N.W.,
Suite 410, Washington, DC 20036) or by the Association of Canadian
Community Colleges (ACCC, 1223 Michael St. N., Suite 200, Ottawa, ON K1J
7T2).

If you are establishing your own intercultural program, ensure that you do more
than give trainers information. Establish a quality culture awareness program.
Culture is a living topic that should be experienced. To introduce the topic of
culture, you may want your team to participate in a simulation activity, such as
Bafá BafáJ (available from Similie II, Box 910, Del Mar, CA 92014). This activity
allows participants to experience a simulated foreign culture and then analyze
their experiences. You can follow up this activity by asking your trainers to
complete the Intercultural Relations Inventory (available from Talico Inc., 2320
South Third Street, Suite 5, Jacksonville Beach, FL 32250) or the Cross‐cultural
Adaptability Inventory (Judith Meyers and Collen Kelley, 1989). This latter
inventory is a short questionnaire that gives you an indication of your ability to
adapt to a new culture. The inventory is available from J.E. Meyers, 1125 Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037. Also, refer to the publication Intercultural
Training: Don't Leave Home Without It by L. R. Kohls (1984) and other
publications from Intercultural Press (P.O. Box 700, Yarmouth, ME 04096‐0700).
You can also use case studies and role plays to help your trainers to problem
solve, and to prepare strategies for handling real‐life situations.


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No intercultural program will be able to cover every facet of a foreign culture.
There may be certain aspects of a culture that North Americans will never
understand. However, intercultural programs should cover not only attitudinal
factors, but also provide practical advice on topics such as how to greet people,
what gifts are appropriate, and how to read verbal and nonverbal behaviors of
others. Once overseas, culture awareness sessions should continue. At the end
of each day, the team should gather to share the cultural discoveries they have
made. One helpful method is to invite two trainees to lunch. Over lunch,
politely ask them about their lives and pose questions regarding their culture. In
this manner, you may learn that not all cultures are driven by money or rewarded
with time‐off for achieving specified goals. Rather, recognition and a change in
status are more highly prized. Try not to invite fewer that two trainees at a time
but do ask as many different trainees as possible during your short stay in their
country.

When establishing an intercultural program, consider including the team
members' families or staff members who will deal with the training team on a
regular basis while they are overseas. It is important for these individuals to
become aware of what their spouses or colleagues will be going through while
they are away. If the international assignment is for an extended period of time,
some team members may experience culture shock, which is an inevitable part of
all overseas ventures. Although at a distance, the folks at home may be able to
help them through this uncomfortable and potentially dysfunctional condition.
However, they will only be able to help if they have some appreciation of what
their colleagues or family members are experiencing overseas.

Again, keep in mind that the suggestions presented in this section and others are
intended only for trainers who will be working overseas for a short period of time.
The longer a person is expected to work overseas, the longer and more
experiential‐based the culture awareness program should be. You may need to
add an in‐country cultural training program that allows participants to
immediately apply what they learn.

Language of Instruction

Although English is the international language of business, only in 12 of more
than 170 countries around the world is English the native language.
Consequently, when you work overseas, the chances are high that you will be
working in a country in which English is spoken as the second, third, or even
fourth language. There are 6,500 languages spoken globally; English is only one
of them (The Globe and Mail, 1994, January 26, A24).


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Prior to your departure, it is imperative that you determine how adept your
overseas clients are at speaking, writing, reading, and understanding English.
When you contact your overseas host to enquire as to the ability of your potential
trainees to communicate and understand English, be cautious in accepting their
response at face value. Frequently, your hosts will want to impress you by stating
that their people are fluent in English. Ask what courses they have taken in
English, have any of them been trained overseas in an English‐speaking country,
and what scores did they obtain on English as a second language tests? Once this
information is obtained, determine how much foreign language training your
group will need and whether or not it is feasible to complete the necessary
training prior to departure.

Irrespective of whether or not foreign language training is required, all
international team members should learn the basic words and phrases for
greetings and for dealing with hotel, bank, restaurant, and transportation staff.
Knowledge of the numerical system is exceedingly important. If the team will be
overseas for an extended period of time, they should have at least a 400 to 600‐
word vocabulary. It may take an adult 300 hours to master basic social and travel
language requirements and 1,000 hours to learn how to handle basic business
demands in a foreign language (McGarvey & Smith, 1994). The greater the
difference between the language to be learned and English, the greater the
learning time.

To acquire some facility with a foreign language, your team members can:

! obtain a foreign language phrase book and/or pocket computer that can
translate a variety of words when the English word is keyed in;

! listen to appropriate audiocassette language tapes;

! invite a bilingual individual from the host company or institution to instruct
your team in the basis of their language;

! enrol in language classes at the local university or a private language
institution such as Rosetta StoneJ or BerlitzJ that offers an intensive, four‐
week course in the language of your choice;

! contact international centers at universities and colleges that list individuals
who speak a native foreign language but want opportunities to practice
English;

! register in the distance education certificate in Teaching English as a Second
Language Program offered by the Extension Division, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, (306)966‐5563.

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Provide team members with opportunities to practice their new found language
skills as frequently as possible. Try starting every pre‐trip planning meeting with
some chit‐chat in the foreign language.

Remember, in an overseas situation, the team member who has the most facility
with a foreign language will temporarily be perceived to have power over those
who cannot speak the language. Why? Because all instructions and information
must pass through them. Those who are talking speak directly and maintain eye
contact with the individual with whom they are conversing. However, this
relationship changes if one member of the team is designated to be the
interpreter and has no obvious technical expertise other than the ability to speak
the language. An interpreter is considered to be support personnel rather than
an authoritative figure.

Code of Conduct for International Trainers

Finally, the international training team should develop or adopt a code of
conduct that they will use to guide their behavior while they are overseas.
This code may include the following items (Wright, 1997, p. 40):

! I will take a genuine interest in learning about others.

! I will respect the traditions and customs of others as I am a guest in their
country.

! I will tolerate ambiguity and accept that I may not understand everything that
occurs in a foreign country.

! I will accept that developing countries are not inferior, they are different.

! I will minimize the number of times I say "That is not how we do it at home."

! I will listen and observe more than I talk.

! I will treat my colleagues and overseas clients with respect, honesty, and
dignity.

! I will not disparage my fellow team members or my overseas clients. Any
disagreement that I have with my team members will be dealt with in private.

! I will always work to the best of my abilities. I will deliver quality instruction.


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! I will not accept gifts or other offers that may influence my decisions
regarding this overseas assignment.

! I will not make any promises to my overseas clients that I cannot keep.

! I will do my best to maintain my mental and physical health by not taking
undue risks while on assignment. (Wright, 1997)

It may also be beneficial to discuss the topic of ethics. One way to introduce this
topic is to play Where Do You Draw The LineJ (available from Simile II). This
game allows participants to make judgements about what is and what is not
acceptable behavior. However, what we regard as unethical in North America
may be acceptable in other countries. For example, although bribery may be
officially denounced, its practice may be widespread and unofficially condoned.
Venality may be rising in the world of international business (Drohan, 1994), but
that does not mean that those who go overseas must accept this as the normal
state of affairs.

While you are overseas, think of yourself and your teammates as ambassadors,
representatives of your country. Realize that once you step on the plane, you are
not "off‐duty" until you return home.


---------

3.0 Planning Instruction
for an
International Audience


---------
Contents

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 3/1

3.2 Needs and Audience Analyses ................................................................3/3
What Must Be Accomplished? ..........................................................................3/4
Assessing the Needs and Expectations of the Host Country and the Host
Organization................................................................................................. 3/5
Needs of the Prospective Students....................................................................3/6
Student Characteristics ......................................................................................3/6
Student Expectations.........................................................................................3/10
Is Training the Solution?...................................................................................3/16
Learning From the Past.....................................................................................3/16

3.3 Goal and Objective Statements ............................................................ 3/18
Goal Statements.................................................................................................3/18
Objective Statements ........................................................................................3/19
DACUM ............................................................................................................. 3/23

3.4 Blueprint the Training Program ..........................................................3/26

3.5 Select Content ....................................................................................... 3/31

3.6 Identify Appropriate Instructional Strategies..................................... 3/33
Approaches to Instructional Delivery ............................................................. 3/33
Motivational Techniques ................................................................................. 3/35
Some Advice From Experienced International Instructors .......................... 3/37

3.7 Instructional Strategies ........................................................................ 3/41
Low‐Risk Instructional Strategies ....................................................................3/41
Medium‐Risk Instructional Strategies ............................................................ 3/45
High‐Risk Instructional Strategies ..................................................................3/49
Developing Ownership .................................................................................... 3/52

3.8 Locate and Select Learning Resources.................................................3/54
The Selection Process....................................................................................... 3/54
Simple Resources .............................................................................................. 3/58
Common, But Less Accessible Resources .......................................................3/62
Complex Resources...........................................................................................3/64
Adapting Learning Resources for an International Audience ......................3/69


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3.9 Design Evaluation Procedures and Follow‐up Activities.................... 3/71
Evaluation Instruments.....................................................................................3/71
Test Planning .................................................................................................... 3/73
Types of Test Questions................................................................................... 3/75
Follow‐up Activities..........................................................................................3/76

3.10 Pilot Test ..............................................................................................3/78


Planning
--------- Instruction for an International Audience 3/1
3.1 Introduction

A great deal has been written about the design of instructional systems. Authors
such as L.J. Briggs & W. Wager, W. Dick & L. Carey, R.M. Gagné & L.J. Briggs,
N.E. Gronlund, J.E. Kemp, R.F. Mager, and A.J. Romiszowski have produced
volumes that pertain to the design of effective training. However, many of the
various instructional systems contain the basic components outlined in this
chapter. Following each component are the activities that should be considered
at each stage.

A Basic Instructional Design Model for
International Training

1. Analyze Needs & Audience ! Identify needs of host country and host organization
! Identify prospective student needs
! Identify the current skill levels and expectations of
the intended audience
! Ascertain if training is the best solution to the
problems identified by the host organization and/or
supporting organizations and agencies

2. Specify Goal & Objective ! Specify the learning outcomes of the proposed
Statements training program
! Consider cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
outcomes

3. Blueprint the Training ! Outline the parameters of the training course
Program ! Schedule training events that fit within the cultural
norms of the host country
! Build flexibility into the training program

4. Select Content ! Select program content that is appropriate for the
goals and objectives of the training program
! Prioritize and sequence content

5. Identify Appropriate ! Identify training methods and motivational devices
Instructional Strategies that are common to the host environment
! Select strategies that will generate audience
ownership for the training
! Take into account student needs and project
constraints, especially those imposed by the host
organization
! Determine how the training program will be delivered
so that it is meaningful to the students

6. Locate & Select Learning ! Select learning resources that are appropriate for the
Resources learning task

Planning
! Determine which materials must be translated into a
foreign language and design visuals that are
culturally neutral
! Consider the overseas students' access to learning
materials and related equipment
! Consider constraints such as time, finances, and the
availability of reliable electricity
! Determine which materials and equipment must be
taken overseas

7. Design Evaluation Procedures ! Design and/or select tests, exercises, and assignments
& Follow‐up Activities that are congruent with the program goals and
objectives
! Ensure that overseas students are familiar with the
proposed evaluation scheme
! Outline follow‐up activities

8. Pilot Test Course Material ! Deliver the program and identify areas that need to be
improved
! Revise the program

IMPLEMENT

This section outlines the steps involved in designing an instructional program
that will meet the needs of students who are culturally different than students in
North America. Although these steps appear to be discrete, in reality, each is
closely linked to the other. The decisions made in one step will affect the
proceedings in each succeeding step. For example, it would be pointless to select
a computer‐based training strategy if computers will not be available and
electrical power is unreliable.

In theory, all of these steps should be completed thoroughly and in the sequence
prescribed above. In reality, the steps are completed in a variety of ways. Those
who are familiar with the content tend to start with learning resources and work
back to the objectives and forward to the evaluation. Others like to start by
determining how the evaluation will be conducted then proceed to determining
the objectives. For many, however, several steps are completed simultaneously,
but time constraints may prevent instructors from completing each step to the
same degree of precision. Regardless of how you want to proceed, the step that
should never be overlooked or assumed in preparing an international
instructional activity is step one. Always take the time and obtain the resources
necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of the learners= needs and attributes.

Do remember that teaching is an art as well as a science. There are many
different approaches that could be used to design and deliver effective training or
learning programs; this publication only focuses on a few approaches that have
been found to be successful in a variety of situations.

Planning
3.2 Needs and Audience Analyses

Before a training program can be mounted, it is necessary to obtain background
information that will help to ensure that the program addresses the needs of the
overseas students, the needs of the host organization and country, and the needs
of the supporting organizations and agencies. Of paramount importance is
determining the gap that exists between student entry performance and the
desired outcome performance that will indicate that the international training
project is a success. A thorough needs assessment may be required in order to
find the answer to this question. Part of the answer can be provided by the host
organization and the supporting organizations and agencies. Where possible,
this information should be verified. Speak to people who have worked or lived in
the country. In addition, other information must be gathered by the
international training team and be reviewed by the host organization. The more
information that is shared between the host organization and the training team,
the greater the possibility that the training program will be a success (Hites,
1996). However, prior to the first overseas project, it may be difficult to find
answers to all the questions listed in the latter part of this section, and finding a
match between country, host organization, and student needs may be elusive.

When gathering information about your overseas assignment, you should check
the following sources:

! the original written request from the host organization that describes the
need for training services;

! documentation from the host country that outlines their training aspirations
and their current training status;

! interviews with host organization personnel, especially interviews with those
who will supervise your activities overseas;

! appropriate job descriptions;

! the course outlines, course materials, and student examinations currently
used overseas;

! observations of students in their work environment;

! observations of expert workers who perform the tasks you expect your
prospective students to be able to perform at the end of their training;

! observations of worker‐worker, student‐student, and student‐instructor
interactions;

! interviews with past and potential students;

! interviews with professionals in the field and expert workers;


Planning
! interviews with people who have worked overseas, particularly those who
have worked in the country in which your training activity will be conducted;

! government or association documents that pertain to a country or profession;

! appropriate current journals and newsletters;

! textbooks;

! libraries.

Some of these items can only be gathered if a member of the training team travels
overseas. If you check most of the sources identified above, you may find that 25
to 50 percent of your planning time will have been spent on needs assessment
activities. Do not be alarmed. By spending time now, you save time later and
increase your chances of producing and delivering an effective training program.

The types of information that must be gathered are listed under the subheadings
below. The greater the differences between your culture and the culture in which
you will be working, the greater the amount of information you should collect in
each of these sections. A successful overseas training assessment starts with a
comprehensive needs assessment.

What Must Be Accomplished?

To initiate an overseas training project without a clear idea as to how the training
will address the problems of the overseas client is a serious error.
In your zeal to help others, you may be tempted to begin planning before
obtaining a succinct statement of the problem and the potential solutions.
Consequently, your plans may be inappropriate, and you will lose valuable time
and waste limited resources.

If training is one of the solutions that is needed to address a country's problems,
you must determine what type of training is required, what content should be
taught, and the appropriate length of the training program. Every group involved
in the project will have its own indicators, but you must have specific details.
You need to know not only what criteria others will use to determine the success
of the project, but also how you yourself will judge the project's success. For
some, just participating in an overseas assignment is a major accomplishment.
Others need to observe the skills they taught being applied; still others are
pleased to simply give students an opportunity to see what is possible. Indicators
of success, including appropriate standards and time frames, must be cited for
each individual or group involved in the project.


Planning
Training can be a traumatic experience for students, and even more so when
unfamiliar, foreign faces appear as their trainers. Therefore, it is appropriate to
give some consideration to whether or not the training should be conducted by
indigenous people or by overseas consultants. Instead of delivering the training
yourself, you may best serve the needs of the foreign country by gathering the
resources and preparing the instructional material that others will deliver.

Assessing the Needs and Expectations of the Host Country and
the Host Organization

Although you are not a politician or political scientist, you should determine, to
your best satisfaction, how the proposed training project meshes with your
perceived needs of the country and the host organization. To do so, you must
have some knowledge of the country's history, culture, aspirations, and
commitment to change. As human beings, we like to make a difference, to feel
that we are contributing to a worthwhile endeavor. How will your training
project contribute to this country's development? Are the needs and
expectations of the host country and host organization congruent?

Frequently, a training project is part of a larger initiative. For example, Malaysia
wants to enter the information age by developing the electronic and technical
skills of its workforce. In order to attain this goal, they must update their
vocational curriculum. Therefore, training in curriculum development, especially
competency‐based methodology, will help this country to attain its goal. You
should determine how your proposed training project dovetails with previous,
concurrent, and future projects. What tasks must be completed and what
products need to be produced that will build upon previous experience, yet
provide a solid foundation for future activities? What flexibility will you have in
developing and delivering this type of training? What role will the host
organization play in the design and review of your instructional plans?

Invariably, training causes students to alter their current way of life and to expect
more from life. Will the host country and organization find such changes
acceptable? What steps will be taken to ensure that those who are trained will be
able to apply their new skills and obtain appropriate jobs? If the altered needs of
the graduates of the program are not addressed by the host country or
organization, then frustration contributes to a "brain drain," the departure of
skilled workers to another country.


Planning
Needs of the Prospective Students

If you are fortunate to have access to the prospective students prior to the
training session, ask them what their training needs are. Determine whether or
not their needs lie primarily in the cognitive, psychomotor, or affective domains
of learning or in a combination of all three of these domains. Ask them to specify
their indicators of success. Determine if their needs are congruent with those
specified by the host organization. Many trainers have experienced the
discomfort of standing in front of a group of trainees in a foreign country with
instructional materials that were obviously inappropriate. The materials had
been designed according to the specifications outlined by the host organization.
Unfortunately, the expectations of the host organization and the needs of the
students were not congruent. This situation occurs when host organizations do
not provide a provisional list of their trainees, their expertise, or their
backgrounds.

Student Characteristics

Copeland and Griggs (1985) noted that technology transfer best occurs when the
trainees have similar characteristics. When potential students have similar
interests, experiences, education, communication skills, and jobs, it is easier to
design and deliver appropriate training. In addition, you should note whether or
not students volunteered for the training activity. If students volunteered, they
are more likely to accept new ideas and non‐traditional training strategies.

Although you may not have the opportunity to select suitable students for your
proposed training session, you should attempt to determine the characteristics
and expectations of the potential students and ascertain how these attributes may
affect the design and delivery of your training session. Some common student
attributes, and the potential effects of these attributes on instruction in
developing countries, are outlined below. You should consider obtaining similar
information on the students you will train overseas.

! Gender: Unless your training session is being designed specifically for female
students, it is likely that your students will be predominately male. In
developing countries, men still perform most of the skilled jobs. The training
examples you use may vary with the gender mix of your class.

! Age: The average age of your potential audience will also affect how you
approach the training session and the types of examples you will use. In
countries where seniority is an important symbol of recognition, overseas
trainers may teach only senior organization personnel. However, these
individuals may be younger than you expect because the average life span in

Planning
developing countries is generally shorter than in developed countries. Older
students tend to want instruction that is relevant to their current activities,
while younger students are more willing to accept a certain amount of abstract
and/or hypothetical discussion. However, regardless of the students' ages, all
instruction must be meaningful to them.

! Communication skills: If the training session will be conducted in English
and English is not the students= first language, then you must ensure that the
students have proficient skills in both oral and written English. Students
should be able to score 450 or higher on the Test of English as a Foreign
Language (TOEFL) or equivalent test (Zacchea, 1991). If a language test cannot
be administered, or if students score lower than 450 on the TOEFL, an
interpreter may be required and all learning materials should be translated into
the common language. However, translators may also have difficulty
translating English words or ideas into a language where these concepts and
technical terms may not exist. Concrete words or concepts are easier to
understand than more abstract terms. Also, remember that the literacy rate in
many developing countries is low; perhaps only 10 percent of the population
can read and write. Even if your written material is translated, it may not be
understood by the locals. Note that those who learn English as a second
language frequently learn standard British English. They are not familiar with
North American colloquialisms. If English is not the students' first language,
they will find your instruction in English a significant challenge. It will take
longer for them to read, follow directions, understand your instructional
intents, and respond to your questions.

Effective communication also involves the judicious use of silence and
nonverbal behaviors. You should be aware of how students express themselves
through gestures and body language. You should also consider how the
students may interpret your "foreign" body language.

To obtain additional information on written and spoken forms of the TOEFL,
write to TOEFL, P.O. Box 6151, Princeton, NJ 08541‐6151. The TOEFL is given at
more than 1,250 test centers in over 150 countries.

! Educational/technical background: The greater the differences among the
educational and technical backgrounds of the students, the more difficult it
will be to instruct them. If the backgrounds of the potential students are
diverse, then some flexibility must be built into the training sessions and a
wide variety of training materials and methods must be used. Students who
have been educated in western countries may be more receptive to the training
provided by international trainers than those who have been educated at home.
Never assume that students lack ability or appropriate training; they may
simply lack self‐esteem and communication skills.

Planning
! Job qualifications: You should verify that the prospective students have the
appropriate job qualifications. If they do not, you will need to spend valuable
training time getting everyone up to standard. If students have similar current
jobs and are being trained to perform similar future jobs, it is easier for the
instructor to supply the appropriate instruction.

! Job and social status: The status associated with different jobs varies from
country to country. It is not uncommon to find that a stringent hierarchical
arrangement of jobs exists in developing countries. Students with low‐status
jobs may not feel comfortable or be able to express their views when students
with higher status jobs or students who belong to a privileged class are in the
same training group. Ways of preventing students from losing face must be
found, and opportunities must be devised that will allow everyone to express
their points of view. If, however, all students have the same job and social
status, then ideas can be exchanged freely during the training session.

In some cases, you may be asked to instruct managers who will then train
employees in the host organization. At first glance, this arrangement is
appealing; you are able to deal only with those who have a similar status within
the organization, and the employees will then receive training from those who
are familiar with their culture. However, in an effort to maintain their status
and control over their employees, the managers may not provide their
employees with all of the information the employees need. The managers may
neglect to state the reasons for performing a specific skill or explain what will
occur if procedures are not followed.

! Previous experiences: It is advantageous to determine the students' previous
training, job, and travel experiences. These experiences can then be
incorporated into the training activities and materials. Students learn more
easily when the instruction proceeds from the known to the unknown and
does not include examples or analogies with which they may not be familiar.
In most developing countries, students from rural areas may not have any
experience with technological items such as engines, power plants, and
computers, which are commonplace in Europe and North America. Their lack
of familiarity with such equipment can greatly affect how they respond to
technical or vocational training provided by international trainers. Similarly,
students in developing countries such as Pakistan, who have not been exposed
to efficient administrative or business operations, may find it difficult to learn
new management skills. Further, their language may not have words for terms
such as capitalism, collaborative governance, responsibility, or total quality
management. However, students have relevant local experience that visiting
instructors lack. If new skills and procedures are to be implemented
successfully, then the students' familiarity with the local environment must be
taken into account.

Planning
! Work habits: Not all people consider work to be a driving force in their lives.
Work is often a means of providing food and shelter, and once these needs
have been satisfied, the desire to keep working may be minimal. North
Americans may pride themselves on their individualism, but others place more
value on group cooperation. Therefore, depending on the characteristics of
your students, you may want to design low‐stress activities that involve group
work. Because people in Pacific Rim countries prefer to work in groups and
share their knowledge, they may all submit the same assignment for grading.
We may call it plagiarism, but they regard it as acceptable behavior. If you
believe that plagiarism is unacceptable, you must be prepared to explain your
concerns to your students.

! Sense of time: North Americans take time more seriously than people in
countries where time is considered limitless or irrelevant. In Uganda and the
Ivory Coast, you can expect all students to arrive on time for the first day of
class, but after that, their prompt attendance may be sporadic. Many Latin
Americans and South Americans consider the North Americans' strict
adherence to time constraints to be impolite behavior. Therefore, trainers who
work in these countries must be flexible as long as their safety and health is
not compromised. If a culture does not place a high value on time, students
may find it difficult to grasp the importance of concepts such as efficiency and
productivity. They may not be able to proficiently operate sophisticated
technology that demands specified activities be performed within a given
period of time.

! Motivation: Perhaps the greatest challenge you will face overseas will be Ato
get people to want to achieve the standards you expect and need when their
reality is so different to begin with@ (Engen, 1994, 81). Money and making a
profit do not motivate everyone. In central Africa and parts of Southeast Asia,
an individual's status in the community is more important. Money has value
in Pakistan, but profit‐making is often downplayed in societies that place
strong emphasis on social values. The Chinese seem to place a great emphasis
on acquiring social status and respect and ensuring that their families are
secure. Trainees in countries like these can best be motivated by giving them
an opportunity to gain recognition and social prominence. Another significant
motivating force for many people in developing countries is the pressure the
families may place on members who have attained marketable skills. In Papua
New Guinea for example, skilled workers may have to contribute 50 to 70
percent of their salaries to members of their extended families. Consequently,
the pressure to succeed may be frustrating for the skilled worker. Even though
they may earn more money after training, they may personally enjoy very little
of their new‐found wealth. Trainers must cope with this frustration. What
will motivate your students? In a few developing countries such as Somalia,
students may not be motivated by the possibility of improving their social

Planning Instruction for an International Audience
--------- 3/10
status or by family pressure. Instead, tribal affiliations and food are important.
Remember, you cannot feed the mind if the body is undernourished. You
must know what will motivate your international students. Perhaps consider
providing simple, performance‐related incentives shortly after your students
have successfully completed a recently learned task or adapted to a new
situation.

! Ethics and political and religious affiliations: In many countries, ethics
and political and religious affiliations have a considerable effect on what an
individual can do. Tribal affiliations in Africa may not seem significant to
outsiders, but they can be exceedingly important to Africans. Members of
different tribes may not like to work together. Therefore, instructors must be
aware of the negative effects these tribal relationships may have on trainees
from different tribes. Because their religion requires Muslims to pray several
times a day, it is important to design an instructional schedule that allows
Muslim students to fulfill their religious obligations.

! Anxiety about the state of their country: It is difficult for students to
concentrate on training activities if they are concerned about the political state
of their nation. During political upheavals in Beijing and Bangkok, trainers had
to cope with students who were deeply concerned about their communities.
Trainers must be sensitive to the political environment in which they instruct.

! Commitment to change: If the training is to have a lasting affect, the
students must be committed to change or, at the very least, demonstrate little
resistance to change. To encourage this commitment, instructors must devise
activities that encourage audience ownership for the training.

In addition to the above, it may be helpful to know about other student
characteristics such as underlying cultural values, economic circumstances,
and lifestyle choices. The more you know about your prospective students, the
easier it will be for you to design and deliver effective instruction.

Student Expectations

To be an effective instructor you must take into account the students'
expectations of the learning‐teaching interaction. Their expectations may be
substantially different than those to which you are accustomed, and you must
reduce this disparity. You will need to reconcile their expectations and your
expectations. Eastman & Smith (1991) emphasize the importance of linking the
cultural expectations of the learners with instruction. You may want to consider
student expectations under the headings noted below. For each of these

--------- 3/11
headings, you should try to obtain information that best describes the
expectations of the students you will be instructing.

! Instructional setting and study conditions: Perhaps you imagine that all
classrooms are the sameCthey all have four walls, chalkboards, overhead
lights, desks, chairs, and electrical outlets. You may also imagine that each
student has a desk to work on at home or a place to complete assignments.
These situations may not be found in many overseas settings. In the
Philippines, for example, classrooms in rural areas may not have walls. Who
needs walls when it is warm all year around and the roof protects you from the
rain? In some African countries, rural schools have dirt floors. In rural
Bangladesh, if students want something to sit on, they must bring their own
chairs to the training room. Living accommodations in some Latin American
countries may not have a space suitable for individual study. However, in
Middle Eastern or African countries that place a high value on family and
relationships, a home study space is not a high priority B during the evening,
people spend time with their family, relatives, or friends. Homework is not
usually a part of their lifestyle.

These are examples of learning conditions that your students may take for
granted, but these conditions may not be what you are accustomed to.
Therefore, it is imperative that you ascertain the conditions under which you
will be working and determine how these conditions will affect your training
activities.

! Learning styles: Students from other cultures have a different perception of
learning and their role in the learning process than students in North America.
In China, for example, instructor‐centered instruction, rote memorization in a
structured environment, and learning by example are all accepted ways of
learning. The instructor directs students to specific textbooks or writes
important information on the chalkboard. The students memorize it.
Learning is a passive activity. Independent thought is not encouraged.
Students may learn how to perform a skill proficiently, but may not know why
the skill must be performed. Rarely are students actively involved in problem‐
solving activities or invited to discuss practical or theoretical issues. They
display little initiative. Because these students are passive, do not assume that
they have low intelligence or that they have little interest in learning. In the
past, Chinese students have had little freedom in selecting content or training
activities. During the training sessions, they may be required to listen politely
to philosophical or political dissertations delivered by an authority figure.
Conversely, Latin Americans have a strong oral tradition and value self‐
expression. They want to participate actively in all discussions. However, all
cultures value the opportunity to practice new skills. Practice is an essential
ingredient of all successful training programs.

--------- 3/12
General learning styles vary from country to country and are deeply rooted in a
country's culture. It is important to determine the assumptions your students
have about learning. For example, you should determine:

- the students' perception of their ability to succeed and their desire to
achieve training goals;

- their need for structure;

- their understanding of discipline and their acceptance of ground rules;

- their need for theoretical and practical activities;

- their preference for working individually or in groups;

- their decision‐making preferences;

- their need to be in a harmonious learning environment;

- their feedback requirements;

- their expectation of passive or active involvement in the learning process;

- their willingness to ask questions and seek clarification;

- the role destiny, or God, plays in their learning;

- their expectation of learning as an interesting, enjoyable activity or as a
necessary, but difficult task.

You must not only be sensitive to their learning expectations and needs, you
must also accommodate their expectations. This will require patience and
flexibility. It will be a challenge, for example, to initiate self‐directed learning
models in societies that value collectivism or hierarchal decision‐making
processes.

Although students will have certain learning and instructional preferences,
they should not deter you from trying new strategies that students may find
enjoyable. The reason you are overseas is to introduce new ideas. If you only
do what the students expect, then they will not learn new methods.

! Status of the instructor: In North America, we may consider the instructor
to be a facilitator who forms a partnership with students. Through the course
of this partnership, both the instructor and students explore old, current, and

--------- 3/13
new horizons. The students learn from the instructor, and the instructor
learns from the students. Instructors often socialize with students and call
them by their first names.

The above view of an instructor may not be shared by all overseas students,
especially those in China and Middle Eastern countries. In their world, the
instructor is usually regarded as an authority figure who must act
appropriately. This means that the instructor must dress in a formal fashion,
must be respectful of students by not becoming too friendly too soon, refer to
students by last names only, refrain from playful behavior, treat equipment and
furniture with respect, not reveal personal limitations, and not encourage
students to voice their opinions. The instructor must also possess suitable
credentials from a reputable institution or organization. How an instructor
conducts himself or herself can be more important than what he or she says.

Although you may dislike the expectations of your prospective students, you
must acknowledge their existence and realize that students may not respond
positively unless you act in a certain, culturally acceptable manner (Weaver,
1995). If you wish to change their expectations, you must first establish your
credibility, gain their respect and trust, and develop a meaningful rapport.
However, the host country or organization may not appreciate your changes to
the traditional instructor image that has been firmly embedded into their
culture.

! Delivery styles: The lecture format is familiar to students everywhere. This
instructor‐centered delivery style maintains the notion that the instructor is
the provider of knowledge. Other instructional methods such as simulations,
role plays, and debates, which require students to take risks and express
opinions and requires the instructor to be the facilitator of the learning
process, may not be comfortable or acceptable delivery formats. For example,
cultures that value group learning may not respond well to role plays in which
individuals are singled out or required to act out situations they may consider
distasteful or beneath their station. Personal criticism is not acceptable in
countries such as China and Thailand, and strong, public expressions of
emotion are frowned upon by several cultures in Asia. What we may consider
to be positive criticism or reinforcement, others may regard as rude behavior
or punishment. Discipline may be harsher in some cultures than in others.
Because of the heat, students in some tropical countries are not expected to
perform at peak levels in the afternoon; therefore, the bulk of their instruction
occurs in the cooler morning hours. Students may also need frequent smoke,
social, or prayer breaks.

Every country has different acceptable delivery methods; you must determine
what they are. If you use unfamiliar or unacceptable instructional delivery

--------- 3/14
methods, without first providing full explanations of their use and your
expectations, your students may refuse to participate. If, for example, you ask
Chinese managers or elders to play a game, they are unlikely to be responsive.
In their view, games are for children. If, however, you explain that the next
activity will help them address a current challenge, they may be more
accommodating.

You must also be cognizant of the acceptable communication styles. In China
for example, individuals tend to require less interpersonal spaces than
individuals in Western countries. In addition, there is minimal direct eye
contact between the student and the instructor in formal settings. Laughter
and smiles may indicate embarrassment or disagreement. Whereas in many
Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish cultures, direct eye contact, strong emotions,
and rapid conversations are acceptable forms of behavior. Always be aware
that you are sending nonverbal cultural messages. The messages you send may
be inappropriate for the culture in which you will be working.

! Evaluation methods: Evaluation is an essential component of all
instructional systems. Like instructional delivery methods, different countries
have different acceptable methods of evaluation. In countries that were former
British colonies, students are familiar with lengthy, written semester exams. In
a number of African countries, where paper is scarce, oral examinations are
more common. Frequent, informal quizzes may also not be acceptable. Once
overseas, you may find that students help each other during an examination.
Westerners may regard this as cheating. However, many Asian and African
students would interpret this situation differently. Based on their cultural
norms, one student is simply helping a friend in need. What are the
appropriate evaluation methods that you can use with your prospective
students? What evaluation methods do you believe are suitable and would like
to use with your students?

Dunbar (1991) describes the dynamics of the learning‐teaching relationship in
Indonesia. As you read the following excerpt, consider whether or not your
prospective students will have the same view as the Indonesians.

The heteronomous nature of social organisation and strong tradition of oral
communication has created a popular perception that learning is a relationship
with a teacher, and one which is immediate, oral, and hierarchical.

The dynamics of this relationship are usually described as follows:

1. The teacher, by virtue of age, superior qualifications, and special knowledge, is
an authority figure, commanding automatic and unchallengeable respect.

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2. Learners are obliged to defer to the knowledge and authority of the teacher
and must seek approval, direction, and permission at every step of their
passage through education.
3. Learning is a communal activity.
4. Learning is a passive activity, but teaching is active.
5. The limits of learning are prescribed by teachers who individually and
collectively possess the 'correct' knowledge, attitudes, and techniques to be
emulated.
6. The learner‐teacher relationship is formalised and bureaucratised through
ritual, protocol, and discipline.

Within this relationship acquisition of knowledge and the development of skills
and techniques is seen to be the passive replication of what the teacher does and
says, leading to the widespread use of rote‐memorisation to pass a constant
succession of semester examinations from primary school through university.
This replication‐orientation of Indonesian education, frequently observed by
westerners . . . excludes the cultivation of active individual enquiry, questioning
and hypothesising to obtain meaning, or the development of personal attitudes
or individual techniques at variance from the 'correct' knowledge and methods
provided by the teacher. (Dunbar, 1991, 168‐169)

! Available resources: In North America, we are accustomed to the availability
of a wide variety of learning materials and electronic hardware. We are also
accustomed to having easy access to professional expertise and other
instructional resources. These conditions may not exist overseas. Information
starvation is normal in developing countries (Giltrow and Pannen, 1992). You
may be expected to bring all your instructional resources, especially any
reference materials, with you. Why? In Uganda's Makerere University, for
example, " . . . the most recent addition to the library's reference section is an
encyclopedia donated by the Canadian government in 1968" (The Globe and
Mail, April 12, 1993, A7). In many developing countries, electricity is not easily
available and, if it is, it is not reliable.

Prior to participating in a recent overseas training assignment, I asked if a
photocopier would be available so that I could make copies of my student
materials. I was assured that one would be available and that an operator
would be at my disposal. When I arrived, I found that the photocopier was
located a block away from where I was instructing and I had to provide the
paper. In addition, the copier did not collate the material, and the operator,
who spoke no English, was assigned to collate the material. I stopped using
these resources after a week. I could not depend on the operator to duplicate
the materials on time nor assemble the pages in the correct order. When I
suggested that I do the photocopying myself, I was informed that that would
cause the operator to 'lose face' because it was his job to operate the machine.

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Always ascertain the availability, location, and accessibility of all the
equipment and resources that you may need overseas. Then ask yourself what
you will do if these equipment or resources are not available.

Very few projects are given a blank cheque. Therefore, you must determine
the budget available for the design, development, and delivery of your training
program. The source of the funding and the individuals who will monitor and
control expenditures should also be identified.

For additional information on needs assessment, refer to:

Kaufman, R., & English, F.W. (1979). Needs assessment: Concept and application.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Witkin, B.R. (1984). Assessing needs in educational and social programs.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.

Is Training the Solution?

After you have conducted your needs assessment and gathered the information
pertaining to the above topics, you should review the purpose of your overseas
trip and determine whether or not training is a realistic solution to the problem
stated by the host organization. The level of appropriate training should also be
established. Training will not solve political unrest, religious disputes, or the lack
of hard resources. Training can help to alleviate administrative inefficiencies and
will provide people with new skills. However, if the people do not have the
opportunity to use these skills, then the training will be wasted. Ethically
responsible international trainers will take steps to ensure that the training they
provide will meet the needs of the host country, the host organization, and the
prospective students. The trainers will take into account the cultural
expectations of those involved in the project and try not to offend the people who
participate in their training activities.

If overseas trainers want to be effective, they must be flexible and learn to adapt
to unfamiliar circumstances.

Learning From the Past

Before proceeding to develop your instructional program, review sessions you
have organized and/or presented in the past. What have you learned from your
previous experiences that may affect the planning and delivery of your proposed
training session?

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Did your previous program offerings meet your expectations? Were the
expectations of your audience met? Were you knowledgeable about the subject
matter, organized, and inspired? What were the characteristics of your previous
audience? Will you have the same audience this time? Was the location of your
previous session appropriate for the planned activities and your audience? For
example, if you have a Chinese audience, will the training room contain the color
red which they find pleasing? Since white is associated with death in the Chinese
culture, white rooms should be avoided. Can you use the same location this time,
or must you find another? What resources did you use last time? Are there
resources that are currently available that were not available last time?

Review the completed evaluation forms from previous sessions. What
information on these forms can help you to plan your next session? Were
previous instructional methods and learning activities appropriate? How can
they be altered to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the learning
outcome?

By examining previous instructional activities, you should be able to identify
items that could be included in your proposed activity and to eliminate, or to
improve upon, procedures that have proven to be ineffective. However, do not
base your decisions entirely on past programs. Circumstances may have changed.
Opportunities may present themselves that were not previously available.


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3.3 Goal and Objective Statements

Following a comprehensive needs assessment, you must develop statements that
specify the intended outcomes of the proposed overseas training assignment.
These statements should take into account the needs of the prospective learners,
the host country, and the host organization as well as your expertise. Two types
of outcome statements must be prepared: goal statements and objective
statements. These statements provide direction for planning your training
activities and guidelines for measuring the stated training outcomes.

Goal Statements

Goals describe the overall aims of the training program. They are broad
statements of desired outcomes, which may include the assumptions and values
that must be conveyed during training. The host organization may specify the
general conditions under which the training must be conducted. For example,
they may state that the training program must fulfill specific goals, which relate
to the country's five‐year development plan. The conditions specified by the host
country should be included in the goal statements along with an anticipated time
frame for completing these activities.

For instance, if you were required to conduct an overseas training session on
automobile maintenance, your project's goal statements may read as follows:

The purpose of this training assignment is to provide 25 students in
the Solomon Islands with automobile maintenance training so that
Islanders will eventually not need to hire expatriates to provide
automobile maintenance on old four‐, six‐, and eight‐cylinder
vehicles. The training must be conducted within a four‐month
training period, and all graduates of the program must find suitable
employment within six months of their graduation.

The above goal statements provide an overview of what must be done, who the
learners will be, the time frame for the training, how the training will benefit the
country, and a measure for determining project success. However, this
assignment is not simply an automobile maintenance training course; by
inserting the condition that all graduates "must find suitable employment within
six months of their graduation," the training program now also involves assisting
the graduates with their job searches. A cooperative study/work arrangement
may need to be established or a hiring component added to the training program.
When formulating goal statements, always state the conditions under which the
overall learning outcomes are to be performed.

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Objective Statements

Objective statements describe learning outcomes and clearly specify what a
student should be able to do after completing a training program. Depending on
which instructional design book you read, these objectives are called behavioral
objectives, performance objectives, enabling objectives, and terminal objectives.
Irrespective of the label you prefer, an objective statement should describe an
expected performance or behavior, the conditions under which the performance
will be completed, and a standard of performance. Objective statements should
also relate directly to goal statements. Each goal statement may subsume a
number of objectives.

It is likely that you will not know the beginning skills or experiences of your
prospective students. But you do know the skills your students must master at
the end of the course. Therefore, consider listing objectives in reverse order.
First, list objectives that students should be able to accomplish at the end of the
training. Then, list preliminary objectives that may be below the ability level of
your students. When you arrive overseas, you can start with an objective that is
appropriate for your students.

If your objectives are well constructed, they will help you to select course
content, instructional strategies, various learning materials, student assignments,
and evaluation procedures. Objectives give focus to your instructional planning,
and they provide you and your students with progress signposts. Students will be
able to assess how well they are doing by identifying the number of objectives
they can perform successfully.

Although human capabilities can be grouped into five categories: intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and attitudes (Gagné,
Briggs, & Wager, 1992), training objectives are usually grouped into three
categories or domains:

! cognitive or thinking skills;
! psychomotor or motor skills; and
! affective or attitudinal and value skills.

Within each of these domains, skills are arranged in a hierarchial manner, which
range from low‐level thinking skills such as comprehension to higher‐order skills
such as application and problem‐solving.

According to Bloom (1956), the cognitive domain has six levels:

! knowledge: recalling previously learned material;

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! comprehension: interpreting or restating information;

! application: using knowledge, principles, laws, or theories in concrete
situations;

! analysis: dividing material into meaningful parts and determining the
relationship among the parts;

! synthesis: combining separate elements to form a new pattern or whole;

! evaluation: judging or appraising the value of material.

The psychomotor domain involves learning specific physical or motor skills and
is usually associated with vocational training, which is what most developing
countries request. According to Romiszowski (1981), the psychomotor domain
has five levels:

! acquiring the knowledge of what should be done;
! executing the responses in a step‐by‐step manner;
! transferring control from the eyes to other senses;
! automatizing the skill;
! generalizing the skill to a continually greater range of application situations.

The affective domain is an important domain because it deals with values and
attitudes. International host organizations are often concerned with the affective
domain because they do not want foreign instructors altering the values their
country holds dear. Although it is impossible to teach without imparting
feelings, values, and attitudes, you must try to conduct your training in a manner
that minimizes the potential conflict between your values and the values of
others. According to Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964), the affective domain
has five levels:

! receiving or attending to an event, activity, or stimulus;
! responding to the stimulus;
! evaluating or indicating the worth of a stimulus;
! organizing values in relation to each other;
! generalizing or integrating the values into a student's value system so that the
values become part of a student's way of life.

Regardless of the domain for which you are writing an objective, you should ask
yourself, "What must a student be able to do after completing the training

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activity, course, or program? Are there any conditions or standards that must
apply to the students' performance?" Then construct a statement that begins
with an action verb such as cite, assemble, or judge. For a list of other action
verbs, refer to Table 3.1 "Sample Action Words for Stating Learning Objectives
Listed by Domain and Levels of Learning" (Wright, 1987). Avoid using imprecise
verbs such as appreciates, knows, or understands; these verbs refer to actions that
are difficult to observe or measure. A few examples of objective statements are
provided below.

Upon the completion of the automobile maintenance course, students
should be able to:

! identify, with 100 percent accuracy, all the parts of a disc brake.
! reassemble a carburetor within 15 minutes.
! determine if a car meets national air pollution standards.

Designing instructional objectives for low‐level cognitive tasks and psychomotor
skills is not difficult. However, you should also try to construct several high‐level
cognitive objectives for the affective domain. Developing a few high‐level
objectives rather than a series of low‐level objectives can also save time.
Achieving a high‐level objective always requires students to master several low‐
level objectives first. For example, students cannot construct a transistor radio
from commercial components unless they know first what a radio is, how it
operates, what the components of a radio are, and how these components must
be assembled. In any training program, the emphasis should always be placed on
applying skills and solving problems.


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Table 3.1 Sample Action Words for Stating Learning Objectives
Listed by Domain and Levels of Learning

Knowledge/ Application Problem Solving
Comprehension

Arrange Order Apply Illustrate Analyze Experiment
Cite Outline Assemble Infer Appraise Explain
Classify Paraphrase Calculate Interpret Argue Formulate
Convert Quote Change Manipulate Arrange Generate

Copy Recall Choose Modify Assemble Illustrate
Define Recite Compute Operate Assess Infer
Describe Recognize Defend Practice Calculate Inspect
Discuss Record Demonstrate Predict Categorize Interpret
C Distinguish Relate Discover Prepare Choose Judge
O Duplicate Repeat Draft Produce Combine Justify
G Explain Report Dramatize Relate Compare Manage
N Express Reproduce Draw Schedule Compose Manipulate
I Extend Respond Employ Select Conclude Modify
Give example Restate Estimate Show Construct Organize
T Identify Review Explain Sketch Contrast Originate
I Indicate Rewrite Extend Use Convert Plan
V Label Specify Create Predict
E List Summarize Criticize Prepare
Locate Tell Debate Propose
Match Translate Defend Question
Name Underline Design Rate
Devise Relate
Diagram Reorganize
Differentiate Score
Discriminate Select
Distinguish Solve
Estimate Support
Evaluate Test
Examine Write

A Accept Locate Adhere Initiate Act Integrate
F Accumulate Name Affirm Invite Adapt Mediate
F Ask Point to Approve Join Change Organize
E Describe Respond to Assist Justify Defend Revise
C Follow Select Choose Perform Display Solve
T Give Sensitive to Commend Practice Influence Verify
I Identify Use Complete Propose
V Comply Select
E Conform Share
Describe Study
Discuss Subscribe to
Follow Work
Form

P Complete Press Activate Load Adapt Fix
S Demonstrate Pull Adjust Locate Combine Generate
Y Distinguish Push Assemble Loosen Compose Illustrate
C Hear See Build Manipulate Construct Modify
H Identify Select Calibrate Measure Convert Organize
O Locate Set up Close Open Create Plan
M Manipulate Show Construct Operate Design Repair
O Move Sort Copy Perform Devise Service
T Pick up Specify Demonstrate Remove Diagram
O Point to Touch Disassemble Replace
R Practice Transport Disconnect Rotate
Draw Select
Duplicate Set
Execute Slide

For more information on writing instructional objectives and designing
instruction, you may refer to the following:

Dick, W. & Resiser, R. (1989). Planning effective instruction. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice‐Hall.


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Gronlund, N.E. (1978). Stating objectives for classroom instruction. (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: MacMillan.

Leshin, C.B., Pollock, J. & Reigeluth, C.M. (1992) Instructional design strategies
and tactics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.

Mager, R. (1975). Preparing instructional objectives. (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA:
Fearon‐Pitman.

Rothwell, W.J. & Kazanas, H.C. (1992). Mastering the instructional design process:
A systematic approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Publishers.

It can be difficult to write a series of objectives that are neatly subsumed by goal
statements. If you are required to provide training for a specific occupation,
writing learning objectives is easier if you have access to, or can develop, a
DACUM chart.

DACUM

DACUM, an acronym for Developing A CurriculUM, is a form of occupational
analysis that can be used in most professional, technical, and paraprofessional
areas. It is an effective way to identify job competencies and develop the
objectives that should be included in a training program. DACUM is both a
process and a product. The DACUM process involves a group analysis of an
occupation or subject area. The DACUM product is a chart that identifies the
performance exhibited by expert workers in a given occupation. The DACUM
chart graphically displays job tasks or competencies, which can then be used to
guide the development of a training program and indicate the students' required
level of competence in specific occupational skills.

In order to develop a DACUM chart, the following steps are taken:

1. A group of 8 to 12 expert workers or practising professionals are assembled to
form a DACUM committee. Although these workers may vary in age,
seniority, educational background, and so forth, they have one thing in
commonCthey are the best people in their particular field.

2. During a one‐ to three‐day workshop, the DACUM committee identifies the
major areas of responsibility within an occupation. Usually 8 to 12 major
areas are collectively identified and agreed upon. The titles of these areas are
written on cards, which are placed in a vertical column on a wall.

3. Next, the DACUM committee identifies the tasks associated with each major
area of responsibility. Usually 6 to 30 tasks are identified for each major area.
Each task is written on a card and mounted horizontally on the wall to the left
of its corresponding major area.


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4. The committee members refine all of the major areas and task statements.
Items may be added, deleted, or modified.

5. All major areas and task statements are sequenced. Usually, these items are
listed from simple to complex, or they are arranged in the order in which they
are performed.

6. These items are then transferred to paper in chart form.

7. Committee members may identify the entry‐level skills that individuals must
have before they can perform the activities listed on the chart. The
committee members may also identify the resources needed to perform the
tasks listed on the chart.

8. The chart is circulated among 100 to 500 practitioners who verify the contents
of the chart. The practitioners may be asked to indicate the validity, priority,
and level of difficulty of each item. This information is then used to revise the
chart.

9. Trainers use the chart to formulate appropriate instructional objectives, to
select content, and to develop appropriate instructional strategies, materials,
and evaluation procedures.

The DACUM process is an excellent means of determining relevant, up‐to‐date
competencies that should be included in a training program. It also involves your
organization and the local community in identifying the performance
expectations for a given occupation. If you conduct a DACUM session overseas,
you can involve members of the host country. However, conducting a DACUM
overseas is not as simple a procedure as it is in North America.

Recently, the implementation of DACUM analysis was discussed with five
Ugandan educators. They agreed with the merits of the process and the benefits
of the chart, but outlined the following implementation problems:

! The development of a DACUM chart requires that workers be absent from
their jobs for two or three days, excluding any necessary travel time. This
absence from work presents problems. In order to provide their families with
sufficient income, many Ugandans have more than one job. Who will
compensate them for their potential loss of income? Who will perform their
various jobs while they are away?

! In North America, you can telephone someone to invite them to participate in
a DACUM workshop. Once they accept your invitation, you can confirm
these arrangements by facsimile or mailed letters. In Uganda, several
administrative levels must first be convinced of the worth of the DACUM and
each level must give permission. In addition, invitations and permissions are
normally discussed in person. Person‐to‐person contact emphasizes the
importance of the activity, but it also takes time. Because telephones are not

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readily accessible, not everyone can be reached by phone. In some cases,
radiophones must be used.

! When a relative of a DACUM committee member becomes ill or is
hospitalized, the committee member will not attend the DACUM workshop.
In central African countries, members of the family often provide the hospital
with the drugs and linen needed to care for their loved ones. These family
members will also live outside the hospital and cook food for their ill
relatives. Therefore, in order to account for potential absentees, you may need
to assemble a large DACUM committee. Consequently, more time must be
spent identifying DACUM committee members and finding the funds
required to cover all their expenses.

! Once the committee is assembled, some members may not feel they have
anything to contribute. Other, more senior officials will often provide the
bulk of the information. Some participants may feel that, because they have
travelled a great distance to get to the workshop, they should spend time
visiting friends or relatives. One of the strengths of the DACUM process is
that it involves a group of expert practitioners achieving consensus on
occupational competencies. If only a few members are present and fewer still
actively participate, then the benefits of DACUM do not materialize.

! If no local expert workers in a certain field are available, how can a DACUM
chart be constructed? This situation occurs frequently in developing
countries. The solution is to bring a corresponding DACUM chart with you,
have the locals identify the competencies they currently possess, then note
the differences between their current skills and the skills indicated on the
chart. These differences or skill gaps will form the basis of your training plan.

DACUM is a powerful curriculum development tool that can be used in a variety
of situations. However, you must have a clear idea about how it can be
implemented overseas without compromising its main tenetCthat a group of
expert workers can achieve consensus regarding the major competencies and
associated tasks of a specified occupation.

For additional information on the DACUM process, you may refer to:

Embree, R. (1987). DACUM ‐ Developing a curriculum. Etobicoke, ON: Humber
College of Applied Arts and Technology.

Norton, R.E. (1985). DACUM handbook. Columbus, OH: Center of Education
and Training for Employment, Ohio State University.

You can also write to these organizations and ask for a list of DACUM charts
which they have developed and have had verified by practitioners. If you use a
DACUM chart that has been developed by someone else, ensure that it was
completed recently and that it is appropriate for your circumstances.


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3.4 Blueprint the Training Program

You wouldn't bake a cake without a recipe or travel across the country without a
road map, so why would you design a training program without a blueprint? A
blueprint is an overview of your proposed training program. It consists of a brief
description of the intended audience, the program goals, the instructional
objectives, the estimated time to complete each objective, the topics to be
covered, the sequence of the topics, the program material, the instructional
strategies, the learning resources, the reference resources, and the evaluation
procedures.

One way to construct a blueprint is to write each of the above headings (except
intended audience and program goals) on the top of one wide sheet of paper.
Underneath each heading, brainstorm the items that should appear. If objectives
are each written on separate pieces of paper, then they can be re‐shuffled at will.
Your completed blueprint will then consist of a series of pages. These pages are
then combined with the description of the prospective students, the goals of the
project, and the budget allocations.

The blueprint should be reviewed first by the project team and later, following
revisions, by the host organization. As you review the blueprint, ask yourself the
following questions:

! Are the objectives congruent with the goal statements?

! Are the objectives sequenced appropriately for the subject matter? Are
additional objectives needed?

! Is there a mixture of objectives? Are there a number of high‐level objectives
that encourage students to apply their skills?

! Is the content appropriate to the students' characteristics and experience?

! Is the content accurate and relevant?

! Is the content appropriate for the culture in which it will be taught?

! Has a variety of appropriate learning activities been provided?

! Do the learning activities provide realistic, meaningful tasks?

! Are the instructional methods appropriate for the students, the content, and
the instructor?

! Does the blueprint provide students with the opportunity to practice their
newly acquired skills and to receive feedback?

! Does it contain activities designed to motivate the students?

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! Does it include a variety of resources that address different interests, abilities,
and learning styles?

! Are the resource materials accurate, current, and suitable for the culture in
which they will be used?

! Will the instructional media listed in the blueprint be readily accessible
overseas? If not, what alternatives should be considered?

! Are the evaluation procedures congruent with the objectives?

! Does it include frequent assignments and opportunities for practice?

! Is there adequate time to complete all items listed in the blueprint? Time
must be allotted for the opening and closing ceremonies. These ceremonies
may be elaborate and therefore reduce the amount of training time available.
Also, allow for local holidays or festive events that may interrupt your training
schedule. Frequently, you will not be able to obtain a list of all events prior to
your overseas departure.

In order to address the last question, you may want to construct a general format
for each training day, and then fit the contents of the blueprint into the training
schedule. The format and schedule should take into account the cultural norms
of the country in which the training will be conducted. For example, in Latin
countries, the lunch break may last two to four hours; people do not work during
the hottest part of the day.

Table 3.2 is a sample workshop format that was used successfully in Malaysia in
It represents one of several possible formats that could be used in Malaysia.

Table 3.2 Suggested Workshop Format for Malaysian Students

8:00 a.m. Introduction: Review what was done on the previous day and
outline today's agenda.

8:05 a.m. Physical exercise: Everyone participates in a simple exercise
session. This session is led by one of the workshop participants.

8:15 a.m. Short verbal or written quiz that reviews the topics presented the
previous day.

8:30 a.m. Respond to questions generated by groups during the previous
day's afternoon session.

8:55 a.m. Break

9:10 a.m. Begin to discuss the scheduled topics for the day.


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10:20 a.m. Tea break

10:40 a.m. Instructional activity related to a topic of the day.

11:40 a.m. Stretch break

11:45 a.m. Review instructional activity and continue with presentation.

12:30 p.m. Question period: Questions must relate to the activities
conducted in the morning.

12:45 p.m. Lunch break

2:00 p.m. Review the morning's activities and outline the afternoon
activities.

2:10 p.m. Continue with presentation. Initiate an instructional activity,
preferably one that involves small group work.

2:50 p.m. Stretch break

2:55 p.m. Continue with previous activity.

3:25 p.m. Tea break

3:40 p.m. Wrap‐up afternoon activities. Outline activities for the following
day.

4:00 p.m. Small groups discuss their concerns with implementing the ideas
presented during the day. These concerns will be addressed at
8:30 a.m. on the following day. Each day, a new chairperson is
selected to facilitate the small group discussions.

4:30 p.m. Closure

The above format was modified on Fridays and Saturdays. On Friday afternoons,
students were given additional time off so that they could go to the mosque. On
Saturdays, training sessions ran from 8:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. The typical working
week in Malaysia is five and a half days. In many Middle Eastern countries,
Friday is the day of rest.

The instructional format outlined above has the following advantages:

! A review of instructional activities is completed at the beginning and end of
the morning and afternoon series of instructional activities.

! Each morning, all workshop participants take part in a mandatory physical
exercise session. This exercise period was requested by the host organization.


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! Short quizzes are held every day to ensure that students have grasped the
ideas that have been presented.

! At the end of each day, students have the opportunity to determine how the
concepts they have learned can be applied to their own situations. Each
morning, questions that arise from these discussions are aired and reviewed
by the instructor. These activities encourage students to take ownership for
their learning. Students can also point out the difficulties involved in
implementing these ideas during the training sessions.

! Frequent breaks are provided, not only to ensure that the students are alert,
but also to give them the opportunity for a smoke break. Many Malay men
still smoke.

! Most of the instruction, particularly lectures, is given in the morning, and
opportunities to apply skills are provided in the afternoons when the
students' attention span is frequently limited.

! Opportunities are provided for group work, not only to share ideas, but also
to meet the Malays' need to socialize.

When you design your instructional format, make sure that you take into account
the needs of the students and the host organization. Also, ensure that your
format is flexible; you can never be 100 percent certain of the circumstances you
will face in an overseas classroom. For example, you may encounter local or
national conventions, such as holidays, that may affect your format. According to
Clements (1993), there are 285 days in the year on which a national holiday is
held somewhere in the world.

After you and other instructors have reviewed and revised the blueprint, it can
also be examined by other subject matter experts. However, your blueprint must
be reviewed by the host organization and those responsible for mounting and
financing the training. You must ensure that the host organization and
appropriate managers are committed and involved with your training activity. A
timeline for this review process must be stipulated. Do not be surprised if the
host organization misses your deadline and you have to proceed without their
complete feedback. You have courteously given them an opportunity to provide
input. After all the feedback comments and recommendations for changes have
been reviewed, the blueprint should be signed off by the international training
team leader and, if possible, by a supervisory officer from the host organization.
You are now ready to begin developing a detailed training program.

If you would like more information on preparing blueprints and managing
instructional projects, the following publications may be helpful:

Boone, E.J. (1985). Developing programs in adult education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice‐Hall.


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Greer, M. (1992). ID project management: Tools and techniques for instructional
designers and developers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.

McLagan, P. & O'Brien, M. (1991). Designshop: Customer‐focused instructional
design. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company.

Reynolds, A. (1990). Training that travels well. Training and Development
Journal, 44 (9), 73‐78.


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3.5 Select Content

For many instructors, selecting the content is the starting point in instructional
planning. However, unless you have written objectives and prepared a blueprint
to follow, you may find it difficult to select the content that best meets the goals
of the project and suits the characteristics and expectations of the prospective
students.

Because a tremendous amount of information is available for any given field, you
must be very selective. After reviewing your blueprint, select the content that is
congruent with your outline. Determine which topics are essential and which are
"nice‐to‐know" or could be discussed if time permits. For each topic, develop a
number of subtopics and indicate how they are related. You may find it useful to
arrange subtopics on separate pieces of paper and place similar subtopics next to
each other. Use lines to connect related topics. The thickness of the line may
indicate the strength of the relationship between the topics and subtopics.

Now examine the pattern that emerges. The pattern may reveal ways in which the
content can be sequenced. Content can be sequenced in the following ways:

! Chronological: Items are arranged along a timeline, from past to present
to future. This sequencing is frequently used with historical content.

! Hierarchical: Items are arranged from simple to complex or from general
to specific. Academic subjects are usually presented in a hierarchical
manner.

! Utilization‐related: Items are arranged in the order the skills may be used.
Vocational subjects are usually sequenced in this way.

! Spiral sequencing: The same items are covered several times through the
course of a program, but each time at a more sophisticated level. Spiral
sequencing can be used for all subjects because it allows concepts to be
introduced at a rudimentary level and re‐examined at various levels until a
more sophisticated understanding is achieved.

! Inquiry‐related: Content is revealed to the student as the student requires
the knowledge or information to solve a problem. The content is arranged
in a fan or funnel shape. One piece of information leads to an ever‐
increasing number of concepts.

! Generic: Items are arranged in a series of isolated blocks. Because each
block of content is not closely connected to another, the blocks of content
may be presented in any order. However, within each block, content may
be arranged in a chronological, hierarchical, utilization‐related, or spiral
sequence. Generic sequencing is used in training programs that include a
number of unrelated, major topics.


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After you have sequenced the major training topics and their associated sub‐
topics, select the content and pertinent examples that are appropriate for your
potential students. Remember to take into account their educational level and
previous experiences. Do not get carried away with your own biases and favorite
topics.

Always check that the content supports a specific objective and that the content
can be covered in the available time. Frequently, instructors forget that novice
learners may take two to four times longer than the instructor to complete a
learning task. Instructors also forget that not all training time is productive.
Introductions, organizational announcements, and extended lunch breaks all eat
into instructional time. Invariably trainers pack too much into their training
programs. They must first ensure that adequate time is provided to cover the
essential elements. Other items can be presented if time is available or through a
handout. It is better to cover a few topics well than to cover a large number of
topics that no one will recall or be able to use. Remember, the role of an effective
trainer is to help students to extend their current capabilities; they must gain and
apply new knowledge and skills. Anyone can disburse volumes of information,
but good trainers ensure that the information they supply will be applied by their
students.

After selecting the content, it may be useful to construct a pre‐assessment test
that you can use to determine your students' current knowledge of the subject
matter. Although many students in developing countries may not have paper
credentials, they may have significant experiential knowledge that would not
appear on the documents supplied by the host organization. The pre‐assessment
test results may reveal areas in which instruction is not required, and a simple
review of the material may be sufficient. Conversely, you may find that your
primary content may need to be heavily supported with other instructional
material.


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3.6 Identify Appropriate Instructional Strategies

Prior to selecting appropriate instructional strategies, carefully review the
students' characteristics and expectations as well as any restrictions that the host
organization or the country's culture may place upon these activities. Review the
verbs used in each objective. These verbs can help guide the selection of
appropriate strategies. However, keep an open mind. Review a variety of
strategies, then select the ones that are most appropriate for your situation. You
may find it beneficial to construct a matrix of student characteristics and
expectations along with appropriate instructional strategies. Always keep a few
strategies "on the back burner;" they may come in handy. Remember, there is no
one instructional strategy that is guaranteed to work in every situation. Be
flexible. Flexibility is one of the most important attributes of a successful
international trainer.

Approaches to Instructional Delivery

If you acknowledge that although people learn in different ways they can still
achieve the same competencies, then you must also acknowledge that instructors
can use different strategies to achieve similar objectives. Regardless of which
instructional strategies you use, you must always:

! tell the learners what they are going to learn;

! show them what they must learn;

! give them the opportunity to practice what they have learned and to gain
confidence;

! provide positive and corrective feedback;

! reward them for their efforts.

The above instructional plan is simple and it works if you take into account the
program goals, objectives, student characteristics and expectations, course
content, the restrictions placed upon you by the host organization and available
budget, and if you ensure that the time between each step is short. Learning
tasks should be arranged in order of increasing difficulty. Students are more
likely to succeed if they can consolidate and integrate their new knowledge or
skills before they are exposed to new information.

Gagné and Briggs (1979) provide a more formal view of instruction than the one
presented above. They outline nine events, which are required to support
instruction. Each of their events has been researched and empirically verified as
positive contributors to the learning process. Their sequential instructional
events are outlined below:

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1. Gain attention by directing students to the topic to be presented. Arouse
curiosity. Identify a problem that the students want to address. Indicate how
the topic is related to their lives and/or future jobs.

2. Inform learners of the objectives. Let the students know where you are
heading so that they can focus their energies.

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning. Use a pretest or pose a series of oral
questions that encourage students to reestablish their knowledge base.

4. Present stimuli with distinctive features. Students must be able to
distinguish the new knowledge or skill from that which has already been
learned. Instructional media can be used to highlight the distinctive features
of new ideas or objects.

5. Guide learning. Trainers must provide clear and precise directions and
encourage students to apply what they know.

6. Elicit performance. Provide students with opportunities to practice and
apply their new skills in different situations.

7. Provide informative feedback. In a positive manner, provide immediate
feedback that both reassures students and suggests remedial action.

8. Enhance retention and learning transfer. Provide additional opportunities
for students to apply their skills to new situations, especially to situations that
are likely to occur in the students' immediate and future environments.

9. Assess performance. Conduct a summative evaluation that clearly indicates
the standard of achievement.

Note that there are many different learning theories or approaches to learning
which you may consider such as constructivism, connectivism, and discovery
learning. You should take the time to investigate them. However, the
suggestions provided above by Gagné and Briggs have proven to be effective in
many situations.


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Motivational Techniques

Sequencing the instructional event is not a major concern for most instructors.
Their greatest challenge is to keep the students interested and motivated. AWhen
motivation is low, learning will be low@ (Spitzer, 1996), and even the most
meticulously designed instructional programs will fail to achieve their potential.
Keller (1987) developed the ARCS Model as a systematic approach for designing
instruction that is motivating. In this model, the following four conditions must
be met if students are to become and remain motivated: attention, relevance,
confidence, and satisfaction. An overview of these conditions and some
guidelines for their implementation are presented below.

! Gain and sustain attention by introducing information that is contrary to
the students' past experiences; give or show concrete examples of the subject;
vary the style and form of the delivery; use humor (however, be careful when
using humor in unfamiliar cultures); allow students to solve problems and
select topics or assignments that appeal to them; and actively involve
students in the instruction‐learning process.

! Provide relevance by stating how the material is related to the students' past
experiences and interests; explain the value or worth of the material; relate
the information or skill to their future activities; match the information or
skill to a specific student need; model the use of the material; and provide
alternative methods for the students to accomplish a specific goal related to
the new material.

! Build confidence, which helps students to persist and achieve. Students
must have or develop confidence in their ability to learn. Encourage
confidence building by providing students with the tools and criteria for self‐
evaluation; organize activities in an order of increasing difficulty; help
students to plan for success by getting them to develop a learning plan and
set realistic goals; ensure that students attribute their success or failure to
their own effort or lack of effort; and help them to gain self‐confidence by
allowing them more independence after each successive level of
accomplishment. Students should receive compliments for their efforts.
Note, however, that in cultures such as the Chinese culture, students may not
accept compliments easily.

! Encourage the attainment of satisfaction by providing extrinsic and/or
symbolic rewards that stimulate intrinsic rewards or satisfaction. Trainers
should allow students to apply their skills in a realistic setting or allow
students to teach others; provide unexpected rewards; give immediate,
informative, and helpful feedback; avoid negative actions; and vary the
interval and quantity of feedback as the students gain competence.

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Spitzer (1996) describes another approach to motivation. He suggests that
motivation involves the release of stored human energy, which occurs when
learners perform activities that they really want to do. What makes an activity
motivating is the context that surrounds the activity or task. The context
comprises a number of factors or motivators. The more motivating factors that
you add to an instructional situation, the more motivating the learning becomes.
You may want to include some of the motivators listed below in your
instructional program. Be sure to modify each motivator to suit your particular
international audience.

! Action. Human beings become highly motivated when they are active.
Include activities that require students to be both physically and mentally
active. By actively engaging your students, you will help to prevent the
Aglazed‐eye look.@

! Fun. Fun energizes people. Make learning such an enjoyable experience that,
not only will they have fun today, but they will want to come back tomorrow.
Involving learners in a variety of content‐relevant games can add fun to a
class. Although humor is highly recommended, be sure you do not embarrass
yourself or your students. It may be safer to include humor after you have
gained your students= trust and better understand the cultural context in
which they live.

! Choice. In general, people like to make choices; they like to be able to select
the item or activity that satisfies their needs or interests. Therefore, provide
your students with as many choices as possible. Note that in some cultures,
especially with a highly structured hierarchy, participants may defer to the
eldest=s or the higher‐status person=s choice.

! Social interaction. Most people want to interact with their peers. Try to
arrange both formal and informal group activities. In some cultures, students
may fear a Aloss of face@ and not participate in large group discussions; they
may feel more comfortable participating in small group discussions or peer
tutoring sessions. Do not underestimate the learning that occurs during the
informal discussions that take place between classes. Students often discuss
class activities during the breaks, over lunch, and on their way home at the
end of the day.

! Error tolerance. Students need a safe environment in which to learn. They
must be allowed to make mistakes without the fear of being unduly criticized.
If they feel that they might be laughed at, humiliated, or punished for their
efforts, their willingness to try something new will be greatly diminished.


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! Measurement. Although few people like to be evaluated, they do like to
know that they have progressed. Try to develop a Ascorecard@ that students
can use to track their own progress. In extremely competitive societies, this
scorecard may be made public, but in most instructional situations, an
individual=s assessment record should be kept private. Ask your students to
help you determine which objectives or tasks should be measured or
evaluated. Give them some choices with respect to the method of their
evaluation.

! Feedback. Students need to know how they are doing. They usually want to
know how they can improve so that they can do better next time. Always
provide students with some immediate, positive feedback that will help them
to improve their performance.

! Challenge. Challenges bring out the best in people. If possible, provide
students with opportunities to test themselves and to apply what they know.
These challenges should be difficult, but not impossible. If a challenge is too
demanding, it may produce significant frustration or cause students to lose
interest and possibly withdraw from your program. According to Spitzer
(1996, p. 48), AThe most motivating challenges involve learners in setting their
own goals. When learners set goals for themselves, they tend to be much
more committed to achieving them than if the goals were imposed upon
them.@ Unfortunately, in many instructional settings in developing countries,
students expect the instructor to set their learning goals; the instructor is
usually considered to be the elder, the expert, and the person who knows
what is best for them.

! Recognition. People like to be recognized for their efforts. Although this
recognition can be given subtly, such as in a nod of the head, do take the time
to provide your students with some form of continuous, positive
reinforcement and recognition.

Some Advice From Experienced International Instructors

At a workshop for international instructors held in Vancouver, Canada, the
participants suggested that, in an international setting, the following sequence of
instructional events should occur:

! The instructors should orient the students to the instructional‐learning
process. The responsibilities of both the instructors and the students should
be presented. Over the first few instructional sessions, these responsibilities
should be reviewed and confirmed. Students must know what is expected of
them and the importance of what is to be learned. Students must be provided

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with goals that are challenging, yet attainable. Excellent instructors always
ensure that there is some congruency between their goals and those of their
students. Instructors should not promise what they cannot deliver.

! The instructors should establish their credibility by outlining their
professional credentials and describing the research they used to design the
instructional program the students are expected to complete. It would be
preferable if a member of the host organization presented the instructor's
credentials.

! The instructional program should be briefly described. Do not overwhelm
students with the details of the program.

! Students must be reminded about what they already know. Then, new
information must be linked to their previously acquired knowledge and
experiences. Information must be organized in a manner that is meaningful
to the students. If students can see the value of what they are to learn, they
will be more motivated.

! As soon as possible, the instructors should develop a meaningful, congenial
rapport with the students. This rapport and trust will take time to develop,
but it must be nourished everyday. Many technology transfer projects fail
because instructors neglect to develop rapport and trust. They focus solely on
instructional content. If there are several instructors, each can take a small
group of students "under his or her wing." It may be easier to establish
rapport in small groups, but care must be taken to ensure that one small
group does not appear to be more favored than another. It is important to
establish a safe, comfortable, learning environment. Consider inviting all
participants to an informal meal during the first few days of training.

! Technology, where appropriate, should be used to present information, stir
interest, and encourage imagination. Do not rely on one technology as no
single medium can deliver the full range of instructional intents. Be careful
when using technology that students have never seen. They may become
more interested in the technology than in what it is trying to present. Prior to
your presentation, practice using the technology and ensure that the material
will meet the needs of your students.

! Initially, the instructors should begin instructing in a large group setting
where all students are present. Because lecturing, demonstrations, and
workbooks are "safe" instructional activities, they should be used first.
However, when students are comfortable with the instructional situation,
progress to active learning strategies that require students to invest their
mental and physical energies in activities that help them to make learning

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meaningful. For example, ask students to explain to others what they have
just learned.

! In order to satisfy the social needs of the participants, the instructors should
use structured assignments to encourage discussion and student interaction.

! Then, the instructors should introduce independent study activities. These
may be small assignments or projects that can be completed in less than a
day. Instructors should provide accurate, specific, and personalized feedback.
Students must also learn how to give themselves feedback. Note that some
students in Asian countries may not want to work alone; they may prefer to
work on a project with others.

! Paired learning activities should be introduced gradually. Although it may
appear that students should be able to choose their partners, it may be best to
assign partners at first. Students who do not know anyone may feel
uncomfortable about approaching others. If you assign the partners and the
students have a negative learning experience, they can blame it on their
inexperienced, foreign instructor rather than on themselves or other students.
Base your pairings on what you know about the studentsCtheir jobs, their
status within their respective socio‐economic environments, and their
educational backgrounds. The first paired activity should be a short, in‐class
activity.

! Once students feel comfortable working with others, the instructors should
initiate small group activities. Group members may need help coping with
group dynamics.

! Instructors should now introduce case studies that reflect the local
circumstances. If you introduce local case studies before rapport and trust
have been established, students may feel that your purpose is to point out
their failings and demonstrate your culture's superiority.

! Instructors should reserve high risk activities such as role plays, simulations,
and peer counselling for last. If not handled with sensitivity, these activities
may cause students to "lose face."

! Students must be given frequent opportunities to practice new skills and to
transfer their skills and knowledge to new contexts. Learning takes time.

! Instructors must assess and evaluate students frequently. The assessments
must be conducted fairly and gauge the attainment of the goals and objectives
stated at the beginning of the instructional program.


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To learn more about designing instruction, refer to:

Leshin, C.B., Pollock, J., & Reigeluth, C.M. (1992). Instructional design strategies
and tactics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Rothwell, W.J. & Kazanas, H.C. (1992). Mastering the instructional design process:
A systematic approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Inc.


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3.7 Instructional Strategies

Below is a brief description of various instructional strategies that you can use to
achieve your instructional objectives. These strategies have been categorized
according to the relative level of risk involved in implementing them in an
international setting. The risk level is primarily dependent on the characteristics
and expectations of the students and the competency of the instructor. Within
each category, the strategies are arranged alphabetically. Suggestions for
implementing these activities in an international setting are also provided.

If you will be working in an environment that has a highly structured
organizational hierarchy or with individuals who respect job status, then you may
want to construct a hierarchy of instructional strategies. At the lower levels of
the hierarchy, students may be more comfortable with lecturing, structured
activities, and modeling acceptable behavior. The upper levels of the hierarchy
should contain discussions, case studies, teamwork, and other medium‐ to high‐
risk instructional strategies. These latter strategies are more suitable for students
who are comfortable with each other and the instructor, and/or for individuals at
the top levels of an organization.

Low‐Risk Instructional Strategies

Compared to their North American counterparts, most international students
have conservative expectations about instructional situations. They do not want
to feel uncomfortable, lose face, or have their personal beliefs or lives openly
challenged or discussed. If the students' concerns are kept in mind, the strategies
described below can be used successfully. The instructor must ensure that all
students have an opportunity to participate. To learn effectively, students must
not only listen, observe, or read, they must also do something with the
information they receive.

Demonstration

! During demonstrations, items or actions are shown or explained by the
instructor or selected students. The instructor can demonstrate a skill, then
explain how it is applied. Dangerous activities should always be
demonstrated by the trainer prior to any student involvement. The instructor
must describe and explain all safety precautions.


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! Unless the instructor asks questions about the item or procedure being
demonstrated, the students remain passive learners.

! Demonstrations can be used to introduce a topic, guide learning, create
interest, and show how newly acquired skills can be applied. Demonstrations
are frequently used to achieve psychomotor objectives and to model
acceptable behaviors.

Drill and Practice

! Within a brief period of time, students are required to respond to a series of
short questions or problems. Trainers must ensure that their questions are
extremely focused. These questions should not require elaborate responses.

! Drill and practice exercises can be used to develop cognitive skills and to
learn and master a sequence of events. Drill and practice exercises can also be
used to summarize an instructional activity or to stimulate the recall of prior
learning before proceeding to new material. These types of exercises are
frequently used to attain low‐level cognitive, affective, or psychomotor
objectives.

Handouts

! Handouts are print materials that outline specific training activities or
provide a collection of supporting documents.

! Handouts are usually used to impart knowledge, but if properly designed,
they can help students to practice their skills or suggest future applications of
newly acquired skills. In addition, handouts can be used to develop attitudes
and values, provided different viewpoints are presented and the students are
asked to state their points of view as well.

! Handouts are effective only if they relate directly to the instructional activity,
are written at an appropriate level for the students, contain an abundance of
visuals, and are used by the trainer during the training session. If the trainer
does not discuss the contents of the handout with students and show them
how the material can be used, then students are not likely to read them.

! Unless technical manuals are specifically adapted for the intended audience,
they are unlikely to be used by international students. Many North
Americans have difficulty understanding the operating manuals for electronic
equipment produced elsewhere. Instructors must demonstrate how to use
technical manuals.


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! It may be difficult to prepare handouts if you have limited access to
appropriate materials and equipment. For example, paper is not in abundant
supply in many parts of Africa and photocopiers are usually not available
where electricity is unreliable or spare parts are scarce.

Lectures

! During a lecture, the trainer presents information orally. Unless the trainer
asks questions, students remain passive.

! Lectures are frequently used to present knowledge and to explain how skills
are applied. A good instructor can use a lecture to arouse interest and to
inspire students to apply their skills.

! The lecture can be an exciting activity if the trainer presents a topic that
interests the students, uses visuals and demonstrations, varies the tone and
pace of the presentation, uses examples and anecdotes that students are
familiar with, frequently summarizes portions of the presentation, and
displays genuine enthusiasm for the topic. The lecture may be the basis of
most instructional systems, as it can present information in an efficient,
structured, and standardized manner, but it should always be supplemented
with other instructional strategies.

! The lecture is the most accepted form of instruction because it reinforces the
image of the trainer as the authoritative information provider. Many people in
the world, especially those in the Middle East and certain Pacific Rim
countries, support this image of instructors.

Readings

! Students are required to read assigned material silently or aloud.

! Reading not only allows students to gain information, but also provides them
with the opportunity to discover different points of view and possible
applications of their new skills. Reading aloud can provide a change of pace;
it enables all students to participate and allows the trainer to determine if the
students understand the written material provided.

! Reading may also serve a socialization function and enable less literate
students to learn from others. Have students form small groups; ask each
student to read a short passage; then, ask another student in the group to
explain what was read and ask another student to explain how the
information can be applied.


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! Reading material must be suitable for the intended audience. Care must be
taken not to embarrass students whose literary skills are poor.

Textbooks and Workbooks

! Textbooks and workbooks are usually prepared by people other than the
trainer. Textbooks generally present information, while workbooks provide
opportunities for practice.

! These items can be used to support lectures and provide independent study
material. However, students who live in countries with strong oral
instructional traditions will find textbooks and workbooks difficult to use.
They must be shown how to use these materials.

! Textbooks and workbooks should be selected carefully. During your selection
process, consider the following:

‐ Do they meet the objectives of the training program?

‐ Are they written at an appropriate reading level for the intended
audience?

‐ Do they contain any biases, stereotyping, or cultural references that will
offend the students or cause overseas custom officials to reject them?

‐ Do they contain relevant, comprehensive, and current information?

‐ Are the examples and graphics appropriate for the intended audience?

‐ What portion of the materials will you use overseas? More than 50
percent?

‐ If these materials will be used in tropical countries, will their bindings
tolerate high temperatures and humidity? If the book's pages are glued
rather than sewn, coiled, or stapled, tropical climates will quickly destroy
the glued binding.

‐ Will the cost of the materials and their associated freight charges fit
within the training budget?

‐ Will you be required to pay import duties if you bring a large quantity of
these materials into a country?


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Medium‐Risk Instructional Strategies

In order to provide variety and to actively engage students in the training‐
learning process, consider using the activities described below. By carefully
structuring each activity, the instructor can reduce the risks associated with these
strategies.

Brainstorming

! During brainstorming sessions, the trainer outlines a problem or situation.
Then all students are asked to suggest possible solutions. Brainstorming
promotes creative, group problem‐solving skills. The idea of one participant
often stimulates the thoughts of others.

! Brainstorming can be used to address all cognitive and some affective
objectives. If all student ideas are accepted as valid, brainstorming
encourages participation and develops trust. Any size group can participate
in this activity.

! In order to increase the effectiveness of this strategy, the brainstorming
session should adhere to the following procedure:

1. The trainer should clearly identify the problem or situation to be
addressed.

2. Students should be asked to describe the situation in their own words,
then allowed a short period of time for silent reflection.

3. Ask students to generate as many ideas as they can and encourage them to
build on the ideas presented by others.

4. Remind students that all ideas will be accepted and that no suggestions
will be discussed or explained until all ideas have been recorded. Ideally,
students should freely volunteer ideas; however, the trainer may have to
encourage students to respond. The trainer must be careful not to address
students who may find this vocal behavior culturally offensive.

5. Record all ideas, preferably where all students can see them.

6. When all ideas have been generated or a specific time limit has been
reached, ask students to explain any ideas that are vague or unclear.

7. Cluster related ideas.


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8. Establish the criteria for evaluating ideas. Criteria may be grouped into
essential or desirable categories.

9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each idea.

10. Prioritize the ideas that students feel are most useful.

11. Ask students how to implement these ideas.

! At first, brainstorming may not be well received by international audiences
who do not prize individual initiatives or in cultures where socio‐economic
status or seniority plays an important factor in human interactions. However,
if you start with a small problem or situation that everyone can address, most
participants will feel that they have something to contribute. You can also
have students write their ideas on index cards rather than express them
orally. This latter procedure allows participants to submit their ideas
anonymously.

Buzz Groups

! The instructor presents a problem or situation that small groups must address
within a given time period. Each group selects a scribe to record the group's
ideas. Individuals only present ideas that have not been mentioned
previously. The group selects a spokesperson, preferably someone other than
the scribe, to summarize and present the group's findings to all the students.
The instructor reviews the submissions from all the groups and suggests ways
of applying the ideas generated.

! Buzz groups can be used to achieve application and problem‐solving
objectives in the cognitive and affective domains of learning. They can also
be used to arouse interest in a topic and to encourage interaction among
students.

! Risks occur not only in the problem or situation selected, but also in the
variety of small group dynamics that may occur. For example, if the small
groups are composed of individuals who are extremely different with respect
to authority, status, or seniority, some members of the group will be reluctant
to express their points of view.

! The instructor can reduce the risk by selecting a suitable, non‐controversial
topic, determining the composition of the small groups, and limiting the time
the students spend in the small group activity.


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Case Studies

! Students are given a detailed description of a specific, real‐life situation.
Then they are asked to analyze the situation and provide solutions that take
into account the information provided.

! Case studies can be designed to achieve cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
objectives, especially application and problem‐solving objectives. When
psychomotor objectives are stated, appropriate materials and equipment must
be supplied. Case studies also allow students to practice decision‐making
skills. After the case study has been completed, students can examine how
group decisions were made.

! International trainers should start with simple case study situations. These
cases should include a number of factors and have a variety of acceptable
solutions. Well designed case studies do not have perfect solutions. However,
depending on the desired outcome, some solutions will be better than others.

! The type of case study a trainer chooses will depend on the culture or
environment in which the trainer will be working. It may be best to start with
hypothetical studies. If maintaining "face" is an important part of the culture,
then hypothetical case studies may be best. Case studies that reflect local
situations work best when students feel that the trainer is trying to help them
and not criticizing their country's shortcomings.

! With the exception of management trainers, few trainers fully realize how
well case studies can actively engage students in applying their skills to "real
world" situations.

Discussions

! Students are encouraged to voice their opinions on a topic selected either by
the students or by the trainer. The trainer may start the discussion by asking
students to respond freely to several questions; however, the students, not the
instructor, must do most of the talking. Students must be given adequate
time to discuss all the ramifications of a certain topic. A good discussion
occurs when all students feel that their opinions are valued, students have
sufficient time to speak, and the trainer's involvement is minimal.

! The trainer's task is to initiate and referee the discussion. Prior to the
discussion, the trainer may want to set a few ground rules such as how long
students can speak and if a student can speak more than once.


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! Discussions can accomplish a variety of objectives especially those related to
knowledge acquisition, communication skills, socialization, and the
attainment of attitudes and values. In addition, discussions can be used to
arouse interest in a topic, to motivate students, and to customize instruction
to the needs of the learners.

! Discussions can be risky because the discourse may range over a variety of
topics, a few students may control the discussion, and unpleasant comments
may be made. If the trainer intervenes too frequently, the students will cease
to participate.

Guest Speakers

! An individual is invited to speak to the students. A guest speaker can provide
expertise that the instructor does not have, describe the local situation, and
provide a change of pace. When guest speakers from the host organization
are invited, instructors can increase their positive rapport with that
institution.

! Prior to his or her presentation, the guest speaker should be briefed on the
focus of the presentation, the time limit, the characteristics of the students,
and the material covered to date.

! The major risk involved in inviting guest speakers is that once they begin to
speak, the instructor has little control over what they say. If an authority
figure presents inaccurate or biased information, he or she may unravel all the
hard work the instructor has accomplished to date.

Laboratories

! Students are provided with the required equipment and materials and then
asked to perform specified tasks. The trainer must provide precise
instructions, ensure that the appropriate equipment and materials are
available, and check that the conditions under which the lab activities will be
conducted are satisfactory.

! Laboratories provide practical experience and allow students to apply and
refine cognitive and psychomotor skills.

! In an international setting, trainers have difficulty assembling all the required
resources and ensuring that the cost of the lab activity remains within the
training budget.


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! Laboratories can be risky because their outcomes are not always predictable,
and the safety of the students may be jeopardized. However, if the risk
elements are too tightly controlled, then the results become too predictable
and the students may lose interest.

High‐Risk Instructional Strategies

The strategies below are classified as high risk because they have one or more of
the following characteristics: the possibility of losing face is high; its successful
implementation requires that a trusting relationship exist among the students
and between the students and the instructor; and the instructor must not only be
extremely sensitive to student needs, but must also know the limits of each
strategy. However, high‐risk instructional strategies can effectively help students
to master application and higher‐level cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
objectives. Strategies that employ group work encourage social interaction and
enable individuals to discuss the application of skills to their environment.

Debates

! Debates are highly structured discussions in which two teams take opposing
points of view and discuss the merits of their respective positions. Each
student has a fixed amount of time to speak, and students present their
arguments in a predetermined manner. The instructor selects the topic,
forms the groups, and sets the ground rules for the debate.

! Debates are an excellent way of developing affective skills and achieving
higher cognitive skills. Students who participate in the debate generally learn
more about a topic than the students who merely observe the debate.

! Debates involve the same risks as discussions as well as several other risks.
For example, students may be required to defend a point of view they do not
believe in, which may cause inner conflict; or in an effort to win the debate, a
student may say something that attacks or offends another student.

Field Trips

! Students are sent to or taken to a place or event. During the visit, students
complete activities outlined by the trainer and later provide an oral or written
report of their experiences. The trainer makes appropriate travel
arrangements, outlines the activities to be performed, briefs the students
prior to the field trip, and debriefs them after the activity has been completed.


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! Field trips can provide opportunities for hands‐on experience and the
application of skills, and if well planned, they can be used to encourage the
attainment of high‐level objectives.

! Although field trips can actively engage students, they can also be passive
activities. If the activity is too highly structured, if the students are required
to make unfocussed observations only, or if discussions during the trip are too
limited, students will not be actively engaged in this learning experience.

! Unless steps are taken to ensure that the field trips are directly related to an
instructional objective, they can be a waste of valuable instructional time.
Unpredictable events and accidents can occur during field trips. Therefore,
before embarking on a field trip, trainers must determine their personal
liabilities as well as the liability of the host organization.

Peer Group Counselling

! Once a student or a group of students have mastered a portion of the training,
they can use their newly acquired skills to teach other students. The trainer
determines which students have mastered a particular skill or skills and
assigns them to work with students who need additional assistance. The
instructor monitors the peer group interactions and provides guidance.

! If the training environment is supportive and non‐threatening, everyone wins:
the students who need help receive assistance; the students who help their
peers can apply their skills, receive recognition, and increase their self‐esteem;
and, the instructor is able to act as a facilitator rather than a information
provider.

! The trainer must carefully monitor this activity to ensure that the student‐
student interactions remain positive and congenial. If the activity is handled
improperly, the confidence and self‐esteem of all the participants may be
severely damaged.

Projects

! Students are required to complete a comprehensive activity on a specific
subject over an extended period of time. The instructor provides the overall
project guidelines. Projects can cover a variety of topics and can be
conducted in a number of different ways.

! Projects can be an integrative activity if they are designed to include a variety
of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective objectives. Students can apply their
newly acquired skills, make generalizations, and/or develop new skills.

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Students who are involved in successful project‐related activities may develop
team‐building skills and assume ownership for their learning.

! Projects are risky because they are usually extremely flexible and
unstructured. Instructors must ensure that their students do not take on
more than they can reasonably handle, without preventing the students from
undertaking a challenging experience.

Role Plays/Simulations/Problem‐Solving Activities

! Students are given a simulated situation and asked to play specified roles.
The remaining students act as observers. To conduct a successful role play,
the trainer must set the scene, clearly identify the roles to be played, establish
the rules of the role play, stop the activity at a predetermined time or when
emotions run too high, ask the role play participants to describe their
thoughts and feelings, ask the observers to report on what they saw,
summarize the role play, explain how the role play addresses specific training
objectives, and ensure that the role play participants leave their roles behind
them.

! This activity is ideal for promoting problem‐solving behavior, the transfer of
learning to new situations, and for developing interpersonal skills. Students
can make judgement errors without harming themselves or others.

! Role plays are an extremely risky activity. If people play their roles too well,
participants may become uncomfortable and feelings may be hurt. Yet, the
recognition of altered feeling and the development of empathy is an
important aspect of this activity. Trainers must ensure that these
interpersonal skills are developed in a positive manner.

! Role plays or simulations should not be avoided simply because of their
inherent risks. If doctors, pilots, or nuclear reactor employees did not
participate in role plays or simulations, they would not be able to do their
jobs with any degree of confidence; they would not be able to face problems
squarely.


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Developing Ownership

If your international training assignment is successful, you will have shown your
students "how to fish;" how to use their new skills to solve their own problems.
To accomplish this goal, you must ensure that the international participants
develop ownership for their training. There are a number of ways this ownership
can be developed. The following suggestions were developed during an
international training workshop conducted in Regina, Canada:

! Involve the participants in determining the activities to be conducted. Use
the information the students provide to develop instructional activities.

! Each day, ensure that participants have an opportunity to discuss how they
can apply their training to their own situations.

! Get your participants to apply the following formula to what they learn:
"Take the best, leave the rest"; they should take and use only that which is
applicable to their situation.

! Give people an opportunity to practice what they have learned.

! Use case studies that are developed and presented by the participants.

! Give participants an opportunity to explore ideas.

! Team teach with local instructors and students.

! Ensure that student projects deal with local problems.

! Let participants work in small groups to solve problems, but offer assistance
with group dynamics.

! Involve senior officials from the host organization in as many activities as
possible.

! Give the participants a list of concerns that they need to address.

! Negotiate for a follow‐up activity in the country so that you can monitor
training implementation and provide advice and encouragement. Innovation
and change take time and cannot be accomplished in a two‐week training
session.

! Leave behind a product of the training activity, such as a competency or
DACUM profile, a plan of action, or a training manual that takes into account

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the realistic circumstances in which the training will be used. Involve
participants in the production of the manual.

! Ask the participants to recommend appropriate follow‐up activities.


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3.8 Locate and Select Learning Resources

The training‐learning process can be enhanced by using instructional materials in
a variety of primary, complementary, enrichment, or optional roles. Learning
resources can be used to introduce an activity, provide a change of pace, maintain
student interest, illustrate the distinctive features of a new idea or skill, show
relationships among different items, indicate the applications of knowledge and
skills, demonstrate dangerous activities, and extend the students' horizons. The
possibilities are endless. However, care must be taken to ensure that the
resources, especially technological resources, are appropriate for the developing
country.

The Selection Process

Before selecting your learning resources, review the training blueprint and the
needs and audience analysis you conducted earlier. Pay particular attention to
the characteristics and expectations of the students, and determine not only how
they prefer to learn, but also the instructional media they have been previously
exposed to. Ascertain if electricity is available at the training site. Do not assume
that because your overseas accommodation has electricity that your training site
will be similarly equipped. In St. Lucia or Grenada, for example, you may stay at
a luxury tourist hotel, but be required to work where there is no telephone,
photocopy equipment, or chalk. When you have assembled all of the above
information, ask yourself the questions below. This section is based on the article
AEducational Consulting in Developing Countries@ by Wright (1997).

! What learning resources do you need to accomplish your goals? Which
resources will help you to achieve specific cognitive, psychomotor, or affective
objectives? Which resources will act as motivational devices to gain attention
and maintain interest? Which resources can elicit responses that are tailored
to specific student needs? Will you need resources that show motion such as
the operation of a water pump or the hunting and feeding habits of lions? Is
color, especially realistic color, important to the training‐learning process of
certain workers such as health care professionals?

An effective learning resource will help you to accomplish a training objective
that may be difficult or impossible to achieve without it. For example, it is
easier for students to grasp how pistons in an engine operate if the resource
shows motion, or note the difference between arteries or veins when color is
used. However, the same attributes that make the resource useful in the
training‐learning process can also prove ineffective and distracting in overseas

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training situations. In some parts of the world, North Americans have a
reputation for being "flashy;" they always use complicated technology when a
simple picture will do. Some students may get hooked on the glamour of the
technology and miss the substance of the training. Some students may feel
that all their problems will be solved if only they had this technology. But
instructional technology is only a means to teach a skill. It is what is
presented by the technology that counts. You must choose resources that
enable your students to achieve specific objectives. You do not want your
students to be hypnotized by the media and neglect the message.

! What learning resources are available overseas? Will students have
easy access to these resources? In North America, we often take our access
to learning resources for granted. Our homes and offices have telephones
that let us easily contact a wide variety of resources; televisions that bring us
images from every corner of the world; videocassette recorders that allow us
to make our own images or playback recordings on an infinite number of
topics; and microcomputers for calculating and word processing. We also
have easy access to libraries. In developing countries, it is unlikely that
libraries, where present, will be well stocked or contain current publications.
Books will probably be 10, 20, or 30 years old (Giltrow and Pannen, 1992). In
addition, few students will have ever seen, let alone used, a videocassette
recorder or microcomputer. Therefore, if you select learning resources that
are not available to students, or resources students have never seen or used,
you must be prepared to provide the resources yourself and allocate time for
showing students how to use them. Students who have an oral tradition may
not have books or be able to read. You must supply the reading material as
well as the appropriate literacy training.

! What learning resources are currently available? Are the resources you
wish to use to achieve a specific objective, available, relevant, and up‐to‐date?
Do they contain appropriate examples or must the examples be removed or
updated? Are these resources culturally appropriate for your students? If you
will be working in an Islamic country, for example, not only must the certain
pages of the textbook you want to use be culturally acceptable, but all the
other pages, which you may not use, must also meet Islamic requirements.
Are a variety of cultural groups portrayed in the media you will be using? If
only Americans or Europeans are shown, how will your audience react? If
other cultural groups are included, are they portrayed in a sensitive, dignified
manner? Is the learning resource free of stereotypes or situations that may
ridicule members of specific cultural groups? You may need to decide if you
want to spend the time and money modifying these materials or obtaining
more suitable materials from other sources. You must also decide if the
materials must be translated.


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! What equipment is needed to use the learning resources? If your
training materials require special equipment, and the equipment is not
available or not in working order, then you must bring it with you. In this
case, you must then determine if your equipment is compatible with the
format and power systems overseas and if the equipment can withstand
climatic conditions such as extreme heat, cold, dryness, humidity, or
pollution. How will you maintain and securely store the equipment? Do not
forget to calculate extra freight costs and other charges, which may include
paying a "fee" to clear customs and to move the equipment within the foreign
country. At an international conference in Venezuela, one presenter had to
pay several hundred dollars in "special" fines before the pamphlets and
brochures for his university's exhibit booth would be released from customs.
Because he initially refused to pay the fines, he was unable to set up his booth
for the first day of the conference.

! What learning resources are you most comfortable with? Many things
can go wrong when you are in a foreign country. It is unlikely that you will
find the expertise that you will need if something goes wrong with your
equipment. Therefore, know how to use these materials and resources before
you travel. Learn the basic maintenance procedures and take along a few
spare parts, tools, maintenance instructions, cleaning fluid, and plastic bags
to protect the equipment from the elements.

! What are the simplest, most practical learning resources that you can
use to accomplish your training tasks? Sophisticated technological
resources such as videodiscs and computer‐assisted instruction programs can
provide effective and efficient training. However, the more complex the
technology, the more likely that you will need to ensure that appropriate
facilities are available overseas and that the equipment can be shipped
without damage. In addition, sophisticated technology is prone to
breakdowns and usually requires frequent maintenance. Considering the
conditions you are most likely to encounter in a developing country, it is
advisable to select simpler, more practical learning resources. Be prepared to
select and use chalkboards, charts, audiocassettes, and videocassettes. These
items are frequently found overseas (Lu, Morlan, Lerchalolarn, Lee & Dike,
1993).

If you have difficulty selecting appropriate learning resources for your training
program, you may want to consider using the ACTION model developed by Bates
(1989) or the guidelines developed by Leshin, Pollock & Reigeluth (1992). To
determine which resources are best, Bates suggests that you consider the
following:


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! Access and availability to students;

! Costs, including capital and recurrent expenditures;

! Teaching functions and how a media can represent different types of
knowledge;

! Interaction and user‐friendliness that define how a student can control the
media;

! Organizational constraints such as those dictated by institutional policies,
financial constraints, and innovative leadership;

! Novelty; trainers are seductively attracted to new technologies, yet simple
technology such as audiocassettes remain extremely effective.

Leshin, Pollock & Reigeluth (1992, 104‐105) provide the following guidelines to
narrow the selection of appropriate media:

A. Training constraints
! Money (training budget)
! Facilities and equipment already available
! Time available for instruction

B. Development constraints
! Money (instructional development budget)
! Time available for development
! Resources already available, both human and material

C. Task requirements
! Media attributes required by task

D. Learner constraints
! Handicaps
! Computer literacy

Once the selection is narrowed, resources should be selected based on the
following:


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! resource attributes required by the instruction;
! organization's preferences;
! instructor's preference;
! availability;
! available finances.

The following section contains a brief description of several training resources
(updated from Wright, 1987) that you can use to achieve your training objectives.
These resources have been arranged in three categories: Simple Resources,
Common Resources, and Complex Resources. Within each category, the
resources are listed in alphabetical order. Possible uses for each resource and
some considerations regarding their use in developing countries are also
provided. Note that computer and digital resources are changing rapidly; thus,
depending on when you refer to this publication, some of the attributes for each
resource noted below may be outdated. However, do not make the mistake of
assuming that the latest resource or educational technology is available
and can be maintained or serviced in the country in which you may work.
Often, developing countries have been a dumping ground for old resources and
technologies that have been donated by businesses and individuals from
countries in the northern hemisphere. Thus, some of the resources listed here
may no longer be used in North America, but they are used in developing
countries often in rural areas that have access to batteries or electricity. During a
recent evaluation of learning resources in a junior vocational college in Asia,
approximately 60% of the technical books were more than 25 years old – most
had been donated by well meaning educators in North America. To be on the
safe side, take your own computer and digital video projector provided that
electricity is available in the locale in which you will be working. Even if you
have batteries for these items, remember that they must be re‐charged.

Simple Resources

Simple instructional resources, which are easily accessible, include the following:

Audiocassettes

! Audiocassettes can be used to present lectures, readings, case studies, and
motivational material to individuals and groups. Audiocassettes are well
suited for students who have difficulty reading. Students can also use
audiocassettes to record their assignments.


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! Cassette tapes are simple to make, duplicate, store, and distribute.
Audiocassette recorders are accessible, compact, and portable. They can be
used anywhere, from the jungles in Thailand to the deserts in Chad.

! Audiocassette material cannot be skimmed as easily as print material and it
does not allow students to write personal notes in the margins as they can
with print material.

! The combination of audiocassettes and print material is frequently under
utilized, yet they are an economic means of instruction. These materials can
be prepared before you depart for your overseas assignment or during the
course of the training session.

Filmstrips

! Filmstrips contain a series of clear, realistic, detailed, colored static visuals.
Audiocassettes, which contain an accompanying narration, are often used
with filmstrips.

! Filmstrips are easy to handle and store and can be used effectively by both
trainers and students.

! Filmstrips present images in a fixed sequence, which cannot be rearranged or
revised, and they do not show motion.

! The production of filmstrips has almost disappeared in North America; 35‐
mm slides offer more flexibility, and readily accessible videotapes provide
motion. However, filmstrips and outdated books are often found in parts of
Africa. As mentioned previously, developing countries have become the
dumping ground for a great deal of unused or outdated instructional material
and equipment.

Objects, Models, and Specimens

! Objects, models, and specimens are three‐dimensional items such as an
electric motor, a working model of a water filtration plant, or a biological
specimen.

! Trainers use these items for demonstration purposes or to give students an
opportunity to operate or handle them. Trainers may find it difficult to
describe how pipes are interconnected in an oil refinery, but by showing
students a model, they can explain how and why the pipes are connected as
they are. Training objectives that involve touch usually require the use of
objects and specimens.

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! These items are extremely helpful when providing vocational, health, and
science training.

! Objects, models, and specimens can be cumbersome, fragile, or heavy and
difficult to package and transport overseas.

Overhead Transparencies

! Overhead transparencies provide large groups of students with clear, colorful
images, which can be shown in a lit room or open shade. Transparency
overlays can be used to show how a sequence develops or the components of
an object. Parts of a transparency can be revealed progressively to illustrate
how a process develops.

! Transparencies can be easily made, revised, or updated. The instructor
controls the pace and sequence of their presentation. Overhead projectors
can be found throughout the world, and if electricity is available, you can take
a briefcase‐size, portable projector with you.

! To make your own transparencies while on assignment, you must take a
reasonable quantity of blank acetate sheets and suitable, colored overhead
projector pens.

! If you take premade overheads transparencies with you, note that extended
exposure to bright tropical sunlight may fade the transparencies; hot, humid
climates may cause the tape used to hold the transparency film to the frame
to come loose; and the cardboard transparency frames to absorb water. If you
only take a few transparencies overseas, a weight gain due to water absorption
is not a serious problem, but if you take 100 plus transparencies, the extra
weight becomes a serious problem. Use a smaller transparency frame, or
remove the frames and carry the transparencies in a ring binder.

! Although many are beginning to use a computer and software to present
visual information, overhead transparencies are simple to create and use.
Consequently, they are effective in developing countries.

Photographs, Graphic Displays, and Wall Charts

! Photographs, graphic displays, and wall charts show static, colored, detailed
images. Depending on their size, these items can be used by either
individuals or groups of students.

! Trainers can photograph or draw items they are unable to carry overseas. A
wide variety of instructional charts are used by people who provide training in

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technical or scientific subjects. Remember that a picture is worth a thousand
words! However, people who are unfamiliar with the interpretation of two‐
dimensional visuals may find it difficult to understand that an enlarged or
projected image actually represents a small, real object.

! If touch or manipulation is an important part of a training objective, then use
objects, models, or specimens rather than photographs, graphic displays, or
wall charts. Wall charts may be too bulky to take overseas.

Print Material

! Print‐based materials include textbooks, workbooks, handouts, professional
journals, and magazines.

! Print material is an essential component of most training systems. It can be
used in a primary, complimentary, or supplementary role with either
individuals or groups. Students readily accept print material because they can
control the time, location, and pace of learning. Perhaps the greatest
advantage of print material is that it can be skimmed, and students can study
the material in a sequence that is appropriate for them.

! The greatest disadvantage to print material is that it requires students to be
literate. They must not only understand the content, but also the context of
the material (McKay, 1992). In Asian countries, for example, the Islamic
religion may affect not only what is read, but also how items are read. Islamic
students may have difficulty distinguishing between important and
unimportant textual information (Osterloh, 1986).

! It may be necessary to have your print materials translated. However,
translation may not help students to understand the text if "students lack a
background knowledge of anglophone cultures" (McKay, 1992, 123).

! Paper and quality duplicating or printing machines may not be readily
accessible in some African or Middle Eastern countries. Therefore, duplicate
your materials prior to travelling overseas and bring extra writing paper. If
you are taking a lot of print material with you, bind it in several small
packages. Students may be overwhelmed if they receive a thick stack of
printed pages all at once.

! If you are involved in an international project that requires you to train
vocational instructors, you may want to review the more than 100 print
modules that are available from the American Association for Vocational
Instructional Materials (AAVIM), 745 Gaines School Road, Athens, Georgia
30605.

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Slides

! Like other visuals, slides present clear, realistic, detailed, colored, static
visuals. However, they can be revised, updated, and rearranged more easily
than filmstrips or videocassettes. Slides are frequently accompanied by an
audiocassette narration, which may require that the slides be presented in a
fixed sequence.

! Instructors can make their own slides and arrange their sequence to suit their
needs. Slides are easy to handle, store, and distribute. Because they weigh
less than overhead transparencies, they can be transported easily.

! Unless special equipment is available, slides cannot be used to show motion.
Slides must also be shown in a darkened room, which is not always possible in
rural areas of developing countries during the daytime. Instructors frequently
transfer large numbers of slides onto videocassettes. However, the major
advantage of slidesCtheir easy rearrangementCis lost. In addition, the images
of materials shown on most video monitors lack the fine detail portrayed by
slides. If details such as texture are important aspects of the training, use
slides or photographs. Better yet, bring a sample of the real object.

Common, But Less Accessible Resources

Common, but less accessible instructional media resources include:

Lab Kits

! Kits of equipment and materials can be assembled to provide students with
hands‐on experience.

! The trainer can select, assemble, and package materials and equipment,
which can be used to achieve application and problem‐solving skills that
involve the five senses. The kits can provide each student or small group of
students with items that are not readily available.

! Designing and preparing lab kits can be expensive and time consuming.
However, you can obtain prepared lab kits from correspondence schools,
distance education institutions, or university continuing education
departments that prepare biology, chemistry, electronic, and physics kits and
send them to students around the world. Kits can be bulky and may be
damaged in transit.


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Motion Picture Films

! Motion picture film in the 8 mm and the more common 16 mm format
provides colored, detailed moving images. They are ideal for showing how an
item operates, a sequence of events, relationships, or hazardous procedures.

! Trainers can use films to introduce a topic, present the main portion of
instruction, summarize a topic, or show motion. A wide variety of topics are
available on film.

! In training programs, videocassettes are rapidly replacing motion picture
films as the preferred means of showing moving images. In China, instruction
is frequently shot on 16 mm film then converted to videocassettes for
distribution. However, there are often compatibility difficulties with
videocassettes, and videocassettes cannot deliver the detail that film can.
Projectors suitable for 16 mm film are available around the world, but the
equipment may be poorly maintained or inoperable. Film can weigh a
substantial amount and therefore should be avoided if you are travelling
alone. For best results, film should be viewed in a darkened room, a
condition that may not be readily available during the daytime in rural areas
of developing countries. Darkened rooms also restrict student note taking
and audience participation.

Videocassettes

! Videocassettes have many of the same attributes as motion picture film.
Videocassettes can show visuals that require color, depth cues, and motion,
especially slow‐motion. They can function in a variety of training roles. With
the use of accessible equipment, such as a camcorder or a half‐inch VHS
camera and recorder, trainers can make a videocassette that is tailored to
meet specific student needs. You can videotape an actual work site or the
students performing specified tasks. After videotaping the students
performing a skill, you can review the videocassette with the students and
indicate areas that need improvement. Students can also make their own
videocassettes and review them at will. In countries where the loss of face is
an important aspect of the culture, videocassettes of student activities should
always be done in private. Videocassettes are especially useful with students
who lack reading skills and/or need to review material frequently.

! Videocassette equipment is not available everywhere, but its accessibility is
increasing rapidly (Lu, Morlan, Lerchalolarn, Lee & Dike, 1993). The greatest
difficulty in using videocassettes in an international setting is compatibility.
In North America, most trainers use the standard National Television System
Committee (NTSC), half‐inch VHS‐videocassette format. Overseas, PAL and

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SECAM as well as NTSC formats exist. Only very sophisticated videocassette
players can handle all the different formats. Therefore, trainers must
determine which standard is used overseas and convert their videocassettes to
that format. The conversion process can be time consuming, expensive, and
frequently degrades the quality of the visual image. The image quality
produced by many consumer cameras can also be significantly degraded
during this conversion process. To determine the television or videocassette
broadcast standard used in a particular country, refer to the following
Internet site: http://www.3dresearch.com/video/Countries2.html.

! You should not underestimate the time and expertise required to produce a
quality videotape. It may be best to purchase professionally produced
videocassettes or to hire professionals to produce videocassettes that meet
your specific needs. Custom‐made videocassettes can be tailored to the local
language and situations. They can contain animated graphics and special
effects and cost substantially less than if produced on film.

! Usually, videocassettes do not deliver the image clarity that film or
photographs deliver. Film can deliver subtle colors and record a greater range
of brightness than can current video material. It will be several years before
high‐definition video cameras and recorders become easily accessible to
trainers.

Complex Resources

Complex instructional resources or resources that may not be easily accessible in
developing countries include:

Broadcast Media

! Radio and television broadcasts have features similar to audiocassettes and
videocassettes; however, radio and television have immediacy and credibility.
In addition, they can reach a large population simultaneously and provide
consistent, quality instruction throughout an entire region or country. If
designed appropriately, students do not need good reading skills to learn
from broadcast media.

! Radio is used extensively in Africa to provide instruction that can be picked
up by battery‐operated radios. Some organizations, such as the
Commonwealth of Learning, have provided small radio control centres and
transmitters that allow those in villages and small towns to offer their own
radio programming. Radio can provide the majority of the instruction or
training for unqualified trainers who tutor local students. Broadcast

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television is delivered by local transmitters, cable, microwave, and satellites
throughout the world. In China, where central planning is an important
means of operation, instructional television is commonly used because it
delivers a consistent message to a large number of people. China’s television
university has more than one million students. In India, two hours of special
education programs are broadcast daily to community centers in rural
villages. Television is used to compensate for the villagers' low literacy rate
and the difficult logistics of distributing learning materials (Howard, 1992).

! Unless trainers are involved in the design and delivery of broadcast media,
they may find the use of broadcast media restrictive. These programs, which
are usually costly to prepare, are generally designed for a diverse rather than a
specific audience. The listening or viewing times are restricted and not set by
the trainer. Unless the broadcasts are recorded locally, trainers or students
cannot replay the programs at will.

! Generally, broadcast media provide one‐way communication. However, if an
audio‐teleconferencing system is added, or if the broadcast station accepts
telephone calls, then a dynamic two‐way communication can be established.

! Because of the politics involved in broadcast media, it is unlikely that you will
be able to affect the program content and broadcast schedule. Further,
obtaining a reliable and informative broadcast program schedule is not always
an easy task in developing countries. Note that countries such as China, Iran,
and Malaysia have banned the ownership of residential satellite dishes (The
Globe and Mail, 1995, p. D6) and restricted their use elsewhere.

Computer Software

! Computer software, which runs on micro/desktop, mini, or mainframe
computers, can provide an astonishing amount and variety of instructional
material. Computer‐managed learning (CML) software can be used to
register students, track their progress, issue tests, mark tests, and provide
feedback. CML is currently used in Central Africa. Computer‐assisted
instruction (CAI) or computer‐assisted learning (CAL) software supports
interactive learning by providing tailor‐made instruction. In addition to all
the tasks performed by CML software, CAI or CAL software provides all the
learning materials, tutors the students, and provides application and
problem‐solving opportunities. CAI or CAL can reduce student learning time
and increase the retention of learned material. If appropriately designed,
computer programs can also be used by students with poor reading skills.
However, in order to be effective, CAI programs should be presented in the
native language of the students.


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! Computer software can be interfaced with other technologies such as
audiocassette recorders, videocassette recorders, and videodisc players to
deliver multimedia programs as described by Schwier and Misanchuck (1993)
in their book, Interactive Multimedia Instruction.

! The use of computer software in developing countries is limited by the
availability of appropriate and compatible hardware or computer equipment.
In North America, microcomputers are abundant. They are usually designed
to accept MacintoshJ or MicrosoftJ disc‐operating systems (MS‐DOS)
software. In developing countries, most microcomputers are MS‐DOS based
and few have the latest technological upgrades. Computers that arrive in
developing countries tend to be those that do not sell in developed countries
or have been discarded. You may consider taking battery‐operated, portable,
or laptop computers.

! International trainers who want to take microcomputers overseas must also
select appropriate software. It is unlikely that their students will be computer
literate. Therefore, time must be allocated for students to become familiar
with both the hardware and the software programs.

! Developing a computer software program for a specific overseas audience is
expensive. Despite the abundance of authoring tools and systems, which help
trainers prepare computer software, it still takes talent and a considerable
amount of time to develop quality software programs that are more than
electronic page turners. In time, commercial enterprises will provide a wide
variety of educational software that you can use. However, the software may
need to be translated or you will need to provide a print‐based guide in the
local language.

Computer Conferencing

! Computer conferencing gives students and instructors the opportunity to
exchange ideas via computer terminals, modems, and telephone lines. It is
ideal in situations where individuals have fixed schedules and are unable to
meet at a common time. A message can be sent by one student and at a later
time, other students may respond to the message. When convenient,
students can compose and revise their own messages on their computers.
When the message is satisfactory, it can be sent to an individual or to groups
of individuals who use a common host computer. The lack of physical or
voice contact with other students may be a benefit of computer conferencing.
All messages can be considered on their own merit without the influence of
sight and sound which normally colors human communication.


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! Electronic networks such as Internet and BITNET are found throughout the
world. By using such networks, you can contact people who are widely
dispersed and obtain information from an infinite number of electronic
bulletin boards and databases. Note, however, that some countries such as
China may restrict access to the Internet, and other countries may attempt to
monitor Internet traffic and the type of information that is being transmitted.

! Computer conferencing will be ineffective if students do not have access to a
reliable telephone network, if students and instructors are not able to use a
computer keyboard or the conferencing software effectively, and if there is a
lack of technical support for the conferencing system.

! To obtain practical, instructional information about computer conferencing,
refer to Classrooms With a Difference: A Practical Guide to the Use of
Conferencing Technologies by E.J. Burge and J.M. Roberts (1993) as well as the
many publications that describe the use of Internet.

Teleconferencing

! Both audio, audiographic, and video teleconferencing systems permit
interactive, dynamic communication between trainers and students who are
separated from each other. Audio, or audio combined with visuals, can be
transmitted between trainers and students via telephone lines or satellites. If
students are widely dispersed, or the distances are great, or the content
experts are not easily accessible, then teleconferencing will not only be less
expensive than sending a trainer to several locations, but will also provide
training that would otherwise be unavailable. In order to conduct
teleconference classes, you will need a telephone, a speaker phone that a
group of students can use, and a teleconference bridge that can link several
telephone lines together. Teleconferencing is a major component of the
distance education systems described by John Verduin and Thomas Clark
(1991) in their book Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice
and in Barry Willis' (1993) Distance Education: A Practical Guide.

! Audio teleconferencing is a simple technology to use. It is found throughout
the world, especially in Caribbean and Pacific Rim countries. When the
graphics of a microcomputer are combined with the audio, the result is
audiographic teleconferencing, which is now used to provide health
education in Central America. Students and instructors can use an electronic
tablet and pen to write text, draw graphics, or access previously prepared,
scanned graphics or video segments. Videoconferencing, which combines
moving images with an audio component, is used by the Commonwealth of
Learning, Vancouver, Canada to provide interactive training to islands in the
South Pacific.

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! The use of teleconferencing depends greatly on the availability of equipment
such as audio convenors, which transmit the audio messages between trainers
and learners, video cameras and monitors, and bridges that electronically
interconnect different training sites. Training via teleconferencing will be
efficient and effective only if the telecommunications infrastructure is
developed and reliable, the long‐distance transmission costs are minimal, the
equipment and interconnections are maintained, the training is well
structured, and the instructors are adept at using distance education
techniques. Teleconferencing may not be effective in situations that require
personal contact or where practical, hands‐on training is required. When
teleconferencing is provided over the Internet, it will be less expensive than
when it is offered via dedicated transmission lines or through the telephone
system. For additional information regarding teleconferencing and distance
education technologies in an international setting, contact the International
Council for Distance Education, Gjerdrums vei 12, N‐0486 Oslo 4, Norway.

Videodiscs and Compact Discs‐Read Only Memory (CD‐ROM)

! Both videodiscs and compact discs (CDs) store digital information and offer
many of the same features as videocassettes. Videodiscs can store up to
54,000 frames of information or still images on each side or provide one hour
of continuous play. Their still‐frames or pictures have a clarity that current
videocassettes placed in the pause mode cannot match. Like some
videocassettes, videodiscs have two audio channels; one can play in English,
the other in a foreign language. Because videodisc players are usually
connected to a microcomputer, interactive training can be provided.

! Videodiscs can be used in any situation that videocassettes are used.
However, many trainers prefer videodiscs because they are durable, have
rapid scan and search capabilities, present high quality images, and can be
digitally managed.

! Unfortunately, there are fewer videodisc titles than videocassette titles
available. It is expensive to make the first videodisc master, but once the
master is made, numerous high‐quality copies can be produced. Videodisc
technology is not widespread; therefore, finding or making appropriate discs
for a foreign audience can be difficult. However, during a recent Canadian
International Development Agency project, trainers from Pakistan came to
Canada where they learned about videodisc technology, developed their own
disc, and took the disc back to Pakistan. Those who want to design videodisc
materials for a specific international audience may want to investigate similar
opportunities.


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! A comprehensive list of available videodiscs is published in the Videodisc
Compendium. This publication is available from Emerging Technology
Consultants, P.O. Box 12444, St. Paul, MN 55112.

! CD‐ROMs are similar to videodiscs. CD‐ROMs are durable, 12‐cm plastic
discs that have digital information encoded on one side. Once the master
disc is made, copies can be duplicated inexpensively. Trainers can use a CD‐
ROM recorder to program their own discs for visual and/or audio
information. Most computer manufacturers now include CD‐ROM players
and discs with their microcomputers.

If you would like to learn more about these instructional technologies, you can
write Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 and ask
for a catalogue of their extensive publications. You may also want to refer to
Anderson, R. & Reynolds, A. (Eds.). (1991). Selecting and Developing Media for
Instruction (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, and Bates, A.W.
(1995). Technology, Open Learning and Distance Education. New York, NY:
Routledge. Remember that educational technology is changing rapidly;
therefore, refer to the most current publications on the application of new
technologies.

Adapting Learning Resources for an International Audience

It is always preferable to develop learning materials that are specifically designed
for your international audience. However, lack of time and resources may
prevent you from doing this. Including a few foreign examples is rarely sufficient.
Therefore, you must adapt your learning resources to suit your situation. You
may find the following suggestions helpful:

! Carefully match the materials to suit the profile of the intended audience.
Avoid culturally sensitive materials or situations. Your international students
want to learn something new; they do not want to be insulted or patronized.

! If possible, review learning materials that are being used in the country in
which you will be working. They may help you to determine what is
acceptable or suitable for your students.

! Use qualified interpreters and translators to prepare audiotracks and text
material. If possible, hire interpreters and translators who have actually
worked overseas. They will better understand the context in which the
materials will be used and they will be familiar with the local dialects and
conversational styles. In order to ensure that your words are used

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consistently, Pellet (1993) suggests that you provide the interpreters and
translators with a list of terms and their definitions.

! Remember that foreign languages usually require more words to express the
same information presented in English. Therefore, a foreign soundtrack or a
printed document may be longer than its English equivalent. Reynolds (1993)
notes that German requires about 30 percent more space than English, and
foreign monetary denominations usually contain more numbers. The space
requirements for foreign languages are most noticeable when you are
designing computerized learning materials. The screen's size and resolution
restrict the number of words or characters that can be displayed at any given
time.

! Use simple visuals and graphics to present and explain an idea or skill.
Remember that literacy rates in many developing countries are low.

! Use examples that will be familiar to your audience. For instance, do not use
baseball analogies when your potential audience are cricket fans.

! When in doubt, limit your creativity. Creativeness is often laden with cultural
overtones. What North Americans consider entertaining or humorous, others
may find offensive. If you can, attend a showing of the annual, international
advertising awards. These commercials will show you how to communicate
ideas in a short period of time. They will also reveal how creativity is defined
in other cultures.

! After you have developed or adapted your learning resources, review the
materials to ensure that all cultural sensitivities, which relate to your specific
audience, have been addressed.

! Ask an instructor or subject matter expert in the country where you will be
working to review your translations.

! Pilot test the materials with one or more prospective students. Ensure that
they can perform the tasks in the manner you intended.


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3.9 Design Evaluation Procedures and Follow‐up
Activities

Although some experts recommend that evaluation instruments such as
assignments and tests be developed after the objectives are formulated, it may be
more appropriate to develop them after you have selected your content and
learning resources. In this way, you will know precisely what content the
students will have covered and the resources they will use to learn and test their
skills.

Evaluation can be formative or summative. During formative evaluation,
instructors try to determine how to improve both the students' progress and their
training methods. Summative evaluations indicate the extent to which students
have changed behavior and achieved specific levels of competence. During
international training programs, both formative and summative evaluations must
be conducted in order to assess the extent to which the students and training
have achieved the program's goals and objectives.

For additional information on formative and summative evaluation refer to
Instructional Design: Principles and Applications by Briggs, Gustafson & Tillman
(1991). For information on evaluation in a business setting, refer to Training for
Impact: How to Link Training to Business Needs and Measure the Results by
Robinson & Robinson (1989).

Evaluation Instruments

A variety of evaluation instruments can be used to assess student progress and
performance. Although some may be delivered orally, most will be in the form of
text that is printed on a page or shown on a computer screen. A few of these
items are described below.

Checklists

! Checklists are ideal for measuring the presence or absence of a trait or
verifying that a sequence of events has occurred.

! They are especially useful for recording the achievement of psychomotor
skills. Checklists are often used to assess whether or not an individual can
perform specified skills in a job setting.


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Questionnaires

! Questionnaires are used to assess the existence of specific feelings, interests,
and opinions.

! They can be used to evaluate the achievement of affective skills or knowledge
of certain skills. They are particularly effective in assessing the quality of the
training program and the trainer.

! Questionnaires frequently include checklists and rating scales.

! Good questionnaires take time to construct. Unless the questions are stated
properly, you may not receive the information that you need to adjust the
training program or to determine if students have achieved specified goals.

Rating Scales

! Rating scales are used to judge items that are not absolute, neither present
nor absent, or good or bad.

! They can be used to judge the achievement of cognitive, psychomotor, or
affective objectives.

! Rating scales that contain five to seven units of measure are generally easier
to use and interpret than those with a larger number of units. If fewer units
of measure are included on the rating scale, you may not receive anymore
information than a checklist could provide.

Standardized Tests

! Standardized tests, such as TOEFL (a test of foreign students' English skills),
can provide feedback which can then be compared to a large body of
information. These tests reveal how a student performs relative to other
students with similar characteristics. Because they are usually based on a
large population, the results are considered reliable.

! Unfortunately, standardized tests are usually culture specific. Therefore,
some tests may not be appropriate for the culture in which you will be
working.

! These tests are usually general in nature and are unlikely to measure the
specific objectives of your training program. However, they can provide you

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with an indication of your students' overall skills in certain cognitive and
psychomotor areas. This information can then be incorporated in your
program and audience needs analysis.

Trainer‐constructed Tests

! Trainers may design their own tests to evaluate their students' achievement of
the objectives specified in the training program. These instruments may test
cognitive, psychomotor, and affective performance.

! Trainers do not usually take the time to construct high quality tests that are
both valid and reliable. A test is valid if it measures what it is intended to
measure and covers the objectives of the training program. A reliable test
produces consistent scores for students who have similar capabilities.

! Before designing your own tests, review the tests other international trainers
have designed for a specific topic and culture.

! You may want to refer to the following publications on test construction and
classroom assessment procedures.

Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.

Gronlund, N.E. (1978). Preparing criterion referenced tests for classroom
instruction. New York, NY: McMillan.

Gronlund, N.E. (1988). How to construct achievement tests (4th
ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall.

Jacobs, L.C. & Chase, C.I. (1992). Developing and using tests effectively: A
guide for faculty. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.

Test Planning

In order to construct an effective test that measures the objectives of your
training program, you should:

! list the course goals and objectives;

! verify that the objectives can be measured;


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! identify the objectives with the highest priority;

! ascertain which objectives students must be able to achieve without error;

! assign a value or test weight to each objective;

! indicate that the objective is testing a knowledge, application, or problem‐
solving skill;

! select a question type that can achieve each of the objectives;

! review test questions that you or others have used previously;

! write the test questions (construct more questions than you will need);

! review your test questions and ensure that they:
‐ are written at a language level that is appropriate for your audience;
‐ do not include stereotypes or biases;
‐ do not contain clues that can be used to answer other questions;
‐ are arranged in an ascending order of difficulty;
‐ emphasize the measurement of application and problem‐solving skills;

! take the test yourself. Because you are extremely knowledgeable about the
subject matter, you should be able to complete the test in about one‐third of
the time that you expect your students to complete it. This guideline may not
be appropriate if your students must perform a certain sequence of cognitive
or psychomotor skills within a given time period;

! modify the test based on the time it took you to complete it;

! construct the test answer key;

! ask another expert to review the questions;

! if possible, pilot the test with students who are similar to your prospective
international audience;

! after reviewing the pilot data, revise the test and make two answer keys. Keep
each answer key in a different location; and

! keep your tests in a secure place.


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Types of Test Questions

You can use several types of test questions to ascertain whether or not your
students can achieve specified objectives. Select the question type that best
meets your needs.

Essay Questions

! Essay questions are used to test the achievement of complex skills such as
application, synthesis, and evaluation.

! Although these test questions can be constructed quickly, essays can take a
long time to mark. Because marking can be very subjective, you should
construct an answer key that contains a number of acceptable responses.

! Unless written work is essential to the application of the skills taught in an
international training program, it may be better to conduct an oral essay test.
Oral tests take time and must be administered to each student individually.

Matching Questions

! Matching questions can be used to test associations and, if well constructed,
they can be used to verify that students have knowledge of a specific sequence
of events.

! Unless instructors allow students to select a response more than once, or
unless one list of items is longer than the other, students may achieve success
simply by eliminating items rather than by knowing the correct answer.

! Frequently, matching questions are constructed in a written form. However,
in an international setting, it may be better to use different three‐dimensional
objects and ask students to demonstrate how objects are related.

Multiple‐choice Questions

! Multiple‐choice questions can be used in a variety of situations and can test
all domains of learning in a relatively short period of time. These questions
can also be scored quickly.

! Poorly constructed multiple‐choice questions have often been called
"multiple‐guess" questions. Quality questions, with plausible alternative
choices, take time to develop. One of the best ways to construct good
multiple‐choice questions is to write a short scenario or case study. Then

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ask a series of questions based on this scenario. Consider all the errors
students are likely to make and include these errors in the possible choices.

! There are many sources for multiple‐choice questions. Textbook publishers
often provide test questions on paper or on computer discs. However, these
questions must be reviewed carefully because they frequently test knowledge
skills only.

Several professional and vocational organizations have developed multiple‐choice
tests that they use to determine if a student should receive professional
accreditation. These organizations may not be willing to release their exams
unless the trainers can guarantee that the questions will be kept secure.

Short Answer Questions

! Short answer or completion questions are used to test low‐level skills.
Students must complete a small task or insert the words or numbers that
correctly complete a statement. Consequently, a number of skills can be
tested in a short period of time.

! Although short answer questions can be objective and can be scored quickly,
they are prone to ambiguity. Unless these test questions are well constructed,
students spend more time trying to determine what is being asked rather
than formulating the correct answer. Short answer questions can also be used
to determine if a student can follow a sequence of events.

True/False Questions

! True/false questions can be used to cover a large number of items in a short
period of time. These questions are excellent for assessing previous learning
or summarizing new material. True/false questions test recognition and are
suitable for assessing low‐level skill attainment.

! Good true/false questions are not easy to construct. It can be extremely
difficult to construct questions that are definitely or unequivocally true or
false. Students are prone to guess at the answers to true/false questions.

Follow‐up Activities

Once the evaluation instruments have been constructed, you must determine
what the students should do if they do not achieve some of the objectives tested.
If the evaluation instruments are used for formative purposes, then the students
should be given an opportunity to review their learning material and to practice

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their skills until they can perform satisfactorily. If the instruments are used for
summative purposes, then the students may or may not receive accreditation for
being able to perform satisfactorily at a predetermined level. In either case, you
should consider what students can do after the training period. Should they be
provided with activities that can help them to achieve accreditation at a later
date? If students successfully complete a summative evaluation, what other
opportunities will you provide? Will other training programs be provided at a
later date? Will these programs be offered in their country, or will you provide
advanced training at your place of work? Most international training programs
raise the expectations of the students and then leave them in a frustrated
position. To avoid this frustration, plan suitable follow‐up activities both for
students who do not graduate from the program and for students who
successfully complete the program. Consider returning to the foreign country to
ascertain how they are applying the skills you taught them. If possible, this
follow‐up should be conducted within a year of the training program.


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3.10 Pilot Test

Before delivering the international training, you should seriously consider
piloting or field‐testing your training program. Ask students, who are similar to
those you will be training overseas, to participate in the initial delivery of your
program. If this is not possible, ask other experts to review your blueprint,
training materials, and evaluation instruments. At the very least, ensure that all
members of the training team have an opportunity to review the training plans
and to observe you presenting part of the training program. Any feedback that
you receive from students, experts, or colleagues will help you to design an
effective and efficient program that meets the needs of your prospective
international students. If we expect automobile manufacturers to test their
products before we buy them, and surgeons to practice their skills before
operating, then our overseas students should expect us to test our materials and
methods before we use them.

Greer (1992) suggests that the following steps should be taken during a pilot test
of training materials:

! Obtain test subjects.

! Assemble copies of the necessary materials and equipment. In addition,
provide evaluation instruments such as student questionnaires and observer
checklists.

! Ask students to participate in training activities and use draft materials. The
observers should note what is confusing for the student and, if appropriate,
how long it takes the student to resolve the problem.

! Debrief the students and observers. Review both the written and oral
feedback. Oral feedback is essential as it often reveals feelings that are not
easily recorded on paper. Consider having an external or third party facilitate
the debriefing sessions.

! Ascertain the revisions to be made to the training program by "walking
through" the training program and noting the concerns raised by the test
participants during each step of the training program.

After the pilot test, the training team leader must approve all changes to be made
to the training activities and materials. Once the revisions are complete, the
training program is more likely to meet the needs of the international audience.


4.0 Presentation Skills

Contents

4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................4/1

4.2 Using English in an International Setting ........................................... 4/4

4.3 Working with Interpreters and Translators ........................................ 4/6

4.4 Planning the Presentation ................................................................... 4/11
Introduction .......................................................................................................4/11
Develop an Audience Profile ............................................................................4/11
Review the Purpose of the Presentation......................................................... 4/13
Outline the Presentation ................................................................................. 4/13
Select and Prepare Visuals and Other Media................................................. 4/17
Select and Arrange Facilities............................................................................ 4/19
Make Arrangements for Materials and Equipment ....................................... 4/21
Plan an Evaluation............................................................................................4/22
Rehearse the Presentation ............................................................................... 4/23

4.5 Delivering the Presentation................................................................ 4/24
Establish the Learning Climate .......................................................................4/24
Provide Effective Instruction ...........................................................................4/27
Listen Actively...................................................................................................4/30
Use Effective Oral Questions and Provide Positive Feedback…………………..4/32
Revitalize and Close the Presentation ............................................................ 4/35

4.6 Handling Your Nonverbal Behavior ....................................................4/37

4.7 Dealing with Challenging People and Situations............................... 4/40

4.8 Presentation Skills Checklist .............................................................. 4/49

Presentation Skills 4/1
4.1 Introduction

An effective instructor is a trainer, educator, facilitator, and counsellor. The
instructor uses training activities to convey information and impart skills. During
educational activities, the instructor develops the students' intellectual
capabilities and increases their awareness of their own potential and the possible
applications of their new skills. Through the use of effective facilitation skills, an
instructor encourages students to adopt or adapt new knowledge and skills to
meet the needs in their own environment. The process of learning is emphasized.
Counselling occurs when the instructor provides advice, which may relate to
personal issues identified by students, as well as to education and employment.
All of these instructional activities are important in an international setting.
However, international instructors frequently place greater emphasis on the
training and facilitation functions that involve the transfer of knowledge and skill
and the acceptance of new ideas.

Effective instructors who emphasize the transfer of knowledge and skills and
encourage the acceptance of new ideas must:

! Carefully plan learning activities ! Speak briefly.
and allow for contingencies.
! Listen actively.
! Establish rapport with the
students. ! Allow for thoughtful silence.

! Display enthusiasm for the ! Treat all students fairly.
instructional‐learning process.
! Ensure all are given the
! Be confident of their skills. opportunity to participate.

! Smile. ! Encourage dialogue and
interaction wherever possible.
! Be honest.
! Ask probing questions.
! Be credible.
! Be polite, diplomatic, and tactful.
! Develop and maintain trust.
! Capitalize on individual expertise,
! Be flexible. experience, and creativity.

! Be patient. ! Address all questions or redirect
comments and questions to other
! Be sensitive to the needs of others. members of the group.


! Be aware of hidden agendas. ! Avoid any form of embarrassment.

! Avoid confrontations. ! Encourage different points of
view.
! Be open to new ideas.
! Paraphrase and summarize ideas.
! Set the stage.
! Seek clarification.
! Set high, but achievable standards.
! Examine underlying rationales for
! Maintain a positive climate. different points of view.

! Offer support and guidance. ! Recognize when a learning activity
is failing and provide an
! Maintain reasonable eye contact alternative.
with the participants, if culturally
acceptable. ! Have fun; relieve the tension.

! Speak clearly. ! Bring closure to learning activities
and plan for follow‐up.

In addition to the items listed above, instructors who facilitate group discussions
that are designed to assess the application of new skills or ideas or to address a
challenge must:

! Believe in the positive benefits of group dynamics.

! Believe in the value of sharing the opinions of others.

! Determine appropriate facilitation strategies.

! Increase the participants' commitment to group activities.

! Be careful not to reveal biases about the subject matter under discussion.

! Be gently assertive in order to keep the students focused on the issue being
discussed and to encourage the generation and prioritization of appropriate
solutions.

! Sort, merge, and organize ideas.

! Strive for win‐win solutions.


! Check for agreement. Note, however, that many cultures may indicate
agreement even when they do not agree with what has been stated.

This chapter shows how instructors can mount effective presentations for
international audiences. Remember, teaching is an art as well as a science; there
is no perfect way to nurture the development of others. This chapter presents
general guidelines for providing instruction in an international setting, but the
guidelines must be adapted for each cultural situation. Therefore, take the
time to ascertain all you can about the social and cultural attributes of your
prospective students. When you are overseas, consider asking one or two
willing students in your class to share their perceptions regarding your
instruction. Do not expect them to Alose face@ or to Atattletale@ on their fellow
students.


4.2 Using English in an International Setting

Unless you are fluent in a foreign language, it is highly likely that you will deliver
your international training in English. However, your international students, as
well as the interpreters, may not be proficient in the use of English. In most
developing countries, English is not the mother tongue. In addition, more than
one language or dialect may be commonly spoken. Papua New Guinea, for
example, has more than 750 tribes and 700 languages (The Globe and Mail, June
28, 1993). There are, moreover, countries in which English has an official
function or is widely spoken, but is not the native language. These countries
include:

Bangladesh Israel Nauru Sudan
Botswana Kenya Nigeria Swaziland
Brunei Lesotho Pakistan Tanzania
Cameroon Liberia Philippines Tonga
Ethiopia Malawi Seychelles Uganda
Fiji Malaysia Sierra Leone Western Samoa
Gambia Malta Singapore Zambia
Ghana Mauritius South Africa Zimbabwe
India Namibia Sri Lanka
(Lowenberg, 1989, 216)

Although the citizens of these countries may speak English, do not expect that
their English will be similar to that used in North America or Britain. Frequently,
the English spoken in countries such as India and the Philippines has often been
blended with local languages or the local sentence syntax is employed. For
example, in English, the normal syntax is subject‐verb‐object; in other languages
it may be object‐verb‐subject or subject‐object‐verb. How can we expect those
who live in other countries to understand how we define and use the more than
750,000 words in the English language? The meanings of words depend on the
cultural context in which they are used. Nigerians, for example, say "next
tomorrow" when they mean "the day after tomorrow." It should not surprise you
if students say that they do not understand your English. Students who live in
Commonwealth countries may have learned the 'Queen's English' in schools.
Consequently, they may have difficulty understanding unfamiliar jargon and
colloquialisms.

English may be spoken well in one country yet be barely comprehensible in
another. Proficiency in English depends on a variety of factors, including the
country's history and the student's motivation. Citizens of developing countries
that have been associated with American and British colonization and/or trade

arrangements were often encouraged or sometimes forced to adopt English as
their official language, or to use English as their language of commerce.
Developing countries that want to modernize and expand will probably need
access to information written in English (Crainer, 1993). Countries such as
Thailand, which consider globalization and world trade as important drivers of
economic and social development, have recognized the need for their highly‐
skilled, urban citizens to learn English. Alternatively, in order to restore their
unique cultural and national identities, the governments of countries such as the
Philippines are now promoting the use of their native languages instead of
English. However, many individuals who seek economic rewards and/or higher
social status will take every formal and informal opportunity to learn English.
These highly motivated individuals will welcome your expertise and strive to
decipher your instruction.

Before travelling overseas, you should determine the English‐speaking abilities of
your students, interpreters, and translators. Their use of English will affect how
and what you present. You may have to ask your students, interpreters, and
translators to repeat or explain what you are saying, and encourage them to
request clarification when your meaning is unclear to them. This encouragement
must be given repeatedly at the outset. Otherwise, they will assume that you are
just being polite when, in fact, you actually want them to ask any questions they
need to ask in order to understand you.


4.3 Working with Interpreters and Translators

If you are unfamiliar with the language that your prospective students speak, and
your students cannot understand English, it may be necessary to hire translators
and interpreters. Translators work with written and visual materials, while
interpreters work with the spoken word. Interpreters can often function as
translators, but it is rare to find translators who are effective interpreters.

Interpretations can be conducted in a simultaneous or consecutive manner.
Simultaneous interpretation occurs when an interpreter is able to use special
equipment to provide an interpretation as someone speaks. Consecutive
interpretation occurs when the interpretation is given intermittently during a
speech. Usually, the speaker pauses frequently so that the interpreter can restate
a few phrases or sentences at a time. Therefore, consecutive interpretation
makes a presentation about twice as long as those given in one language only or
by simultaneous interpretation. Consecutive interpretation is frequently used for
small groups.

Selecting a good translator or interpreter is not an easy task. These specialists
must not only be fluent in two or more languages, but they must also understand
the meaning, nuances, and idiosyncrasies of each language, as well as the
technical terms used in a specific field. Excellent translators and interpreters
develop a comfortable rapport with the speaker, becoming familiar with his or
her personality and style. Under ideal conditions, an international training team
should be accompanied by translators and interpreters who are familiar with the
team members. However, this may be impractical, and training teams or
individual instructors may need to rely on the specialists provided by their host.
These specialists may exhibit a strong allegiance to their country. However,
unless you are dealing with sensitive issues, using the services provided by the
host organization or country should not be a major concern.

When selecting translators or interpreters, consider the following:

! How fluent are they in the language they must use? How well do they
know the local language? In China, for example, must they be able to speak
Cantonese or Mandarin? Remember, English may be a second language for
your overseas translators and interpreters.

! What experience do they have? Are they familiar with local etiquette? Do
they travel to the region frequently? Be sure to verify the accuracy of the
information they provide.


! Are they familiar with English idioms? Can they find suitable words and
phrases in the local language that match the phrases you use?

! Whom have they worked for? Did their previous clients work in the same
field that you will be working in?

! Have they translated or interpreted materials or instruction similar to
that which you will be using or delivering overseas? If you will be using
technical terminology, younger interpreters are more likely to be familiar
with the terminology associated with computers, for example.

! Will you feel comfortable working with them? Remember that they will
represent you. If they do not understand your goals and what it is that you
want to convey, they will confuse your audience.

! Will they be respected by your students? This factor is important during
consecutive interpretations, when the interpreter is frequently standing near
you at the front of the class. Interpreters must behave appropriately and
comply with established protocols. However, they must not have egos that
prevent them from interacting in a positive manner with students who may
have less education or social status.

! Do they belong to a professional association? Associations can provide
training, set standards, and grant certification. Have your translators and
interpreters been certified?

These questions will help you choose suitable people, but when working in a
developing country, you often will not have the luxury of selecting the best
among several qualified candidates. You will have to employ the services of those
who are available. There may be only one interpreter in an entire community!

In order to find competent translators and interpreters, you may want to contact
the international education offices at your local university, professional
associations, business and trade associations, and federal or provincial and state
governments, especially those with external affairs departments. Take the time
to hire well qualified translators and interpreters; they will be representing you.

After selecting translators or interpreters, spend some time with them. Brief
them about your training goals. Provide them with background material that
may help them to understand the training you will provide. It is important to
give them a list of all subject‐specific or technical terms so that they will have
time to translate or interpret words or concepts that may not exist in a specific
foreign language. If you give them an outline of your presentation, they may be

able to tell you if the students will find it difficult to understand the material.
You might also ask them to suggest the protocol that should be used if students
are invited to participate actively in the discussion.

If possible, practice your presentation with the interpreters. They need to
become familiar with your style, and you need to feel comfortable in the
interpretive process.

The following suggestions can help you work most effectively with interpreters.
Several of the suggestions also apply to situations in which translators are used.

! Reduce the amount of information you want to convey. Interpretation
takes time. You cannot cover as much information as you normally do.
Consecutive interpretation may reduce the amount of material you can cover
by 60 percent.

! Provide interpreters with copies of your presentation or an outline. They
can use this information to ensure that they are translating your intended
meaning. Always meet with your interpreters ahead of time to discuss your
presentations.

! Provide interpreters and students with a vocabulary list of special words
or technical terms.

! Introduce your interpreter. Make him or her feel part of the instructional
team.

! Speak directly to your host or students, not to the interpreter. You are the
information provider. If you look only at the interpreter, the audience may
feel slighted. In addition, the interpreter will take on a stature that he or she
does not deserve.

! Speak clearly and slowly, but not too slowly. Learn to keep one eye on the
interpreter so that you can adjust the pace of your delivery.

! Pause frequently, especially after presenting each concept. Allow your
interpreter time to complete the interpretation and, if necessary, make notes.
It frequently takes more words to express an idea in a foreign language than it
does in English. For example, Spanish may require 20 percent more words to
convey the same meaning as English (Albrecht, 1996). During your pauses,
watch the reaction of the audience to assess their understanding of the
material. However, remember that many Asian people have learned not to
reveal their inner feelings.

! Summarize frequently. Ensure that your audience has not lost the thrust of
your presentation. You could politely ask a few members of your audience to
summarize what they have just learned, but be careful; in some cultures, this
may cause the individual to be embarrassed or Alose face.@

! Speak only English. Don't confuse your international audience by speaking
more than one language during your presentation. However, if you know
how to say "good morning" and "thank you" correctly in their language, do so.

! Speak in a well‐modulated voice, but do show enthusiasm for your
subject matter. Do not speak too loudly. The audience may not understand
English, but they are intelligent. They are not hard of hearing. Furthermore,
speaking loudly in countries such as Thailand may be considered as rude
behavior, unbecoming of a person who deserves respect. Do remember that
your tone of voice can convey as much or more than what you actually say.
Perhaps 30 to 35 percent of meaning is carried by words, the rest by the vocal
and visual components of speaking (Dean, Brooke & Shields, 1996).

! Speak concisely. Use active, concrete words as much as possible. Use short
simple sentences.

! Avoid unusual words such as colloquialisms, jargon, slang, and technical
terms unless the nature of the subject matter requires that these expressions
be used.

! Avoid ambiguous words. This may be difficult; therefore, place words in an
appropriate context so that the meaning is clear.

! Avoid abbreviations. If you use abbreviations, explain them first and write
them down so that everyone can see them.

! Use visuals such as graphics and charts to clarify ideas. Write the numbers,
particularly when discussing topics related to engineering, finance, and
health. Provide copies of your visuals to both your interpreter and the
audience.

! Use gestures cautiously. Although gestures can emphasize or illustrate a
point, the gestures you use may not be culturally acceptable. Remember that
during consecutive interpretations, your gestures may lose their meaning or
impact. By the time the interpreter has converted the words associated with
your gestures, your audience may not remember which gesture accompanied
which words.


! Minimize the use of humor unless you are familiar with the audience. If
you use humor, it should be directly related to the topic being discussed.
Consider discussing the use of humor and stories with your interpreter and
your host before using them. Humor frequently relies on word plays or the
knowledge of specific people, places, and events. Consequently, your
audience may lack the cultural context necessary to understand your humor.
Sarcasm is never appropriate.

! Encourage feedback to ascertain understanding. Pause to allow students to
listen to the interpreter and collect their thoughts. Ask questions or ask
students to take part in verbal, written, or other demonstrative exercises that
illustrate their grasp of the ideas you presented. Make sure a translator is
available if written exercises are employed.

! Show confidence in your interpreter. Your students will note the respect
that you have for others and your interpreter will try harder to convert your
ideas into a form meaningful to your audience. However, be careful that your
interpreter does not become the center of attention and use authority that he
or she does not rightfully have. Make sure the interpreter does not answer
questions without asking you what the correct responses should be.

! Do not interrupt the interpreter during consecutive interpretation
situations. Be courteous.

! Use two or more interpreters during long presentations and especially
during simultaneous interpretations. It is mentally strenuous to convert ideas
from one language to another in a continuous fashion.

! Provide a list of key points at the end of the presentation. The points
should be translated and be culturally acceptable.

! Thank your interpreter and your audience.

Good presentations are always accompanied by well‐written materials. These
materials will become a permanent record of your instruction. Take the time to
have them translated correctly and adapted to the culture in which they will be
used. Note that it can take as long to translate the material as it did to write it.
Have the materials proofread. Better yet, once they have been translated, ask a
different translator to convert them back into English. Any differences between
the original meaning and the second translated version should be readily evident.
You can use the same procedure to verify that the audio portions of audiovisual
materials have been interpreted correctly.


4.4 Planning the Presentation

Introduction

The previous chapter, Planning Instruction for an International Audience,
presented a thorough examination of the process you should follow when
developing a training program for international students. This section focuses on
the preparation needed to present your instruction and builds upon the
information provided in the previous chapter.

Develop an Audience Profile

Prior to assembling the content of your presentation, you need to reacquaint
yourself with the characteristics and experiences of your students. When you
establish a profile of your audience, you will be able to design your presentation
to suit your listeners. Such a profile will help you to select appropriate
illustrations and examples and ensure that your presentation meets the students'
expectations.

In order to develop your audience profile, you must determine answers to the
following key questions:

! What is the training or educational background of the students?

! What on‐the‐job experiences have they had? Do all of them have the same
occupation?

! What do they already know about the subject?

! What do they want to learn during your session?

! What do they hope to do with the information and/or skills that they will
acquire during the session? Are they motivated to learn new material?

! What are their expectations regarding the teaching‐learning process? What
difficulties and misconceptions might they have regarding the instructional
process and the subject matter to be discussed?

! Has the audience heard you before? Are they familiar with your work?


! What is their average age? Is the audience predominately male or female or
an equal mix of the two?

! Are there any cultural or religious considerations that you should
contemplate? For example, in Arab countries, education and religion are
closely linked. Your students may believe that the will of a superior being will
determine the results of an experiment. Your classes may be all male or all
female because the religion prohibits females from associating with males
who are not related to them.

! Has the region experienced a recent unpleasant or catastrophic event that
may affect your presentation or the students' attention? It is difficult to focus
on learning if your family has just been flooded out of their home in the
Philippines or military action has made it unsafe for you to travel to and from
school in East Africa.

After you have a basic profile of your students, you should pay particular
attention to their needsCwhat do they want? Frequently, they want new
information and skills; therefore, you must be ready to explain or instruct.
However, you may be required to motivate the group to accept new ideas and to
act in a new or different manner. Once you have determined why you are
addressing a particular group of students, it is easier to select, arrange, and
organize the content of the presentation.

Review the Purpose of the Presentation

You are selected, invited, or have volunteered to work overseas. Do you
remember why? What did the sponsoring organization and the host
organization expect you to do? Ensure that the presentation or series of
presentations you give will meet not only your students' needs, but also those of
the sponsoring and host organizations. Your mission is to accomplish something
meaningful. It is difficult to deliver an effective presentation unless you believe
that what you are doing is worthwhile.

Outline the Presentation

Most outlines are limited to key sentences or key words. However, if you are
planning a presentation for an international audience you have never met, you
should consider writing out your entire presentation. You may be more
comfortable in front of the audience, if you do not need to concentrate on the
subject matter, and you will be free to focus on your audience's reaction to the

material. In addition, if your written presentation is translated, it can be left for
your foreign audience to refer to after you return home.

Determine the three or four key items you want your students to learn from each
presentation. North Americans generally try to cover too much. To ensure that
your presentation is effective, make a clear distinction between what is essential
and what is nice to know. Remember that if English is not your students' first
language, they will find it difficult to grasp what you are telling them. Also, if you
are in a situation in which consecutive interpretation is necessary, you can only
present half of the information that you would normally cover in a given time.

Each presentation should include an introduction that arouses interest, a body
that contains the content and practice activities, and a conclusion that integrates
or summarizes the ideas presented. Plan your presentation so that it moves
logically from start to finish. The conclusion should ask the audience to apply
the knowledge and skills they acquired during the presentation.

As you outline your content, you should remember to:

! Group similar ideas together.

! Begin with familiar or easy concepts and move to unfamiliar or difficult
concepts.

! Arrange content in a logical sequence.

! Introduce a general idea before outlining specifics.

! Indicate relationships.

! Use transitions.

! Include relevant local examples to illustrate concepts. Consider using case
studies of local situations.

! Build in opportunities to receive audience feedback;

! Develop a flexible formatCdepending on the audience's response, you may
need to quickly adjust the content of your presentation.

Once your outline has been written, confirm that the presentation will meet the
teaching‐learning expectations of your students. If you have not done so already,

examine library reference materials and consult with others who have worked
overseas in the country in which you will conduct your training activities.

The following lists of impressions and suggestions regarding education in China
and Thailand were generated by international educators who attended workshops
given by the author in Vancouver and Toronto, Canada. You should record
similar and more extensive observations for the country in which you will be
working. Then, consider how this information may be used to revise your
presentation outline. Note that several suggestions would be applicable in any
culture, not just those of China and Thailand.

China

! Instructors are treated with respect and students are more formally addressed
than they are in North America.

! Indicate or provide the textbook that you will follow. There is little
opportunity to deviate from the established curriculum. The curriculum
tends to be linear and inflexible; students generally cannot return to
previously covered material.

! Active class participation is not the Chinese tradition. Students are
accustomed to following a cycle of instruction, seat work, and evaluation.
Active participation is not invited.

! Drill‐type questions are frequently used.

! Rote memorization is commonplace.

! If one of your objectives is to change the Chinese learning style, you should be
aware that this will extremely difficult. Do not expect to effect a change in
learning style during a short‐term assignment.

! Be aware of your audience. Some students may attend the class for political
reasons. Know what is politically acceptable.

! Classroom conditions can be difficult; rooms are often dirty and too hot or
cold.

! Photocopy machines are not available, and other equipment is outdated.
Paper may be difficult to obtain.


! Sleeping in class is not considered impolite. Other student behaviors, which
may be irritating to you, are also culturally acceptable.

! Students are not familiar with the concept of plagiarism. Individuals help
each other and may submit identical work.

! Few students use outside reference sources. Materials distributed in class are
the primary sources of information.

! It is important to understand the Chinese concepts of time and history. The
term "recent" may refer to events that occurred in the 1800s.

! Chinese students exhibit a strong ethnocentricity.

! Relationships are based on reciprocation.

! Gift‐giving can be a problem. Before you give or accept a gift, make sure that
you are aware of the consequences. After eating an elaborate meal given in
his honor, a Canadian instructor found that his host expected him to find a
bride for his son! An overseas bride was preferred!!

Thailand

! Check for fluency in English. Are language skills basic or advanced? Students
often indicate they are fluent in English, but in reality their knowledge of
English is minimal. Many can understand spoken English but cannot read
English texts.

! Speak slowly.

! Check frequently to make sure you are being understood.

! Resist the temptation to speak and listen to those who are most fluent. Those
who are not acknowledged will feel embarrassed and lose interest.

! Repeat key points often.

! Be careful not to single out individuals. Address your questions to all
students.

! Adjust expectations of student performance to local levels, yet strive for
excellence and a thorough knowledge of the subject matter.

! Be a learner yourself. How would you feel if you were in their situation?

! Adjust your sense of time to local values. North Americans have a more
precise sense of time. There is never enough of it. Thais feel that time is
plentiful.

! Honor the King, the Royal Family, and Buddha.

! Accept respect graciously.

! Provide frequent breaks from instruction.

! Recognize the status and positions of your students and hosts.

! Follow the local protocol for testing and evaluation.

Review your outline. Ask yourself the questions below.

! Is the content relevant to the needs of my audience? Will my presentation
help students to accomplish a specific skill or skills?

! How will I know that the students have learned? Have I designed suitable
evaluation instruments such as a series of quizzes, tests, and student
demonstrations?

! Did I provide adequate time for practice and questions?

! Did I allow time for refreshment breaks and opening and closing formalities?
In developing countries, it is common for elaborate opening and closing
ceremonies to be held in an instructor's honor or to honor the occasion. They
may take up half a day of your training time, thus you must plan your training
time accordingly. Remember that these events are important. They allow for
social interaction and provide you with an opportunity to learn more about
your students.

! Can I accomplish all the activities I outlined in the allotted time?

! Is my plan flexible? Overseas, due to a number of unforeseen events and
circumstances, your presentation may not proceed as you planned it while
sitting in your comfortable, predictable environment at home.


Select and Prepare Visuals and Other Media

A good presentation has greater impact when it includes media. Since most
people are either visual or auditory learners, you should plan to include some
form of audio or visual media in your presentation. Media can be used to
introduce a new idea or concept, support verbal information, facilitate a
transition from one topic to the next, or efficiently summarize the entire
presentation.

Before travelling overseas, determine what media will be appropriate and
available there. Because electrical power in various regions of a developing
country may be unavailable or unreliable, ensure that your presentation does not
rely exclusively on electronic equipment. Consider using equipment that can run
on batteries.

Visuals, such as overhead transparencies and slides can be used to reinforce your
verbal message. When an instructor shows a picture of something while
describing it, students can retain significantly more information than when they
receive only a verbal message.

Retention

After 3 Hours After 3 Days
Tell only 70% 10%
Show only 72% 20%
Show and Tell 85% 65%
(Bender, 1991, p. 131)

According to Peoples (1988, p. 66), "...of the total inventory of knowledge you
have in your head, 75 percent came to you visually, 13 percent through hearing,
and a sum total of 12 percent through smell, taste, and touch."

Visuals:
! can arouse and hold your audience's attention;
! can explain complex ideas and relationships;
! can be used with a multilingual audience;
! can be designed to address the needs of illiterate students;
! can be used as your presentation notes.


Visuals may be:

! one‐sheet handouts containing key points, flowcharts, and/or diagrams that
are distributed at the beginning of the presentation;

! prepared transparencies, slides, or computer graphics that are used to
highlight key points;

! three‐dimensional, real objects or models that can be touched and
manipulated;

! chalkboard diagrams, flipchart graphics, overhead transparencies, and
computer graphics generated during the presentation to illustrate ideas or to
explain difficult concepts or sophisticated equipment;

! detailed notes and readings that are distributed at the end of your
presentation for students to use as references.

You may think that detailed notes and readings should not be in this list.
However, by presenting students with this material at the end of the workshop,
you subtly reinforce the importance of your presentation and encourage them to
delve further into the topic you presented. An attractive handout can add impact
to your presentation.

When you prepare your visuals, refer to the previous chapter, Planning
Instruction for an International Audience, and consider the suggestions below:

! Link the visuals directly to your content. Each visual should carry a
definite message.

! Keep your visuals simple. If you want to illustrate a complex idea or device,
consider making diagrams with a series of overlays or draw a series of
illustrations that are increasingly complex.

! Use only a few colors, unless you are presenting an image of a real object.
Use color only when it serves a purpose. Make sure that there is high contrast
between foreground images and their background patterns or colors. For
example, use white, light gray, and blue background colors. Your text or
drawing may be black, dark blue, or green. Use red, orange, fulfill or yellow
to highlight specific features. Check that the colors you use are culturally
acceptable. Consider developing a color scheme for your visuals, but be
careful not to create unintentional meanings.


! Use as few words as possible to capture an idea. If possible, have your
message translated into the local language. Ensure that the words are printed
in a large font that can be seen by those at the back of the training room.
Letters on overhead transparencies should be at least 3/8", and preferably, 1/2"
high. Lettering on chalkboards or wall charts should be one inch high for
every ten feet of viewing distance. Use sans‐serif fonts or typefaces and a
mixture of capital and lowercase letters. Do not use all uppercase letters.

! Proofread all the material that you prepare. Check names and numbers
carefully. If possible, ask a colleague or an editor to review your work.

! Obtain copyright permission for any materials that you did not make
yourself.

Remember that students in outlying areas of some developing countries may
have difficulty understanding simplified or abstract renditions of real objects.
Therefore, whenever possible, use real models, bring photographs, and be
prepared to help your students interpret the visuals.

In order to obtain additional information regarding the design and
implementation of visual images refer to F.M. Francis (1987), Enhancing
Visualized Instruction: Recommendations for Practitioners. State College, PA:
Learning Services.

Select and Arrange Facilities

During an overseas assignment in a developing country, it is unlikely that you
will have the opportunity to select your training facilities. They will most likely
be provided for you. In rural Bangladesh, your training room may have a dirt
floor; in Central Africa, a grass roof may be the only protection from the
elements; and in St. Lucia, one training room may be separated from another by
only a chalkboard. However, if you do have the opportunity to choose the facility
in which your training will take place, consider the items below.

! Location: Is it accessible for your students? Is it close to your hotel or
temporary residence?

! Costs: What will the rental charges be? Will this amount fit the project
budget?

! Flexibility: Can the space be altered to suit your needs? Can the space
accommodate specialized equipment that will be used during training?

! Size: If the potential audience will be large, is there adequate room for
people to work and circulate?

! Comfort: Can you control air circulation, air conditioning, light, and
temperature? Are the chairs and tables comfortable and appropriate?

! Power: Is electricity available? Is it reliable? What voltage is used? What
types of electrical plugs are needed? Are batteries and an electric generator
available?

! Presentation aids: Are lecterns, writing surfaces, and public address
systems available and accessible? Can audiovisual services and equipment be
obtained?

! Refreshments and meals: Can these be provided, or must you provide
them? If you must furnish refreshments, do you also have to provide the
necessary china and utensils? Where can the refreshments be placed? Is
drinking water safe and readily available? Who will wash the dishes? In
Asian countries, you may be regarded as very rich, as well as highly respected,
and may therefore be encouraged or expected to contribute food or funding
for social gatherings. In Africa, family members of the students may prepare
the meals.

! Parking: Where are the parking facilities located and is there a charge? If
there is a charge, can a special rate be negotiated? Are parking passes
required? Where can they be obtained? In rural or less developed areas, do
animals such as camels, horses, or mules need to be cared for?

! Facilities for people with disabilities: Unless you are specifically travelling
overseas to instruct students who have disabilities, it is unlikely that you will
have them in your class. Disabled people are generally not in the mainstream
of developing countries. Therefore, few facilities overseas have been adapted
to meet the needs of people with disabilities.

! Available services: What services are provided by the establishment? Will
someone make a regular check of the meeting room to verify that everything
is in order? Are security guards necessary and available? Who is responsible
for signage?

! Washroom facilities: These may be at a distance from the training room.
Running water and toilet paper may not be available. Your participants may
be familiar with this situation, but you should consider bringing your own
water and toiletries.

! Accommodation: Is suitable accommodation close by? Can a special event
rate be negotiated? Will students stay with family or friends? How long will
it take students to travel to the training facility?

! Recreational facilities: In developing countries, elaborate recreational
facilities may not be available. However, people usually socialize wherever
there is space.

! Conflicting events: Are any other events scheduled to take place in the
vicinity of your training area? It is difficult to present a lecture when a
religious celebration, complete with a band, is taking place in the adjacent
room!

Make Arrangements for Materials and Equipment

Many of us take for granted the resources that are available to us. That is, until
we go overseas where resources such as electrical power and paper are often
scarce. If you are unsure as to what resources are available in the country in
which you will be working, plan a presentation that will require a minimum of
equipment and supplies.

Before travelling overseas, make a list of all the materials and equipment that you
will need and obtain spare parts, supplies, and maintenance manuals. Send these
resources to the host country several weeks prior to your arrival, or bring them
with you. Getting valuable resources through customs may be a problem. If your
project is sponsored in any way by the government of the host country, a letter in
support of your activities from the most senior official involved can be extremely
useful in bureaucratic encounters.

Make sure all your presentation materials are culturally acceptable. For example,
in countries that adhere to strict Islamic traditions, the materials must not
contain religious pictures, crosses, unclad female bodies, or men and women
acting in an intimate manner. If possible, have someone who has lived or worked
in a particular country review your visuals for cultural acceptability.

Before your presentation, unpack your resources and ensure that they are not
damaged and that the equipment is in working order. Transportation and
customs workers in many countries do not receive a substantial wage; therefore,
when they are in temporary possession of your valuables, they may be tempted to
remove some of them. In addition, extreme heat, humidity, and dirt, especially
fine sand, may damage your resources. Take the time to examine and/or operate
your materials and equipment before your presentation. Practice using them in

the room where you will be teaching. You may find, for example, that the
lettering is too small, the room cannot be dimmed for viewing slides because it
has a roof but no walls, the videocassette images are blurry because an incorrect
VHS format is used, you need electrical plug adaptors, or the equipment
promised by your host is not available.

Plan an Evaluation

If you planned your training activity carefully, you would have designed a
number of evaluation strategies to check your students' progress and the
application of the knowledge and skills they acquired during training. You
should also design an evaluation scheme that assesses the quality of the program
and provides you with feedback that will help you to mount more successful
training activities. There are a variety of ways to conduct this type of evaluation.
A few options are outlined below.

! Program evaluation forms: These are sometimes referred to as "happy
sheets," and are usually distributed immediately following a presentation.
Students generally have very little time in which to complete them; therefore,
the forms may only indicate whether they were happy or dissatisfied with the
presentation. Consider distributing an evaluation form immediately
following the presentation and a second one a week or more later.

! One‐to‐one interviews: This procedure allows for an in‐depth exploration of
the presentation delivery and outcomes. In some cultures, this procedure
may be difficult. Thais, for example, may not like to express criticism openly.

! Supervisor or peer group follow‐up evaluations: Supervisors or colleagues
may report on how the students' skills have improved following their
attendance at the training activity.

! Interviews with supervisors or your hosts: Ask them what feedback they
have received regarding your presentation.

! Personal reflection: Sit down in a quiet place and visualize the workshop
that you presented. Write down what worked and what should be improved.
Be critical. Only you will know how you evaluated your own workshop.
Compare your thoughts with the feedback obtained from the procedures
described above.


If your training sessions will be conducted over a period of time, use simple
feedback devices each day. Do not wait until your training program is over to
find out that your audience thought that you spoke too fast or that you used
examples that were inappropriate or culturally irrelevant. In order to receive
daily feedback, ask your students to complete the following statements:

! What I liked best about this session was . . .
! What I liked least about this session was . . .
! I would like further information about . . .

They could complete the items orally, but they may feel more comfortable
responding in writing.

Rehearse the Presentation

Rehearse your presentation, especially the openings and closings. In order to
establish your credibility, you should always deliver your introductions and
conclusions without assistance. Stand in front of a mirror and practice your
presentation. Polish your delivery techniques. Focus on the appropriate use of
voice, phrasings, gestures, and nonverbal cues. Will your gestures be culturally
acceptable? Note that, in general, Asians prefer a slow, low‐key delivery style,
while South Americans appreciate a more passionate style. However, regardless of
the culture, all students like instructors to show respect for the class and the
subject matter and to demonstrate interest and enthusiasm.

If possible, rehearse in front of a colleague. Practice in using your media
materials and equipment will make you feel more comfortable in front of an
unfamiliar audience. Because you will not need to focus on what you are going to
say next, you will be able to concentrate on the students' reactions to the
presentation.


4.5 Delivering the Presentation

Establish the Learning Climate

It is frequently said that first impressions last a long time; they color all the
events to follow. Within the first few minutes, the audience decides whether or
not it will listen, participate, and trust the presenter. This observation is
particularly true overseas, where you are regarded as the expert. Take the time to
make a good impression.

Setting a good training climate begins before you enter the classroom. You must
be prepared. Complete all administrative tasks, gather the resources you need,
and rehearse your materials. If you do these things, you will feel confident.
Perceptive students will detect this confidence. In countries where
communication is highly contextual, it is not only what you say that is important,
but how you say it and how you act while saying it. Never underestimate the
power of self‐confidence.

Arrive early. Set up your equipment and place your materials so they can be
reached easily. If you were able to obtain a list of attendees, review their names
and titles. When your students arrive, you will feel more comfortable. If
possible, greet students by name as they arrive. Before making your opening
statement, plant your feet so that you feel rooted and take a few deep breaths.

The most important portions of any training session are the opening and closing
segments. Because people tend to remember the first and last things they see
and hear, good instructors spend a great deal of time carefully developing the
opening and closing portions of their training sessions.

The purpose of a good opening is to gain the students' trust and ensure active
participation. An opening must:

! grab attention;

! focus the audience;

! introduce the topic or objective to be discussed; the objectives should be
challenging, yet attainable;

! tell students what is required of them;


! show or explain why the topic is relevant to the students and stress what they
will be able to do following the training session;

! indicate how the training is linked to previous training and future
opportunities;

! make a positive impression.

Examples of good openings include:

! an ice‐breaking activity;

! a self‐introduction;

! a relevant quote or anecdote;

! a rhetorical question or a challenge;

! a demonstration of the skills that students will be expected to display at the
end of the training session.

Unless you are familiar with your international audience, using humor during
your opening presentation is not recommended. However, "humor is a
wonderful tool to help us be more aware of cultural nuances in international
communications. It is a useful vehicle to help us build perspective, patience, and
productivity in all our dealings" (Gliner, 1991, p. 37). Humor can break the ice
and put people at ease. However, if you are not knowledgeable about the culture
of the people you will be working with, you may hurt their feelings and create
tension. They may feel that you are making fun of them. This is not the
impression you would like to make. Initially, avoid humor or use it cautiously.

Ice‐breakers are frequently used in North America to lessen training anxiety. To
be effective, the ice‐breakers should be short, relevant, fun, and involve everyone.
Overseas, however, ice‐breakers may not be taken seriously. Some cultures,
particularly Asian cultures, feel that ice‐breakers are a waste of time or too
personal. They want to get directly to the session content and do not want to be
embarrassed in front of their colleagues. Ice‐breakers for an international
audience should be brief and directly related to the upcoming training activities.
You may need to use several different ice‐breakers during the early part of your
training session. Perhaps the best ice‐breaker is sharing a meal together. For
help in selecting a suitable ice‐breaker, you may want to refer to:


Forbess‐Greene, S. (1983). The encyclopedia of icebreakers. San Diego, CA:
University Associates.

Jones, K. (1991). Icebreakers: A source of games, exercises and simulations.
San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company.

You could start your training session by introducing yourself. However, it would
be preferable to ask your host to introduce you. He or she can give you
credibility. Until your international audience gets to know you, refrain from
telling humorous stories about yourself. Your students may not laugh with you;
in fact, they may wonder why their instructor did something so silly. You will
lose any credibility that has been established. Instead, provide anecdotes that are
short and focused. Explain how the anecdotes are directly related to the training
to be conducted.

Take the time to set and explain ground rules or guidelines for your students.
They must know what is acceptable behavior. Mount the guidelines on the
training room walls and/or on the back of individual name plates placed in front
of each student. Below are some suggested ground rules. You may want to adapt
them for your particular situation.

! Leave your hat (title) at the door. This rule can be extremely difficult to set
in cultures that place high value on hierarchical structures and relationships.
It may not be possible to achieve this condition in several Asian countries.
Regardless of the position they may hold outside of the training room, try to
make the students feel that they have equal status in the classroom and treat
them equally. All students must be encouraged to express their ideas freely.

! Have a vision of success. Students must feel that they can succeed. They
should be able to visualize what they will be able to do with the information
and/or skills they acquire during the training.

! Participate fully. Students learn by doing. Therefore, they must actively
take part in the workshop activities.

! Accept that excellence comes in small steps. Change does not occur
overnight. Change is gradual and must be worked on repeatedly. Students
must not think of the training session as a cure‐all or magic potion.

! Be courteous to all. Students must be willing to give others the opportunity
to speak and listen to points of view that they may not share. Participants do
not want to be intimidated, embarrassed, or treated with condescension.
Everyone must contribute to the creation of a non‐threatening environment.

! Take the best, leave the rest. Not everything presented during a workshop
is applicable locally. Only students know what might work in their
environment. Therefore, students must accept the responsibility to
determine what is useful and apply it to their situation. Students must
assume ownership of their learning and its outcomes.

Your opening will set the stage for your entire training session; take the time to
do it well.

Provide Effective Instruction

In order to teach effectively, you must communicate effectively. Communication
is successful if your listeners understand what you are saying and can indicate
their level of understanding. Below are a few suggestions that can help you
deliver an effective instructional presentation that is designed to meet the needs
of an international audience. You may wish to add additional items to this list.

! Consider starting your presentation with a few correctly spoken words in the
local language.

! Clearly identify the topics you are going to address. The topics must be
directly related to training objectives that meet the needs of your audience.

! Smile and make the audience feel important. Appear enthusiastic about your
instructional role and show a definite interest in the subject matter and the
audience=s training and development.

! Control your emotions. In many cultures, over‐reacting rarely succeeds.
A public display of emotion can be offensive.

! Maintain eye contact with the audience when it is culturally acceptable to do
so. Note when the students' eyes appear unfocused or stray because you are
not holding their attention.

! Speak at a level that is appropriate for the audience. You may have students
with very little education, but you may also have students with graduate
degrees from prestigious Western universities.

! Speak slightly slower than normal. It is difficult for others to follow if English
is not their first language. Even if they understand English, they may not
easily understand your phrasings, pronunciations, or use of words. Perhaps
consider speaking at a rate of 125 to 150 words per minute (Illman, 1980).

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Remember that if you speak slowly and pause frequently, you will not be able
to present as much information to this group as you could to an English‐
speaking audience.

! Keep your words simple and your sentences short. Use active verbs to create
excitement and maintain interest.

! Enunciate clearly. If you get tired and begin to slur your words or mumble,
take a break or ask students to perform an activity. Rest and drink some
water.

! Use culturally acceptable gestures to emphasize certain points. Note that
western behaviors may be interpreted differently in other cultures.

! When you feel comfortable, move around the training room. This action will
keep your students alert.

! Write key points or new terms on the chalkboard or on blank overhead
transparency film.

! Speak to the students, not to the chalkboard or projection screen.

! Use highly technical language only when necessary.

! Use terminology consistently.

! Avoid including puns, jokes, colloquialisms, acronyms, idioms, jargon, or
derogatory terms.

! Explain culturally‐biased references such as those related to history, current
events, and geography.

! Keep your speaking time to a minimum. North Americans are known for
talking too much!

! Use silence for reflection and to enable the slower learners to catch up. Note
that silence is appreciated in some Asian cultures as a time for reflection,
whereas other cultures appear to abhor silence and prefer constant,
sometimes overlapping, conversations.

! Avoid giving verbal descriptions of complicated devices. Instead, show
sophisticated equipment and demonstrate how it works. Allow students to
handle it themselves.


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! Encourage students to take notes.

! Pause after major points. You may want to divide the instruction into 8‐ to
12‐minute blocks.

! Link instructional segments. Always relate the learning activities to your
instructional objectives.

! Repeat important ideas. Find different ways to express the same ideas or
concepts.

! Provide a number of relevant examples. Link your instruction to the students=
environment.

! Check comprehension. Ask questions frequently and in a variety of ways.
Refrain from asking questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no.
Listen to the responses and adjust your instruction accordingly. Do not
accept nods or verbal "yeses" as an acceptable response. Some students want
to be polite. Instead, ask them to paraphrase or apply concepts and
procedures. Provide positive, non‐threatening feedback.

! Evaluate your students' understanding of the material at least once every
hour. Get your students to tell or demonstrate what they have learned. You
may also conduct one‐on‐one checks with students during breaks or after
class. If you follow this procedure, maintain confidentiality. Do not reveal
specifics about individual responses to the rest of the class.

! Provide opportunities for practice. If possible, simulate the conditions under
which the performance will be conducted in the "real" world. Provide hands‐
on practice.

! Provide opportunities for students to apply skills to new situations.

! Review and comment on all assigned work. Return assignments promptly.

! Use visuals or other sensory stimuli to support your verbal presentation.
Reveal visuals only when you are ready to use them. Use visuals that are
directly related to the topic being discussed. Explain each visual and ensure
that it is displayed long enough for the students to understand it. Once you
have explained a visual, remove it.

! Use media that provide stimulation via a variety of senses.

! Use a variety of instructional techniques.

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! Employ motivational strategies that will encourage learning. Students are
motivated if their needs are met, especially their self‐esteem needs.
Remember that recognition or changes in status are highly prized in countries
with hierarchical social structures. Note, however, that when a need has been
met, it may no longer serve as a motivator.

! Prepare and distribute handouts in the local language. If you do not refer to
your handouts during your presentation, it is unlikely that students will
examine them after they leave the training room.

! Summarize frequently. Always link the new material to previously learned
material; then outline the goals of the session to follow.

! Provide written summaries that link ideas. Distribute these at the end of each
session.

! Evaluate student learning. Can students complete the training objectives at
an acceptable level? Evaluate students over an extended period of time. Give
them a number of opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned.

! Reward students for their efforts. Whenever a student contributes to a
lesson, recognize the contribution.

! Remind students how their new knowledge and skills will be of benefit to
themselves, the host organization, and their country.

! Keep all promises made to students. Because students think of you as an
ambassador from a developed country, any negative impressions that they
have will be applied to those who may present future training activities.

Listen Actively

One of the most important attributes of effective instructors is their ability to
listen. We often listen passively. We hear the sounds, but not their meanings.
We do not provide the speaker with appropriate feedback.

To be an active listener, you must:

! Give each student your undivided attention; do not think about what you are
going to say next while the student is speaking.

! Provide the student with appropriate verbal or nonverbal feedback.


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! Allow the student enough time to express his or her thoughts; do not
interrupt.

! Watch for nonverbal cues that may help you to get the full meaning of what is
being said.

! Paraphrase what the student said.

! Try to understand the picture from the student's perspective; do not be
judgemental.

! Ask clarifying questions.

! Respond accurately and constructively; offer encouragement.

! Apply what the student said to existing, future, or hypothetical situations.

! Summarize the discussion and the actions to be taken.

Everyone, including students in developing countries, has something of value
that can be used to solve a problem. However, we frequently miss the
contributions because we take one or more of the following actions:

! We judge people before they speak. Perhaps their mannerisms, appearance,
or past performance makes us negate their ideas before they have expressed
them. Remember that although international students may have difficulty
with our language, they can still think.

! We think that we have nothing to learn from them. Everyone has something
to offer because of their different experiences and different points of view.
Great discoveries are often made by people who recently changed their
occupation or were placed in an unfamiliar environment. They have a
refreshing view of the world because they are not stuck in old paradigms.

! We let our emotions interfere with our listening. We all have emotions.
However, if they are overpowering, they affect how and what we listen to.
Emotions can be hindrances.

! We fake listening and miss what is being said. To listen effectively, we must
concentrate on what is being said and not get lost in the details.


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Use Effective Oral Questions and Provide Positive Feedback

According to Powers (1992), "The techniques instructors use to ask and respond
to questions have a tremendous impact on the way participants view training" (p.
106). If you want students to participate in your training activities, to check their
understanding, to reinforce learning, and to apply, synthesize, and evaluate what
they have learned, you must pose good questions. When instructors do not plan
their questions, they often ask basic questions that do not challenge students to
think.

In order to develop and use questions effectively, follow the suggestions below.

Developing Good Questions

! Decide what you want your questions to accomplish. Emphasize questions
that check students' understanding and encourage them to apply their
knowledge and skills to local situations.

! Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no" or a nod of
the head. The more information students provide, the better able you will be
to evaluate their learning.

! If you experience difficulty in developing questions, use words such as "who",
"what", "when", "where", "why", and "how" to generate questions. The words
"why" and "how" are very effective. However, be careful that your use of
"why" does not put your students on the defensive. Unless you deliver a
"why" question in a low tone of voice rather than a challenging tone, students,
especially those in Asian countries, may feel threatened or embarrassed.

! The vocabulary used in the question should be appropriate for the learner.
Use words that you used throughout your presentation. Unless knowledge of
specific terminology is part of the learning process, define the terms used in
your questions. Also, you may need to discourage students from using words
that they do not really understand.

! Develop questions that encourage students to use their own experiences.
These types of questions will help students integrate their new knowledge
and skills into their professional and/or daily lives.

! Begin with easy questions that most students should be able to answer. Then
ask increasingly difficult questions that link different topics together or
require students to think rather than to rely on their memories. Remember,
the broader the question, the more likely it is that you and your students will
stray from the topic under discussion. If a question is too simple and

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everyone can answer the question, you may waste valuable training time.
However, if you are using a mastery learning strategy, by the end of the
training session, everyone should be able to answer most of your questions.

! Write down your questions. If you write them on index cards, you can easily
refer to them during your presentation and rearrange their order as the
situation changes. You should review questions to ensure that they are not
too vague and that the students can answer them. If no one can answer your
questions, everyone will feel uncomfortable and may lose their self‐
confidence. After your presentation, you can indicate on each card whether
or not the question was appropriate. Those that challenged the students
could be used on formal tests and exams.

! If you ask a question that you cannot answer yourself or cannot suggest a
source for the answer, your students may doubt your expertise.

Delivering Questions

! The tone of your voice will affect how your questions are perceived by your
audience. Until you are familiar with your students and the students feel that
they are in a non‐threatening environment, do not raise your voice or ask
provocative questions that challenge the students' way of doing things or
their beliefs.

! Repeat a question only once. Then, if no one answers, consider answering
your own question or asking a student to repeat your question. However, if
you make a habit of answering your own questions, soon your students will
not need to answer any questions. You'll answer for them! It is your
responsibility to ask questions that your students are capable of answering.

! Direct questions to all students. Let your eyes and body stance reveal that the
questions are addressed to all.

! Pause for seven to ten seconds after asking a question to allow students to
reflect on it. If English is not their first language, they need time to assimilate
the question before they can determine the answer. Note that people in other
cultures are more comfortable with silence than North Americans are.

! When students answer, indicate that you are paying attention by turning
toward them, nodding your head, or making eye contact. Listen carefully to
the answer and make sure that it does not contain any incorrect information.
Try to read the students' body language. Are they comfortable with what they
are saying?


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! If the first student to respond has already answered a question, thank him or
her for volunteering and say you would like to involve others in your
discussion. Then let someone else answer the question. It may be useful to
say, "This side (the back, the front) of the room has responded to several
questions already. I would now like this side to respond. Now who would
like to answer the question?" Only direct the questions to specific individuals
when you know that they have the answer or when the students have become
accustomed to you.

! Acknowledge all student responses with words such as "good," "great," "okay,"
and "interesting." Provide positive feedback to all student responses. Clearly
indicate if the response is correct and clarify any information that may be
misleading. Explain why a response is incorrect or how it may be used to
answer a different question. Do not let errors or mistakes go uncorrected, but
do recognize that a portion of any answer can be correct.

! Accept more than one answer to any question. This technique enables you to
identify different points of view and to evaluate the depth and breadth of your
students' understanding. You could involve others by saying, "That's a good
answer. Can someone else give me another example?"

! Link the answers you receive to other topics. Integrate learning by asking
additional questions that are built upon the students' responses. For
example, you could say, "How do you think that what you said is related to . . .
?"

Responding to Questions

! During any presentation, always allow students several opportunities to ask
questions. Provide this opportunity every 10 to 20 minutes. Students in some
cultures will be reluctant to ask questions in front of their supervisors and
peers. If this appears to be the case, ask all students to write down their
questions. Collect the questions and randomly select one. Answer the
question, then select another question.

! Thank students for asking questions. Repeat questions so that everyone can
hear them, then answer them accurately and concisely. Ask requesters if your
answers addressed all of their concerns.

! In order to involve more students in your discussion, consider redirecting a
question from a student to others in the room. When appropriate, help the
students to answer the question. Only use this strategy when students feel
comfortable with each other.

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! If you do not want to be interrupted by a question that is not directly on
topic, say that you will respond to the question later. Keep your promise.
You could also say, "You are a little ahead of me. Could you ask me that
question when we discuss . . . ?"

! If students ask you to clarify a statement you made, apologize for your lack of
clarity, then explain your statement. Try not to use the same words or
examples that you used previously.

! If you receive a lengthy or complicated question, break the question into
several smaller questions, then answer each question in turn.

! You can expect to receive personal questions overseas. You may be asked
about your family, business, or social habits. Do not be alarmed. Answer
with tact and reveal only as much as you want. However, you may send a
negative message if you respond with "no comment."

! If you are asked a question that you cannot answer, ask if any of the students
can respond. If no one in the room can answer the question, write it down
and state that you will try to find an answer or provide them with the names
of those who may have an answer. Make every effort to do this before the
next class.

! If some students talk while you are answering a question, do not be offended.
It is quite possible that one student is explaining to another what you are
saying. Any time there is a language barrier, you can expect students to talk
quietly in class.

! Do not lose your temper in response to a question. Although you may believe
that you have a right to express anger or frustration, you will lose face with
your international audience if you speak loudly, irrationally, or make any
pronounced gestures. Try to address specific aspects of irritating questions
without becoming irritated yourself.

Revitalize and Close the Presentation

From time to time, you may find that your audience is restless; they may shift in
their seats or show other signs of boredom or fatigue. The students or you have
become tired and unproductive. It is time to revitalize your training activity.
You can:

! increase the pace of your presentation; become more energetic;


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! use visuals to arouse interest;

! ask students to summarize your presentation;

! tell a relevant anecdote;

! switch to a new topic or different activity;

! introduce humor or a wild idea;

! ask students to stand and perform stretching exercises;

! ask students to submit a list of questions on separate pieces of paper, then
answer the questions as they are randomly drawn;

! form subgroups and ask each subgroup how they would apply an idea you
recently taught;

! ask the students to take a short break;

! adjourn the meeting and continue at a later time.

If you are comfortable with your students and you do not feel that you will lose
their respect, you may say, "I feel that we are being non‐productive/repeating
what we have said before/not focused. Do you feel the same way? What should
we do now?" By asking these questions, you indicate that you are paying
attention to their needs and value their contributions. In addition, you may get
some novel responses to "What should we do now?"

If it is necessary to adjourn or end a training session, then use your prepared
closing. A good conclusion will reinforce the students' positive impressions of
the presentation and will stir them to act on some facet of it. The closing should
also add impact, summarize the information presented, and ask for action. Most
important, a good closing is short.


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4.6 Handling Your Nonverbal Behavior

Instructors frequently focus on their oral presentations and forget that they are
always sending signals, whether they are speaking or not. Bender (1991) reported
that "the believability of what we communicate is influenced 7% by words, 38%
by tone of voice and 55% by body language" (p. 101). Therefore, in our North
American culture, 93 percent of the message we convey is transmitted by
nonvocal actions. In high contextual societies, this percentage may even be
higher. It is important to realize that we do send out nonverbal signals that affect
our oral message. One of the best ways to determine what signals you are
sending is to videotape yourself doing a presentation, then review the videotape
with a friend or colleague.

Your body language and gestures should be congruent with your oral messages.
If these behaviors don't match, you will send out mixed messages. For example, if
you ask, "Are there any questions?" and then turn your back to the audience, the
students will know that you really do not want to answer questions. They will
not trust you. They will stop participating.

Proportion the gestures to fit the physical space and the size of your audience.
The more people and/or the larger the space, the more animated you should be.
Do not over exaggerate your gestures or use them continually. Find different
ways to emphasize key words and ideas.

Below are a few suggestions for creating a positive atmosphere through nonverbal
communication. Remember that they are effective for a North American
audience and would need to be adjusted for a specific cultural group.

Instructor's Nonverbal Behavior Possible Interpretation by Student

! Acknowledges a student's ! I am welcomed here. I feel
presence with a smile. accepted.

! Maintains eye contact with the ! The instructor is interested in what I
student and/or orients body have to say.
toward the student.

! Has an open body stance. ! The instructor is open to my ideas.

! Leans forward as student ! He is really interested in what I have
speaks. to say. He is listening.


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! Walks toward the student as ! My ideas are definitely of interest.
he or she speaks. Or, maybe she can't hear me.

! Walks towards a silent student. ! Perhaps I should pay attention and
get involved.

! Nods head affirmatively. ! Not only is he listening, but he is
seriously considering my input.
Perhaps he agrees with what I am
saying.

! Nods head several times. ! She is encouraging me to keep
talking.

! Maintains a relaxed posture. ! I can relax.

! Avoids facial expressions that ! He is a positive person. I feel good.
display anger or displeasure.

! Laughs at him‐ or herself. ! It is "okay" to be human, to make a
mistake.

When making presentations to audiences with different cultural backgrounds, be
wary of using gestures that may have offensive or impolite connotations. If you
are unsure of what effect a raised fist may have on your audience, check with an
interpreter or eliminate it from your presentation. If you are presenting with an
interpreter, remember that gestures are not only distracting, they are also
difficult to translate. In these cases, keep your use of gestures to a minimum.

You also need to learn how to decipher the nonverbal cues expressed by your
international students. Smiles and laughter, for example, may not always
indicate happiness. In East Asian countries, these cues may mean that the
student is embarrassed or angry. If Chinese shake their heads in agreement, they
may be indicating that they understand what you are trying to say, but they still
may disagree with what you said; they tend not to display anger in public. Take
the time to become more conscious of nonverbal signals. Refer to R.E. Axtell.
(1990). Do's and Taboos Around the World: A Guide to International Behavior.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. It is impossible to know everything that we
should not do when we are working in a foreign country. We do know that we
should not use gestures that are ambiguous, rude, or irritating. If we make a
genuine effort to try to comply with local practices and are not pushy or
overbearing with our Western ways, people will usually forgive us our

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transgressions. They may politely point out what we should or should not do the
next time.


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4.7 Dealing with Challenging People
and Situations

Every presenter encounters people and situations that test his or her patience,
ingenuity, and self‐control. Argumentative students who interrupt you in class
may view themselves as defenders of their country's cultural and spiritual beliefs.
Students who show no response to your best efforts may be passive because it is
culturally acceptable for them to sit quietly while they receive knowledge from
the all‐knowing teacher. When you work overseas, you must be able to
distinguish between the things that you can change, such as knowledge and
skills, and those things that are not readily changed, such as culturally‐inspired
behavior.

When you face challenging situations, it is best to deal with them directly and
quickly. The audience will be looking to you to resolve the situation. If you
handle the situation with confidence and refrain from embarrassing anyone, your
audience will gain a greater respect for you. If you fail, there is always tomorrow.
You can learn from a difficult situation and be better prepared if it occurs again.

The following table, based on Wright (1996), suggests ways to respond to some
difficult training situations. Adapt the suggestions to your culturally diverse
students and add ideas from your own experience. Remember, it is your tone of
voice and body stance that will make the statement in the right column effective
and credible.


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/41

Situation Possible Questions and Responses

Requesting input Use open‐ended questions. To start a discussion, ask
what happened; then ask, "What should have occurred?
What appears to be the real problem?"

It is not necessary for you to respond verbally to every
input, but you should acknowledge a student's response
by eye contact, head nodding, or other acceptable
gestures. Of course, you should comment from time to
time in order to encourage further input. You could say:
"Good/Great/Super/ Excellent/That's a wonderful
idea/Thanks." You may also say, "That's interesting.
I've never thought of that." Or, "What a creative
solution. Let's apply it to our problem."

Clarifying input "Could you be more specific?"

"Can you provide an example?"

"What do you mean by . . . ?"

Overly detailed "You provided a lot of information in your answer.
answers Could you summarize your answer/provide a one
sentence summary?" Or, you could summarize the
answer yourself.

One‐word answers "Could you explain your answer further?"

"Can you provide an example?"


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/42


Puzzled students Perhaps the students have glazed eyes or bewildered
looks. You may have not provided adequate
background material, they may lack understanding of
the prerequisites, or the material is not relevant to
them.

You should try to remember when the students began
to look puzzled and review the information or ask the
students to summarize what has been accomplished to
date. Reviewing will not be a problem if you break your
instruction into 10‐ to 20‐minute segments. Find
examples that are meaningful to your students.

Silent students Check that you have provided a warm and supportive
training environment that encourages students to
participate. Did you use a variety of instructional
techniques that are appropriate for different learning
styles?

Ask silent participants questions that you know they
can answer. Build up their self‐esteem. For example,
you could say:

"José, you seem rather thoughtful. What do you think
about what has been said today?"

"Susan, we know you have experience in . . . . What can
you contribute from this experience?"

"Mohammad, could you summarize the comments just
made by Elana?"

"I haven't heard opinions from the left/center/right/
back/front of the room lately. What would you like to
contribute?"


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/43


Silent students "I perceive that you don't agree with the proceedings. If
continued I am right, can you tell us what's troubling you?"

Polite group of Students may not want to contribute because of their
students cultural upbringing. Do not confuse silence with a lack
of knowledge or skill capability. They may not want to
take a risk by speaking up. Ask students to form small
groups to discuss a topic of their choosing or one you
selected. Ask the groups to report their findings.

Students could be asked to write their ideas on cards.
The cards could be collected and reviewed by the
instructor.

Dominating "Dave, let me summarize your important ideas. Then I
students would like others such as Diane and Tim to add to your
suggestions."

Consider limiting the duration each student can speak
at one time. Perhaps two minutes would be sufficient.
A different student could be assigned to monitor
speaking time for each presentation.

"Thanks for your contribution, Allen. Now, can I hear
from others?"

Record all ideas presented on a chalkboard or flipchart.
Consequently, everyone's contribution will be seen as
important.

Negative students Ignore the negativism. There is almost always
something positive in their responses. Highlight the
positive.


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/44


Inarticulate "Let me repeat what you said. Did I summarize your
students ideas correctly?"

If a student has difficulty in completing a sentence, be
patient; do not complete the sentence for him or her.

Students who Get your students to voice their real concerns;
resist or challenge otherwise, they may sabotage your entire training
an idea or concept session. Once their concerns are out in the open, you
can deal with them. Don't lose your temper. In a
neutral non‐threatening manner you could say:

"I feel that you are resisting me because . . . . Am I
correct in my thinking?"

"Something appears to be disturbing you. Could you
tell me what it is or write it down?"

"I am not sure that I understand what you are trying to
say. Perhaps if you address your concern to your
colleagues, they will be able to respond to it."

If the above questions are ineffective, ask to meet with
that student during a break or after the training session.
You may find that some students are being difficult
because they resent the fact that their supervisor told
them to attend.

Conflicting Discourage one‐on‐one confrontations. Ask conflicting
students students to address all the students. Do not allow
students to make personal attacks on others.


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/45


Conflicting "Both of you have good ideas. Now I would like others
students to express their opinions on the same topic."
continued
"Can we agree that we have at least two opposing points
of view? Let's move on to the next topic."

Students who "That's one way of looking at it. Are there any other
present inaccurate points of view?"
information
"Can you support that statement with facts or
examples?"

"What information do others have about this situation?"

Drifting away from "I feel that we are not discussing what we came here to
the training discuss. Do you feel the same way?"
agenda
"We've aired a lot of feelings. Now let's discuss some
facts."

"That's a good question/comment. Can we address it
later after we have completed this topic?"

"I would like to test this idea with you." (State an idea
you have thought of or an idea mentioned previously.)

"Is it time to take a break?" When we return, we will
need to address . . . ."

"Would everyone take a few minutes to consider. . . .
Write down your thoughts, and then we will share our
ideas."


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/46


Encouraging "We have only discussed one or two points of view. Are
different points of there any other viewpoints that should be considered?"
view
"What about the view that . . . ?"

"Remember what Tom said earlier? Is his suggestion
applicable here?"

Summarizing and Before moving on to a new topic, summarize what has
bridging been accomplished to date, then link the old material to
the new material.

"Can someone summarize what we have done?"

"Let's check our progress."

"Is there anything we haven't covered before we move
on?"

"Before we discuss the next topic, can we list the pros
and cons of what has been covered up to this point?"

"How do you think we are doing? Are we making
progress?"

Comparison with People in developing countries may have received
previous trainers training from a variety of different instructors who may
have come from Britain, France, Germany, Japan, or
North America. Their training styles are different than
yours. Students will constantly compare your style to
others. Grin and bear it. When they get to know you
and you demonstrate your competence, the comparison
will cease. Remember that you cannot be all things to
all people.


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/47


Students who Without embarrassing anyone, ask the entire class if
grumble about the they would like to alter portions of the training
training session in program. If you ask them to write their suggestions on
the hallway a piece of paper, students can respond anonymously.

Students who Did you prepare your students for the test? Did you
show high test review the format and types of test questions? Were
anxiety students given the opportunity to practice their skills?
There will always be some level of test anxiety.
However, you can prepare the students for the test and
demonstrate that you have confidence in their abilities
to succeed. Indicate that you will give marks for effort.

You may find yourself in situations where a simple response will not be sufficient. A
serious conflict develops and you must intervene. The following suggestions may be
helpful.

Intervention: At times, it may become necessary for an instructor to intervene in a
group discussion or activity. Before you do, consider the following questions:

! Will your intervention make the activity more effective or efficient?

! Will your intervention be a help or a hindrance?

! If you have intervened recently, will this next intervention be considered an
interruption?

! How will students react if you intervene? Are you prepared for their reactions?

! Are the students displaying any verbal or nonverbal behaviors that indicate that
they want you to intervene?

! Is your intervention necessary? Will the conflict be short‐lived?

Resolving conflict: Conflict is a normal part of life. However, it does not have to be
destructive. When it exposes new ideas and/or creates understanding, conflict can
have positive results. To resolve conflicts effectively, you should:

Presentation
--------- Skills 4/48
! acknowledge the right of individuals to have strong feelings and opinions about
certain topics;

! identify the real issue; be specific;

! maintain a positive and constructive tone and manner;

! seek points of agreement;

! avoid laying blame;

! accept responsibility for allowing this situation to occur;

! set a time to resolve the conflict;

! focus on the present and future; minimize the time spent on the past.

Following the resolution of highly emotional conflicts, it may be necessary for
everyone to take a break or for you to make a radical change in instructional
activities. Consider assigning a small group activity that requires students to
focus on a less controversial topic.


Presentation
--------- Skills 4/49
4.8 Presentation Skills Checklist

In order to evaluate your effectiveness as an instructor, ask your students and, if
possible, your colleagues to rate you on each of the items listed below. Use a five‐
point scale, where five means excellent and one means poor. You may want to
translate the list below into the local language. Review the responses and adjust
your instruction accordingly. North Americans often focus on the negative
comments they receive and ignore the abundant evidence that they are doing a
good job. Examine the responses with a balanced eye.

Instructor Evaluation T

Teaching Skills

The instructor:
1. Is prepared for class.
2. Identifies challenging but achievable objectives and standards.
3. Arouses interest and provides motivation.
4. Maintains a positive atmosphere.
5. Holds the class's attention.
6. Maintains classroom control.
7. Gives clear and simple directions.
8. Uses appropriate examples and illustrations.
9. Makes sure students understand the material.
10. Asks a variety of questions.
11. Distributes questions throughout the class.
12. Asks appropriate questions.
13. Develops sequences of questions.
14. Encourages analytical and critical thinking.
15. Encourages discussion.
16. Provides opportunities for practice.
17. Listens to students' responses and adjusts instruction accordingly.
18. Provides positive feedback and reinforcement.
19. Summarizes and bridges segments effectively.

Presentation
--------- Skills 4/50
20. Organizes instruction and proceeds in an orderly manner.
21. Paces instruction appropriately.
22. Allocates enough time to explain important or difficult concepts.
23. Demonstrates a thorough knowledge of the subject matter.
24. Provides appropriate references or refers students to relevant sources.

Communication Skills

The instructor:
25. Has a command of the language.
26. Speaks clearly.
27. Uses appropriate language.
28. Uses a varied speaking pace and tone of voice.
29. Is audible.
30. Has legible handwriting.
31. Uses culturally appropriate nonverbal communication.
32. Interacts appropriately with the interpreter.

Instructional Aids

The instructor:
33. Uses a variety of instructional aids.
34. Uses instructional aids appropriately.
35. Selects instructional aids that are suitable for the tasks being taught.
36. Provides appropriate handouts.

Relationship with Students

The instructor:
37. Is aware of and sensitive to individual differences and needs.
38. Gives students an opportunity to express their opinions.

Presentation
--------- Skills 4/51
39. Encourages students to interact.
40. Gains the respect of students.
41. Helps students who experience problems.

Evaluation

The instructor:
42. Uses evaluation procedures that are fair; they test only what has been
taught.
43. Returns student tests and assignments promptly.
44. Makes useful comments on returned assignments and tests.

Miscellaneous

45. What changes in the course procedures would you suggest?

46. Please provide additional comments in the remaining space. Particularly,
what did you like the most and the least about this course? How will you
apply the knowledge and skills you have acquired?

(Adapted from Wright, 1987, pp. 1‐96.)

In order to improve your presentation skills, consider reading any of the
following:

Text

Powers, B. (1992). Instructor excellence: Mastering the delivery of training. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Inc.

Journals

The International Educator. The International Educator's Institute, P.O. Box 103,
West Bridgewater, MA 02379.

Presentation
--------- Skills 4/52
Performance and Instruction. National Society for Performance and Instruction,
1300 L Street, N.W. Suite 1250, Washington, DC 20005.

Training. Lakewood Publications, 50 S. Ninth St., Minneapolis, MN 55402.

The following publishers specialize in educational materials.

Intercultural Press, P.O. Box 700, Yarmouth, ME 04096.

Jossey‐Bass Inc., Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104.

Pfeiffer & Company, 8517 Production Avenue, San Diego, CA 92121.


5.0 Writing Training
Materials

Contents

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................5/1

5.2 Designing Print‐based Materials .......................................................... 5/2
Audience.............................................................................................................. 5/2
Objectives............................................................................................................ 5/2
Outlines ............................................................................................................... 5/3
Designing Independent Study Materials .......................................................... 5/3
Preventing Inaccuracies ..................................................................................... 5/5
Copyright.............................................................................................................5/6

5.3 Writing Style........................................................................................... 5/7

5.4 Readability .............................................................................................5/11
Applying a Readability Formula ....................................................................... 5/11

5.5 Editing ................................................................................................... 5/14

5.6 Formatting Instructional Materials..................................................... 5/16
Accessibility....................................................................................................... 5/16
Organization ..................................................................................................... 5/18
Legibility............................................................................................................ 5/18
Layout ................................................................................................................ 5/19
Packaging ..........................................................................................................5/20


Writing
---------Instructional Materials 5/1
5.1 Introduction

Well written instructional materials are essential to every international training
activity. They can be used to deliver instruction, enhance training activities, and
serve as reference resources. More importantly, they can provide information that
your students can use after you leave. Up‐to‐date written materials are a precious
commodity in developing countries where foreign textbooks are difficult to obtain
because of cost, bureaucracy, poor distribution, and language (Giltrow and Pannen,
1992). To ensure that your written materials will be used after you return home, show
your students how to use the materials. Consider giving them an assignment that
requires them to use materials to obtain specific information.

Many instructors believed that with the advent of the microcomputer and the
introduction of new educational technologies, the need for print‐based instructional
materials would be drastically reduced. To date, this scenario has not occurred. Just
look around your office. Has the microcomputer replaced all the paper on your desk?
How many of your textbooks, reference books, and instructional manuals have been
replaced by new technologies? How many of your educational technologies come
with thick reference manuals?

There are no "hard and fast" rules for writing training materials for students in
developing countries. Each situation will be different, primarily because language
will be embedded in a cultural context that may be foreign to you. It is also difficult
to develop training materials that are culturally neutral. However, the suggestions
presented here have proven to be successful in developing materials for students in
countries such as China, Colombia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, and
Uganda, as well as for students in North America. Writing for an international
audience improves with experience.


Writing
5.2 Designing Print‐based Materials

The design of quality, print‐based instructional materials relies on several factors.
These factors take on an even greater relevance when the print materials are
intended to be delivered to international students.

Audience

A cardinal rule, which is frequently forgotten by novice writers, is know your
audience. Your awareness of student characteristics will affect the way you
design your training materials. Refer to the needs assessment and audience
analysis described previously. Determine how the following student
characteristics and information will affect your written materials: gender; age;
communication skills; education/training; job and social status; previous
experience; work habits; motivation; ethnic; political and religious affiliations;
and individual expectations, attitudes, and interests. For example, if you know
that the students have poor reading skills, you may prepare a series of visuals,
which are accompanied by simple instructions. Electronic appliance
manufacturers often produce these types of documents. Or, if you know that
your students are interested in specific sports, you can use sport‐related
anecdotes and analogies. Ensure that you use examples from the culture you will
be working in. If you use only North American‐based examples, then it may be
necessary for you to provide the additional background or context to explain the
relevance of the example.

Objectives

Carefully review the instructional objectives. Objectives are statements of
learning outcomes that specify what students should be able to do upon
completing the training activities. Objectives can help you to determine what
and how an item should be written. If an objective is at a knowledge level,
provide textual information. If the objective is at an application level, consider
writing a case study.

You must also consider if the purpose of your written material is to provide
instruction, support, or reference. Always ask yourself why the material needs to
be written, how it will be used, and if the students will be able to use the
materials effectively. Be empathetic. Think about how your students will react to
what you are writing. Until you have met your students and observed their
behavior, this will be difficult to do.


Writing
Outlines

Outline or blueprint what you are going to write. Unless the text will be
delivered via computer software or videodisc, it is usually presented in a linear
format. Therefore, when preparing your written material, arrange your topics in
a linear sequence. List the main headings, then list the subheadings. If possible,
assign a weight to each topic, which indicates how much time or effort you plan
to spend on each topic. Then, examine your information resources and add
details under each subheading. Ask a peer, another member of the training team,
or a subject expert to review your outline. Consider their suggestions and make
appropriate changes to your outline. Follow the outline as you write. If several
writers will be involved in preparing the instructional material, they should not
only receive a copy of the course outline, but also writing guidelines such as The
Chicago Manual of Style (1993) or the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (1994). Note that these style manuals are updated
every few years.

Designing Independent Study Materials

If you want your students to progress at their own pace and to participate actively
in the training‐learning process, consider developing independent study, self‐
study, or individualized instructional materials. All or part of your instructional
material can be developed in an independent study format. You can develop one
or several self‐contained training units or modules that consist of print materials
as well as various instructional media.

Most print modules contain the following components (Wright and Conroy,
1988):

1. Introduction

! indicates the importance or significance of the information to be presented
! lists the topics to be covered in the order they will appear
! focuses the attention of the student to the task at hand

2. Objectives

! tell the learners what tasks they will accomplish
! state what the students should be able to do once they have completed the
module


Writing
3. Directions (module organizer)

! provide instruction on how to proceed through the module
! list the required texts, equipment, and learning activities
! state how long it should take to complete each activity

4. Explanatory Text

! contains the information that develops, objective by objective, the content
of the course
! enhances rather than repeats textbook information
! includes prose, diagrams, illustrations, charts, and so on

5. Learning Activities

! are interspersed throughout the text
! provide opportunities to practice the skills to be evaluated
! include activities such as reading, viewing, listening, answering quizzes,
writing essays, or analyzing case studies

6. Suggested Answers

! allow students to compare their responses to a model answer
! provide feedback

7. Summaries

! review the module's main ideas and concepts in the order in which they
were presented
! can be a paragraph or a point‐form list
! should be no longer than one page
! bring closure to the module

8. References

! cite the sources of information contained in the module
! reference sources should be also be available to the students

9. Further Readings

! list the articles, books, and nonprint resources that provide students with
additional information on the topic or subject

Regardless of whether or not these modules are developed by you or a course
development team (Wright, 1988), they must be written and formatted in a
manner that effectively promotes learning. Suggestions on how this can be done
are presented in this chapter and in the following publications:

Writing
Race, P. (1995). The open learning handbook: Promoting quality in designing and
delivering flexible learning. London, England: Kogan Page.

Rowntree, D. (1990). Teaching through self‐instruction. New York, NY: Nichols.

Preventing Inaccuracies

Unless you are diligent, your written work may inadvertently introduce errors or
inaccuracies. Giltrow and Pannen (1992) use the term "information viruses" to
describe inaccurate and obsolete information. They have identified three forms
of information viruses:

! outdated information;
! omissions of new findings and discoveries;
! inaccuracies, including misleading information that is given out of context.

In developing countries, these viruses can remain undetected for extended
periods of time. These countries often lack the expertise or access to resources
that may help them to detect information viruses. In order to eliminate
information viruses, you should:

! review the latest journals, monographs, textbooks, and conference
proceedings;

! access appropriate databases, many of which are available on microfiche,
CD‐ROMs, or computer software;

! contact leading researchers and practitioners;

! provide a foundation for training that is appropriate for the international
students;

! define technical terms;

! verify that any translations made are accurate;

! have your work reviewed by a content specialist or peer.


Writing
Copyright

As you write, keep track of all the resources that you use to obtain information. If
you include other sources in your written materials, indicate the name of each
source and the date. Always give credit when and to whom it is due. (How would
you want others to treat your work? Then, treat the works of others with the
same respect.) If you reproduce a substantial portion of someone else's work,
obtain written permission to use it. It can take time to obtain copyright
permission, and you may be required to pay a fee to reprint the work. When you
contact the copyright holder, explain that you will be using the material for
educational purposes in a developing country. Many copyright holders will waive
their fees if they know the circumstances in which their materials will be used.
However, they will still ask that their names be cited.

Several countries do not publicly acknowledge the rights of copyright holders.
China, for example, freely reproduces copyrighted material from foreign sources.
However, as China opens its doors to more foreigners, it is being forced to
recognize the copyright holders in other countries.


Writing
5.3 Writing Style

Style is a unique expression of the writer's personality. It is a combination of the
particular qualities that you bring to the writing. A writing style can be simply
defined as the sum of what you have to say (the content) and the manner in
which you organize and present your information (the delivery). Writing style
consists of your choice of words, your arrangement of these words, and the
physical structure of your sentences and paragraphs. When you produce print‐
based training materials, you must not only present facts and information, you
must also motivate, explain, supply activities, and provide feedback. Your
students must become actively involved in the print materials.

Write with a warm, conversational tone. This will help you to develop a
rapport with the readers. Refer to the reader as "you." Use positive rather than
negative examples to illustrate concepts. Positive statements are easier to read
and they elicit positive reader response. As much as possible, personal biases and
opinions should be avoided. As well, avoid using jargon, cliches, colloquialisms,
and abbreviations. These devices cause distraction, which interrupts the
assimilation of information. Occasionally, a bit of humor may be effective, but be
cautious. What is funny to one person may not amuse another. It can be difficult
to adapt humor to another culture. It is best to use humor only in live
presentations where you can see the audience and assess their reaction to your
words and actions. Then, if necessary, you can clarify your statements.

Learners are human. A writing style that is simple, direct, and precise
soothes the readers' anxieties and makes reading a productive learning
experience. Use the fewest possible words to state exactly what is meant. Use
small words and short phrases. For a more vigorous and direct writing style, use
the active voice. Write in the present tense; save the past tense for references to
historical events. For an example of a text that uses a warm, conversational tone
and a simple direct style, refer to The Open Learning Handbook written by Phil
Race (1995).

Avoid words such as "maybe" and "sometimes." If in doubt, say, "according to
. . .; however, the majority of research indicates that . . ." Conversely, avoid
making absolute statements; someone is bound to find the exception. As much
as possible, refrain from using words such as "always" and "never."

Eliminate the nonessential preliminaries. Let the students know immediately
what each sentence and paragraph is about. Short sentences and paragraphs
enhance readability and comprehension. They also increase information recall.
The same rule applies to vocabulary; whenever possible, use the shortest word.
Acronyms are useful, but ensure that they are explained before using them.


Writing
Minimize sentence complexity by reducing the distance between the subject
and the verb. A series of short, precise sentences is more effective than one long,
convoluted sentence. Use adjectives and adverbs sparingly. Alternatives to long
prose passages include lists, diagrams, and flow charts. Linking sentences and
paragraphs with transitional words and expressions helps maintain coherence.

To help students understand the training material, use complex words and
phrases only when they are needed to describe a correct technical term or
condition. Preferably, present technical terms in the language of the user. New
terms and expressions should be defined either in‐text or in a glossary. Never
assume that the students understand a new concept; always provide explanations
or examples to illustrate salient points. Illustrate concepts with examples that
readers will recognize or relate to. North American examples should be used
infrequently.

To help increase the comprehension of print material, present the information
in a logical manner (McConkie, 1977). Building from simple to more complex
tasks and linking new information to old increases the learners' confidence.
Using special organizer tools will help focus the readers' attention. Organizers
can be used to introduce new sections or to present information that is crucial to
completing a new task. These organizers appear at the beginning of each new or
important section. Organizers can be flow charts, diagrams, a list of key words, a
series of questions, or a series of analogies based on the learners' experiences.

Students must become actively engaged in the print material. There are
several devices you can use to stimulate student interest and increase motivation:

! Hooks arouse curiosity and interest. A hook can be an intriguing question
posed early in the material, and then answered toward the end of the chapter
or at the beginning of the next chapter. Inserting relevant analogies,
examples, and case studies at appropriate points in the text not only adds
interest, it also increases comprehension. As well, these devices help clarify
concepts or operations, promote cognitive transfer, and link old information
to new learning.

! Anecdotes add color and personality to the text. Anecdotes should be short
and relate directly to the information presented. Personal anecdotes are
easiest to write, and they demonstrate the author's first‐hand knowledge of
the subject. Because anecdotes are culturally based, ensure that your
audience will understand them.

! Hints, cautions, and warnings focus attention. The hints increase the
learners' understanding, and the cautions and warnings may save time or
prevent accidents.

Writing
! Quotes add authority to a text. If the quote is lengthy, copyright permission
must be obtained before it can be included in the text. The source of any
quotation must be acknowledged.

! Practice is provided through varied and frequent exercises interspersed
throughout the text. These activities encourage involvement, provide
opportunities for students to apply knowledge and concepts, provide
feedback, and ensure that students feel comfortable with the new material
they have just learned. Including a variety of exercises will prevent boredom,
and, at the same time, promote analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Case
study exercises, for example, are an excellent method of integrating theory
and practice. Performance and Instruction Quarterly, 4(1), 1991 contains a
number of articles on how to write and use case studies. Remember, some
topics will require more practice than others. To prevent confusion and
negative student response, do not use practice exercises that are poorly
worded or contain ambiguous questions.

! Assignments can draw on the knowledge of learners. Include assignments
and activities that ask students to use their own experiences or direct them to
other sources. You could ask students to address a specific problem in their
community. Students value assignments that encourage them to interact
with resources and personnel outside of the training room. Allow students to
select assignments that meet your instructional goals and their learning
needs.

Good instructional writing avoids inconsistency, pretentiousness, sarcasm,
innuendoes, vagueness, and needless repetition. However, the hard‐to‐
understand and/or important points should be repeated, at least three different
ways. Stick to the topic. Until a point has been clearly made, do not extrapolate
or describe far‐reaching relationships. Provide the essential information first,
then the explanations, and finally, the nice‐to‐know details.

To achieve nonsexist writing, do not use gender when referring to students or
to members of a profession. In many cases, sexism can be eliminated from the
text by simply using plural forms, referring to the reader as "you," deleting the
pronouns his and her, and opting for an asexual term such as "chairperson" or
"salesperson" whenever possible. In this way, you will provide an example of
gender equality to your students.

Emphasizing and clarifying the essential elements of the text reduces the
readers' work. Underline, bold, or block off important words, phrases, and key
points. Use paragraph headings and/or subheadings to add clarity and
succinctness to the text. Headings should not be typed in all capital letters; they
are difficult to read. Number the sequential steps in training activities or safety

Writing
instructions. Provide tables and diagrams to direct attention, show relationships,
indicate scale, highlight details, or describe a process. Use illustrations and job
aids whenever possible (Rossett & Gautier‐Downes, 1991; and Race, 1995). Most
students are visually oriented, and graphic material is more easily recalled than
printed words. Graphics or illustrations are extremely useful in conveying ideas
to an international audience. Consider using symbols that are universally
recognized. Because dense pages of print frequently overwhelm the reader, some
blank space should appear on every page. This blank space can also be used to
highlight important items.

A constant review of the written material will ensure that the material is
consistently organized and that the information is logically presented. After each
draft, you should answer these questions:

! Is the material suitable for the intended audience?

! Do the ideas flow logically and build from simple to complex?

! Are difficult concepts further explained with diagrams, charts, graphs, or
tables?

! Does the material challenge students at various intellectual levels?

! Does the material provide student interaction, positive feedback, and
encouragement?

! Are there any typographical errors? Are the numbers embedded in the text
correct?


Writing
5.4 Readability

Writing is a form of communication, and as such, it involves three factors: the
sender, the message, and the receiver. As a writer, you are the sender, the person
who has the knowledge and information you want to communicate. This
knowledge and information forms your message. The way you choose to deliver
your message depends largely on the characteristics of the receivers, your
students. It is your responsibility to deliver the information clearly, precisely,
and in a manner that is understandable to your readers.

The text of good instructional materials must be eminently readable. By making
your text readable, your students will have less difficulty understanding your
message, and they will spend more time learning the material. In English, two
factors contribute to difficult text:

! Vocabulary: Using uncommon words, foreign words, technical words, and
words with more than three syllables makes it difficult for readers with
restricted vocabularies to understand the text.

! Sentence Structure: To decipher long, compound and complex sentences
requires a high level of reader comprehension. Long or complicated sentence
structures make it difficult for readers to follow the meaning of the text.

As a trainer, you need to match the level of difficulty of your materials to the
reading ability of your students. If your students cannot understand what you
write, both their time and yours will be wasted.

Applying a Readability Formula

Readability tests indicate the reading level and difficulty of textual materials. The
results of these tests should be considered guidelines for your writing.
Readability tests can be applied to textbooks and articles as well as to your own
writing. A readability formula allows you to calculate a score that indicates the
reading level of the text. Although these formulas do not guarantee that a certain
group of learners will find a particular piece of text easy to understand, they are
quick to apply and will give you a rough indication of the text's reading level.
Readability formulas should be applied to at least three passages from various
sections of a text and then averaged.


Writing
One readability formula is called a Fog Index. It is used to examine textual
vocabulary and sentence structure. To apply the index, follow the steps below
(Gunning, 1952; Jenkins, 1985):

1. Count 100 words from the beginning of a passage.
! Hyphenated words count as two words.

2. Find the average sentence length (ASL) by:
! counting the number of complete sentences between the first and the
100th word;
! subtracting the number of words between the last period and the 100th
word;
! dividing the above total by the number of complete sentences.

3. Count the number of difficult words (DW) by:
! underlining words of three or more syllables and all foreign words such as
gratis, per diem, ad hoc, etc.

4. Calculate the score by using the following formula:

2(ASL + DW) + 5 = readability score

5

You should repeat the above procedure with two other passages from the same
work, then average the results. The following scale can be used to interpret
readability scores derived from the above formula:

Score Level of Text Level of Reader

12 & under very easy Poor: literate, but with very
little primary schooling or its
equivalent

13‐16 easy Average: has several years of
primary schooling or its
equivalent

17‐20 quite difficult Good: has studied at the
secondary level or its equivalent

20 & over difficult Advanced: has some post‐
secondary or higher education
or its equivalent

Writing
Scores derived from readability formulas are only indications that a text is likely
to be at the right reading level for a group of students, not that it definitely is.
Readability formulas do not measure comprehension; they do not consider
whether or not the student is correctly following the meaning of the text
(Dhanarajan & Timmers, 1992).

If you are writing text for students who are not fluent in English, it is
recommended that you try to obtain a readability score of 13‐16. However, the
real test of the material's readability will come when local students use the
materials to accomplish the objectives of the training program.


Writing
5.5 Editing

Print‐based learning materials should be reviewed, at least once, by an editor.
The editor can review your course materials in almost the same manner as your
students would work through them.

An editor does more that simply rearrange sentences and correct spelling
mistakes. Along with the writer and an instructional designer (if available), the
editor ensures that the instructional text is:

! readableCthe level of text difficulty is appropriate to the intended audience.

! comprehensibleCthe text is understandable‐‐it makes sense; instructions are
complete and easy to follow.

! "user friendly"Cthe text not only teaches but also motivates and actively
involves the reader on a personal level.

! consistentCthe text is consistent in style, tone, organization, format, and
usage.

There are four basic editorial functions.

ProofreadingCreading manuscripts and checking for adherence to edited copy;
verifying changes; checking accuracy of headers, page numbers, and cross‐
references.

Copy editingCediting for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics
of style; checking for consistency of mechanics; marking header levels and
placement of graphics.

Substantive editingCclarifying and/or reorganizing a manuscript for content
and structure. Changes may be suggested to, or drafted for, the author; may
include negotiating changes with the author.

Writing/RewritingCcreating new manuscripts or parts of a manuscript on the
basis of the content and/or research supplied by the author; may include some
research and original writing.

The type and amount of editing required for instructional text will depend on:
! the nature of the material;
! the audience for whom it is intended;

Writing
! the author's skill in preparing the manuscript.


Writing
5.6 Formatting Instructional Materials

Choosing a print format and selecting appropriate graphics for instructional text
requires careful consideration. Print materials must come in an attractive,
legible, easy‐to‐use package that enhances and facilitates learning. Students
must be able to access information quickly and to identify important
instructional points easily. Therefore, careful attention must be paid to the
accessibility, organization, legibility, layout, and packaging of the print materials.
Although the ideas presented here are based on experiences with foreign
students, you may also refer to Hartley (1978, 1981); Hartley & Burnhill (1978);
Leshin, Pollock, & Reigeluth (1992); Misanchuk (1992); and Jonassen (1982, 1985)
for further information.

Accessibility

To enable students to find information quickly, print materials must be designed
to provide optimum accessibility. This feature becomes particularly important if
students are allowed to progress randomly through the materials. Accessibility is
improved when the following items form part of the instructional package:

! a detailed table of contents that identifies all subsections;
! a list of illustrations and tables;
! a summary or preview at the beginning of each unit or module;
! tabbed dividers;
! colored paper for specific types of information;
! page headers and numbers;
! visual cues and icons;
! a glossary; and
! an index.

The following section provides details on page headers, page numbers, and text
headings. Although these items significantly increase accessibility, they are often
neglected.

Header lines should appear at the top of every page. They help students to
locate specific pages easily and to identify particular course topics quickly.
Header lines may include the name of the training program, the chapter or
module number, the author, the date, or any other relevant information.

Writing
Whatever header style is selected, it should be used consistently throughout the
materials. Footers, at the bottom of each page, can be used to provide additional
information.

Page numbers should be included in the running header line. Paginate in the
upper, right‐hand corner of the page. Students in Western cultures tend to look
for page numbers at the top of the page rather than at the bottom. The chapter
or module number often forms the first part of the page number. Together, these
two numbers will quickly tell the students on which page, and in which module,
they are currently working. For example, page 4 of module one is written as 1‐4
or 1/4; page 32 of module six is written as 6‐32 or 6/32. This type of page
numbering system has two advantages. First, if updates or changes to the
material are required, only that section will have to be repaginated; the other
pages remain the same. Second, students can quickly locate specific sections and
pages. Using a similar numbering system, figures and tables can also be quickly
identified. In this case however, a dot rather than a dash or slash can be used to
separate the figure or table number from the module number. For example,
Table 5 in module two could be written as Table 2.5; Figure 8 in module three
could be written as Figure 3.8.

When used properly, text headings help students to understand content
organization and quickly locate information. There are two basic systems of text
headings. The first is a numbering system wherein the module, the main
headings, and the subheadings would be numbered as follows:

Module 1 or 1.0
Main Headings 1.1 1.2
Subheadings 1.1.1 1.1.2

Although this numbering system can be carried to a fourth or fifth level, it may
be preferable to switch to non‐numbered, subheadings at that point. Due to the
proliferation of word processing and desktop publishing software, many course
developers are using a second system of text headings, which is simply called a
heading system. Instead of numbers, this system uses a specific arrangement and
combination of various type sizes and type faces to differentiate between the
module heading, the main headings, and the subheadings. The Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association provides detailed information
on this heading system. Also, refer to the Chicago Manual of Style.


Writing
Organization

It is essential that print instructional materials be segmented into small,
manageable units and labelled appropriately. The table of contents should
provide students with a clear indication of how the course content is arranged.
This arrangement will depend primarily on how the content is sequenced. For
example, chronologically sequenced content is best segmented into periods of
time or historical eras.

Legibility

Text that is easy to read also has excellent legibility. Legibility is improved when
the factors below are taken into consideration.

! Typefaces are distinctive and readable. In North America, audiences prefer
serif fonts such as Bookman and New Century Schoolbook (Misanchuk, 1992);

! Typefaces are large enough to be read in dim light. Students in developing
countries must often study in conditions that are less than ideal. Select a type
size that is at least 10 or 12 points. (Note that there are 72 points to the inch.)

! Typefaces and type sizes are used consistently.

! Large block letters and headings comprised of all capital letters are used
sparingly.

! Key words are visually enhanced with bolding or typeface variation.

! White space is used to set off blocks of text.

! Short sentences and short paragraphs are used frequently.

! Text is left‐justified only, and the spacing between letters on a line of type is
proportional to the size of the letter.

! Contrast between text and paper is conducive to easy reading.

! Numbers are reserved for identifying the steps in a task or levels of
importance.


Writing
Layout

Layout refers to how the information is displayed on a page. Because most
students are visually oriented, an attractive page layout can facilitate learning.
On the other hand, a cluttered, disorganized layout may hinder unmotivated
learners.

Every page in an instructional manual or guide should have an adequate amount
of white space; perhaps one‐third of each page should be blank. This white
space separates ideas and concepts (Hartley, 1980) and provides space for
notetaking, which facilitates learning (Rickards, 1980). When there is sufficient
white space on a page, readers can easily scan the text to locate pertinent
information. White space includes the margins on the top, bottom, and sides of
each page. Using an unjustified, rag‐right margin adds white space between lines
and the spaces between words remain the same. When the spacing between
words varies, it is more difficult for the eye to scan a line of type. However,
professional typesetting can produce consistent word spacing along with a
justified right margin.

Borders, bullets, icons, and different typefaces can be used to highlight items
on a page and to add variety. However, these items should be used consistently
for the same function. For example, if boldface is used to identify key words, it
should not be used to highlight references.

Tables, diagrams, flowcharts, graphs, and illustrations are used to clarify
explanations, direct attention, show relationships, indicate scale, highlight
details, illustrate a process, increase reader interest, and promote the recall of
information. However, to be effective, these items must complement the text.
Illustrations should relate to and be located near the appropriate textual
passages. Labels on diagrams, graphs, and flowcharts should be consistently
placed and clearly identify the components highlighted. Bernard & Marcel
(1984), Dwyer (1972), and Winn & Holliday (1982) provide additional information
on designing illustrations for text.

Color may be advantageous, but it can also be expensive. Grey shading is an
inexpensive alternative. Color can be used to highlight features, add realism to
illustrations, or motivate learners. Use color consistently when color is used to
emphasize key words or important points. Note that if too much color is used, it
can jar or distract learners. Patrick, Michael, & Moore (1986) recommend that no
more than six colors be used in any diagram or illustration. If the print materials
are meant to be duplicated, remember that blue shades do not copy well. Take
care not to select colors that may have negative connotations in the country in
which you will be working. Bergeron (1990) discusses the meaning of colors in
western cultures.

Writing
Packaging

Training materials that are attractively packaged are more likely to be used. First
and foremost, the binding must be durable. If the materials require frequent
additions or updates, a three‐hole punch binding is preferred. Note that several
countries use a two‐hole punch rather than the three‐hole punch commonly used
in North America. Further, the standard paper size may be 8 1/4" x 11 3/4" rather
than 8 1/2" x 11." If the materials are not likely to be revised for some time, cerlox,
coil, or perfect professional binding may be used. If the materials are to be used
in hot, humid climates, a uni‐bind format, which uses a heat binding process, is
not recommended. Remember that thick, bulky covers add extra weight to the
package. If materials must be shipped, this extra weight will increase the delivery
costs. The weight of your materials may increase significantly during transit
because paper and cardboard absorb water, especially in humid climates.

In order not to overwhelm your students, you may wish to package or bind each
chapter or module as a separate unit. This type of packaging will affect the
preliminary pages, the table of contents, the reference sections, and the overall
organization of the materials as each chapter or module must be able to stand on
its own. Some sections from the early chapters or modules may need to be
repeated in later units.

Tabs or colored paper can be used to separate the various components of the
training materials. These devices make it easy to locate specific sections of the
course material. However, tabs can be extremely expensive to produce, and
inserting colored paper while assembling a manual can be time‐consuming. Even
when a large number of customized divider tabs are ordered, the cost per tab may
be the same as the numbered, preprinted tabs.

Frequently forgotten in the design of print‐based instructional material is the
appropriateness of the manual for its intended use. For example, if students are
to use the manual as they work with a piece of equipment, then the manual must
lie flat. If students are to take the manual with them on field trips, then it should
be small enough to carry and have a waterproof cover.

For more practical information on the design, development, and production of
print‐based instructional materials, refer to the following publications:

Alder, E. W. (1991). Print that works. Palo Alto, CA: Bull Publishing Company.

American Psychological Association. (1995). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.


Writing
Misanchuk, E. R. (1992). Preparing instructional text: Document design using
desktop publishing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.

Rogers, G. (1985). Editing for print. London: Quarto Publishing Ltd.

Stoneall, L. (1991). How to write training materials. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer and
Co.

University of Chicago Press (1982). The Chicago manual of style (13th ed., rev.).
Chicago, IL: Author.

Vanstone, K. (1985). Practical proofreading. Toronto, ON: Copp Clark Pitman
Ltd.

Due to the rapid changes in desktop publishing capabilities, consider obtaining a
subscription to a desktop publishing journal.


6.0 Travel Advice


Contents

6.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................6/1

6.2 Health Advice ........................................................................................ 6/2
Introduction ........................................................................................................6/2
Medical Check‐up...............................................................................................6/3
Medical Insurance ..............................................................................................6/3
Dental Check‐up.................................................................................................6/4
Jet Lag ..................................................................................................................6/4
Immunization .....................................................................................................6/5
Water Precautions ............................................................................................6/10
Food Precautions ...............................................................................................6/11
Diarrhea and Vomiting .................................................................................... 6/12
Other Precautions ............................................................................................ 6/13
When You Return Home ................................................................................. 6/15

6.3 Financial and Legal Arrangements ......................................................6/16

6.4 Customs Regulations ...........................................................................6/19

6.5 What To Take ....................................................................................... 6/20
Medical Supplies.............................................................................................. 6/20
Clothing.............................................................................................................6/24
Personal Items...................................................................................................6/27
Gifts....................................................................................................................6/30
Other Items ....................................................................................................... 6/31

6.6 Safety Advice........................................................................................ 6/36
Introduction ......................................................................................................6/36
Getting Yourself Ready.....................................................................................6/37
Airport Security ................................................................................................6/39
Hotel Security ...................................................................................................6/39
Touring ..............................................................................................................6/42
Travelling With Children.................................................................................6/47
Terrorism and Hijacking ................................................................................. 6/48
Natural Disasters ............................................................................................. 6/50

6.7 Culture Shock .......................................................................................6/53
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 6/53
Phases of Culture Shock................................................................................... 6/53
Dealing with Culture Shock.............................................................................6/54


6.8 Dealing With Stress ............................................................................. 6/56
Before You Leave ..............................................................................................6/56
While You Are Away ........................................................................................6/57
Upon Your Return ............................................................................................6/58

6.9 Conclusion........................................................................................... 6/60

Travel Advice 6/1
6.1 Introduction

The travel advice provided in this chapter is intended primarily for those who are
going to work in developing countries for the first time. These trainers not only face
the excitement and adventure of travelling to a foreign country, but also the
frustrations that often stem from working in an unfamiliar environment. This
chapter contains practical advice that will help you, the instructor, to avoid or better
cope with the difficult circumstances that frequently arise in developing countries,
particularly in rural, tropical areas. If you will be working in Eastern Europe, then
you must take warmer clothes. However, the advice on immunization, water and
food precautions, and so forth will still apply. Although the information presented
here may be more appropriate for trainers who are lodged in overseas tourist centers
or in economy, Western‐type hotels, it should also help those trainers who may find
themselves in less comfortable surroundings. Those trainers who are assigned to
work in urban areas and are able to live in first‐class accommodations may not need
to bring a number of the items listed in this chapter. However, if they plan to travel
beyond the urban areas, they may find the advice on health and safety helpful or,
perhaps, essential. Do not be alarmed by the contents. Remember, prevention is
better than cure! Relax, be flexible, and adapt to your international environment.

This chapter presents an overview of several important items that you must consider
prior to travelling to and working in a developing country. It is also filled with
practical advice. You should refer to this chapter frequently as you make
preparations for your overseas training activity.

It is strongly advised that you examine the information in this chapter at least two
months before you leave home. For example, certain immunizations are often
mandatory, and some series of vaccinations must be spread over a period of one or
two months. You may also need time to obtain visas or other documents that will
enable you to have a safe and successful trip. Only you can be responsible for your
own health. Therefore, take the time to read this chapter carefully.


Travel Advice 6/2
6.2 Health Advice

Introduction

This section provides you with an overview of the items that are essential for your
well‐being in a developing country. It is not intended to be the definitive work
on health advice for international travellers. Prior to your departure, it is strongly
advised that you see your doctor and have a complete physical examination. You
should also have a dental check‐up, and you should ensure that your
immunizations are up‐to‐date. Speak to a public health nurse who is familiar
with overseas travel, and obtain the latest copy of a book entitled Vaccination
certificate requirements and health advice for international travel published by the
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Read, and take, a travel health
care guide such as Don't drink the water...The complete traveller's guide to staying
healthy in warm climates, co‐published by the Canadian Public Health
Association and the Canadian Society for International Health (1994). If you are
taking children with you, it is also highly recommended that you read Children
abroad by J. Losos, A. Clayton, N. Gerein, & R. Wilson (1986). Women travellers
will find practical health advice in the Handbook for women travellers by M. & G.
Moss (1987), and in Women travel: Adventures, advice and experience edited by N.
Jansz & M. Davies (1990). Other helpful books for women travellers include A
women=s guide to carefree travel abroad by J. Turbin (1991) and A journey of one=s
own: Uncommon advice for the independent woman traveller by T. Zepatos (1992).
You may also want to refer to the International Travel Tip Bazaar located at the
following site on the Internet: http://www.journeywoman.com. If your spouse
will be accompanying you on a long overseas assignment, you may want to
consider preserving his or her sanity by finding your spouse an appropriate
overseas job as well.

Remember, while you are living overseas, you are vulnerable to a number of risks
and stresses that you may not experience at home. Perhaps 20% of North
Americans who travel overseas become ill. North Americans may lack the
immunities possessed by people from other geographic regions. Use this section
as a guide. See a doctor before you go! Preferably, see a doctor who has some
international experience. Names of these doctors can usually be obtained from
university hospitals. Only your doctor can provide you with the professional
assistance that is appropriate for your situation.

A list of the recommended medical supplies that you should take is provided in
the section "What to Take." You may want to review this list with your doctor.


Travel Advice 6/3
Medical Check‐up

Have a complete physical examination prior to your departure. Tell your doctor
where you will be travelling and how long you will be there. Ask your doctor if
you are physically fit for your journey and what health precautions you should
take. Obtain your blood type; this information may be helpful if you require
serious medical attention.

If you need to take prescription drugs, ask your doctor to indicate the generic
name of the drug and the required dosage. If the drug is a narcotic, have your
doctor provide you with an official letter that explains why you need this
medication. If you intend to be overseas for an extended period of time, make
sure you have an adequate supply of your prescribed medication. You should
also consider obtaining a medical alert bracelet that identifies your blood type,
specific allergies, or any serious medical conditions. The bracelet should also
include a phone number to call for medical assistance.

Once you are overseas, contact the nearest American, British, or Canadian
embassy or consulate. Obtain the name and address of the local doctor used by
the embassy. Also, let embassy personnel know where you will be staying and
what you will be doing in the country.

Medical Insurance

Review your existing medical insurance policy and consider obtaining additional
coverage that will allow you to:

! access medical advice via a toll‐free telephone number;

! cover part or all of your overseas hospital and medical bills;

! pay your bills directly so that you will not need to cover the expenses first
and then be reimbursed;

! fly home for treatment;

! have a family member or friend accompany you home if you need medical
assistance;

! cover any expenses associated with the premature cancellation of your trip.

Always check the fine print on your medical policy. Does it cover medical
conditions that arise from previous illnesses? Are there any age or financial

Travel Advice 6/4
restrictions? Will it cover the entire length of your trip? What would happen to
your coverage if your trip was extended unexpectedly?

Dental Check‐up

Well trained dentists can be difficult to find in developing countries. Visit your
dentist before you go and have any potential cavities filled. By doing so, you will
reduce the possibility of getting AIDS, which may be caused by the use of
contaminated dental instruments near bleeding gums. Don't forget to pick up a
supply of dental floss; it is not readily available in many overseas countries.

Jet Lag

One of the side effects of long‐distance air travel is jet lag. When you arrive at
your destination, your body will need some time to reset its internal clock. You
will feel tired and may find it difficult to focus your energies. Your judgement
and other cognitive skills may be affected. The effects of jet lag are more
noticeable when you travel long distances and when you fly from west to east. If
you fly from Southeast Asia to North America via the Pacific Ocean, it may take
you at least a week to recover from jet lag.

There are several ways you can reduce the negative effects of jet lag. A few
suggestions are given below.

! Rest before you leave.

! Three days prior to your departure, try to gradually adjust your body to the
time zone you will be living in.

! While flying, try to adopt the schedule you will maintain at your foreign
destination. Sleep when it is night in your destination and be awake when it
is day. Set your watch to the time at your destination.

! While en route, avoid drinking alcoholic beverages or substances that contain
caffeine. The effects of alcohol are heightened at high altitudes. Do drink
plenty of other liquids, especially water and fruit juices.

! Minimize your simple carbohydrate intake and eat lots of protein. Foods that
are high in carbohydrates induce sleep, while those high in protein produce
wakefulness.

! Reduce smoking.

Travel Advice 6/5
! Eat lightly before, during, and after your flight. Eat high fiber foods, such as
fruits and vegetables, and complex carbohydrates such as rice and pasta.

! Each hour, while you are awake, do some exercises in your seat, and if
possible, walk the aisles for a few minutes. Exercise on arrival at your
destination.

! Try to relax. Loosen your clothes, take off your shoes, remove your rings, and
get some sleep. Remember that feet and fingers swell at high altitudes. You
may need to use ear plugs, eyeshades, and an inflatable neck collar that helps
prevent kinky necks caused by sleeping while sitting. Listen to soothing
music on your portable, cassette taperecorder. Unless you are travelling first‐
class, the headphones on most planes are suitable only for conveying speech.

! On long trips, plan to stop over one night during the trip.

! A few experienced travellers recommend taking a sleeping pill while on long
eastbound flights. They say it allows them to get seven hours of sleep and
reduces the long‐term effects of jet lag. However, sleeping pills, like other
drugs, can remain in your body for a long time after you take them, and if you
need to take emergency action while on board a plane, you may be too
drowsy to respond effectively.

! Following your trip, allow yourself time to adjust. Raycheba (1993) suggests
that you will need one day of recovery for every time zone crossed when
travelling west to east. You may need one half‐day of rest per time zone when
you travel from east to west.

To obtain additional information regarding jet lag, refer to Jet smart by D.
Fairechild (1992).

Immunization

Immunization requirements are a necessary part of international travel
preparations. Although the occurrence of many serious diseases has been
reduced, there is still a need to take appropriate precautions. As the saying goes,
"It is better to be safe than sorry."

Do not leave immunization requirements to the last minute. Some vaccinations
must be given, in intervals, over a two‐month period. With the assistance of
your doctor or a public health nurse, determine which vaccinations and
booster shots you require. Although each country will have its current specific
requirements, make sure you are immunized against tetanus, diphtheria, typhoid,

Travel Advice 6/6
polio, measles, Hepatitis A, and tuberculosis. While checking on your
immunization status, also note any allergic reactions to drugs such as penicillin.
People who are allergic to penicillin may have to wait for sulfa drugs to arrive.

You should be aware of the diseases listed below and their corresponding
vaccinations and medications. These diseases are common in many developing
countries.

G Cholera is caused by fecally contaminated food and water. Symptoms include
headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, and severe dehydration. Cholera is found
primarily in Africa, Asia, and South America. Although a vaccination is available
for cholera, it will not provide you with 100 percent protection against the
disease. The vaccination is good for six months. Several countries require
visitors to have cholera immunization.

In 1991, South America experienced a major cholera epidemic. There were
256,343 reported cases in Peru and 2,453 deaths (The Globe and Mail, 1991,
September 20). Ecuador had 36,859 cases and 581 deaths. In the winter of 1992,
cholera bacteria was found in the water supply of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Consequently, the 11 million inhabitants had to purify their water or obtain
bottled water for drinking. Brazil has spent $54 million to fight this disease. In
1992, it was expected that approximately 40,000 people in Latin America would
die because of cholera. If you are travelling to these countries, be sure to have a
cholera immunization and handle local food and water with extreme care. As
with other water‐borne diseases, you should drink only safe water, eat cooked
vegetables, and peel all fruit yourself, wash your hands with soap before eating,
and avoid unhygienic food handlers and street vendors. The longer you are away
from home, the greater is the temptation to buy food from a street vendor. Best
advice ‐ don=t, or do so when you can assure yourself that safe food handling
practices are being implemented and that the food is fresh!

G Diphtheria is caused by bacteria, which forms a false membrane in the throat,
and it produces a toxin that affects the heart and nervous system. You should
have a diphtheria immunization every ten years. Diphtheria and tetanus are
usually given in a combined vaccine.

G Hepatitis A is an infectious, viral disease of the liver, which is caused by
eating food or drinking water that has been contaminated by fecal matter.
Although it is found world‐wide, it is particularly evident in poorer countries.
Hepatitis A causes headaches, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Symptoms include
dark urine and clay‐colored stools. People with this disease are extremely ill for
two weeks, and then experience a feeling of weakness for one to three months.
Taking immunoglobulin reduces the chance of contracting hepatitis. However, if

Travel Advice 6/7
you are continually exposed to this disease, you should receive immunoglobulin
every three to six months.

G Hepatitis B is an inflammatory, viral infection of the liver that has symptoms
similar to hepatitis A. However, hepatitis B develops more slowly than hepatitis
A, and hepatitis B is a more serious disease. According to the World Health
Organization, approximately two billion people are infected with hepatitis B in
any two‐week period (The Globe and Mail, 1992, March 25). Unless you are a
social worker or work in the health science field, you are unlikely to come into
contact with hepatitis B. However, it is prevalent in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific
islands. The disease is transmitted through a direct exchange of body fluids, such
as blood or semen, with an infected person. You can get hepatitis B by using
contaminated razors, using unsterilized hypodermic needles, getting a tattoo,
having your ears pierced, or having sexual contact with an infected person.

The immunization series for hepatitis B consists of the administration of a
vaccine over a seven‐month period.

G Malaria is caused by a parasite that is transmitted via the bite of the female
anopheles mosquito. Malaria, a potentially fatal disease, causes high fever,
headaches, flu‐like symptoms, muscular aches, and chills. These symptoms may
recur at intervals over a long period of time. Malaria affects 500 million people
each year. Two drugs, Chloroquine and Fansidar, are frequently used to reduce
the possibility of getting malaria; however, no drug can guarantee protection
against the disease. Some strains of the parasite have become immune to these
two drugs. During 1993, 1,300 people died in Thailand from cerebral malaria,
which is caused by a parasite that is resistant to existing malarial drugs (CTV
News, 1994, January 2).

You should take all the precautions necessary to prevent being bitten by
mosquitoes, especially between dusk and dawn. Avoid sitting outside after dark,
check to see that your hotel rooms are screened, steer clear of still bodies of
water, use insect repellant, and if necessary, hang a mosquito net over your bed.
If you think that you may be staying in a malaria‐infected area, consult your
doctor or public health nurse. Also, speak to expatriates who have lived in the
particular part of the country in which you will be working. Individuals who live
in a country where malaria is endemic do not often contract malaria. Usually,
they have developed some resistance to the disease. If you think you have been
bitten by an insect and experience fever and flu‐like symptoms, see a doctor as
soon as possible.

Note that scientists sponsored by the United Nations Development Program, the
World Bank, and the World Health Organization are conducting trials of a new
vaccine, SPf66. It is being tested in Tanzania, Gambia, Colombia, and Thailand,

Travel Advice 6/8
and if found to be effective, another malaria vaccine could be available by 1998
(The Globe and Mail, 1994, February 14, A1).

G Measles is usually considered a viral, childhood disease. Symptoms include
fever, sore eyes, and the appearance of round red spots on the skin. Note,
however, that measles can cause pneumonia, ear infections, and, in severe cases,
mental retardation and death. You can be immunized against measles.

G Mumps is a contagious viral disease that causes fever and swelling of the
parotid gland. The disease can lead to encephalitis and meningitis. The vaccine
for mumps is usually combined with the vaccine for measles.

G Poliomyelitis, or polio, is a viral disease that still occurs in many developing
countries. It is characterized by high fever and reduced motor movements. Polio
can cause permanent deformity and serious disability. If you are travelling to
areas with high incidents of polio, you should reinforce your immunity to this
disease by receiving a booster dose. You do not require a booster if you have
completed your primary polio immunization series within the last ten years.

G Rabies is a viral infection that affects the brain and the nervous system. It is
transmitted by bites from infected animals, or according to recent reports, by
being licked by infected animals. This disease can be fatal. Avoid having contact
with any animals, particularly monkeys and stray dogs or cats. These animals
may attack you even when they are not provoked. An infected animal may be
aggressive, show little fear of humans, and salivate excessively. If you are bitten,
wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water. If possible, try to have the
animal caught and held for examination. Although you can take the human
diploid‐cell vaccine, which protects you against rabies, this vaccine is normally
administered only after it has been determined that the bite is from a rabid
animal. Agriculturalists and animal handlers who plan to work in rural settings
overseas frequently take this vaccine prior to their departure.

G Tetanus, also known as lock‐jaw, is caused by toxin‐producing bacteria,
which enter the body through cuts or pores. Once you have been immunized for
tetanus, you will need a booster every ten years. The bacteria can be found
everywhere, but especially where there are donkeys, horses, or mules.

G Tuberculosis is a communicable disease that primarily affects the lungs.
Although few Canadians and Americans suffer from this debilitating illness,
tuberculosis is still common in countries that have poor or crowded living
conditions. Approximately, 1.7 billion people suffer from tuberculosis in any
given two‐week period (The Globe and Mail, 1992, March 25). The disease is
caused by a bacteria found in unpasteurized milk and milk products. When
infected persons cough, they spread the disease through airborne water droplets.

Travel Advice 6/9
Have a tuberculin or TB skin test done before and after your trip. There is a
vaccine for tuberculosis.

G Typhoid bacteria cause fatigue, fever, and headaches. In addition, infected
individuals may experience abdominal pain, cramps, and diarrhea. Typhoid is
usually present in food and water that has been contaminated by unsanitary
handling. Initial typhoid immunization consists of a series of three doses, which
are normally administered over a five‐week period. Booster shots are required
every two to three years.

Typhoid is still prevalent in many developing countries. Some countries, such as
Malaysia, are actively trying to reduce the occurrence of typhoid. Local
newspapers, such as the New Strait Times (January 30, 1991), provide their readers
with illustrations on how to reduce the possibility of getting typhoid. This Kuala
Lumpur newspaper advised its readers to drink only boiled water; wash all
vegetables, fruit, and utensils (with safe water); avoid eating uncooked food; wash
hands with soap and clean water before preparing food and before and after
eating; cover all food to prevent flies from landing on it, handle food with utensils
not hands; prepare food on a table not on a floor; use latrines properly; and, keep
the household clean.

G Yellow fever is a debilitating, infectious disease that is endemic to countries
in Africa, Central America, and South America. It is particularly common in
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela. The disease is caused by a virus,
which is transmitted by a forest mosquito. In some countries, you may need to
produce written evidence that you have received yellow fever immunization, even
if you are just passing through. A yellow fever vaccination is valid for ten years,
beginning ten days after vaccination.

G AIDS: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS is transmitted through
sexual intercourse or an exchange of bodily fluids such as blood, semen, and
vaginal fluids. Learn about AIDS before you go overseas. You can contract this
disease if you receive infected blood or blood components, use contaminated
needles, or participate in sexual intercourse with an infected person. While you
are overseas, it is recommended that you avoid blood transfusions, take your own
disposable, sterilized needles, and use condoms. The February 12, 1992 Globe and
Mail reports that "WHO (World Health Organization) estimates that at least 10
million to 12 million people, including a million children, have become infected
since the human immunodeficiency virus or HIV began spreading" and that
"more than 90 per cent of the newly infected adults acquired their infection
heterosexually." Although AIDS can be found anywhere in the world, the disease
is prevalent in Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, and Zambia. In Kenya, culture plays a
role in spreading AIDS. According to Kenyan Luo customs, the widow of a dead
brother is inherited by a surviving brother or a close male friend. Infection rates

Travel Advice 6/10
are rising rapidly in Southeast Asia. Medical experts in Thailand predict that five
to ten percent of the country's population will have the disease by the year 2000
(Smucker, 1991). A few countries, such as Saudi Arabia, require some of their
visitors to have proof that they are AIDS‐free. Usually, this proof is required only
if the visitor will be staying for an extended period of time.

Water Precautions

While in a foreign country, you can avoid many diseases by maintaining
stringent personal hygiene and by storing and handling water and food in
a safe manner. If the water is not chlorinated, or if you are unsure of its quality,
do not drink it or brush your teeth with it. Your best bet is to purchase bottled
water, particularly water that comes in a glass bottle and has been bottled
overseas. In 1990, the Malaysian government revealed that some resident bottlers
were using local water that had not been purified. Make sure all beverage bottles
have secure, tight lids. Whenever possible, use sterilized drinking containers.
You can also boil the water vigorously for 10 to 15 minutes before drinking it, or
disinfect the water with Halazone tablets, iodine, or chlorine bleach. However,
the levels of iodine and chlorine normally used to purify water will not destroy
parasites such as amoebas and Giardia, which is prevalent in water throughout
Ukraine, Russia, and many other countries, and the treated water will taste
funny. Allow your treated water to stand for 30 minutes before drinking it. You
could also take a Katadyn7 Pocket Filter, which is used by the Red Cross,
UNICEF, and NATO forces. This filter removes water‐borne impurities such as
cysts that can cause typhoid and cholera. Alternatively, you could take a small,
inexpensive water filter straw that may remove up to 98% of harmful
contaminants. However, it is always best to boil your drinking water for at least
ten minutes.

Generally, it is safe to drink the local wine, beer, canned drinks, carbonated soft
drinks, or tea and coffee made with boiled water. Open the bottles or cans
yourself. Do not drink fountain drinks or add ice cubes to your drinks. Alcohol
does not purify water. If you think that your beverage has been handled
incorrectly or diluted with water, do not drink it. Always carry canned pop or
bottled water that you know is safe, and consider taking your own drinking
container with you. In Uganda, for example, commercially prepared bottled
water is scarce; therefore, you may need to prepare your own bottled water.
Bring your own drinking water with you when you board local airplanes in
developing countries. Currently, there are no international regulations that
define the quality of airlines= drinking water or how it must be loaded onto the
planes.


Travel Advice 6/11
While overseas, you may notice that foreign missionaries drink the local water
without suffering any apparent negative side‐effects. Because they live in
developing countries for extended periods of time, they often find it beneficial to
get used to the local water. However, they do suffer stomach ailments, but after a
time, the bacteria in their digestive tracts changes. They can then withstand mild
bacteria but will still be susceptible to the more toxic bacteria and viruses.
Remember, in Canada and the United States, the life expectancy is more than 70
years. In Afghanistan, Morocco, and Pakistan, people can expect to live to the
age of 45. In other developing countries however, the life expectancy can be as
low as 30 years. This low life expectancy is due to a number of factors, one of
which relates to ingesting contaminated water and food. Every minute, six
childrenCmost of whom live in developing countriesCdie from drinking
contaminated water (The Vancouver Sun, 1993, April 3).

Food Precautions

Usually, it is the way the food is handled, not the food itself, which makes it
unsafe to eat. Here are some precautions you should take:

! Wash your hands thoroughly with soap before eating. Water alone does not
remove bacteria and parasites.

! Do not eat foods that are served or touched by hands.

! Eat freshly cooked vegetables and avoid eating raw or uncooked vegetables.
Remember, some vegetables are fertilized with nightsoil.

! Eat fresh fruit, including tomatoes, that you have peeled or washed yourself.
Before peeling, examine the fruit for punctures; if it has punctures, throw it
away. Many experienced travellers in developing countries recommend not
eating watermelons. In order to make them more attractive to customers, the
melons are frequently injected with local water.

! Avoid buying any fruits, such as melons, that may have been injected with
water to improve their attractiveness.

! Ensure that all fish and meats are thoroughly cooked; do not order anything
rare or medium. Foods may look crispy and well‐done on the outside but
may still be raw at the center. Never eat raw shellfish.

! Avoid foods cooked in old oil by street vendors.

! Avoid smoked meats or fish.

Travel Advice 6/12
! Do not eat leftovers. Frequently, they have not been properly stored.

! Unless you are absolutely sure of its source, do not drink milk or eat milk
products such as butter, custards, soft cheeses, salad dressings, ice cream, or
cream fillings. Boil milk or use canned, condensed milk or milk powder
mixed with water that has been boiled for at least ten minutes. Remember, in
many developing countries, milk is not routinely pasteurized.

! Do not let insects land on your food. Open air restaurants and delicatessens
are powerful magnets for insects.

! Wear light‐colored clothing. Dark clothing and perfume often attract
disease‐carrying mosquitoes that may land on your food.

! Bring your own fork, spoon, and knife. Folding or durable plastic utensils can
be purchased at camping or sports stores. If appropriate, take your own
chopsticks.

Although it may be impossible to take all of the precautions, you should try.

Diarrhea and Vomiting

About 80 percent of travellers get and suffer from diarrhea (The Vancouver Sun,
1992, October 17). Recently, a British consumer magazine, Holiday which?
reported on a survey that involved 34,000 travellers. The countries where
travellers got ill most frequently included Egypt, Gambia, Turkey, Latin America,
Bulgaria, Thailand, Tunisia, Malaysia, and Morocco (The Globe and Mail, 1991,
May 10). Most travellers suffered from stomach upsets that involved diarrhea and
vomiting. Although these two illnesses occur frequently to people who travel in
developing countries, they also affect people who live there. In 1990, 3.2 million
children died of diarrhea (The Vancouver Sun, 1993, April 13).

Diarrhea and vomiting can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or motion
sickness. Diarrhea is self‐limiting and may last from one to ten days. In such
cases, it is vital that you replace your body's fluids quickly. Drink clear, safe fruit
juices or try drinking one cup of boiled and cooled water that contains 1/4
teaspoon of salt, two teaspoons of sugar, and a flavouring such as a small amount
of lime, lemon, or orange juice. You can also drink weak tea or broth. Drink lots
of liquids, in small quantities. Try to drink at least eight cups per day. Avoid
solid foods and milk until you have fully recovered. If you feel able, start eating
soft foods, such as soft‐boiled eggs, toast, cooked cereals, and crackers, 24‐hours
after you experience diarrhea or vomiting. Consult a doctor if:

P the illness is extremely severe;

Travel Advice 6/13
P other symptoms such as a high fever, chills, and weakness are present;
P the vomit or stool contains blood or pus;
P the illness lasts more than a day or two.

For example, you may have schistosomiasis, which is caused by a freshwater
parasite found in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and South America. If untreated,
this parasite may infect the lungs, liver, and intestines and cause serious chronic
complications. The flatworm that causes this disease uses freshwater snails as its
intermediate host. The larvae that it releases can burrow through human skin in
30 seconds to ten minutes. No symptoms may occur initially, but if they do
occur, expect to feel weak and chilly and to suffer from headaches and diarrhea.
Again, if your diarrhea or vomiting lasts more than a couple of days, consult a
doctor.

Anti‐diarrhea and anti‐vomiting medications do exist. One medication, called
Dialyte7, is available from the International Association for Medical Assistance to
Travellers. However, the most effective medications require a doctor's
prescription. Normally, these drugs are taken after the symptoms occur. You
should obtain these products prior to leaving home. Read the instructions that
accompany these medicines carefully.

Other Precautions

In addition to the previous suggestions, here are a few more precautions that you
should take:

G Sunshine: Prolonged exposure to intense sunshine, especially between the
hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m., can be harmful to those who are unaccustomed to it.
In tropical areas, heat exhaustion is a common illness. This malady is caused by
excessive perspiring in hot, humid climates. Because the perspiration cannot
evaporate, the body is unable to cool down. Wear sunglasses to protect your
eyes, and use a sunscreen lotion to protect your skin. Ask your doctor to
recommend the sunscreen lotion that is appropriate for your skin type. Until you
have become accustomed to the sun's intensity, keep outdoor activities to a
minimum. Wear a hat, wear loose‐fitting clothing, and stay in the shade. To
prevent dehydration, drink plenty of liquids. If you find yourself perspiring
profusely, try drinking a cup of water with no more than a 1/4 teaspoon of salt. If
you suffer from heat exhaustion and experience cramps, dizziness, nausea, weak
but rapid pulse, shallow breathing, and pale skin, then you should lie down in a
cool place with your feet elevated and drink slightly salted water.
G Humidity: High humidity can make you feel hot and clammy. It can also
make you feel like you are suffocating. In such climates, limit your physical

Travel Advice 6/14
activities. Wear loose‐fitting, cotton clothing. Dry yourself off during the day
and use talcum powder. Watch for fungal infections and cuts or sores that will
not heal. Fungal or yeast infections can be treated with an antifungal cream or
powder.

G Cuts: Cuts heal very slowly in humid climates. Clean scratches and cuts,
apply a disinfectant such as iodine, and leave minor wounds unbandaged. Keep
the wound area clean.

G Swimming: In a warm, tropical climate, it's always tempting to jump into any
pool of water. Don't! Many parasites live in tropical, fresh‐water ponds and lakes
such as Lake Malawi in Malawi. Limit your swimming to chlorinated pools or to
seawater areas that are far from sewage outlets. Make sure that the water is not
infested with jellyfish, sea snakes, or sharks, and know where the sea currents are
before you jump in. Remember, chlorine evaporates rapidly in tropical countries;
therefore, an outdoor swimming pool may not be as safe as you think it is. In
order to prevent parasites from boring into your skin, wear footwear on a beach
and around pool areas. For the same reason, lie on a towel or beach mat.

G Jellyfish: While swimming in seawater, you may be stung by a jellyfish. If you
do, stay calm. Not only will you increase the speed at which the poison
circulates, but you may also panic and drown. Once you are ashore, remove any
tentacles that are attached to your skin. Alcohol or sand can be used to remove
the tentacles. If you feel extremely ill, see a doctor.

G Altitude: If you travel above altitudes of 8,000 feet, you may experience
altitude sickness, which is caused by a lack of oxygen. Symptoms include severe
headache, fever, nausea, and dizziness. If you experience altitude sickness, move
to a lower elevation, minimize your physical activity, and drink lots of fluids. To
avoid altitude sickness, adjust to new heights gradually. If you are working in an
area 8,000 feet above sea level, move up at a rate of 1,000 to 1,500 feet per day.

G Insects: Although most insects are harmless, several have extremely irritating
bites. Others, such as mosquitos, carry harmful bacteria and viruses that may
cause a variety of illnesses such as dengue fever and malaria. Note that
mosquitoes that carry dengue fever usually bite during the daytime while
malarial mosquitoes bite at night. To protect yourself from insects such as
mosquitos, cockroaches, and ticks, wear garments that cover your entire body,
use insect repellants (especially those that contain diethyltoluzmide or DEET),
use mosquito coils, and hang mosquito netting over sleeping areas. Do not leave
food uncovered. Wearing pants and long‐sleeved shirts will prevent ticks and
tiny insects that live in skin pores from landing on your arms and legs. If you are
walking through tall grass, make sure that your pant legs are knotted at the

Travel Advice 6/15
ankles. If you are bitten by an insect, avoid scratching the area and keep it clean.
To reduce itching, use an antihistamine lotion.

G Scorpions and snakes: These creatures are usually active at night and should
be avoided. In Bangladesh, at least 3,000 people a year are killed by poisonous
snakes (The Vancouver Sun, 1991, May 4). In scorpion‐ or snake‐infested areas,
wear high boots or heavy soled, leather shoes to prevent being bitten while
walking. If you go out at night, do not walk through grassy or treed areas. The
locals often use sticks to prod the ground in front of them as they walk. You may
also want to carry a flashlight at night so you can see where you are stepping.
Small snakes and scorpions like to hide inside shoes and boots. Always shake out
your shoes before putting them on. If you do get bitten by one of these creatures,
try to kill it. In order to obtain the correct antidote or antivenin, you must be
able to identify the specific animal that bit you. Try to remain calm. Panic only
speeds up the circulation of the poison within your body. Call a doctor
immediately.

G Lizards: Lizards normally eat plants and insects and are often seen climbing
up walls and along ceilings. They help to keep rooms free of insects. They
usually scamper away when approached, and with the exception of the Gila
monster in the southern United States, they are not poisonous. If you are bitten
by a lizard, treat the wound as a deep cut. Keep the wound clean and apply
disinfectant.

When You Return Home

When you return home, rest and slowly ease back into your regular routine.
After a stay in a developing country, see your doctor if you experience any of the
following persistent or recurring symptoms within six months of your return:
headaches, fever, rash, or gastrointestinal disorders. Tell your doctor that you
have been overseas. If your doctor cannot identify your illness, ask that you be
referred to the nearest tropical or infectious diseases center. There are several
such centers in Canada and the United States. If they cannot help you, suggest
that they contact the Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia, (404)639‐2572.


Travel Advice 6/16
6.3 Financial and Legal Arrangements

Prior to your departure, make a list of your financial and legal responsibilities to
your family, your institution, and your foreign contacts. Then outline an action
plan to deal with each of these items.

You must ensure that your family is well cared for while you are away. For
example, will there be adequate funds to cover the mortgage and pay other bills
while you are away? Who will pay them? What would happen if you stayed
overseas longer than you intended? What would happen to your family and
possessions if you died? Should you involve your relatives, trusted friends, or
lawyers in your affairs? What contracts may expire and will have to be renewed
while you are away? What powers of attorney need to be put in place?

It is wise to leave behind a copy of the following items, or tell someone where
they can be found:

! a detailed travel itinerary
! your airline tickets
! your passport number and issue date or a photocopy of the first few pages in
your passport

! birth and marriage certificates
! visa numbers, date of issue, and length of stay
! immunization records
! medical and dental histories
! prescriptions, including their generic names
! accident and sickness insurance
! a recent photograph of yourself
! the name, numbers, and amounts of your traveller=s cheques
! credit card names, numbers, and expiry dates
! letters of credit
! bank account numbers and the name of your bank manager or accountant
! bank transfer procedures; it may be necessary to transfer funds overseas
! location of safety deposit boxes
! mortgage or lease agreements
! other financial information, such as the name of your stockbroker

Travel Advice 6/17
! tax records
! driver's licence numbers, including the number of your international driver's
licence

! customs certificates for expensive items that you will take out of the country
and bring back with you

! the location of your will
! names and addresses of relatives and close friends

Speak to your supervisor, and clarify the conditions under which you will be
working overseas. Find out what assistance your employer will give you prior to,
during, and after your overseas activities. Will you receive time off to prepare for
your trip? Will your employer accept or pay for long‐distance calls related to
your overseas duties? Who will look after your job responsibilities while you are
away? Will you have to monitor your replacement's activities while you are out of
the country? Upon your return, how quickly will you be expected to resume your
previous workload?

Examine the employee benefits listed below. How will they be maintained while
you are away?

! Accidental death insurance
! Dental plan
! Group life insurance
! Health insurance
! Long‐term disability
! Pension plans
! Registered retirement savings plans
! Savings bonds
! Supplementary medical plans
! Vision care plan
! Other items such as donations

Make sure that you have adequate travel and medical insurance. You may need
additional medical coverage while you are out of the country. Determine the
specifics of your travel and medical coverage. Are there any time limits? Any
restrictions? Are there any age limits? What is the maximum coverage? Are
there any deductibles? Will the medical insurance policy cover pre‐existing

Travel Advice 6/18
conditions and routine care? Will the policy cover high‐risk sports such as scuba
diving? Will the policy cover your emergency flight home? Will it also cover the
transportation cost of a family member or nurse who must assist you during your
flight home? Must you pay for these expenses upfront and then be reimbursed by
the insurance company? Does the insurance company have a toll‐free or collect
telephone number? Can you renew the insurance coverage while you are
overseas? What are your obligations to the organization that is sponsoring you,
and what are your obligations to your foreign contacts? What must you do for
them? Must you keep track of the monies you spend and prepare progress
reports? Who will evaluate the success of your overseas activities? Who should
receive a final report of your overseas activities?


Travel Advice 6/19
6.4 Customs Regulations

Familiarize yourself with the customs regulations of each country you will be
passing through. Details can be obtained from the respective consulates or
embassies.

Here are some general guidelines that you should know.

! Most countries require a valid, up‐to‐date passport.

! Visas may be required. It is your responsibility to determine if you will need a
working visa.

! Obtain an official letter from your foreign contacts that states your duties, the
location of your activities, and the length of your stay.

! Register with your customs agents any expensive items such as jewellery,
cameras, or electronic devices prior to leaving the country. Better yet, leave
these items behind. In some countries, cameras and other forms of electronic
devices will be confiscated upon entering the country. Prior to your
departure, check with the appropriate embassy and determine what can be
taken into the country.

! Do not transport explosives, firearms, spray cans or bottles, fresh fruit, meats,
vegetables, parts of endangered species (simulated or real), substances that
could be construed as illegal drugs, cultural objects or antiquities, or
pornographic material. Pornographic material, or anything that resembles
pornography (such as the Sports Illustrated, swimsuit edition), will be
confiscated in Islamic countries.

! Learn what restrictions apply on the movement of currency across borders.

! Customs clearance procedures can be tedious and thorough. In some
countries, customs officials have drawn firearms. Don't panic. Be patient.

! Keep all customs forms that are stamped by customs officials as you enter a
country. You may need these items when you depart.

! It is not advisable to make a false customs declaration.

! Do not send a package home unless you wrap and seal it yourself. If left for
others to do, your package may be used to conceal illicit material.


Travel Advice 6/20
6.5 What To Take

The list of items you should take overseas is quite varied. The items you select
will depend primarily on your personal needs, the purpose of your trip, the
country you will be visiting, and the length of your stay. Regardless of these
factors, it is best to take as little as possible, and leave expensive and/or luxury
items behind. The more luggage you have, the more problems you will
encounter. This section is based on the assumption that international trainers
will not be staying in a five‐star hotel. Most will reside in a tourist hotel,
government housing, a university or industrial dormitory, or be billeted in a local
home.

Carry all essential items on board the plane with you. Essential items include
travel documents, medical prescriptions, itineraries, a copy of your training
materials, and an overnight bag that contains a complete change of clothes, a
sweater (in case the airline cabin is cold), washcloth, toiletries, first‐aid kit,
medications, facial tissue or toilet paper, small bottle of water, fragile items,
paper, and pens. It is wise to take expensive items like cameras, binoculars, and
calculators on the plane with you. You may also want to carry snacking foods.
Your plane may be delayed or the restaurants may be closed when you arrive at
your destination. Your remaining items should be placed in your luggage or sent
ahead. Leave space in your suitcase so that you will have room to pack all the
items you purchase or receive during your travels. Practice packing your travel
bags a day or two prior to your departure. You may find that you have more than
you could possibly carry or that you are missing something. Regardless of the
size of your suitcase, you will always fill it. Travel light; take only what you need.

Commercial travel books provide additional advice on what to take. However,
these guidebooks are written for the tourist and not for the professional who has
to work in a foreign countryCoften in locations that are off the beaten track.
Check the luggage restrictions for overseas and domestic flights prior to your
departure. Don't assume that overseas and domestic restrictions will be identical,
even on the same air carrier.

Medical Supplies

If you are travelling with a group, there should be at least two medical or first‐aid
kits per group. Individuals should carry their own prescriptions. Do take a basic
first‐aid course.

Below is a suggested list of medical information and supplies you should
consider carrying. The list of suggested medications may be lengthy, but consider
the listed medications as a form of insurance. You do not get insurance to

Travel Advice 6/21
guarantee that you have an accident; rather, you get insurance to assist you if life
does not proceed as planned. Similarly, by taking basic medications that are
appropriate for your overseas environment, you are able to ease your suffering
during illness. If you will be working in large urban areas, the medications below
should be available. However, to obtain them, you must know the location and
operating hours of the dispensary; know the generic name of the medication
because the North American, brand‐name product may not be available; be able
to speak the local language; and, be confident that the medication is not
contaminated. You will only need a small quantity of each medical supply listed
below.

Consider taking these items:

! A brief, personal medical history that also includes your name, address,
phone number, next of kin or close friend, personal physician, chronic
conditions, and blood type.

! Medical alert tags should be worn. They should list your illnesses, blood
type, and an emergency contact phone number.

! An International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers or IAMAT
card is available from IAMAT, 417 Center Street, Lewiston, New York, NY
14092 or from IAMAT, 40 Regal Road, Guelph, Ontario N1K 1B5, (519)836‐
0102. IAMAT provides health information for travellers, such as world
immunization charts, and a list of qualified, medical practitioners who speak
English. All practitioners have been trained in Europe or North America. To
obtain the names and addresses of these practitioners (who work in 125
countries) and to receive overseas medical service at your office or hotel, you
must produce an IAMAT card. IAMAT also provides mosquito nets.

! Prescription drugs: Remember to take more than you will need as well as a
copy of your prescriptions (with their generic names) and the reason you
need this medication. Drugs that are legal in Canada may not be legal
overseas. Therefore, by taking written, official prescriptions, you may shorten
the time you spend going through customs. To be on the safe side, put a
portion of your medication in your carry‐on baggage and the rest in your
luggage. To ensure your peace of mind, take your own prescription drugs.
Keep the medications in their original, labelled container. In China, bogus
drugs are packaged sophisticatedly, yet contain only water or harmful
substances (CTV National News, 1993, March 22).

! A comprehensive first‐aid booklet. An excellent, compact health guide
called Staying healthy in Asia, Africa, and Latin America by Dirk Schroeder
(1988) is available from Asia Press, P.O. Box 4543, Stanford, CA 94305. Other

Travel Advice 6/22
useful publications are Travellers' health: How to stay healthy abroad by R.
Dawood (1992); Health guide for international travelers: How to travel and
stay well by T. P. Sakmar, P. Gardner, & G. Petersen (1991); Health Advice for
International Travel, in the Annals of internal medicine by D. R. Hill and R. D.
Pearson (1988); and, The medical guide for Third World travelers: A
comprehensive self‐care manual by M. R. Robin and B. L. Dessery (1990).

! Assorted bandaids, cotton gauze, tape, safety pins, and scissors

! Tensor bandages

! Triangular bandage or sling

! Q‐Tips7

! Disinfectant. Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) is an inexpensive
disinfectant that can be used not only for cuts (however, it will cause a
burning sensation), but also to disinfect surfaces such as toilet seats and water
faucets. Although widely and inexpensively available in western countries,
consider taking some from home as it may not be available in some countries,
especially religious countries in which all forms of alcohol may be prohibited.

! Calamine, caladryl lotion, or Noxzema7, all of which can be used to
minimize itching

! Skin moisture cream or petroleum jelly such as Vaseline7. Petroleum jelly
can be used as a skin moisturizer as well as a lubricant.

! Sunscreen lotion. A number of countries, especially those in the southern
hemisphere, are experiencing severe ozone depletion. Ozone blocks the
passage of harmful ultraviolet rays that may cause cancer. Therefore, use a
sunscreen whenever you are exposed to direct sunlight for an extended period
of time.

! Antiseptic cream

! Antifungal cream or powder is necessary if you are travelling to a tropical
country. Examples are Canesten7 and Mycil7.

! Motion sickness or nausea medication such as Gravol7

! Diarrhea medication such as Immodium7 or Pepto Bismal7 if Immodium7
is not available
! Antacid tablets such as Eno7

Travel Advice 6/23

! Analgesics for pain and antipyretics such as ASA or Tylenol7

! Antihistamines or decongestants such as Benadryl7 and Coricidin D7,
particularly if you have allergies

! Insect repellent, preferably in a liquid, nonaerosol form that contains a high
percentage of DEET. This item is particularly important if you are travelling
to mosquito‐infested areas. Remember, malaria and dengue fever carried by
mosquitoes can cause serious illness.

! Allergy kit. The ANEC‐kit for allergic reactions is available from pharmacies
and may be obtained via a prescription.

! Glasses or contact lenses. Consider taking a spare set and a copy of your
eyeglass prescription. When travelling in developing countries, you may want
to opt for glasses instead of contact lenses. The conditions required to
adequately clean and sterilize contact lenses may not be available. Warm,
humid climates also provide the ideal environment for growing various forms
of bacteria and fungi inside contact lens cases.

! Antibiotic eye drops such as Polysporin7

! Cough medicine such as Robitussin DM7 and/or throat lozenges

! Vitamins and mineral pills

! Sleeping pills

! Tweezers

! Thermometer

! Small water container that seals tightly

! Water purification tablets such as Halazone7 and/or 2% iodine to purify
water. You can also use chorine bleach in an emergency. You will need 8‐16
drops of regular household bleach (about 1/4 of a teaspoon) to disinfect a
gallon of water. After adding to a closed container containing water, shake
and let stand for 30 minutes. Initially, the water should have a slight smell of
chlorine. If it does not, add more chlorine, shake, and let stand.

! Antiseptic towelettes or wetnaps

Travel Advice 6/24
! Sanitary napkins. These items are often difficult or impossible to find in
many developing countries and especially in rural areas.

! Contraceptives and latex condoms

! Laxatives

! Talcum powder

! Foot powder

! Disposable needles, syringes, and gloves. If you need to take injections,
bring your own syringes. These syringes can be used by you or your
overseas doctor. Remember, dirty needles transmit life‐threatening diseases.
If you are a diabetic, bring plenty of insulin. Have your doctor's letter of
explanation with you whenever you carry a syringe. You may need to produce
this document for airport security personnel or the local police.

! Antimalarial medication and mosquito nets may be required depending
on your destination.

Clothing

This list will vary depending on the culture of the country you are visiting, the
length of your stay, and most important, the climate of the country. Remember,
southern hemisphere seasons are the opposite of northern hemisphere seasons.
When Canada and the United States have winter, the southern hemisphere
countries have summer. The clothing suggestions presented here are aimed
primarily at those people who will be working in tropical, developing countries.
If you will be working in eastern European countries, take warmer clothes such as
those made of wool, and dress in layers. Depending on the time of year, long
underwear may be necessary, so check the weather reports before you go.

When travelling to warm countries, take as little clothing as possible. Take
clothes that "mix and match" well. Clothes should be crease‐resistant or the type
that look acceptable even when they are crumpled. Dark‐colored and patterned
outfits help mask dust, dirt, and wrinkles. You may also be able to purchase some
clothing items overseas for less than you would pay at home. However, note that
"conservative" Western clothing, not local attire, is generally the appropriate
dress for Western women travelling and living in developing countries. Most
local people regard Westerners in "native" clothing as "being condescending,
dressing down and wearing garments that they would never wear at home" (The
Toronto Star, 1992, May 9, H14). Loose‐fitting clothing is not only comfortable to

Travel Advice 6/25
wear in tropical areas, it also helps you to conceal your passport, wallet, or
documents more easily.

If you will be working in a large city, laundry should not be a problem, but
laundry services can be expensive. However, if you will be working in outlying
areas, note the comments beside several of the entries on the following clothing
list:

! Business clothes. Take at least two changes, in addition to the loose‐fitting
business clothes you might wear on the plane. In former British colonies,
formal wear is often required at official functions. As a foreign visitor, you
may be invited to attend a dinner or two with a high‐ranking government
official. Men should take at least one suit jacket and preferably a jacket and
one dark suit. Women should take similar business apparel that would be
appropriate for such occasions. In some regions, especially Muslim countries,
women must pay particular attention to skirt lengths and to the openness of
their blouses. Dresses should be mid‐calf length and low necklines are not
acceptable. If you will be in rural areas, a long dress allows you to wash
yourself when privacy may be difficult. Light, cotton attire is best for tropical
climates. Fabrics that are best for travel include gabardines, high‐twist,
wrinkle‐resistant wools, and viscose/linen blends. In some countries, such as
Thailand, consider purchasing and wearing local clothes, but do not wear
them unless you know how to wear them properly. You do not want to offend
your host.

! Casual clothes, at least two changes. Although cotton garments are the
most comfortable for hot, humid climates, a cotton/polyester blend material
dries faster than pure cotton. However, ensure that the blend has a high
cotton content. If you wear polyester fabrics on the plane and an airplane fire
occurs, the polyester will melt into your skin; cotton will not. Also polyester
does not breathe as well as cotton. Blue jeans or denims might be too hot to
wear in the tropics, but you can always give these items away as gifts.
Clothing that has lots of pockets is often beneficial. Remember, that in some
countries, it is inappropriate for women to wear sleeveless blouses, shorts, or
slacks. For example in Malawi, women cannot wear pants.

! Extra blouses or shirts. In tropical climates, you will want to change your
clothes frequently. Consider taking up to six blouses or shirts. Shirts and
blouses made of cotton and other light materials are easy to rinse out and
hang up to dry overnight. In extremely humid countries, you may have to use
towels to soak up excess moisture before hanging up your clothes to dry.
Button your shirts and fold them neatly before packing them.


Travel Advice 6/26
! Neckties that match the rest of your clothing. Women should take scarves
not only to accessorize their attire, but also to cover their heads when
entering religious buildings or to protect their hair from dirt when using
public transportation. Women must wear head scarves in Iran, Libya, and the
Gulf States.

! Socks or stockings. Cotton socks absorb moisture. Thick, athletic socks can
also serve as slippers. Woolen socks are needed in cold climates. Take six or
seven pair; you may want to change them twice a day.

! Undergarments. Take at least six sets. Cotton is the preferred material. It
absorbs perspiration and breathes. Women should remember that it can be
difficult to obtain comfortable bras in some developing countries.

! Dress shoes and shoe polish

! Casual shoes or runners. Waterproof or thick‐soled shoes are ideal for
walking through puddles or mud. Wallaby‐type shoes with crepe rubber soles
are appropriate for business as well as casual occasions. They are also
comfortable to wear during long flights. Women should wear low‐heeled
shoes or flats. Never walk in bare feet. There are many parasites, such as
hookworms, in tropical countries.

! Sandals or thongs are optional. Usually, these items are readily available at
your destination.

! Boots are a must if you are travelling in snake‐ or scorpion‐infested areas.

! Raincoats should be compact. A raincoat can also double as a dressing gown
if you must use public washrooms in a hotel. Ultra‐thin, plastic raincoats are
ideal for countries that have a rainy season where it rains everyday for long
stretches of time. Although Gore‐Tex7 rainwear is expensive, it keeps in body
heat, allows sweat to evaporate, and keeps the rain out. Umbrellas add
weight. If you need one, you can usually purchase one there.

! Sweaters. A sweater or two is ideal for cool evenings or high altitude cities
such as those in Nepal. In some climates, turtleneck sweaters may be best.
During the day, you may find the air‐conditioned buildings too cool for
comfort. If you will be working in parts of eastern Europe, the mountain
regions of South America, or northern China, you should take at least two
sweaters.

! Belts, ties, and accessories. To keep ties from creasing, place them in a tie
holder or roll them into a ball.

Travel Advice 6/27
! Swimwear/beach cover‐ups

! Sun hat

! Washcloth and towel. Frequently, these items are not provided in hotels in
developing countries.

! Plastic bags to store wet or soiled items. If you pack clothing in plastic bags,
when you open your suitcase, nothing will be exposed except for the items
you select.

Suggestions on how you can pack all of the above items can be obtained from The
packing book by J. Gilford (1994) or speak to your friendly flight attendant or
pilot. Pack as little as possible. Take items that would not upset you to lose.

Personal Items

Place a copy of your passport, visas, and immunization records in your
suitcase. If the originals are misplaced or stolen, your duplicates may reduce the
time it takes to obtain the replacements.

! Airline ticket. In order to obtain the best airline ticket for your money, refer
to The airline passenger's guerrilla handbook: Strategies & tactics for beating
the airline system by G. A. Brown (1989) and look for deals online via the
Internet.

! Passport. Your passport is the most important document that you will carry
overseas. Guard this item vigilantly. Passports are prized by foreign thieves.
If your passport will expire in the next six months, consider getting it
renewed.

! Visas and entry documents, if required. Carefully note all expiry dates. You
should also consider taking letters that describe your proposed training
activities. These letters should be written by your overseas host, and they
should be written in the local language as well as English.

! A copy of your immunization records. Public health offices can list all the
vaccinations you have received in one handy booklet. Upon entry to many
developing countries, you will be required to show a yellow fever vaccination
certificate.

! Traveller's cheques. Keep a record of the serial numbers of each cheque
separate from the cheques themselves. Record the international telephone

Travel Advice 6/28
number that you can use to report lost or stolen traveller=s cheques. Cash
your traveller's cheques at authorized agents such as the airport, your hotel,
or banks. Keep your money exchange slips. They may be required when you
leave certain countries. Avoid the black market. Note that the currencies of
several developing countries are unstable and worthless outside of that
country. Therefore, only convert as much money as you will need. You may
not be able to reconvert the local currency on your departure. If you venture
from your hotel or your primary overseas residence for more than a day,
consider taking $200 to $300 of a strong currency, such as the U.S. dollar or
British pound, with you. Traveller's cheques and credit cards are not
acceptable everywhere, and banks may be closed for a variety of reasons. In
Argentina and Malawi, for example, it can be difficult to cash traveller's
cheques outside of a major center.

! Two commonly accepted credit cards. Credit cards are not accepted
everywhere or in all countries. However, some cards, such as American
Express, Mastercard, and Visa, are recognized world‐wide. Reserve your
credit cards for emergencies such as staying in a good hotel if you become ill,
for obtaining emergency cash, or for purchasing an airline ticket home sooner
than you expected. If you will be using your credit card to obtain cash from
an automatic teller machine, ensure that your personal identification number
(PIN) is comprised of four numbers only. Frequently, overseas ATM
machines will not handle PINs that are greater than four numbers (Marck,
1996). If you put credit cards or bank cards back‐to‐back in your wallet, the
magnetic strips may become demagnetized. Then, your card may not work in
electronic scanners. Also, note that your credit card may be declined by a
merchant because the credit card company feels that your card may have
been stolen when in fact you are using it but in a country you have not
travelled to before. If possible, contact the credit card company by phone and
identify yourself as the rightful owner of the card or prior to travelling to a
distant land, inform the card company that you will be travelling.

! Local foreign currency. Be prepared to arrive in a foreign country with
some of that country's currency. You may need money for baggage handlers,
taxi fares, and so forth. Often, there are numerous local holidays that your
travel agent may not be aware of. If you arrive on a holiday, or when the
banks and money exchangers are closed, you may have difficulty obtaining
local currency.

! Letter of credit

! Letters of introduction. These letters, signed by government or host
country officials, contain your name, title, and an overview of your project.
Sonja Page, International Projects Officer, Confederation College, noted that

Travel Advice 6/29
letters of introduction were extremely useful when no one knew who she was
or what she had been hired to do. These situations can occur when host
country personnel change. In Central African countries experiencing political
turmoil, personnel changes are frequent. Letters of introduction are well
received by customs officers, hotel personnel, landlords, and government
officials.

! Overseas telephone calling card

! Your business cards. Take lots of them. Provide a translation in the
appropriate foreign language on the back of the card.

! Extra passport photos. These photos may be needed for additional visas or
for police identification.

! List of appropriate embassies, their addresses, and their telephone
numbers.

! Maps of your destination

! Glasses and/or sunglasses with neck strap. If you wear contact lenses on
long flights, remember that dry airplane air could irritate your eyes.

! Durable plastic cup, knife, fork, and spoon

! Ear plugs to block out early morning or late night noise from traffic, roosters,
dogs, and so forth. They can also be used during your flight to block the
sound of other passengers.

! Eye masks to block out airplane cabin lights when you need to sleep on the
plane.

! Toiletries and small electrical devices. If you must take electrical grooming
devices, remember to find out what power source is required for hair blowers,
curling irons, and razors. Because different countries use different electrical
voltages and connections, make sure that you take the appropriate electrical
converters. Pack lotions and other liquid items in plastic containers. Sanitary
napkins and tampons are not readily available in many developing countries.
A typical toilet kit or make‐up bag would contain soap, shampoo, shaving
cream, razor, razor blades, toothbrush, toothpaste, dental floss, deodorant,
nail clippers, small scissors, tweezers, shower cap, comb, and hair brush. You
may want to include other items such as a small sewing kit.


Travel Advice 6/30
! Moneybelt or similar item for your money, passport, and other official
documents. You may want to obtain a passport holder that ties around your
neck.

! Pictures of your institution or business, your colleagues, your family, friends,
and pets. Your foreign clients will want to know about you and your country.

Gifts

Take lots of small, inexpensive gifts with you. They can be distributed to your
overseas contacts and students. Items that are only available in America, Canada,
or your hometown are highly prized.

A few gift suggestions are provided below.

! Pins, particularly those that have an emblem of America, Britain, Canada, or
the logo of your institution or company; each student should receive a pin.

! Pens. Everyone needs a pen!

! Individually wrapped candies

! Small flags representing your country.

! Picture books of your community and country

! Small carvings made by aboriginal or native groups

! T‐shirts

! Plastic mugs with a national insignia or an institutional logo

! Photographs of you and your family will be well received by your students in
Southeast Asia.

! Certificates that signify the completion of your training course. Each
student should receive one.

Reserve your best or most unique gifts for your senior host. Expensive liquor will
be appreciated by senior hosts in many South American countries but would be
inappropriate elsewhere, especially Islamic countries.


Travel Advice 6/31
Other Items

! A travel alarm clock

! Swiss army knife. This tool, with its various attachments, is extremely
useful. Place items such as these in your luggage. Airport security personnel
may ask you to remove these tools from your carry‐on baggage; however, by
the time you pass through airport security, your other luggage may have
already been processed.

! An inexpensive, small, 35mm or digital camera with a built‐in zoom lens.
Remember that picture‐taking is discouraged in some countries such as those
in East Africa and at some military and religious sites. In Islamic countries, it
is unlawful for a man to photograph a woman. If you do take pictures of
items or situations that are thought to be offensive by the locals, expect the
police to remove the film or confiscate your camera. Before taking a picture
of anyone, ask for their permission to do so. If you take a standard, single‐
lens reflex (SLR) camera, take as few lenses as possible. A zoom lens or two
are ideal for overseas travel. Don't forget to take the appropriate filters and
extra batteries. If you take high‐speed film for your 35mm camera, you may
not need to take flash attachments. In tropical countries, avoid taking
pictures under the midday sun; it causes sharp contrasts between sun and
shade.

! Several rolls of film or storage devices for digital cameras. The
appropriate film size for your camera may not always be available at your
destination. If film is available, it may have been stored incorrectly or it may
have expired. A small, lead‐lined, film storage bag may be beneficial as the
bag keeps out harmful electromagnetic waves. Remember, in most cases, it is
not the airport x‐ray machine that damages film; but the harmful rays that
radiate from the x‐ray machine's power supply or the static electricity
generated by the conveyor belt that leads into the x‐ray machine. Always take
more film than you think you will need.

! Lots of packages of the small, pocket‐sized, facial tissues. These are not
luxury items, they are essential items. In many developing countries, these
items are worth their weight in gold as toilet facilities generally lack many of
the amenities to which you may be accustomed. You can always throw them
away if you don't need them. Even in the better places, you may find the
"wax‐paper" that passes for toilet paper. This paper does not absorb moisture!
Although rolls of toilet paper are available in many countries, they do not fit
easily into your pocket or purse. However, take a lot of tissues with you, and
remember to carry enough of the local, small change to tip the restroom
custodians.

Travel Advice 6/32
! Individually packaged wetnaps. These items can refresh you in dry or humid
climates, and they are extremely handy in unsanitary conditions. Take lots
with you; you can always throw them out if you need extra space in your
suitcase later.

! Small (hotel‐sized) bars of soap

! A small sewing kit. There are many compact, commercially‐packaged
sewing kits available. Add safety pins, elastic bands, and extra buttons to the
kit.

! Liquid laundry soap in a plastic bottle. Woolite7 is excellent for rinsing out
delicate items and sweaters.

! Universal sink plug. Many economy hotel rooms and dormitories lack the
sink plugs you will need when you are ready to wash your clothes.

! Tissue‐type, fabric softener sheets can be used to refresh your clothes while
they are packed or stored.

! A retractable clothesline or ten feet of nylon rope for overnight clothes
drying. The rope can also be used to tie packages together.

! Inflatable rubber hangers to give shirts or blouses shape while they are
drying.

! An electrical voltage converter or transformer for the appliances you take
overseas. Note that you can only use a converter with electric appliances such
as hair dryers; a transformer can be used with these same electric appliances
and with electronic devices such as radios or laptop computers or any device
that contains computer chips or integrated circuits. Most international chain
hotels will have these devices, but they are rare at smaller local hotels.
However, they will add extra weight to your luggage. To determine the
electrical voltage in countries around the world, refer to the following
Internet site: http://comdinet.com/tn/ahouse.htm#chart. This Internet site is
maintained by Austin House, a company that produces travel items.

! Electrical plug adapters. Prior to your departure, ascertain the adapter
plugs that you will need, or take an assortment of 3‐pin and 2‐pin square and
round plugs.

! Portable travel iron. Although this item can be helpful, it also adds
considerable weight. Because of the different electrical standards used
throughout the world, you will also need to take an electrical plug adapter

Travel Advice 6/33
and sometimes a heavy transformer. If you are travelling in a group, perhaps
one member could bring an iron. Frequently irons are available from overseas
hotel staff.

! Small binoculars, if you are a nature lover

! An inflatable travel pillow or collar will allow you to sleep comfortably
while in a seated position.

! That thick, paperback novel you always wanted to read but could never find
the time to do so. You will have lots of time to read on the aircraft or while
waiting in various lineups. Take paperbacks that you would be willing to
leave behind.

! Travel books and maps can also be weighty items. Glossy‐paper travel
books are much heavier than those printed on newsprint. Cut out only the
pages that you will need, or reduce the size of the text on a photocopier.
Make sure to copy on both sides of the paper. Although travel books such as
those produced by Fodor, Frommer, Insight Guides, and Michelin are
excellent for tourists, a number of their suggestions are inappropriate for
people who work in developing countries and don't stay at first‐class hotels.
Instead, consider taking the Lonely Planet Shoestring Books or the
Adventurous Traveller's Guides produced by Mountain Travel. Also of value
are the Culture Shock! series available from Graphic Arts Center Publishing,
Box 10306, Portland, OR 97210, and the Coping With series published by Basil
Blackwell Inc., 3 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142.

! Calculator. A calculator can be handy for doing money conversion
calculations and so on. If you take a solar‐powered calculator, you will never
have to worry about finding the appropriate small batteries.

! A pocket‐sized language computer, such as the ones produced by Berlitz,
can provide easy access to common foreign words and phrases. The Berlitz
Interpreter7 translates 12,500 English words into French, German, Spanish,
and Italian. At the very least, take a language or phrase book that includes
the common words used in greetings, in restaurants, and in financial
transactions.

! A laptop computer may be extremely handy, but it can represent a year=s
salary or more to individuals in a number of countries. If possible, avoid
taking a laptop, but if you must, consider taking a light‐weight machine that
uses little electrical power. Carry the laptop in a carry‐on bag that does not
scream, AI am a laptop bag! Take me!@ Use the password‐protection
mechanism built into most laptops or software to protect your data. If you

Travel Advice 6/34
have a removable hard drive, slip it into your pocket when you are away from
your machine. If you leave your computer in your hotel room or temporary
overseas office, firmly lock and secure your machine to a solid object such as a
sink pipe. Record the serial number of your computer. You will need this
number if the machine is stolen.

! Pocket‐sized flashlight and spare batteries. Power failures are frequent in
developing countries.

! Small, hand‐held, cassette taperecorder with spare batteries; use it to listen
to your favorite musical tapes or to record your personal thoughts and
feelings. You may be able to share your taperecorder with your colleagues,
but do bring your own tapes.

! Small, portable radio and batteries. These items will enable you to listen to
local news and weather reports. However, they add weight to your luggage,
and if necessary, you can buy them overseas. If you will be located in an
isolated area, you may want to take a miniature, multiband radio.

! Small, sealable, plastic bags are handy for carrying many things, including
wet items.

! Several large, plastic garbage bags can be used to store laundry, or in an
emergency, one can be used as a raincoat.
! Collapsible or folded zippered bag that you can use to carry back all the
items you purchase or receive during your stay.

! Mosquito netting and tape. Band‐aids can also be used to repair holes in
the net. Netting is recommended for rural areas and for areas where malaria
is prevalent.

! A knapsack, without the frame, can be used to carry a variety of items, such
as a camera and is not likely to attract undue attention. A knapsack is also
more flexible than a briefcase.

! A padlock or combination lock. In some dormitories, you will be required to
provide your own lock.

! Luggage belts, with built‐in combination locks, can be used to secure your
luggage and ensure that the contents do not spill out if the suitcase opens
inadvertently.

! A loud whistle that can be used to attract attention in case of an emergency.

Travel Advice 6/35
! A copy of all your training materials. If your luggage is lost, you will still
be able to conduct your training activities. Note that because appropriate
electrical power may not be readily available, it is best to rely mainly on print
materials. If you do take items such as overhead transparencies or slides,
ensure, prior to leaving, that the required operating equipment, power, and
replacement parts are available at your overseas destination. If you are
unsure about whether or not you can get your print materials duplicated
overseas, make copies before you go and take these items with you as part of
your luggage or ship them as air freight.

If you elect to send the items on ahead of you, allow plenty of time for transit,
and ensure that all the customs declarations have been properly completed.

Always remember to pack common sense when you pack your luggage!

Travel Advice 6/36
6.6 Safety Advice

Introduction

Although much of the advice in this section applies to travel anywhere, it is
particularly important when travelling to developing countries. Review the
suggested precautions prior to your departure. The items are not listed in any
order of priority.

Travel Arrangements

! Set your travel dates well in advance of your departure. Allow a day or two for
acclimatization in your new environment. When you are confirming travel
arrangements, note that many countries give the day of the month first when
providing the date in numerals. For example, 9/11/96 indicates the 9th of
November, 1996. To simplify communication, always specify the month by its
name; avoid the numerical representation.

! Book your travel tickets and hotel accommodations through a reputable
travel agent. Remember, a bargain is not a bargain if you arrive at the airport
and there is no record of you purchasing a ticket or there is no seat reserved
in your name.

! Full‐fare, economy seating allows for flexible departure times; however,
excursion fares usually cost significantly less than full economy fares.

! Travel with an airline that has a reputable security and air safety record. AIn
Eastern Europe, the odds of being in a fatal plane crash are 4.8 times as great
as in North America. In Asia, 5.6 times greater. Which is better than your
prospects in the Middle East or Latin America where flyers are, respectively,
7.1 and 9.2 times more likely to be fatally injured. In Africa, air passengers are
20 times as likely to die in a crash as in North America@ (Yenkel, 1994).

! Direct flights usually experience fewer delays, which reduces your exposure to
terrorist attacks at airports.

! If you must take multiple flights, ensure that your itinerary is flexible so that
any unexpected flight delays will not turn your trip into a catastrophe. Do
read the stopover regulations provided by the airlines.

! Select a wide‐body aircraft. They are usually the most comfortable and
reliable.

Travel Advice 6/37

! If you are travelling through areas that are potential terrorist zones, travel in
the economy section rather than in first‐class. The first‐class section is next
to the flight deck, which terrorists must control during a hijacking.

! If you can preselect your seats for all your flights, you will save time and
reduce confusion at foreign airports. However, in some countries you are not
assigned a specific seat on the plane. When you are allowed to board the
plane, you must jostle for a seat. An advanced boarding pass does not
guarantee you will get a seat.

! Seat selection is a personal choice, but remember the following: aisle seats
have more leg room; window seats remove you from the activity in the aisles;
aisle activity can be exciting, but it can also be disturbing; and window seats
make you less visible to hijackers. Note the location of all emergency exits.

! If your itinerary includes stopovers, reconfirm each leg of your flight as you
travel. If you don't, your reservations may be cancelled and your seat
reassigned on a first‐come, first‐served basis.

! If possible, arrange to have someone meet you at the airport. You may need
someone to help you through customs. Be aware of individuals at airports
who say that they are prepared to take you to your hotel. Unless they or you
can confirm their association with the hotel, you may be robbed once you
enter their vehicle.

! If you intend to rent a car in a country that is prone to political unrest and/or
terrorist activities, consider taking a defensive driving course prior to your
departure. You may be better prepared to handle emergency situations.

! Always double‐check your travel itinerary. Getting the time of the flight
wrong is the most frequent error that travellers make (The Edmonton Journal,
1996, September 21).

Getting Yourself Ready

! Find out as much as you can about the country, the people, their laws, and
their customs. Customs that are acceptable in one country may be
unacceptable in another. In 1991, there were approximately 450 Canadians in
foreign jails (The Edmonton Journal, 1991, May 18). Many were there because
of drug‐related offenses. In some countries, particularly Iran, Turkey,
Malaysia, and Thailand, the death penalty is imposed on those who possess
illegal drugs. In Yunnan, a province of China, more than 900 drug traffickers

Travel Advice 6/38
were executed between 1983 and 1993 (The Globe and Mail, 1993, June 29).
The brewing and distribution of alcohol may also be punishable by death in
countries such as Saudi Arabia (The Edmonton Journal, 1993, January 30).
Remember, when you are overseas, you are subject to local laws and customs.

! Prior to travelling overseas, check newspapers, the Internet, and embassies or
foreign affairs offices for information on current situations that may affect
your travel plans. For example, political unrest, a significant rise in criminal
activity, or a natural disaster may force you to alter your travel plans.

! Plan a flexible travel and work itinerary. It takes time to change planes, find
your way through unfamiliar environments, locate suitable grocery stores, or
wash clothes by hand.

! Make sure that all of your personal and business affairs are in order, prior to
your departure. Check all your insurance policies, especially your travel and
medical policies.

! Leave copies of your important documents, such as airline tickets, credit
cards, medical and dental histories, and prescriptions with a trusted friend.

! Obtain an international driver's licence from the American or Canadian
Automobile Association. You may need it once you arrive at your destination.

! Update your will.

! Take a list of emergency contact names, addresses, and phone numbers,
including the locations and addresses of nearby friendly consulates or
embassies.

! Obtain a telephone credit card and information on how to make inexpensive
international telephone calls to your home. Remember that many overseas
hotels charge a substantial fee for making long distance calls; therefore, you
should learn how to contact home inexpensively.

! Do not take any material on board an aircraft that might suggest that you are
a high‐ranking official, a military officer, an employee of a company that
makes controversial products, an American citizen, or a member of any
controversial religious or political group. Obviously, you must take your
passport, but keep it out of sight unless it is absolutely necessary that you
produce it.

! Wear casual clothes that do not imply affluence.


Travel Advice 6/39
! Leave all expensive or cherished items behind, including your leather
briefcase.

! Do not carry sensitive documents or materials that describe your personal or
business affairs, particularly if you are in a region where terrorism is
prevalent. Kidnappers and terrorists can use such information to get you to
do things you would not normally do.

! Do not carry on board any items, such as a pocket knife, that could be
considered a weapon. Aerosol cans, explosives, acids, or inflammable liquids
and gases are also prohibited on board an aircraft.

! Confirm your flight schedule at least 48 hours prior to departure and again on
the day of departure. In many parts of the world, if you don't reconfirm your
departure, your seat is given away.

! When you are checking your luggage at the airline travel desk, ensure that all
your bags have tags that bear the name of your destination.

Airport Security

! Contact the airport just before you leave your hotel. Confirm your flight
departure time. Ideally, you want to arrive at the airport with some time to
spare. However, in times of terrorism, an airport waiting room is not a safe
place. In many countries, airport security checks take much longer than they
do in Canada and the United States.
! If you wear expensive clothing or jewellery in an airport, you may attract the
attention of thieves.

! Be alert at the airport.

! Always ensure that your passport is secure while you are out of the country.
While travelling through Hong Kong in early 1991, a group of distressed
passengers frantically tried to tell the police how their passports got stolen.
None of these people were allowed to board the aircraft until new passports
were obtained.

! Watch your locked luggage every step of the way. Although theft is a hazard,
it is much worse to have someone insert contraband items inside your
luggage while you are not looking. Criminals may use you as their "carrier
pigeon."
! Proceed to the airport security area or special lounges as soon as you can. Do
not stay in public areas any longer than you have to.

Travel Advice 6/40

! Do not sit near unattended luggage, garbage cans, telephone booths, or
equipment such as commercial floor cleaners. In countries prone to terrorist
activities, bombs are often hidden in these items.

! Do sit with your back to a wall.

! Report any suspicious activity to airport personnel.

! Do respond to your gut feelings, but don't panic. Find a location inside the
airport where you feel safe and comfortable.

! Be prepared to have your personal belongings and clothing thoroughly
searched. Security checks can be more extensive than they are in Canada. On
a trip to Greece in 1986, I had a broken leg. I hobbled on one leg while the
security guards inspected my crutches.

! Do not go through custom checkpoints or cross borders with strangers. If the
strangers are smugglers, you could be considered to be guilty by association.
Keep a safe distance from others, and/or act as if you are travelling alone.

Hotel Security

! Stay at a reputable, secure establishment. A first‐class hotel will cost more,
but it will make you feel better, especially if you become ill while you are in a
foreign country. However, a first‐class hotel may insulate you from the
culture you came to learn about. In addition, you may not always be able to
afford a first‐class hotel. In Haiti, one night's stay at a first‐class hotel can be
the equivalent of two months' salary earned by a typical Haitian.

! Check your room before you settle in. Will you feel safe? If not, ask for a
different room or change hotels. Remember, if you stay in a room above the
sixth floor, it may be difficult to escape during a fire, and the rooms located
on the garden‐side of a hotel may not be accessible to fire trucks. Select a
room between the second and sixth floor.

! Consider getting a room near the front desk or other busy area. Despite the
noise, it may be safer.

! Learn the layout of the hotel. In particular, note the locations of emergency
exits and fire equipment. Note if the hallways and hotel grounds are well lit.
! Leave your valuables (passport, visas, immunization records, traveller's
cheques, and jewellery) in the hotel's security boxes.

Travel Advice 6/41

! Do not tell strangers where you are staying or flash your room keys in public,
and tell no one your room number. New acquaintances should be met in the
hotel lobby or restaurant. Never invite them to your room.

! Learn the layout of your room. In particular, note the location of the light
switches and the telephone. Check to see if your room is equipped with a
smoke detector.

! While in your room, keep the door locked at all times. Use the safety latch, if
there is one. If not, use a chair to brace the door or insert a portable door
jam. You can also attach a battery‐operated, security alarm to the door knob.

! Prior to going to bed, check that no one is on your balcony, then lock and jam
your balcony door.

! After dark, it is wise to close all blinds, curtains, and shutters.

! Do not use the "make up this room" sign; it invites intruders.

! Use the hotel's main entrance at night. Avoid dark entrances and parkades.

! Watch to see if you are being followed as you go in and out of hotels or walk
around the public areas of the hotel.

! Do not open your room door until you are sure of who is on the other side.
Use the peephole in the door, ask the person's name and purpose, and/or call
the front desk to ask if hotel staff have been sent to enter your room.

! Do not accept any packages you have not requested, and be wary of accepting
unsolicited services.

! Do not pick up messages at the front desk. Go to your room and use the
telephone to obtain your messages.

! Practice finding the telephone in the dark. Keep a flashlight and a list of
emergency telephone numbers near the telephone.

! If you want to sidetrack the movement of insects that may appear in your
room at night in the tropics, try leaving the bathroom light on and the
bathroom door slightly ajar.


Travel Advice 6/42
! If you will be returning to your hotel late at night, consider leaving on a room
light and opening the doors within the room. When you return, you will be
able to see if there is anyone in the room prior to entering it.

! If you do find a burglar in your room, do not try to apprehend him. Instead,
provide room for him to escape. Be prepared to describe the burglar to hotel
personnel and the police.

! If your hotel is on fire, call for help. Try to escape without using the elevators,
and stay close to the floor in order to avoid the smoke. As on a burning
aircraft, do not crawl on the floor to avoid the smokeCyou may be trampled.
Instead, bend over and lean on the walls for support. Close the door when
you leave your room. Before leaving your room, feel the door. If it is hot,
don't open it. Seal the spaces around the door with tape and/or wet towels.
Use a moist towel to breathe through if your room becomes smoky. If your
clothes catch fire, stop, drop, and roll. Unless you must escape or urgently
need fresh air, do not break the windows. Open windows can let in smoke
from the outside and provide fresh air to the fire inside the building.

Touring

When you go out:

! Know where you are going.

! Tell someone where you are going and when you expect to be back.

! Take a list of emergency phone numbers with you and memorize as many of
these numbers as you can.

! Don't carry all your documents, money, and credit cards in one wallet,
pocket, or purse.

! Take the name, address, and phone number of your hotel and the local
embassy with you. Have these names and numbers written in the local
language.

! Travel with a colleague or someone you know well. Do not let your
companion pressure you into doing something risky or going to a place you
feel will be uncomfortable.

! Don't look like a victim. Walk as if you know where you are going. Be aware
of your environment.

Travel Advice 6/43
! Respect the local dress customs. In some countries, women must wear long
skirts, and in others, men and women must cover their heads prior to
entering a religious site. Do not bring undue attention to yourself, either
through your clothes or behavior.

! Take plenty of small, local currency with you. It can be difficult to use large
bills or to cash traveller's cheques late at night or in places that are off the
beaten track. Leave the bulk of your money in the hotel's safety deposit box.

! Do not accept food or drinks from strangers while riding public trains or
buses. The food and drinks may be drugged. This type of activity occurs not
only in countries such as Thailand, but also in many parts of Europe.
! Avoid touring areas such as embassies that may be prone to terrorist attacks.

! Avoid dark or isolated places. If you do walk after dark, walk in busy well‐lit
areas. Walk briskly. Look as if you know where you are going.

! Don't go out after dark in some countries. Safety precautions will not be
sufficient. When the sun sets in countries such as Papua New Guinea and
Haiti, the best place to be after dark is in your hotel. Wherever there is high
unemployment, political unrest, and/or a significant number of unrealized
dreams, criminal activity will abound. In Haiti, for example, the locals do not
stray far after 7 p.m. They are frequently in bed by 9 p.m. (The Globe and
Mail, 1993, January 13).

! Always know where you are. Take maps with you.

! Don't make a habit of walking or driving the same route every day. Whether
you are going to the office or to the grocery store, be unpredictable.

! Keep alert. Drink alcohol in moderation.

! Look all around you while walking. Don't forget to look behind you. If you
think that you are being followed, cross the street and reverse your direction.
If you are sure that you are being followed, head to the nearest safe haven and
call for help.

! Be friendly, but don't discuss your personal affairs with strangers, and never
give them the name of your hotel or inform them of your travel plans.

! Be aware of diversionary tactics that may briefly distract you from watching
your belongings. Thieves frequently work in groups. While you are watching
a pseudo‐fight between two members of a group, another member removes
your bag or wallet.

Travel Advice 6/44
! Do not wear expensive rings, watches, or jewellery. If you have brought such
items with you, leave them in the hotel safe. Wrapping rubber bands around
your wallet or money roll will make it more difficult for a pickpocket to
remove it.

! Do not put an address on your keyring.

! Travel light. Carry a minimum of items while you are touring and leave the
rest in your hotel room or in the hotel security area.

! Do not leave valuables in your car.

! While in a restaurant, do not sit next to a window or have your back to the
entrance. Always be aware of your surroundings.

! Unless you are in a five‐star hotel in a developing country, tip about half the
amount that you would at home. Hard currency is highly prized in
developing countries and worth more than it is at home. You may attract
undue attention if you give away your money too freely.

Remember that just by coming from North America, Western Europe, Australia
or New Zealand, you will be perceived as being rich; you will be a target for
thieves who may not steal from you directly, but may get you involved in a scam.
Don't get paranoid or be afraid to venture out into your new environment. Be
alert. Use your common sense.

If you take a taxi, consider these precautions:

! Determine what meter fare is in force or negotiate a price before you get into
the vehicle.

! Choose your taxi; don't let someone else choose it for you.

! Check that the photograph of the taxi driver matches the face of the driver
before you close the car door.

! Travel with a colleague or someone you know.

! Ask the driver to stay on well‐travelled roads.

! Remain alert while you are riding. If you feel that your driver is driving
recklessly, ask him to stop and get out of the taxi. This situation is not a rare
occurrence in developing countries. If he doesn’t stop, you can faint being ill

Travel Advice 6/45
to your stomach – that often gets the driver’s attention as no one wants to
have a smelly, messy taxi interior. However, note that one of the thrills of
overseas travel can be riding in a speeding taxi through the streets of crowded
Bangkok.

If you rent a car, the following suggestions may be helpful:

! Remember that women are not permitted to drive in many Middle Eastern
countries and that driving in developing countries can be a risky business.
The people in some countries have poor driving habits and drive faulty
vehicles while extremely intoxicated. According to Hachey (1992, p. 24), "The
greatest threat in most developing countries is not disease but car accidents."

! Prior to your overseas departure, obtain an international driver's licence from
your automobile association. If you have an international driver's licence, you
may not need to take the local driver's test and be exposed to potentially
lengthy, corrupt, and inefficient bureaucratic procedures.

! Rent from a reputable firm and, prior to your overseas departure, find out if
you must pay cash for your rental car. Most car rental companies accept
credit cards, but some do not.

! Review the rental contract carefully and note your legal responsibilities.
Check for any age restrictions. In some countries, if you are involved in an
accident, you could be held in jail until a final decision is made regarding civil
and criminal liabilities. Alcohol‐related accidents are considered serious
offenses in many African countries.

! Avoid fighting with car rental employees. You could make a bad situation
worse. In an effort to get back at you, you could be given a faulty car.

! Check your car carefully before entering it. In countries experiencing political
unrest and terrorist activities, check beneath the car for suspicious objects.
Determine the condition of the car; look under the hood, in the trunk, in the
glove compartment, and under the seats and head rests.

! Always drive with your doors locked, your seat belt on, and if possible, with
the windows up.

! Stick to the major roads.

! Keep the fuel tank at least half‐full at all times.


Travel Advice 6/46
! Park in well‐lit areas; when leaving the car, make sure all doors are locked and
the keys are safe.

! Never get out of the car without first checking to see who is nearby.

! Do not pick up strangers.

! If you are in a minor accident, stay in your car with your doors locked or
travel to an area you believe is safe. Minor accidents may be a ruse to
encourage you to leave your vehicle.

If you visit the black market area, remember that:

! you can make a considerable profit by selling items such as alcohol or by
exchanging Western currency; however, you may be partaking in an illegal
activity;

! a merchant may sell you an item and then report you to the authorities; the
merchant may receive a reward for reporting you;

! if caught, you may receive a fine and/or a jail sentence.

If you are approached by a beggar, remember that:

! begging is an accepted way of life for many people in some parts of many
developing countries. However, coping with it can be a difficult task for
Westerners.

! in India and Pakistan, certain forms of begging may have a profound effect on
you. It is not uncommon to see deformed children begging in the streets.
Some of these children have been intentionally mutilated by their parents or
other adults. It is felt that the more deformed the children are, the more
money they will obtain on the street.

! .. in some parts of the developing world, such as Cancun, Mexico, begging is
discouraged. You may find signs near schools that read "Please do not give
money to children. Help us to keep them in school."

! when you give money to one beggar, be prepared to give to all beggars in the
vicinity.


Travel Advice 6/47
If you must pay a bribe, remember that:

! giving gifts or providing monetary payments is a traditional way of
conducting business in many countries;

! bribes are called backsheesh in the Middle East, dash in West Africa, and
kumshaw in Southeast Asia;

! if people know that you are from North America, they will expect more as
they will assume that you are wealthy;

! you must be aware of the legal implications involved;

! you must find out how to pay a bribe and should pay as little as possible;

! you should not pay the bribe directly;

! you should record the details of the bribe and inform your colleagues,
especially your team leader.

Travelling With Children

If you are travelling with children, the following safety advice may be helpful:

! Never leave children alone or unwatched.

! Develop a verbal and a visual danger signal that your children can use and
understand. This danger signal should appear to be natural such as using a
nickname or pinching your nose.

! Ensure that children who are old enough can use the telephone to call for
help.

! Children should be told not to trust strangers.

! Consider having your children, especially those who are very young, wear an
identification tag that includes their names, their parents' names, and the
name, address, and telephone number of their hotel. The children should be
told not to remove the tag nor allow anyone else to remove it.

! Dress children in bright and/or distinctive clothes so that you can easily spot
them at a distance.


Travel Advice 6/48
! In case your children get lost, carry extra pictures of them. You may also
want to carry pictures of all the people you are travelling with.

! If you intend to rent a car and do significant amount of driving, consider
taking a child's car seat with you. These seats are rarely found in developing
countries.

Terrorism and Hijacking

However unfortunate, the threat of terrorism and hijacking is a reality in today's
world. "Canadian and American businesses are still relatively naive, particularly
compared to their European, South American, or Pacific Rim counterparts," says
Alan Bell, manager of Intercon Security Limited's Corporate Resources Group.
"They seem to think that it's someone else's ‐ or some other country's ‐ problem."
(The Financial Post Magazine, 1990, November). According to the Pinkerton Risk
Assessment Services, Latin America continues to record a high number of
terrorist incidents, followed by Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa
(French, 1994). Canadian trainers have faced tear gas in Ecuador, bomb threats in
Colombia, rebel attacks in the Philippines, tanks in China, and youths
brandishing rifles in Uganda. Not every trainer will face these situations, but you
must be prepared. Prior to departing to a foreign country, determine the political
situation at your destination. Plan your itinerary so as to avoid areas where such
incidences might occur.

Several suggestions have already been made concerning precautions you can take
to reduce your likelihood of getting caught in such situations. Below are
additional items you may also wish to consider.

! Be alert to being watched.

! Try to "melt‐in" with your fellow travellers; don't stand out in the crowd.
Avoid wearing items that have a military look or that look American.

! Make friends, on a casual basis, with your fellow travellers. If trouble does
start, you may have some companions who can assist you. However, be
careful when helping others. It may be a trick to gain your confidence.

! Stay away from isolated areas, and avoid functions that may trigger a terrorist
attack. For example, do not attend political rallies, particularly if the
opponents to the political parties are known terrorist groups. Avoid major
public events that occur on or near anniversary dates that terrorist groups
may regard as significant.


Travel Advice 6/49
! If you are in a situation in which a crowd turns into a mob scene, move away
quickly. During a riot, people can become irrational and perform hostile acts
that they would not normally perform.

! Be unpredictable; vary your routine. Leave at different times and take
different routes. If possible, avoid going out at night in areas that are prone
to terrorism and other criminal activities.

! Devise a distress code. This code of ordinary‐sounding conversation should
alert other colleagues or family members that you are in trouble. You may
have been kidnapped.

! If you do find yourself in a hijacking or hostage‐taking situation, the following
advice may be helpful:

‐ At the instant that you become a hostage, don't aggravate your captors;
they are extremely tense at this time and may act irrationally.

‐ Listen carefully.

‐ Obey your captors. Don't argue or contest the verbal or physical abuse
that often occurs at a beginning of the hostage situation and may continue
throughout your detention.

‐ Do not volunteer information.

‐ Answer all questions asked, but give the absolute minimum of
information.

‐ Do not let yourself be perceived as a threat to your captors; avoid direct
eye contact.

‐ Do not talk to others unless you are given permission to do so.

‐ Observe everything unobtrusively. This action may save your life, and you
will be able to provide the authorities with details when you are released.
You may also identify possible escape routes.

‐ If shooting or an explosion occurs, protect your head and your heart.
Bend over or lie on the floor. Use your hands, coat, or a blanket to protect
yourself from flying objects.

‐ Stay calm and think positively. Breathe normally. Although it may be
difficult to do, try not to let your anxiety get the better of you.

Travel Advice 6/50

‐ If you are detained for an extended period of time, keep yourself busy,
both mentally and physically. Help others who have been detained with
you.

‐ When you are released, everyone will become anxious; try to keep calm;
stay out of the way of possible gunfire exchanges between your kidnappers
and the rescuers. If possible, lie on the ground.

‐ When you are safe, the authorities will ask you to provide the details of
your capture and detention.

‐ After your ordeal, you may experience depression or flashbacks that cause
you to relive life‐threatening experiences. Consult your doctor.

Natural Disasters

Most developing countries lie in regions of the world that are subject to natural
disasters that people in America and Canada rarely experience. This section
provides some helpful advice that may assist you if you are exposed to hurricanes,
tornadoes, floods, or earthquakes.

General Precautions

Some natural disasters, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, give some warning of
their occurrence. Others, like earthquakes, do not. Irrespective of the situation
you find yourself in:

! stay calm. In many emergency situations, panic produces more casualties
than the natural disaster itself.

! listen to the local authorities. They understand the local conditions and are
better able to predict the outcome than strangers.

! listen to a radio station for weather reports and emergency directions.

! collect enough safe water and food to last for a few days. Although you can
survive a week without food, you can only last a day or two without water.

! secure your supply of personal medication.

! locate a flashlight and a battery‐operated radio.


Travel Advice 6/51
Before travelling to an unfamiliar country, determine the season when severe
storms are most likely to occur. If possible, plan your trip accordingly.

Hurricanes and Tornadoes

There are several types of severe storms. Hurricanes develop east of the
international dateline, typhoons originate to the west of the dateline, and
cyclones occur in the Indian Ocean. Tornadoes are rapidly moving funnel clouds
that travel over land, whereas waterspouts are strong funnel clouds that travel
over water. When you receive warning of an impending severe storm, and if you
have adequate time, you should:

! collect water and food;

! move to the basement or inner room of a well‐constructed building, or make
your way to a designated emergency shelter;

! after the storm has passed, wait another 30 to 60 minutes before venturing
out. Many storms move in circles.

Tornadoes usually travel a path that is considerably narrower than any other
severe storm. Therefore, they can be seen and avoided. However, tornadoes are
unpredictable; they move very quickly and can cause destruction that severely
affects people several miles from the eye of the storm. If a basement is not
available, crouch in a ditch and cover your head and internal organs as best you
can.

Floods

If heavy rains occur, check with the local authorities. They will be able to tell you
whether the potential rainfall will lead to flooding, and they can also direct you to
safe areas. If you are caught in a flood:

! move to higher ground.

! do not venture into water higher than your waist.

! get out of your vehicle if the water rises above the bottom of the doors.
Vehicles can be washed away.

! remember that floods drive all animals, including poisonous snakes, to higher
ground. Dangerous animals will also be found swimming in the water.

! remember that flood waters are often contaminated with sewage.

Travel Advice 6/52
Earthquakes

Earthquakes are caused by the underground movement of large areas of rock or
by volcanic eruptions. During an earthquake, people are usually injured by
falling objects. If you experience an earthquake:

! move away from tall objects, such as telephone poles, that can fall on you.

! stay away from secondary walls, doors that lead to the outside, and glass
windows.

! be prepared for the aftershocks that follow the initial earthquake.
Aftershocks occur a few hours to a few days after the initial shock.

! avoid entering severely damaged buildings.

! remember that earthquakes that occur in or near the ocean may produce
rapidly moving tidal waves, which can cause severe damage along a coastline.


Travel Advice 6/53
6.7 Culture Shock

Introduction

Culture shock is an occupational hazard for the international trainer who works
in a foreign country for an extended period of time. Although it can happen
during the first few weeks, culture shock frequently occurs after being away for
several months. You may feel stressed and experience a decline in inventiveness,
flexibility, and/or spontaneity. Culture shock is a reaction to the constant
bombardment of incidents and visions that are completely different from the
ones you are accustomed to. You simply experience stress overload as you
continually try to cope with your new surroundings. You want things to be easy
and familiar. Culture shock creeps up on you slowly. It is a normal reaction to a
foreign environment, and no one is immune to it.

Phases of Culture Shock

There are several phases to culture shock.

Phase 1, Euphoria: When you first enter a foreign country, you are excited.
There is so much to see, so much which is different from home. You behave like
a typical tourist.

Phase 2, Frustration: You find you become irritated by simple inconveniences.
For example, you may object to lining up for postal service or not appreciate the
tardiness of those around you. You long for the familiar. Minor events become
major catastrophes. You may find yourself slowly withdrawing or becoming
extremely aggressive. You may feel tired and your alcohol consumption may
increase.

Phase 3, Adapt or Run: You must either adapt to your environment or leave.
You either decide that you can cope with the reality of your situation, or you
decide to return home.

Phase 4, Acceptance: You finally accept your position, and you do what you can
to feel comfortable. You recognize what you can or cannot accomplish. You are
confident that you can cope. Your old self returns. Friendships can be sought
and nurtured.

During an extended stay in a foreign country, it is normal to experience phases 2
and 3 more than once.

Travel Advice 6/54
Dealing with Culture Shock

Below are some suggestions for dealing with culture shock. You should also refer
to the next section, "Dealing with Stress."

! Review the purpose of your trip. This reflection may help you to refocus your
energy and get yourself back on track.

! Create a vision of how good you will feel when your overseas assignment is
successfully completed.

! Speak or write to your colleagues or family. Do not alarm them with your
current situation; they may want to fly over and take you back home!

! Develop local friendships; participate in social activities. Learn the local rules
for socializing.

! Keep active. Give your mind something to do. Only you can control what
you think about.

! Develop a daily routine; ensure that it involves meeting others after work,
prior to returning to your hotel or residence. Occasionally, take a break from
your daily routine and do something that you would do back home.

! Learn more about the country you are visiting. Find a cultural mentor in your
host country. Read about the people, politics, and culture. Visit local historic
sites, museums, and tourist attractions.

! Learn the language spoken at your destination.

! Accept where you are. Try to understand how the local people think.
Develop some empathy for them. Withhold judgements about the beliefs and
actions of others. Do not compare, criticize, or complain. Be flexible, patient,
and tolerant.

! Avoid people who like to complain, especially North Americans who have not
adjusted to their new surroundings.
! Look at the world in a humorous fashion. Be positive and open minded.

! Recognize that you are under stress and do activities that will relieve your
stress. Do not rely on alcohol or drugs to solve your problems.

It is often assumed that you experience culture shock only while you are in a
foreign country. But, you can also experience it when you return home. After a

Travel Advice 6/55
lengthy time away, home may not be all that familiar; many things may have
changed. Colleagues and friends, though well‐meaning, may not be as excited
about your trip as you are. They may even feel that you are out of touch with
reality. They may believe that you were on a "pleasure junket" and will be unable
to sympathize with the stresses you encountered overseas. Take time to ease
back into your former life. Use the same suggestions listed above to deal with
this reverse type of culture shock.


Travel Advice 6/56
6.8 Dealing with Stress

Whether you are a novice or an expert, participating in training activities in a
foreign country can be extremely stressful. If you are under stress, your body's
immune system will not function efficiently; infection and illness are likely to
follow. Below are some ways that may help you to deal with stress.

Before You Leave

If you perform the activities below, you may be able to reduce your chance of
experiencing a high level of stress while you are away from home.

! Have a clear idea of the purpose of your trip and the goals you want to
achieve. Prioritize your goals. Are your goals realistic?

! Know your comfort zone, but be prepared to stretch those limits.

! Obtain as much information as you can about the country you will be visiting.
Find out about its people, culture, business enterprises, climate, and tourist
attractions. What do the people take pride in? What do they think are the
country's greatest achievements? Determine the country's political stability.
By examining its current affairs and relationships with other countries, you
may be able to determine the probability of the occurrence of unsettling
events. Become familiar with its currency. Determine the value of its
currency against Western currencies.

! Meet with someone who has participated in an international project in the
country you will be visiting, or speak to someone who has recently returned
from there.

! Learn the language or at least the most commonly used phrases; learn to read
basic signs such as those that indicate hotel, telephone, police, and directions.

! Make a detailed, but flexible itinerary; leave copies of your plans at home and
at work.

! Make a list of important emergency addresses, telephone numbers, and fax
numbers that include your travel agent, bank, doctor, and national consulate;
take a copy with you.

! Arrange fixed times to call your office or home, but remember that it is not
always possible to make international calls precisely on time; know how to
calculate time zone differences.

Travel Advice 6/57

! Before you depart, meet both professionally and socially with the other
individuals who will be participating in your project.

! Pack a few small items that remind you of home such as photographs of your
family or friends.

! Just prior to leaving, review the political situation in the country you will be
visiting.

! Say goodbye to people who are important to you, and tell them you will call
them when you return.

While You Are Away

! Orient yourself to your surroundings; arrange to arrive at your overseas site
one or two days before your training activities begin.

! Be flexible; learn to adapt; explore alternatives.

! "When in Rome, do as the Romans do," but be cautious and realistic.

! Project a positive attitude; there is always a good side to everything; try to see
your problems from the local's point of view.

! Do not compare what is happening there to what would happen if you were at
home.

! Laugh a lot, especially at yourself; sing familiar songs.

! Develop a friendly rapport with your fellow travellers; discuss your feelings
with your colleagues.

! Cultivate a new friendship.

! Get plenty of sleep.

! Exercise regularly; take a walk and get some fresh air every day.

! Eat healthy foods.
! Record your thoughts and feelings about your experiences in a journal or on a
cassette taperecorder.


Travel Advice 6/58
! Take a leisurely warm bath; make sure that the water is safe to bathe in.

! Look at the items you brought that remind you of your family and friends.

! Meditate. Simply close your eyes, sit back, listen to soothing music or the
sound of waves, and visualize a peaceful scene. Inhale deeply through your
nose, hold, and slowly exhale through your mouth. Repeat this activity about
10 times.

! Reduce your intake of caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco.

! If possible, treat yourself to something nice. If there is an "All American" bar
and grill or an international hotel nearby, find it. It may only take a
hamburger or a milkshake to make you feel better.

! When you are faced with a difficult situation, visualize how you will feel when
you have successfully completed the activity.

! Ensure that your perception of a problem is real; often, many problems may
not be as serious as you think.

! Know when you are becoming stressed, then do something about it; don't
procrastinate.

Upon Your Return

! Rest. Overcome your jet lag, then get busy. Don't make any major decisions
for a few days. If you kept a personal journal during your overseas venture,
take the time to review and treasure its contents.

! Discuss your experiences with your family and friends. Remember, unless
they have travelled to similar countries, they may not appreciate your
overseas experience as much as you do.

! Contact your friends and co‐workers; let them know that you are back.

! Gradually return to your old routine. You may want to adopt the life‐style
habits you picked up overseas, but don't expect others around you to accept
them. Upon your return, you may have a different perception of your country
than when you left. You may note that Western cultures tend to be
materialistic and wasteful, yet you appreciate the many conveniences that
your culture provides. You may want to re‐examine your life and values. Try
not to be too critical. Try not to preach about your overseas experiences.

Travel Advice 6/59

! Slowly increase your activity at work until you reach your optimum. If you
have been away for an extended period of time, it may take you several weeks
to readjust; don't rush it.

! Visit your doctor or one with overseas experience if an illness persists; you
may simply need an antibiotic and rest.

! If you feel out of place at work, speak to your family and colleagues, then
discuss your concerns with your supervisor. You may need to be reassigned
temporarily to a position that makes use of your new experiences, skills, and
knowledge.


Travel Advice 6/60
6.9 Conclusion

The travel advice and recommendations provided in this chapter are intended
primarily for trainers who will be working in developing countries and staying in
less than first‐class accommodations. Westerners who travel to these countries,
particularly beyond the urban centers, need to take extra care to maintain their
personal health and safety. Many developing nations are politically unstable and
the majority of their citizens are poor; the standard of living is usually low and
the regulations concerning food preparation and sanitation may be less than
adequate. Trainers who specialize in agriculture, health care, and education are
likely to spend much of their time working in rural areas and living in second‐ or
third‐class quarters. In order to be successful, trainers must remain fit both
mentally and physically. The challenge of an international training assignment
can be sufficiently demanding without risking personal illness or injury. The best
advice for anyone who will be participating in an overseas training activity is to
"be prepared, flexible, and patient."

If you will be working overseas for an extended period of time, consider reading:

Golzen, G. (1990). Working abroad: The Daily Telegraph guide to living and
working overseas. London, England: Kogan Page.

Hachey, J. M. (1992). The Canadian guide to working and living overseas. Ottawa,
ON: Intercultural Systems.

Press.


7.0 The Last Words


The Last Words 7/1

There is a saying that "a wasted mind is a wasted life." You can help to prevent
the waste by participating in an international training activity that helps others to
help themselves to become more self‐reliant. The need for international
assistance is great. Eighty percent of the world's population live in conditions
that would be considered unsatisfactory in developed countries. Developed
countries cannot afford to neglect the needs of developing countries. An event in
one part of the world has repercussions around the globe. Consider the effects of
the fire at the Chernoble nuclear power plant, the global burning of fossil fuels
and its impact on the ozone layer, and the consequences of political unrest in
regions such as the Middle East and China.

The question that we all ask is ACan we make a difference?@ There is so much to
do, how can we make a dent? We acknowledge that the task is enormous and our
individual contributions will be small. But, consider that one tiny drop of water
creates a series of concentric waves that spread over the surface of the whole
pond, or that a beach is merely an accumulation of single grains of sand. You are
that single drop of water, that one grain of sand. If enough of us provide training
overseas, substantial change will occur. It is inevitable. Think of the enormous
changes that have occurred in Korea, Japan, Singapore, and South Africa over the
last forty years. One thing is certainCif we do nothing, then nothing will happen.

Instructing in an international setting should be a rewarding experience for you,
your colleagues, and the country in which you will be working. Working overseas
gives you an opportunity to test yourself, to use all your technical, professional,
and social skills and abilities. Consequently, you will learn new skills and have
experiences that will affect you for the rest of your life. After a lengthy overseas
assignment, you will be more aware of what you are capable of doing and grateful
that, unlike most people in developing countries, you have the freedom and
power to shape your own destiny.

People who are successful instructors in an international setting have a keen
interest in learning about others and are sensitive to the needs of those who are
culturally different. They are patient, tolerant, and flexible, and they adapt to the
host country's culture. They smile a lot and learn to say Bon Dia, Bonjour, or
Diahuit, and other essential foreign phrases. They know the power of the words
"Thank you!" Life overseas is an adventure that challenges our perceptions of
ourselves and others. Don't miss the opportunity!

Although many international trainers travel overseas alone, a significant number
are members of an international training team. Teams allow for collaborative
undertakings in which members share ideas and support each other in an
unfamiliar environment. In order to function effectively, team members must
learn to work closely with others.


The Last Words 7/2

Whether working alone or as part of a team, international trainers must ensure
that their instruction is designed to meet the needs of their students. According
to Confucius, "I hear; I forget. I see; I remember. I do; I understand." Students
must have the opportunity to practice and apply their skills within their own
environment. By providing positive feedback, you encourage students to try new
ideas and to become more confident of their capabilities. Although people in
developed countries live in the electronic world, it is not the case everywhere.
Developing countries may produce sophisticated electronics but their citizens
may not have ready access to them or use them at home. Therefore, you should
consider planning sessions that do not rely extensively on technology, or be
prepared to bring your own equipment and supplies and provide a reliable power
source. Clarity and simplicity in a positive environment are the keys to delivering
successful international training.

When you return home, your friends and colleagues will be excited to see you,
but they may not share your enthusiasm about your overseas experience. It is
natural for those who stayed at home to think that you led a glamorous, exotic life
overseas. They may not realize that you had to spend six or seven days a week in
an office or classroom, boil water for fifteen minutes before drinking it, travel in
jam‐packed buses that were built before you were born, or do without soft,
absorbent toilet paper.

It is your responsibility to stay mentally and physically healthy while you are
overseas. If you become ill, no one benefits. Take the time to learn and follow
basic hygiene and safety procedures that are appropriate for the country in which
you will be working.

If you are overseas for a long time, your attitude toward life may change. When
you return home, you may experience an unexpected bout of culture shock. You
may need to develop new mental maps for your life at home. A period of
readjustment is normal.

Upon your return from an overseas training project, you should:

! Allow yourself time to readjust to your home environment and to reflect upon
your international assignment.

! See a doctor if any illness persists.

! Renew your acquaintances with family and friends.

! Reintroduce yourself to your institution or company. A lot may have occurred
while you were away.


The Last Words 7/3

! Meet with other members of your international training team to identify
successful strategies, unsuccessful strategies, and future development or
training activities. Compare your initial assumptions about the country and
its people with the reality of the instructional situation.

! Submit a project report to your sponsoring organization.

! Describe the benefits of your overseas assignment to your supervisor.

! Make recommendations to others who may be involved in follow‐up
activities.

! Send thank‐you notes to all those involved with your project, particularly your
overseas hosts.

! Present an overview of your training project to your colleagues.

! Plan for the future. Consider how you can make use of your international
experience. Perhaps you would like to work overseas again!

If you haven't decided to take the plunge by working overseasCdo it! We will all
benefit. If you have already decided to go overseas, then congratulations for
agreeing to help others achieve their dreams.

It is impossible for this publication to answer all your questions regarding
overseas training assignments. However, it should provide you with sufficient
information to help you plan for your overseas venture. If you have any
additional suggestions or anecdotes that could be helpful to others, please
contact the author.


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8/1

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Instructing in an International Setting:

A Handbook for Those Who Will

Clayton R. Wright, PhD

Instructing in an International Setting, C. R. Wright

Instructing in an International Setting, C. R. Wright

Instructing in an International Setting, C. R. Wright

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