Section 10

Design Data
Topic
Fluid Power Troubleshooting Fluid power graphic symbols Hydraulic troubleshooting Cylinder and valve testing Replacing a pump or motor Power steering calculations Fluid Power Design Data Formulas - Fluid power formulas - Fluid power formulas, metric - English/metric conversions - Fluid power equivalents and abbreviations - Vehicle drive calculations Cylinders - Operating principles - Cylinder types - Hydraulic cylinder force and speed calculations - Hydraulic cylinder force and speed tables - Pneumatic cylinder air consumption - Pneumatic cylinder force table - Internal fluid PSI on tubing - Piston rod column strength - Calculating tie rod stretch - Designing with cylinders - Square head cylinder sizes - Regenerative circuit design - Regenerative circuit examples - Synchronizing several cylinders - Cylinder speed control - Counterbalance valve technical information Pumps and motors - Horsepower to drive a pump - Hydraulic pump unloading - High-low hydraulic circuits

Page
340 342 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 360 361 362 363 364 365 369 371 372 373 374 375 376 378 380

337

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Topic
Pumps and motors (cont.) - Torque/HP/RPM table - Pump and motor torque table - Mechanical transmission efficiency - Hydraulic motor circuits - Hydraulic motor speed control - Pump/motor shafts and flanges Valves - Directional valve patterns - Cv factors for hydraulic valves - Cv factors for pneumatic valves - Calculating required flow for operating air and hydraulic cylinders HP to compress air Vacuum - Vacuum applications - Tank pump-down time - Hydraulic oil filtering Heat exchangers - Cooling in hydraulic systems - Adding cooling capacity Closed loop hydrostatic transmissions Air over oil applications Accumulators - Accumulator sizing - Accumulator circuits Oil - Viscosity rating systems - SSU viscosity variation - Seal compatibility with common fluids Plumbing - Hydraulic pipe table - Oil flow capacity of pipes - Oil pressure loss through pipes - Carbon steel tubing data - Copper tubing data - Stainless steel tubing data - Oil flow capacity of tubing - Air line pipe size - Air pressure loss - Air flow through orifices and vacuum flow - Oil flow through orifices - SAE flange dimensional data - Straight thread fitting sizes - Equivalent pipe and tubing sizes - ISO standardization effort - Thread forms of fluid connectors - Common O-ring sizes

Page
381 381 382 383 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 397 398 400 401 403 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 415 416 417 418 419 419 419 420 421

338

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Topic
Drilling, Tapping and Punching U.S. twist drill diameters Tap drill sizes for U.S. threads Tap drill sizes, pipe tap drill sizes, SAE pads Drilling and tapping factors Tonnage for hole punching Drilling speed, HP and thrust Metric tap drill sizes Metric machine screw threads Suggested cutting speeds Electrical Control and Automation Design Data Electrical diagram schematic symbols, etc. Three phase motor data Motor installation data Three-phase AC motor windings, etc. Control transformer sizing and motor starter ratings Wire selection guide Color codes resistor, thermocouple and wiring Electrical enclosures NEMA ratings Electrical enclosures, IP rating Intrinsically safe Motion control formulas Miscellaneous Formulas and Conversions Circumference and area of circles Calculating areas of plane figures Table of equivalents Decimal and metric equivalents Conversion between English and (SI) Standard units Interchange between units Temperature conversion chart Table of standard wire gauges Densities, specific gravities and mechanical properties of common materials National Electric Code Article 505 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) ATEX Directive The New Conformity Mark North American classification system for hazardous locations European standards Classification group and category Temperature rating

Page
422 423 424 425 425 426 428 428 429 430 432 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 447 448 450 451 452 453 455 456 457 458 458 459 459 460 461 462 462

339

Graphic Symbols
For Use on Fluid Power Drawings
These are the more common ANSI graphic symbols from the American National Standards Institute for use on fluid power circuit drawings. A more complete list can be obtained from the National Fluid Power Association, 3333 N. Mayfair Rd., Milwaukee, WI 53222. Write for listing and prices.

Double-Acting Cylinder

Double-Acting Cylinder with Double End Rod

Single-Acting Cylinder

HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Fixed Displ. Unidirect.

Fixed Displ. Bidirect.

Variable Displ. Unidirect.

Variable Variable Over Displ. Displ., Pres. Center Over Cntr. Compensator w/Comp.

HYDRAULIC & ELECTRIC MOTORS

M
Fixed Displ. Unidirect. Fixed Displ. Bidirect. Variable Displ. Unidirect. Bidirect. w/Press. Partial Revolution Oscillator Electric Motor

2-WAY & 3-WAY VALVES

2-Way, N.C. 2-Position

2-Way, N.O. 2-Position

3-Way, Directional Control

3-Way Selector

4-WAY VALVES

2-Position Single Actuator 2-Position Double Actuator 3-Position Spring Centered

*SPOOL CENTERS FOR 3-POSITION VALVES Proportional Solenoid Valve Closed Center Tandem Center Float Center Open Center

340

Graphic Symbols (continued)

ACTUATORS FOR VALVES

General Purpose

Manual Lever

Foot Operated

Cam Operated

Pilot Operated

Button Bleeder

Solenoid Operated

Spring Return

Pressure Compensated

Pilot and Solenoid

3-Position Detent

Palm Button

Relief Valve

Relief Valve with vent

Sequence Valve

Pressure Reducing Valve

Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve

Accumulator

Check Valve

Pilot to Open Check Valve

Pilot to Close Check Valve

Fixed Orifice

Needle Valve

Flow Control Valve with Bypass

Pressure Compensated Flow Control w/Bypass

Heat Exchanger

4-Way Servo Valve

Pressure Gauge

Air Muffler

Shuttle Valve

Manual Shut-Off

Liquid Flow

Air or Gas Flow

Component Outline

Drain Lines

Pilot Lines

Lines Lines Crossing Connecting

Air Trio Unit

Air or Oil Filter

Air Line Lubricator

Air Line Regulator

Air Filter w/Drain

341

Hydraulic Troubleshooting
Many of the failures in a hydraulic system show similar symptoms: a gradual or sudden loss of pressure, resulting in loss of power or speed in the cylinders or motors. In fact, the cylinders may stall under light loads or may not move at all. Often the loss of power is accompanied by an increase in pump noise, especially as the pump tries to build pressure. Any major component (pump, relief valve, directional valve, or cylinder) may be at fault. In a sophisticated system, other components could be at fault, but this would require the services of an experienced technician. By following an organized step-by-step testing procedure in the order given here, the problem can be traced to a general area, then, each component in that area can be tested or replaced. All testing of a hydraulic system should be performed with the fluid in the system at normal operating temperature, about 100 degrees F.

C PRESSURE GAUGE B PUMP SUCTION STRAINER H

STEP 1 Pump Suction Strainer

RELIEF VALVE

4W AY VALVE

WORK CYLINDER

Hydraulic system problem encountered most often is cavitation of the hydraulic pump inlet caused by restriction due to a dirt build-up on the suction strainer. This can happen on a new as well as an older system. It generally produces the following symptoms: increased pump noise, loss of high pressure and/or speed. A good indication of a clogged suction strainer is when a pump delivers low flow at both low and high pressure. If the strainer is not located in the pump suction line it will be found immersed below the oil level in the reservoir (point A). Some operators of hydraulic equipment never give the equipment any attention or maintenance until it fails. Under these conditions, sooner or later, the suction strainer will probably become sufficiently restricted to cause a breakdown of the whole system and damage to the pump. The Suction strainer should be removed for inspection and should be cleaned before re-installation. Wire mesh strainers can be washed in a solvent that is compatible with the systems fluid. Do not use gasoline or other explosive or flammable solvents. The strainer should be cleaned even though it may not appear to be dirty. Some clogging materials cannot be seen except by close inspection. If there are holes in the mesh or if there is mechanical damage, the strainer should be replaced. When reinstalling the strainer, inspect all joints for possible air leaks, particularly at union joints (points, E, G, H, J, and K). There must be no air leaks in the suction line. Check the reservoir oil level to be sure it covers the top of the strainer by at least 3" inches minimum oil level, with all cylinders extended. If it does not cover to this depth there is danger of a vortex forming above the suction strainer, which may allow air to enter the system when the pump is running.

STEP 2 Pump and Relief Valve

If cleaning the pump suction strainer does not correct the trouble, isolate the pump and relief valve from the rest of the circuit by disconnecting at (point E) so that only the pump, relief valve and pressure gauge remain in the pump circuit. Cap or plug both ends of the plumbing, which was disconnected. The pump is now deadheaded into the relief valve. Before proceeding, determine the normal system operating pressure. Adjust the relief valve to zero restriction by unscrewing the adjusting screw. Start the pump and begin screwing in the relief valve adjusting screw, watch for pressure build-up on the pressure gauge while tightening the adjustment on the relief valve. Care should be taken not to exceed the system operating pressure plus 300 psi. If full system pressure can be developed, the pump and relief valve are operating correctly and the trouble is to be found further down the line. At this point set the relief valve to the system pressure plus 300 psi. If full pressure cannot be developed in this test, continue with STEP 3.

342

Hydraulic Troubleshooting (continued)

STEP 3 Pump or Relief Valve
If high pressure cannot be obtained in STEP 2 by running the pump against the relief valve, further testing must be conducted to see whether the fault lies in the pump or in the relief valve. Proceed as follows: If possible, disconnect the reservoir return line from the relief valve at point H and insert a flow meter in the line. Start the pump and run the relief valve adjustment up and down while observing the flow through the meter. If the pump is bad there will probably be a flow of oil through the meter when the relief is backed out but the flow of oil will diminish or stop as the adjustment is increased. The flow should be compared with the pump catalog rating. If the pump flow is more than 20% less than the rated flow it should be repaired or replaced. If the gauge pressure does not rise above a low value, say 100 PSI, and if the volume of flow does not substantially decrease as the relief valve adjustment is tightened, the relief valve is probably at fault and should be cleaned, repaired, or replaced as instructed in STEP 5. If the oil substantially decreases as the relief valve adjustment is tightened, and if only a low or moderate pressure can be developed, this indicates trouble in the pump Proceed to STEP 4.

STEP 4 Pump
If a full flow of oil is not obtained in STEP 3, or if the stream diminishes as the relief valve adjustment is tightened, the pump is probably at fault. Assuming that the suction strainer has already been cleaned and the inlet plumbing has been examined for air leaks, as in STEP 1, the oil is slipping across the pumping elements inside the pump. This can mean a wornout pump, or too high an oil temperature. High slippage in the pump will cause the pump to run considerably hotter than the oil reservoir temperature. In normal operation, with a good pump, the pump case will generally run about 20 degrees F above the reservoir temperature. If the temperature is greater than this, there is excess slippage, generally caused by wear. Check for slipping belts, sheared shaft pin or key, broken shaft, broken coupling, bad coupling insert, or loosened set screw.

STEP 5 Relief Valve

If the test in STEP 3 has indicated the trouble to be in the relief valve, point D, the quickest remedy is to replace the valve with one known to be good. The faulty valve may later be disassembled for inspection and cleaning. A pilot-operated relief valve has small orifices that may be become blocked with accumulations of dirt. This problem can be remedied by simply cleaning the orifices inside the valve. The valve spool should be checked for free movement as well. In a relief valve with pipe thread connections in the body, the spool may bind if a pipe fitting is over tightened during installation. If possible, test the spool for binding before unscrewing threaded connections from the body, or screw in fitting tightly during inspection of the valve.

STEP 6 Cylinder
If the pump will deliver full pressure when operating across the relief valve in STEP 2, both pump and relief valve can be considered good, and the trouble is further downstream. The cylinder should be first tested for worn-out or defective packing using the method described on page 345.

STEP 7 Motor
If it has been determined that the system flow and pressure is correct yet a motor is not operating at the proper speed, there may be a problem with slippage inside the motor. For piston motors install a flow meter in the case drain to determine if there is excessive leakage inside the motor. Alternatively check the output RPM of the motor to determine if the speed matches the manufacturers published output for the flow being provided to the motor.

STEP 8 Directional Control Valve

If the cylinder has been tested (STEP 6) and found to have reasonably tight piston seals, the 4-way valve should be checked next. Although it does not often happen, an excessively worn valve spool can slip enough oil to prevent build up of maximum pressure. Symptoms of this condition are a loss of cylinder speed together with difficulty in building up to full pressure even with the relief valve adjusted to a high setting. This condition would be more likely to occur with high pressure pumps of low volume output, and would develop gradually over a long period of time. Four-way valves may be tested by the method described on page 345.

343

Hydraulic Troubleshooting (continued)

Other Components
Check other components such as bypass flow controls, hydraulic motors, etc. Consider solenoid 4-way valves or pilot-operated valves with tandem or open center spools that may not have sufficient pilot pressure to shift the spool.

Other Typical Hydraulic System Problems

Excessive heat in the system 1. Worn out or improperly performing components in the system. 2. Improper heat exchanger selection or heat exchanger not operating properly. 3. Improper use of relief valve in the system. 4. Improper component selection. 5. Fluid viscosity too low causing leakage past components. Improper fluid selection. 6. High velocity through piping components causing pressure drop resulting in heat. 7. Improper installation of the reservoir. Air should circulate around and if possible below the reservoir. 8. Ambient air temperature too high for system design. 9. Improper flow of oil in reservoir causing channeling of the oil. Add baffles. 10. Reservoir volume too low to dissipate the heat returning from the system. Excessive noise 1. Cavitation in the pump suction. 2. Pump speed too high on engine applications. 3. System operating over relief valve 4. Improper mounting of components. 5. Velocity too high in system. 6. Improper valve operation. 7. Improper plumbing of the system Dirt in System Fluid 1. Filters not being replaced at the proper intervals for the application. 2. Air breather not installed or clogged. 3. System not sealed from the atmosphere. 4. Contamination introduced into the system while being fabricated or being serviced. Air in System Fluid 1. Pump Suction line leak. 2. Return line not discharging below the level of the oil in the reservoir. 3. Insufficient baffles in the reservoir. 4. Insufficient oil in the reservoir. Water in the System Fluid 1. Condensation from heating and cooling of the reservoir. 2. Water in containers being used to fill the reservoir. 3. Leak in-water cooled heat exchanger.

344

Cylinder and Valve Testing

In an air system, if air is detected escaping from a 4-way valve exhaust while the cylinder is stopped, this air is either blowing by worn out piston seals or is leaking across the spool in the 4-way valve. These two leakage paths are shown in figure to the right. Most air cylinders and valves have soft seals and should be leak-tight. Those air valves having a metal-tometal seal between the spool and body may be expected to have a small amount of leakage. If leakage is noted, it is more likely to be coming through the cylinder than across the valve spool, and the cylinder should be tested first.

Cylinder Piston Leakage

Valve Cylinder Ports

Valve Spool Leakage

Cylinder Testing
Run the piston to one end of its stroke where the cylinder is stalled. Remove the line to the cylinder on the same end as the piston is stalled. Install a pressure gauge in this port and plug the open line. With the line plug and gauge installed, re-pressure Valve Pressurized the cylinder. If fluid is leaking past the Exhausts Fluid In seals inside the cylinder you should 2 Leak Paths see a rise in pressure on the pressure gauge. After checking for leakage, re-install the original plumbing and run the cylinder to the opposite end and repeat the test. Occasionally a cylinder will leak at one point in its stroke due to a scratch or dent in the barrel. Check suspected positions in mid stroke by installing a positive stoop at the suspected position and run the piston rod against it for testing as stated above. Once in a while a piston seal may leak intermittently. This usually caused by a soft packing or O-ring moving slightly or rolling into different positions on the piston, and is more likely to happen on cylinders of large bore. Cylinder pistons with metal ring seals can be expected to have a small amount of leakage across the rings. Even leak-tight soft seals may have a small bypass during new seal break-in or after the seals are well worn.

4-Way Valve Testing

For testing 4-way valves, either air or hydraulic, it is necessary to obtain access to the exhaust or tank return ports so that the amount of leakage can be observed. To make the test, disconnect both cylinder lines and plug these ports on the valve. Install a flow-measuring device on the exhaust or tank line. Start up the system and shift the valve to one working position. Any flow out the exhaust or tank return line while the valve is under pressure is the amount of leakage. The leakage recorded should be compared to the manufacturers specifications for the valve. Repeat the test in all other working positions of the valve. It may be necessary to remove the valve and return it to the manufacturer for testing if it is not possible to measure the leakage.

Safe Pump InletVane Vacuum Gear Pumps Pumps Piston Pumps

Max. Safe Inlet Vacuum, PSI Max. Safe Inlet Vacuum, In. Hg 3 to 5 6 to 10 2 to 3 4 to 6 2 4 The suction strainer should be cleaned or replaced when inlet vacuum on a hydraulic pump reaches these values. Sustained operation at these vacuums may damage the pump. When the suction strainer is clean, the inlet vacuum should not be more than 1/3 of these values.

345

Replacement of Pump or Motor

Calculating the Theoretical GPM of a Pump by Measuring Its Internal Parts. To select a replacement for a broken or worn out hydraulic pump or motor which has no nameplate or has no rating marked on its case, use the formulas below after making internal physical measurements. When replacing a pump, catalog ratings will usually be shown in GPM at a specified shaft speed. On a motor, catalog ratings will usually be in C.I.R. (cubic inches displacement per shaft revolution). Formulas are given for calculating either GPM at 1800 RPM or calculating C.I.R. Use the formula which is appropriate. Make all measurements in inches, as accurately as possible. Convert fractional dimensions into decimal equivalents for use in the formulas. Make sure the catalog pressure rating is adequate for your application, and in the case of a pump, be sure direction of shaft rotation is correct.

Gear Pumps and Motors

1. Measure gear width, W. 2. Measure bore diameter of one of the gear chambers: this is D. 3. Measure distance across both gear chambers; this is L. GPM @ 1800 RPM = (L - D) 47 W (2D - L) 2 A speed of 1800 RPM is used in the formula. At other speeds, GPM is proportional to RPM. C.I.R. Displacement = (L - D) 6 W (2D - L) 2

L W
Gear Pump

Vane Pumps and Motors

(Balanced type, not variable displ.) 1. Measure width of rotor. This is W. 2. Measure shortest distance across bore; this is D. 3. Measure longest distance across bore: this is L. GPM @ 1800 RPM = (L + D) (L - D) 94 W 2 4 A speed of 1800 RPM is used in the formula. At other speeds, GPM is proportional to RPM. C.I.R. Displacement = (L + D) (L - D) 12 W 2 4

Vane Pump (Balanced Type Only)

Piston Pumps and Motors

1. Find piston area from piston diameter; this is A in formula. 2. Measure length of stroke; this is L in formula. 3. Count number of pistons; this is N in formula. GPM @ 1800 RPM = A L N 1800 231 A speed of 1800 RPM is used in formula. At other speeds, GPM is proportional to RPM. C.I.R. Displacement = A L N If a pump of higher GPM has to be used, it will require more HP at the same pressure and cylinders in the system will move faster. If one with lower GPM is used, the system will have plenty of power but cylinders will move more slowly than originally. If a motor with greater displacement is used, it will deliver more torque at a reduced RPM, but will require no more fluid HP from the pump. If it has less displacement it will rotate faster with less torque.

346

Power Steering Calculations

WEIGHT

From Steering Valve

E
KINGPIN

Step 1. Calculate torque required at the kingpin for steering with this formula:

T Wu

B2 + E2 8

T = Kingpin torque in inch lbs. This is total for both wheels. If these wheels 0.7 are power driven, double the value calculated to allow for approximate 0.6 additional dynamic loads. 0.5 W = Vehicle weight on the steered axle. Note that this is not total vehicle weight, only 0.4 that part of the weight which is on the 0.3 steered axle. u = Coefficient of friction between tire and 0.2 road. This can be assumed to be 0.7 for 0.1 most applications, but for narrow tires this would be less, and can be taken 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 from the graph. RATIO E B B = Nominal width of tire. E = Kingpin offset. This is the distance, in inches, measured on the road between Graph for Estimating Coefficient the tire centerline and the kingpin of Road Friction projection onto the road. Step 2. Calculate the bore diameter of the hydraulic cylinder(s) as follows: Take the torque found in Step 1 and divide it by the length of the radius arm(s), in inches. This gives the cylinder force. Use the chart on pages 19 and 20 to find the cylinder bore. Select a bore which will produce the required force at about 75% of the maximum PSI, or relief valve setting of the system. If only one cylinder is used in the system, be sure to use rod area when figuring force and bore diameter. If two single-end-rod cylinders are used, figure with the rod area of one combined with the blind end area of the other. Step 3. Calculate or measure the cylinder stroke length according to the vehicle geometry. A scale layout on paper may be used to measure the stroke needed to turn from hard left to hard right. This can also be calculated by the use of trigonometry. Step 4. Calculate the volume in cubic inches of the oil required to move the cylinder(s) through their entire stroke. Volume = square inch area on piston length of stroke in inches. Step 5. Before proceeding further a decision must be made as to the number of steering wheel turns desired to move the road wheels from hard left to hard right. American vehicles vary from 2 to 5 turns of the steering wheel with 4 turns being a good average working number. Step 6. Select a fluid steering with the correct C.I.R. (cubic inch per revolution) displacement to operate the power cylinder through its full stroke with the selected number of steering wheel turns. For example, if the cylinder oil volume calculated in Step 4 was 30 cubic inches, and the number of steering wheel turns chosen in Step 5 was 4 turns, the fluid steering displacement would have to be 30 4 = 7.5 C.I.R.. Step 7. Pump GPM is determined by how fast the system must follow the movement of the steering wheel. A typical figure is 2 seconds from hard left to hard right. Pump GPM = Cyl. Vol. (cubic inches) 0.26 steering time in seconds. The factor 0.26 takes care of converting seconds to minutes and cubic inches to gallons.

u (COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION)

347

Fluid Power Formulas

Torque and horsepower Relations: T = HP 5252 RPM HP = T RPM 5252 RPM = HP 5252 T Torque values are in foot pounds. Hydraulic (fluid power) horsepower: HP = PSI GPM 1714 PSI is gauge pressure in pounds per square inch; GPM is oil flow in gallons per minute. Velocity of oil flow in pipe: V = GPM 0.3208 A V is oil velocity in feet per second; GPM is flow in gallons per minute; A is inside area of pipe in square inches. Charles Law for behavior of gases: T1V2 = T2V1, or T1P2 = T2P1 T1, P1, and V1 are initial temperature, pressure, and volume, and T2, P2, and V2 are final conditions. Boyles Law for behavior of gases: P1V1 = P2V2 P1 and V1 are initial pressure and volume; P2 and V2 are final conditions. Circle formulas: Area = r2, or D2 4 Circumference = 2r, or D r is radius; D is diameter, inches. Heat equivalent of fluid power: BTU per hour = PSI GPM 1 Hydraulic cyl. piston travel speed: S = CIM A S is piston travel speed, inches per minute; CIM is oil flow into cylinder, cubic inches per minute; A is piston area in square inches. Force or thrust of any cylinder: F = A PSI F is thrust or force, in pounds; A is piston net area in square inches; PSI is gauge pressure. Force for piercing or shearing sheet metal: F = P T PSI F is force required, in pounds; P is perimeter around area to be sheared, in inches; T is sheet thickness in inches; PSI is the shear strength rating of the material in pounds per square inch. Side load on pump or motor shaft: F = (HP 63024) (RPM R) F is the side load, in pounds, against shaft; R is the pitch radius, in inches, of sheave on pump shaft; HP is driving power applied to shaft. Effective force of a cylinder working at an angle to direction of the load travel: F = T sin A T is the total cylinder force, in pounds; F is the part of the force which is effective, in pounds; A is the least angle, in degrees, between cylinder axis and load direction. Heat radiating capacity of a steel reservoir: HP = 0.001 A TD HP is the power radiating capacity expressed in horsepower; A is surface area, in square feet; TD is temperature difference in degrees F between oil and surrounding air. Burst pressure of pipe or tubing: P = 2t S O P is burst pressure in PSI; t is wall thickness, in inches; S is tensile strength of material in PSI; O is outside diameter, in inches. Relationship between displacement and torque of a hydraulic motor: T = D PSI 24 T is torque in foot-lbs.; D is displacement in cubic inches per revolution; PSI is pressure difference across motor; = 3.14.

Rules-of-Thumb
Horsepower for driving a pump: For every 1 HP of drive, the equivalent of 1 GPM @ 1500 PSI can be produced. Horsepower for idling a pump: To idle a pump when it is unloaded will require about 5% of its full rated horsepower. Compressibility of hydraulic oil: Volume reduction is approximately 1/2% for every 1000 PSI of fluid pressure. Compressibility of water: Volume reduction is about 1/3% for every 1000 PSI pressure. Wattage for heating hydraulic oil: Each watt will raise the temperature of 1 gallon of oil by 1F per hour. Flow velocity in hydraulic lines: Pump suction lines 2 to 4 feet per second; pressure lines up to 500 PSI, 10 to 15 feet per sec; pressure lines 500 to 3000 PSI, 15 to 20 feet per sec.; pressure lines over 3000 PSI, 25 feet per sec.; all oil lines in air-over-oil system, 4 feet per sec.

348

Fluid power formulas in English units are shown in the left column. SI (International) unit equivalents of these formulas are shown in the right column. English Units Metric (SI) Units

Fluid Power Formulas in SI Metric Units

Torque, HP, Speed Relations in Hydraulic Pumps & Motors

T = HP 5252 RPM HP = T RPM 5252 RPM = HP 5252 T T = Torque, foot-lbs. RPM = Speed, revs/minute HP = Horsepower T = Kw 9543 RPM Kw = T RPM 9543 RPM = Kw 9543 T T = Torque, Nm (Newton-meters) RPM = Speed, revs/minute Kw = Power in kilowatts

Hydraulic Power Flowing through the Pipes

HP = PSI GPM 1714 HP = Horsepower PSI = Gauge pressure, lbs/sq. inch GPM = Flow, gallons per minute Kw = Bar dm3/min 600 Kw = Power in kilowatts Bar = System pressure dm3/min = Flow, cu. dm/minute

Force Developed by an Air or Hydraulic Cylinder

F = A PSI F = Force or thrust, in pounds. A = Piston area, square inches PSI = Gauge pressure, lbs/sq. inch N = A Bar 10 N = Cylinder force in Newtons A = Piston area, sq. centimeters Bar = Gauge pressure

Travel Speed of a Hydraulic Cylinder Piston

S=VA S = Travel Speed, inches/minute V = Volume of oil to cyl., cu. in/min. A = Piston area, square inches S=VA S = Travel Speed, meters/sec. V = Oil flow, dm3/minute A = Piston area, square centimeters

Barlows Formula Burst Pressure of Pipe & Tubing

P = 2t S O P = Burst pressure, PSI t = Pipe wall thickness, inches S = Tensile strength, pipe matl, PSI O = Outside diameter of pipe, inches P = 2t S O P = Burst pressure, Bar t = Pipe wall thickness, mm S = Tensile strength, pipe matl, Bar O = Outside diameter of pipe, mm

Velocity of Oil Flow in Hydraulic Lines

V = GPM 0.3208 A V = Velocity, feet per second GPM = Oil flow, gallons/minute A = Inside area of pipe, sq. inches V = dm3/min 6A V = Oil velocity, meters/second dm3/min = Oil flow, cu. dm/minute A = Inside area of pipe, sq. cm

Recommended Maximum Oil Velocity in Hydraulic Lines

fps = feet per second Pump suction lines 2 to 4 fps Pres. lines to 500 PSI 10 to 15 fps Pres. lines to 3000 PSI 15 to 20 fps Pres. lines over 3000 PSI 25 fps Oil lines in air/oil system 4 fps mps = Meters per second Pump suction lines 0.6 to 1.2 mps Pres. lines to 35 bar 3 to 4 mps Pres. lines to 200 bar 4 to 6 mps Pres. lines over 200 bar 7 mps Oil lines in air/oil system 1 mps

349

English/Metric Conversions
Pressure - PSI and Bar
1 PSI = 0.0689655 bar
PSI 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Bar 1.379 2.069 2.759 3.448 4.138 4.828 5.517 6.207 6.897 13.79 20.69 27.59 34.48 41.38 48.28 55.17 62.07 68.97 PSI 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Bar 75.86 82.76 89.66 96.55 103.5 110.3 117.2 124.1 131.0 137.9 155.2 172.4 189.7 206.9 241.4 275.9 310.3 344.8 Bar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

1 bar = 14.5 PSI

PSI 14.50 29.00 43.50 58.00 72.50 87.00 101.5 116.0 130.5 145.0 217.5 290.0 362.5 435.0 507.5 580.0 652.5 725.0 Bar 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 PSI 797.5 870.0 942.5 1015 1088 1160 1233 1305 1378 1450 2175 2900 3625 4350 5075 5800 6585 7250

Hydraulic Flow - GPM and Liters per Minute

GPM = 3.785 liters/min
GPM 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 l/min 3.785 7.570 11.36 15.14 18.93 37.85 56.78 75.70 94.63 113.6 132.5 151.4 170.3 189.3 208.2 227.1 246.0 265.0 GPM 75 80 85 90 85 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 l/min 75 80 85 90 85 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400

1 liter/min = 0.2642 GPM

l/min 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 GPM 1.32 2.64 5.28 7.93 10.6 13.2 15.9 18.5 21.1 23.8 26.4 33.0 39.6 46.2 52.8 59.4 66.1 72.7 l/min 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 GPM 79.3 92.5 106 119 132 145 159 172 185 198 211 238 264 291 317 343 370 396

Air Flow CFM and Cubic Decimeters per Second

1 CFM = 0.47195 cu. dm/sec (dm3/s) CFM 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1.379 2.069 2.759 3.448 4.138 4.828 5.517 6.207 6.897 13.79 20.69 27.59 34.48 41.38 48.28 55.17 62.07 68.97 CFM 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 75.86 82.76 89.66 96.55 103.5 110.3 117.2 124.1 131.0 137.9 155.2 172.4 189.7 206.9 241.4 275.9 310.3 344.8 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 125 150 175 200 1 cu. dm/sec = 2.1187 CFM (dm3/s) CFM 10.59 21.19 31.78 42.37 52.97 63.56 74.15 84.75 95.34 105.9 127.1 148.3 169.5 211.9 264.8 317.8 370.7 423.7 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 CFM 476.7 529.7 635.6 741.5 847.5 953.4 1059 1165 1271 1483 1695 1907 2119 2331 2542 2754 2966 3178

350

Fluid Power Equivalents

Exact Equivalents
1 U.S. gallon: = 231 cubic inches = 4 quarts or 8 pints = 128 ounces (Liquid) = 133.37 ounces (weight) = 8.3356 pounds = 3.785 liters 1 Imperial gallon = 1.2 U.S. gal. 1 Liter = 0.2642 U.S. gallons 1 Cubic foot: = 7.48 gallons = 1728 cubic inches = 62.4 pounds (water) 1 Cu. ft. water weighs 62.4 lbs. 1 Bar at sea level: = 14.504 PSI = 0.98692 atmosphere = 33.6 foot water column = 41 foot oil column Approx. 1/2 PSI decrease each 1000 feet of elevation. 1 Hg = 0.490 PSI = 1.131 ft. water 1 Horsepower: = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute = 550 ft. lbs. per second = 42.4 BTU per minute = 2545 BTU per hour = 746 watts or 0.746 kw 1 PSI = 2.0416 Hg = 27.71 water = 0.0689 bar 1 Atmosphere: = 1.013 bar = 29.921 Hg = 14.696 PSI = 760 mm Hg 1 Foot water column = 0.432.PSI 1 Foot oil column = 0.354 PSI 1 Barrel oil = 42 gallons 1 Micro-meter (mm): = 0.000001 meter (micron) = 0.001 centimeter = 0.00004 inch 25 Micro-meters = 0.001 inch

Approximate Equivalents
1 Pint = 2 cups = 32 tablespoons = 96 teaspoons = 16 fl. oz. = 1 lb. 1 Quart = 4 cups = 2 pints = 32 fluid ounces = 2 pounds. 1 Gallon = 16 cups = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fl. oz. = 231 cu. ins. 1 Cup = 16 tablespoons = 48 tsp. 1 Tablespoon = 3 tsp. = 1/2 fluid oz. 1 Fluid oz. (volume) = 600 drops hydraulic oil. 1 Cubic inch = 330 drops (oil).

Fluid Power Abbreviations

abs AC Bhn Btu C cc ccw cfm cfs cir cim com cpm cps cu. in/rev cw cyl DC dia ext F fl fpm ft ft-lb gal gpm Hg HP Hz ID in in-lb int absolute (as in psia) alternating current Brinell hardness number British thermal unit degrees Centigrade (Celsius) closed center counter clockwise cubic feet per minute cubic feet per second cubic inches per revolution cubic inches per minute Common cycles per minute cycles per second cubic inches per revolution clockwise cylinder direct current diameter external degrees Fahrenheit fluid feet per minute foot foot pound gallon gallons per minute Mercury horsepower Hertz inside diameter inch inch pound internal pm ips lb max min mtd NC NO NPT NPTF oc oz. P.O. pres PSI psia psig pt qt r rms rpm rps scfm Smls sol SSU SUS m T vac VI visc inches per minute inches per second pound maximum minimum mounted normally closed normally open national pipe thread dryseal pipe threads open center ounce pilot operated pressure pounds/square inch psi absolute psi gauge pint quart radius root mean square revolutions per minute revolutions per second standard cu. ft. per minute seamless solenoid Saybolt seconds universal Saybolt universal seconds micro-meters or microns torque vacuum viscosity index viscosity

351

Vehicle Drive Calculations

The force to drive a vehicle is composed of the sum of (1) road resistance, (2) force necessary to climb a grade, (3) force needed to accelerate to final velocity in the allowable time, (4) force to overcome air resistance, on fast moving vehicles. Each of these forces can be calculated or estimated from the formulas on this page, then added together. In selecting an engine, allow enough extra power to make up for losses in the mechanical transmission system including gear boxes, clutches, differentials, chain or belt drives. Travel Speed in MPH (miles per hour) is found by multiplying wheel RPM wheel circumference. MPH = RPM d 336, or RPM = 336 MPH d d is wheel diameter in inches. Axle Torque for driving the vehicle is found by multiplying drawbar pull (or push) times wheel radius. T = F r or, F = T r T is axle torque in inch pounds. F is drawbar pull in pounds. r is wheel radius in inches. Drawbar Pull to keep the vehicle in steady motion on level ground depends on the road surface. The following figures are pounds of drawbar pull per 1000 lbs. of vehicle weight. Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 to 20 lbs. Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 to 22 lbs. Macadam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 to 37 lbs. Cobbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 to 85 lbs. Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 to 37 lbs. Dirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 to 37 lbs. Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 to 150 lbs. Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 to 300 lbs. Horsepower required on vehicle wheels is torque times RPM: HP = T RPM 63024 T is wheel torque in inch pounds. NOTE: Additional HP is required at the engine to overcome transmission system losses. Conversion Formula between torque, HP, and speed. T = HP 63024 RPM Torque values are in inch pounds. Momentum of a vehicle is equivalent to that constant force which would bring it to rest in one second by resisting its movement. Momentum = Weight V g Weight is in pounds. V is velocity in feet per second. g is gravity acceleration = 32.16 Acceleration of a vehicle is expressed in this formula involving weight, accelerating force, and time. F = (V W) (g T) F is accelerating force in pounds. V is final velocity in feet per second. W is vehicle weight in pounds. g is gravity acceleration = 32.16 T is time in seconds that force acts. Note: The gravity acceleration symbol, g, converts weight into mass. Grade, in mobile work, is usually expressed in percentage rather than in degrees. For example, a 10% grade has a rise of 10 feet in a distance of 100 feet, etc. Grade Resistance is the drawbar pull needed to keep the vehicle in constant motion up a grade. This is in addition to the drawbar pull to overcome road resistance as expressed by another formula. F = GR W F is drawbar pull in pounds. GR is grade resistance in percent (20% is written as 0.20, etc.) W is gross vehicle weight in pounds. Air Resistance will be important only on fast moving vehicles (over 20 to 30 MPH). F = FA 0.0025 MPH2 F is additional drawbar pull needed to overcome air resistance. FA is frontal area of vehicle in square feet. MPH is vehicle speed, miles per hour. Axles and drive shafts must have a diameter large enough to transmit the torque without excessive deflection. The angle of deflection for a solid round axle may be calculated from this formula: A = 583.6 T L (D4 E) A is angle of deflection in degrees. T is applied torque in inch pounds. L is shaft length in inches. E is modulus of elasticity of material. (12,000,000 for steel) D is shaft diameter in inches. Some authorities say that a steel shaft should be limited to an angular deflection of 0.08 degrees per foot of length to avoid failure.

352

Cylinders
Cylinders are used to convert fluid power energy, air or hydraulic, into push-pull mechanical power. They are available in a wide range of bore sizes, pressure ratings, and mounting styles to suit almost any application.

Square Head Industrial Cylinder

Operating Principles
The operating principle of a cylinder is simple - fluid pressure is applied on one side of its piston, and the opposite side of the piston is vented to a lower pressure or to atmosphere. Force developed on the piston and rod is easily calculated by multiplying gauge pressure, in PSI, times the square inch area on the piston which is exposed to the pressure. The square inch area on a circular piston can be calculated from this formula: Area (sq.in.) = D2 4, in which D is diameter in inches EXAMPLE: Find the force produced by an air cylinder with 6 diameter piston operating on an air pressure of 90 PSI. P D SOLUTION: First, find the piston area: A = 62 4 = 28.27 square inches. Force = 28.27 90 PSI = 2544 pounds. The answer can also be obtained from tables in this manual.

Remember, when calculating force developed on the retraction stroke, the pressure does not act on the piston area which is covered by the piston rod; therefore to find the effective (or net) area, the rod area must be subtracted from the full piston area. For convenience in selecting cylinder size, various charts are included on the following pages for calculation of cylinder force, speed, air consumption, and minimum rod size to prevent rod buckling. Direction of Travel. A double-acting air or hydraulic cylinder is usually controlled with a 4-way directional control valve connected as shown. The valve may have only two working positions as in this illustration, or it may have a center neutral position for stopping the cylinder in mid stroke. Direction of travel of a single-acting (spring or gravity returned) cylinder is usually controlled with a 3-way directional valve; or with a 4-way valve in which the unused cylinder port is plugged. For a single-acting cylinder which requires 3 functions, such as raise-hold-lower, the control valve must have a center neutral position.

V1

Travel Speed. The speed of an air cylinder may be regulated with flow control valves placed in the lines between 4-way valve and cylinder. Listings in this manual show both needle-type and pressure compensated flow control valves covering a full range of sizes. The exact travel speed of an air cylinder cannot be predicted because of many variables such as amount of load, piping size and restrictions, valve size, etc. The only way to be certain of sufficient speed is to select a cylinder which has at least 25% to 50% more force than required by the load, or one with double the force required if travel speed must be rapid.

353

The speed of a hydraulic cylinder can be accurately predicted if the volume of oil flow is known. The formula for calculating speed in inches per minute is: Speed = oil flow (cubic inches per minute) square inch area of the piston. If oil flow is given in GPM (gallons per minute) convert to cubic inches per minute by multiplying by 231. Forward and return speed of a hydraulic cylinder are shown in charts on the next few pages. Cushions: Cylinders can be ordered with cushions on either or both ends of the stroke. The purpose of a cushion is to decelerate the piston at a point about 1 from the end of the stroke. Cushions cannot be added in the field; they must be specified at the time the cylinder is purchased. A cushion consists of a closed chamber in the cylinder end cap which traps fluid when the cushion nose, mounted on the moving piston, enters the chamber. The rate of fluid escape, or the rate of deceleration, is controlled from this point through the remainder of the stroke, by the external adjustment of a built-in needle valve. A check valve, also built in, allows the cylinder to start up in the opposite direction at full speed and force. Cushions are highly effective in decelerating a hydraulic cylinder, but are effective on air cylinders only when the load being stopped consists principally of friction with very little mass which creates a momentum energy which has to be dissipated while the cylinder is being decelerated. For decelerating a high momentum load on an air cylinder, a limit switch or cam valve should be used to reduce the air flow into or out of the cylinder. This switch or valve should be located far enough ahead of the final position to give the load time to decelerate properly.

Cylinder Types
Standard Double-Acting. Provides a power stroke in both directions. This is the type used in the majority of applications, both air and hydraulic. Single-Acting Cylinder. Where force is needed in only one direction, a standard double-acting type may be used, with the inactive end vented to atmosphere through a filter/breather in the case of an air cylinder, or to tank above oil level in the case of a hydraulic cylinder. Double-End-Rod Cylinders. Available from most manufacturers. They are used when an equal displacement on both sides of the piston is desirable, or where the additional rod is needed for mechanical support. Sometimes the extra rod is used to move a second device on the opposite end from the main load, or is used to actuate limit switches or cam valves. Spring Return, Single-Acting. This type is usually limited to very small, short stroke applications such as clamping or holding. The extra barrel length required to contain the return spring makes them impractical where a long stroke is required. Ram-Type Single-Acting. These cylinders have only one fluid chamber. They are quite often mounted vertically working upward, and are retracted by load weight. They are practical for very long strokes. Sometimes they are called displacement cylinders and are used for applications like house jacks or filling station lifts. Telescopic Cylinders. Although expensive as compared to standard cylinders, they are used where collapsed length must be shorter than could be obtained with a standard cylinder. They are available with up to 4 or 5 telescoping sleeves, and either in singleacting or double-acting types.

354

Hydraulic Cylinder Force & Speed Calculations

Calculation of Hydraulic Cylinder Force
EXAMPLE: A certain application requires a cylinder force of 25 tons. What should be the cylinder bore diameter used and at what gauge pressure? SOLUTION: The required force is 25 tons 2000 = 50,000 pounds. Refer to the Hydraulic Cylinder Force table on pages 356 and 357 which shows several combinations of piston diameter and PSI pressure which will produce 50,000 pounds of force or more. For example, a 6 inch piston will produce 56,550 pounds at 2000 PSI; a 7 inch piston will produce 57,725 lbs at 1500 PSI; an 8 inch piston will produce 50,265 lbs at 1000 PSI, a 10 inch piston will produce 58,900 lbs. at 750 PSI, etc. So there are many combinations which could be used, and the final choice is a matter of preference or of matching the pressure and flow capability of other components, particularly the pump. In practice, choose a combination which will produce from 10% to 25% more than actually required by the load alone. This will provide a safety allowance which will take care of pressure losses in valves and piping, and mechanical losses in the cylinder. EXAMPLE: How many pounds of force will be developed on the extension stroke of a 3 bore cylinder operating at 1500 PSI? If this cylinder has a 1 diameter piston rod, how much force will be developed on the retraction stroke? SOLUTION: Refer to the Hydraulic Cylinder Force table on pages 356 and 357. The chart shows 12,444 lbs. A solution can also be obtained by using the piston area (8.296 square inches) and multiplying by the pressure (1500 PSI); 8.296 square inches 1500 PSI = 12,444 lbs. On the retraction stroke the amount of force developed on the 2.41 square inch rod area must be subtracted: 12,444 3608 = 8836 lbs. EXAMPLE: What PSI gauge pressure is required for retraction of a 50,000 lb. load with an 8 inch bore cylinder having a 4 inch diameter rod? SOLUTION: The net piston area must be found which is the full piston area minus the rod area. 50.27 (piston area) 12.57 (rod area) = 37.7 square inches. PSI = 50,000 37.7 = 1326 PSI. The actual pressure will be slightly greater due to friction of the piston in the barrel.

Calculation of Hydraulic Cylinder Speed

EXAMPLE: At what speed would the piston of a 4 inch bore cylinder extend on an oil flow of 12 GPM? SOLUTION: The table of Hydraulic Cylinder Speeds on pages 358 and 359 may be used or the speed figured with the formula which says that speed is equal to the incoming flow of oil in cubic inches per minute, divided by the square inch area of the piston. The speed will be in inches per minute. A flow of 12 GPM is 231 12 = 2772 cubic inches per minute. The speed is 2772 (flow rate) 12.57 (piston area) = 220.5 inches per minute. This checks very closely with the value shown in the table on page 358. EXAMPLE: Find the GPM flow necessary to cause a 5 inch bore cylinder to travel at a rate of 175 inches per minute while extending. How fast would this cylinder retract on the same oil flow if it had a 2 inch diameter piston rod? SOLUTION: Flow is determined by multiplying the piston area in square inches times the travel rate in inches per minute. This gives flow in cubic inches per minute. Divide by 231 to convert to GPM: 19.64 (piston area) 175 = 3437 cubic inches per minute. 3437 231 = 14.88 GPM. This checks very closely with 15 GPM at 174 inches per minute shown on the chart on page 358. To find the retraction speed on 14.88 GPM, the net piston area must be found. This is the full piston area minus the rod area: 19.64 (piston area) 6.5 (rod area) = 16.5 square inches. The flow rate is 3437 cubic inches per minute (equivalent to 14.88 GPM) 16.5 (net area) = 208 inches per minute. Note that this is faster than the extension speed on the same oil flow.

355

Hydraulic Cylinder Force

Low Pressure Range 500 to 1500 PSI 1 to 14 Bores
Cylinder forces, both extension and retraction, are shown in pounds. The chart on this page covers cylinder operation in the pressure range of 500 to 1500 PSI, and the chart on the next page covers the 2000 to 5000 PSI range. Lines in bold type show extension force, using the full piston area. Lines in italic type show retraction force with various size piston rods. Remember that force values are theoretical, derived by calculation. Experience has shown that probably 5%, but certainly no more than 10% additional pressure will be required to make up cylinder losses. For pressures not shown, the effective piston areas in the third column can be used as power factors. Multiply effective area times pressure to obtain cylinder force produced. (continued on next page) Bore Dia., Ins. 1 2 2 Rod Dia., Ins. None* 5/8 1 None* 1 1 None* 1 1 1 None* 1 1 1 None* 1 1 2 None* 1 2 2 None* 2 2 3 3 None* 2 3 3 4 None* 3 3 4 4 5 None* 3 4 4 5 5 None* 4 5 5 7 None* 5 None* 7 Effec. Area, Sq.In 1.7672 1.4604 0.9818 3.1416 2.3562 1.6567 4.9087 4.1233 3.4238 2.5034 7.0686 6.2832 5.5837 4.6633 8.2958 6.8109 5.8905 5.1542 12.567 10.162 9.4254 7.6583 19.635 16.493 14.726 12.566 10.014 28.274 23.365 21.205 18.653 15.707 38.485 31.416 28.864 25.918 22.581 18.850 50.266 40.645 37.699 34.362 30.631 26.508 78.540 62.636 58.905 54.782 40.055 113.10 89.339 153.94 115.46

Pressure Differential Across Cylinder Ports

500 PSI 884 730 491 1571 1178 828 2454 2062 1712 1252 3534 3142 2792 2332 4148 3405 2945 2577 6284 5081 4713 3829 9818 8247 7363 6283 5007 14,137 11,683 10,603 9327 7854 19,243 15,708 14,432 12,959 11,291 9425 25,133 20,323 18,850 17,181 15,316 13,254 39,270 31,318 29,453 27,391 20,028 56,550 44,670 76,970 57,730 750 PSI 1325 1095 736 2356 1767 1243 3682 3092 2568 1878 5301 4712 4188 3498 6222 5108 4418 3866 9425 7622 7069 5744 14,726 12,370 11,045 9425 7511 21,206 17,524 15,904 13,990 11,780 28,864 23,562 21,648 19,439 16,936 14,138 37,700 30,484 28,274 25,772 22,973 19,881 58,905 46,977 44,179 41,087 30,041 84,825 67,004 115,455 86,595 1000 PSI 1767 1460 982 3142 2356 1657 4909 4123 3424 2503 7069 6283 5584 4664 8296 6811 5891 5154 12,567 10,162 9425 7658 19,635 16,493 14,726 12,566 10,014 28,274 23,365 21,205 18,653 15,707 38,485 31,416 28,864 25,918 22,581 18,850 50,266 40,645 37,699 34,362 30,631 26,508 78,540 62,636 58,905 54,782 40,055 113,100 89,339 153,940 115,460 1250 PSI 2209 1826 1227 3927 2945 2071 6136 5154 4280 3129 8836 7854 6980 5830 10,370 8514 7363 6443 15,709 12,703 11,782 9573 24,544 20,616 18,408 15,708 12,518 35,343 29,206 26,506 23,316 19,634 48,106 39,270 36,080 32,398 28,226 23,563 62,833 50,806 47,124 42,953 38,289 33,135 98,175 78,295 73,631 68,478 50,069 141,375 111,673 192,425 144,325 1500 PSI 2651 2191 1473 4712 3534 2485 7363 6185 5136 3755 10,603 9425 8376 6996 12,444 10,216 8836 7731 18,851 15,243 14,138 11,487 29,453 24,740 22,089 18,849 15,021 42,411 35,048 31,808 27,980 23,561 57,728 47,124 43,296 38,877 33,872 28,275 75,399 60,968 56,549 51,543 45,947 39,762 117,810 93,954 88,358 82,173 60,082 169,650 134,009 230,910 173,190

3

10

12 14

*These figures are for extension force. No piston rod diameter is involved.

356

Hydraulic Cylinder Force

High Pressure Range 2500 to 5000 PSI 1 to 14 Bores
(continued from previous page) Values in two or more columns can be added for a pressure not listed, or, force values can be obtained by interpolating between the next higher and the next lower pressure columns. Pressure values along the top, of each chart are differential pressures across the two cylinder ports. This is the pressure to just balance the load, and not the pressure which must be produced by the system pump. There will be circuit flow losses in pressure and return lines due to oil flow, and these will require extra pressure. When designing a system, be sure to allow sufficient pump pressure, probably an extra 25% to 30% on the average, to supply both the cylinder and to satisfy system flow losses. Bore Dia., Ins. 1 2 2 Rod Dia., Ins. None* 5/8 1 None* 1 1 None* 1 1 1 None* 1 1 1 None* 1 1 2 None* 1 2 2 None* 2 2 3 3 None* 2 3 3 4 None* 3 3 4 4 5 None* 3 4 4 5 5 None* 4 5 5 7 None* 5 None* 7 Effec. Area, Sq. In 1.7672 1.4604 0.9818 3.1416 2.3562 1.6567 4.9087 4.1233 3.4238 2.5034 7.0686 6.2832 5.5837 4.6633 8.2958 6.8109 5.8905 5.1542 12.567 10.162 9.4254 7.6583 19.635 16.493 14.726 12.566 10.014 28.274 23.365 21.205 18.653 15.707 38.485 31.416 28.864 25.918 22.581 18.850 50.266 40.645 37.699 34.362 30.631 26.508 78.540 62.636 58.905 54.782 40.055 113.10 89.339 153.94 115.46

Pressure Differential Across Cylinder Ports

2000 PSI 3534 2921 1964 6283 4712 3313 9817 8247 6848 5007 14,137 12,566 11,167 9329 16,592 13,622 11,781 10,308 25,134 20,324 18,851 15,317 39,270 32,986 29,450 25,132 20,028 56,548 46,730 42,410 37,306 31,414 76,970 62,832 57,728 51,836 45,162 37,700 100,532 81,290 75,398 68,724 61,262 53,016 157,080 125,272 117,810 109,564 80,110 226,200 178,678 307,880 230,920 2500 PSI 4418 3651 2455 7854 5891 4142 12,272 10,308 8560 6259 17,672 15,708 13,959 11,661 20,740 17,027 14,726 12,886 31,418 25,405 23,564 19,146 49,088 41,233 36,815 31,415 25,035 70,685 58,413 53,013 46,633 39,268 96,213 78,540 72,160 64,795 56,453 47,125 125,665 101,613 94,248 85,905 76,578 66,270 196,350 156,590 147,263 136,955 100,138 282,750 223,348 384,850 288,650 3000 PSI 5302 4381 2945 9425 7069 4970 14,726 12,370 10,271 7510 21,206 18,850 16,751 13,992 24,887 20,433 17,672 15,463 37,701 30,486 28,266 22,975 58,905 49,479 44,178 37,698 30,042 84,822 70,095 63,615 55,959 47,121 115,455 94,248 86,592 77,754 67,743 56,550 150,798 121,935 113,097 103,086 91,893 79,524 235,620 187,908 176,715 164,346 120,165 339,300 268,017 461,820 346,380 4000 PSI 7069 5842 3927 12,566 9425 6627 19,635 16,493 13,695 10,014 28,274 25,133 22,335 18,657 33,183 27,244 23,562 20,617 50,268 40,648 37,702 30,633 78,540 65,972 58,904 50,264 40,056 113,096 93.460 84,820 74,612 62,828 153,940 125,664 115,456 103,672 90,324 75,400 201,064 162,580 150,796 137,448 122,524 106,032 314,160 250,544 235,620 219,128 160,220 452,400 357,356 615,760 461,840 5000 PSI 8836 7302 4909 15,708 11,781 8284 24,544 20,617 17,119 12,517 35,343 31,416 27,919 23,322 41,479 34,055 29,453 25,771 62,835 50,810 47,127 38,292 98,175 82,465 73,630 62,830 50,070 141,370 116,825 106,025 93,265 78,535 192,425 157,080 144,320 129,590 112,905 94,260 251,330 203,225 188,495 171,810 153,155 132,540 392,700 313,180 294,525 273,910 200,275 565,500 446,695 769,700 577,300

3

10

12 14

*These figures are for extension force. No piston rod diameter is involved.

357

Hydraulic Cylinder Speeds

Figures in body of chart are cylinder piston speeds in inches per minute. Piston and rod diameters are in inches. Horizontal lines in bold type are extension speeds. Lines in italic type are retraction speeds for the bore and rod diameters shown in the first two columns, using net piston area.

For Fluid Flows from 1 to 20 GPM

Piston Diam. 1 2 Rod Diam. None* 5/8 1 None* 3/4 1 1 None* 1 1 1 None* 1 1 2 None* 1 1 2 None* 1 1 2 2 None* 1 1 2 2 2 None* 1 2 2 3 3 None* 1 2 3 3 4 None* 3 3 4 4 5 None* 3 4 4 5 5 None* 4 5 5 7 1 GPM 131 158 236 74 86 98 139 47 56 67 92 33 37 44 59 28 34 39 45 24 28 32 36 44 18 20 23 25 30 35 12 13 14 16 18 23 8.2 8.9 10 11 12 15 6.0 7.4 8.0 8.9 10 12 4.6 5.7 6.1 6.7 7.5 8.7 2.9 3.7 3.9 4.2 5.8 3 GPM 392 475 706 221 257 294 418 141 168 202 277 98 110 131 176 84 102 118 134 72 83 96 107 133 55 61 68 74 90 105 35 39 42 47 55 69 25 27 30 33 37 44 18 22 24 27 31 37 14 17 18 20 23 26 8.8 11 12 13 17 5 GPM 654 791 ---368 428 490 697 235 280 337 461 163 184 218 294 139 170 196 224 120 138 160 178 222 92 102 114 123 151 174 59 65 70 78 92 115 41 45 49 54 62 74 30 37 40 45 51 61 23 28 31 34 38 44 15 18 20 21 29 8 GPM ---------588 684 784 ---376 448 540 738 261 294 349 471 223 271 314 359 192 220 256 285 356 147 163 182 196 241 279 94 103 112 125 147 186 65 71 79 87 99 118 48 59 64 71 82 98 37 45 49 54 60 70 24 30 31 34 46 12 GPM ---------882 ---------565 672 810 ---392 441 523 706 334 407 471 538 288 330 384 428 534 221 244 273 294 362 418 141 155 168 188 221 277 98 107 119 131 149 176 72 88 96 107 123 147 55 68 74 81 90 105 35 44 47 51 69 15 GPM ---------------------706 840 ------490 551 654 882 418 509 588 672 360 413 480 535 667 276 306 341 368 452 523 176 194 210 235 276 346 123 134 148 163 186 221 90 110 120 134 153 184 69 85 92 101 113 131 44 55 59 63 87 20 GPM ---------------------941 ---------654 735 871 ---557 678 784 896 480 550 640 713 890 368 407 455 490 603 697 235 259 280 314 368 461 163 179 198 218 248 294 120 147 160 178 205 245 92 114 123 134 151 174 59 74 78 84 115

2

3

3

10

*These figures are for extension force. No piston rod diameter is involved.

358

Cylinder Speeds for Fluid Flows From 25 to 100 GPM

Piston Diam. 3 3 3 Rod Diam. None* 1 None* 1 1 None* 1 1 2 None* 1 1 2 2 2 None* 1 2 2 3 3 None* 1 2 3 3 4 None* 3 3 4 4 5 None* 3 4 4 5 5 None* 4 5 5 7 None* 5 7 8 None* 7 8 10 25 GPM 817 919 696 848 980 600 688 800 891 460 509 568 613 754 871 294 323 350 392 460 577 204 223 247 272 310 368 150 184 200 223 256 306 115 142 153 168 189 218 74 92 98 105 144 51 65 77 102 38 50 59 77 30 GPM 980 ---835 ------720 825 ------551 611 682 735 905 ---353 388 420 471 551 692 245 268 297 327 372 441 180 221 240 267 307 368 138 170 184 202 226 261 88 111 118 127 173 61 78 93 123 45 60 71 92 40 GPM ---------------960 ---------735 815 909 980 ------471 517 560 627 735 923 327 357 395 436 495 588 240 294 320 357 409 490 184 227 245 269 302 349 118 148 157 169 231 82 103 124 164 60 80 95 123 50 GPM ---------------------------919 ---------------588 646 700 784 919 ---409 446 494 545 619 735 300 368 400 446 511 613 230 284 306 336 377 436 147 184 196 211 288 102 129 155 205 75 100 119 153 60 GPM ---------------------------------------------706 776 840 941 ------490 536 593 654 743 882 360 441 480 535 614 735 270 341 368 403 452 523 176 221 235 253 346 123 155 186 246 90 120 143 184 75 GPM ---------------------------------------------882 970 ------------613 670 741 817 929 ---450 551 600 668 767 919 345 420 460 504 566 654 221 277 294 316 433 153 194 232 307 113 150 178 230 100 GPM ---------------------------------------------------------------817 893 989 ---------600 735 800 891 ------460 568 613 672 754 871 294 369 392 422 577 204 259 310 410 150 200 238 306

10

12

14

*These figures are for extension force. No piston rod diameter is involved.

Interpolation of Cylinder Speed Charts

Cylinder speed is directly proportional to GPM. To find speed at a flow not shown in charts, add speeds in two columns. Example: Speed with 35 GPM is the sum of speeds in the 5 GPM and 30 GPM columns.

Calculation of Cylinder Speed

These charts were calculated from the formula: S = CIM A, in which S is piston speed in inches per minute; CIM is flow in cubic inches per minute; and A is cross sectional area of cavity being filled, in square inches. GPM flows must be converted to cubic inches per minute. Multiply GPM times 231. Extension speeds are calculated with full piston area, retraction speeds with net area which is piston area minus rod area. (See Hydraulic Cylinder Force)

359

Pneumatic Cylinder Air Consumption

The purpose of estimating air consumption of a cylinder is usually to find the HP capacity which must be available from the air compressor to operate the cylinder on a continuous cycling application. Air consumption can be estimated from the table below. The consumption can then be converted into compressor HP.

Using the Table to Calculate Air Consumption

Figures in the body of the table are air consumptions for cylinders with standard diameter piston rods. The saving of air for cylinders with larger diameter rods is negligible for most calculations. Air consumption was calculated assuming the cylinder piston will be allowed to stall, at least momentarily, at each end of its stroke, giving it time to fill up with air to the pressure regulator setting. If reversed at either end of its stroke before full stall occurs, air consumption will be less than shown in the table. The first step in the calculation is to be sure that the bore size of the selected cylinder will just balance the load at a pressure of 75% or less of the maximum pressure available to the system. This leaves about 25% of available pressure which can be used to overcome flow losses through piping and valving. This surplus pressure must be available or the cylinder cannot travel at normal speed. Determine the exact air pressure needed to just balance the load resistance. Add about 25% for flow losses and set the system regulator to this pressure. This is also the pressure figure which should be used when going into the table. After determining the regulator pressure, go into the proper column of the table. The figure shown in the table is the air consumption for a 1-inch stroke, forward and return. Take this figure and multiply times the number of inches of stroke and by the number of complete cycles, forward and back which the cylinder is expected to make in one minute. This gives the SCFM for the application.

Cylinder Air Consumption per 1-inch Stroke, Forward and Return

Regulator Outlet PSI (At Least 25% Above Load Balance PSI)
Cyl. Bore 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.25 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00 10.0 12.0 14.0 60 PSI .009 .018 .028 .039 .046 .072 .113 .162 .291 .455 .656 .890 70 PSI .010 .020 .032 .044 .053 .081 .128 .184 .330 .516 .744 1.01 80 PSI .012 .022 .035 .050 .059 .091 .143 .205 .369 .576 .831 1.13 90 PSI .013 .025 .039 .055 .065 .100 .159 .227 .408 .637 .919 1.25 100 PSI .015 .027 .043 .060 .071 .110 .174 .249 .447 .698 1.01 1.37 110 PSI .016 .029 .047 .066 .078 .119 .189 .270 .486 .759 1.09 1.49 120 PSI .017 .032 .050 .070 .084 .129 .204 .292 .525 .820 1.18 1.61 130 PSI .018 .034 .054 .076 .090 .139 .219 .314 .564 .881 1.27 1.72 140 PSI .020 .036 .058 .081 .096 .148 .234 .335 .602 .940 1.36 1.84 150 PSI .021 .039 .062 .087 .102 .158 .249 .357 .642 1.00 1.45 1.96

Converting SCFM Into Compressor HP

Compression of air is an inefficient process because part of the energy is lost as heat of compression and can never be recovered. By over-compressing the air and then reducing it to a lower pressure through a regulator, the system losses are increased. The amount of this loss is nearly impossible to calculate, but on the average system may amount to 5 or 10%. Also, there is a small loss due to flow resistance through the regulator. After finding the SCFM to operate the cylinder, refer to the tables on page 391. Convert into HP according to the kind of compressor used. Add 5 to 10% for the miscellaneous losses described above. This should be very close to the actual HP capacity needed. EXAMPLE: Find compressor HP needed to cycle an air cylinder through a 28-inch stroke, 11 times a minute, against a load resistance of 1000 lbs. SOLUTION: A 4 bore cylinder working at 80 PSI would balance the 1000 lb. load. Add 25% more pressure (20 PSI) and set the pressure regulator at 100 PSI. From the above table, air consumption would be: 0.110 28 (stroke) 11 (times a minute) = 33.88 SCFM Refer to page 391. Assume a 2-stage compressor. At 100 PSI, 0.164 HP is required for each 1 SCFM. Total HP = 0.164 33.88 = 5.57 HP. Add 5% (or 0.278 HP) for miscellaneous losses. Total compressor HP = 5.57 + 0.278 = 5.848 HP.

360

Pneumatic Cylinder Force

Cylinder forces are shown in pounds for both extension and retraction. Lines in bold type show extension forces, using the full piston area. Lines in italic type show retraction forces with various size piston rods. Remember that force values are theoretical, derived by calculation. Pressures along the top of the chart do not represent air supply pressure; they are differential pressures across the two cylinder ports. In practice, the air supply line must supply another 5% of pressure to make up for cylinder loss, and must supply an estimated 25 to 50% additional pressure to make up for flow losses in lines and valving so the cylinder will have sufficient travel speed. For good design and highest circuit efficiency, open the cylinder speed control valves as wide as practical and reduce the pressure regulator setting to as low a pressure as will give satisfactory cylinder force and speed. For pressures not shown, use the effective areas in the third column as power factors, Multiply effective area times differential pressure to obtain theoretical cylinder force. Piston Dia., In. 1 1 2 2 Rod Dia., In. None 5/8 1 None 5/8 1 None 5/8 1 None 5/8 1 1 None 1 1 None 1 1 1 None 1 None 1 1 1 None 1 1 None 1 1 None 1 None 1 1 None 1 2 None 2 2 None 2 3 Effec. Area, Sq.in. 1.77 1.46 .985 2.41 2.10 1.18 3.14 2.83 2.35 4.91 4.60 4.12 3.43 7.07 6.28 4.66 8.30 7.51 6.82 5.89 9.62 8.84 12.57 11.78 11.09 10.16 19.64 18.85 18.16 28.27 26.79 25.90 38.49 37.01 50.27 48.79 47.90 78.54 76.14 75.40 113.1 110.0 108.2 153.9 149.0 146.8 60 PSI 106 88 59 144 126 71 188 170 141 295 276 247 206 424 377 280 498 451 409 354 577 530 754 707 665 610 1178 1131 1089 1696 1607 1552 2309 2220 3016 2927 2872 4712 4568 4524 6786 6598 6491 9234 8939 8810 70 PSI 124 102 69 168 147 83 220 198 165 344 322 289 240 495 440 326 581 526 477 413 674 618 880 825 776 712 1375 1320 1271 1979 1875 1811 2694 2590 3519 3415 3351 5498 5329 5278 7917 7697 7573 10773 10429 10278 80 PSI 142 117 79 192 168 95 251 227 188 393 368 330 274 565 503 373 664 601 545 472 770 707 1006 943 887 813 1571 1508 1452 2262 2143 2069 3079 2960 4022 3903 3829 6283 6091 6032 9048 8797 8655 12312 11919 11747 90 PSI 159 132 89 216 189 106 283 255 212 442 414 371 308 636 565 420 747 676 613 531 866 795 1131 1061 998 915 1768 1697 1634 2544 2411 2328 3464 3331 4524 4391 4308 7069 6852 6786 10179 9896 9737 13851 13409 13215 100 PSI 177 146 98 241 210 118 314 283 235 491 460 412 343 707 628 466 830 751 681 589 962 884 1257 1178 1109 1016 1964 1885 1816 2827 2679 2586 3849 3701 5027 4879 4786 7854 7614 7540 11310 10996 10819 15390 14899 14683 110 PSI 195 161 108 265 231 130 345 312 259 540 506 454 377 778 691 513 913 827 750 648 1058 972 1382 1296 1219 1118 2160 2074 1997 3110 2946 2845 4234 4071 5530 5366 5265 8639 8375 8294 12441 12095 11901 16929 16389 16151 120 PSI 212 176 118 289 252 142 377 340 283 589 552 495 411 848 754 560 996 902 818 707 1155 1060 1508 1415 1330 1220 2357 2263 2179 3392 3214 3104 4619 4441 6032 5854 5744 9425 9136 9048 13572 13195 12983 18468 17879 17620 130 PSI 230 190 128 313 273 154 408 368 306 638 598 536 445 919 817 606 1079 977 886 766 1251 1149 1634 1532 1441 1321 2553 2451 2360 3675 3482 3362 5004 4811 6535 6342 6222 10210 9898 9802 14703 14295 14075 20007 19369 19088

Extension and Retraction 60 to 130 PSI Pressure Range

3 3

3 4

5 6 7 8 10 12 14

361

Internal Fluid PSI on Tubing

This table is for use in selecting wall thickness of tubing. Figures in the body of the table are internal fluid pressures in PSI that will produce a fiber stress of 10,000 PSI along the circumference, tending to rupture the tubing. If a tube is made of steel with an ultimate strength of 40,000 PSI, the safety factor would be 4. Tube O.D. 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 .120 .156 .187 Thickness of Tubing Wall, Inches .219 .250 .313 .375 .500 .625 .750 .875 1.000 7273 6667 6154 5714 5333 5000 4706 4444 4211 4000 3636 3333 3077 2857 2667 2500 2353 2222 2105 2000 1905

1600 2080 2493 2920 3333 4173 5000 6667 8333 1371 1783 2137 2503 2857 3577 4286 5714 7143 1200 1560 1870 2190 2500 3130 3750 5000 6250 7500 1067 1387 1662 1947 2222 2782 3333 4444 5556 6667 960 1248 1496 1752 2000 2504 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 873 1135 1360 1593 1818 2276 2727 3636 4545 5455 6364

800 1040 1247 1460 1667 2087 2500 3333 4167 5000 5833 738 686 640 600 565 533 505 480 436 400 369 960 1151 1348 1538 1926 2308 3077 3846 4615 5385

891 1069 1251 1429 1789 2143 2857 3571 4286 5000 832 780 734 693 657 624 567 520 480 446 416 997 1168 1333 1669 2000 2667 3333 4000 4667

935 1095 1250 1565 1875 2500 3125 3750 4375 880 1031 831 787 748 680 623 575 534 499 468 973 1176 1473 1765 2353 2941 3529 4118

1111 1391 1667 2222 2778 3333 3889

922 1053 1318 1579 2105 2632 3158 3684 876 1000 1252 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 796 730 674 626 584 548 515 909 1138 1364 1818 2273 2727 3182

833 1043 1250 1667 2083 2500 2917 769 714 667 625 588 556 526 500 476 963 1154 1538 1923 2308 2692

894 1071 1429 1786 2143 2500 835 1000 1333 1667 2000 2333 783 736 696 659 626 596 938 1250 1563 1875 2188 882 833 1176 1471 1765 2059 1111 1389 1667 1944

789 1053 1316 1579 1842 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 714 952 1190 1429 1667

The above table is calculated by Barlow's formula: P = 2t S O in which P is the internal pressure in PSI, t is wall thickness of tubing in inches, S is the fiber stress allowable in the tubing in PSI (a value of 10,000 PSI is used in the table), O is the outside diameter of the tubing in inches.

362

Piston Rod Column Strength

Long, slim piston rods may buckle if subjected to too heavy a push load. The table below suggests the minimum diameter piston rod to use under various conditions of load and unsupported rod length, and is to be used in accordance with the instructions in the next paragraph. There must be no side load or bending stress at any point along the rod. How to Use the Table. Exposed rod length is shown along the top of the table. This is usually somewhat longer than the actual stroke of the cylinder. The vertical scale, column 1, shows the load on the cylinder, and is expressed in English tons (1 ton = 2000 lbs.). If both the end of the rod and the FRONT end of the cylinder barrel are rigidly supported, a smaller rod will have sufficient column strength, and you may use, as Exposed Length of Piston Rod, one-half of the actual rod length. For example, if the actual length is 80, and if the cylinder barrel and rod end are supported as described, you could enter the table in the column marked 40. On the other hand if hinge mounting is used on both cylinder and rod (pin-to-pin), you may not be safe in using actual exposed rod length, and should use about twice the actual length. For example, if the actual length is 20, you should enter the table in the 40 column.

Minimum Piston Rod Diameter

Figures in body of chart are suggested minimum rod diameters, in inches. Exposed Length of Piston Rod, Inches Tons 1/2 3/4 1 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 10 13/16 15/16 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 20 5/8 11/16 3/4 7/8 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 40 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 70 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 80 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 100 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 120 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 6

CAUTION: Hinge mounted cylinders, when mounted horizontally or at any angle other than vertical, create a bending stress on the rod when extended, due to cylinder weight. On large bore and/or long stroke hinge mounted cylinders, the trunnion mounting rather than tang or clevis mounting should be used, and the trunnion should be located in a position which will balance the cylinder weight when extended.

363

Calculating Tie-Rod Stretch

The amount of stretch (elongation) in mechanical members under tension can be calculated very easily. The method described here can be applied to any structural member under stress. In fluid power design this might include the stretch in cylinder tie rods when the cylinder is mounted as in this illustration and subjected to internal fluid pressure, or when severe momentary shocks pass through hydraulic lines. It can be used to find the expected stretch in bolts holding a component to a manifold or holding SAE flange unions together or holding a pipe flange to the body of a hydraulic component. It can be used to estimate whether the tie rods or barrel of a foot mounted cylinder may distort under pressure, causing the piston to bind. Modulus of Elasticity for Common Metals (in Tension) Modulus of Elasticity, E Material 10,000,000 Aluminum 15,000,000 Brass 12,000,000 Cast iron, gray 17,000,000 Copper 6,500,000 Magnesium 26,000,000 Monel 30,000,000 Nickel 16,000,000 Phosphor bronze 30,000,000 Steel, carbon 28,000,000 Steel, stainless Formula for Calculating Elongation Elongation = (L F) (A E) In which L is length in inches; F is applied force in pounds; A is the cross section in square inches; and E is modulus of elasticity (from chart). Elongation will come out in inches. Calculation Example for Cylinder Tie Rods PROBLEM: Find the stretch in the tie rods of a 6 bore cylinder operating at 3000 PSI; it has 4 steel tie rods of 1 diameter and they are 27 long. SOLUTION: First, get all the facts assembled. The piston area of a 6 bore cylinder is 28.27 sq. in. The tie rods are the stressed members and each rod has a sectional area of 0.785 sq. in, or a total of 3.14 sq. in. for all rods combined. The stressing force is 3000 PSI 28.27 = 84,810 lbs. Modulus of elasticity is 30,000,000 (from chart). Now apply the formula: Elongation = (27 84,810) (3.14 30,000,000) = 0.0243 inches. How to Check for Over Stressing The stressed member will return to its normal length after the applied force has been removed provided it was not stressed beyond its elastic limit. To determine if a given force will over stress a structural member, take the force value, in lbs., and divide by the cross sectional area, in sq. inches, of the member. This will give the stress value in PSI (lbs. per sq. inch). Compare this with the elastic limit of the material as given in machine handbooks. As in all mechanical designs, a suitable factor of safety should be allowed. Pressure surges which pass through the system, even momentarily, may over stress and damage cylinders or other components. These surges may be generated when a 4-way valve shifts, when a hydraulic motor is suddenly stopped, when a hydraulic cylinder is allowed to decompress too rapidly, and by mechanical shocks or impacts against the cylinder piston transmitted from the load. The peak pressure of these surges can be determined by instrumentation. Sometimes they can be measured by a pressure gauge connected in series with a tight sealing check valve. The shock should be allowed to recur a dozen or so times before the gauge is read. The member can then be checked for over stressing as described above. Tie rods stretch from fluid pressure on cylinders Gathering Data Collect the following data and you will be ready to make a calculation: q, Length of stressed member, in inches. w Cross sectional area of the stressed member, in sq. inches. e Total applied force, in lbs. r Modulus of elasticity of stressed member material from chart or from a machine handbook. There are two moduli of elasticity. One for torsion, the other for tension. Be sure to use the one for tension. Since the modulus of elasticity is only a ratio, it has no units.

364

Designing with Cylinders

Standard catalog cylinder models are not designed to take any appreciable side load on the piston rod. They must be mounted so the rod is not placed in a bind at any part of the stroke. If the direction of the load changes during the stroke, hinge mounting must be used on both the rod end and the rear end. Use guides on the mechanism, if necessary, to assure that no side load is transmitted to the cylinder rod or piston.

Rod Buckling
Column failure or buckling of the rod may occur if the cylinder stroke is too long relative to the rod diameter. The exact ratio of rod length to rod diameter at which column failure will occur cannot be accurately calculated, but the Piston Rod Column Strength table in this manual shows suggested safe ratios for normal applications.

Tension and Compression Failures

All standard cylinders have been designed with sufficiently large piston rods so failure will never occur either in tension Rod bearing failures usually occur when the cylinder is at maximum extension, and occur more often on hinge or trunnion mount cylinders, in which the rear support point is located considerably behind the rod bearing. If space permits, it is wise to order cylinders with longer stroke than actually required, and not permit the piston to approach close to the front end while under full load. or compression, provided the cylinder is operated within the manufacturers pressure rating.

Rod Bearing Failure

Stop Collar
On those applications where it is necessary to let the piston bottom out on the front end, the cylinder may be ordered with a stop collar. The stop collar should be especially considered on long strokes if the distance between supports exceeds 10 times the rod diameter, if the maximum thrust is required at full extension, and if the cylinder has rear flange, clevis, tang, or trunnion mounting.

Cranes and Beams

Since the working angles on a crane are constantly changing, it may be necessary to construct a rough model out of a sheet of paper, to exact scale, with cardboard arms and thumbtack hinge pins. This will show the point at which the greatest cylinder thrust is needed. An exact calculation can then be made for this condition. Only that part of the cylinder thrust which is at right angles to the beam axis is effective for turning the beam. This can be calculated by the method shown elsewhere in this manual. For heavy beams, the beam weight will have to be considered in the calculations.
F2=2500LBS.

F1=7500 LBS.

15

FE

ET

45

35 36
LBS. F=15,000 LBS.

FE

ET

30

45

365

EXAMPLE: (Crane calculation using the figure on preceding page). Starting with a cylinder thrust, F, of 15,000 lbs., find the maximum load that can be lifted by the crane when the angles are as shown. First, translate the 15,000 lbs. into F1, 7500 lbs. at right angles to the beam using a power factor of 0.500 from the table on the next page, for a 30 angle. Next, translate this to F2, 2500 lbs. at the end of the beam where the weight is suspended. This is done with simple proportion by the length of each arm from the base pivot point. F2 is a third of F1 since the lever arm is 3 times as long. Next, find the maximum hanging load that can be lifted, at a 45 angle between beam and load weight, using a power factor for 450: 2500 lbs 0.707 = 3535 lbs.

Calculations for a Heavy Beam

5 FEET 21/2 FT 9 FEET 71/2 FEET CG1 CG2 15 FEET

150 LBS. PER FOOT

500 LBS

750 LBS BEAM WEIGHT

FULCRUM

2250 LBS BEAM WEIGHT

CYLINDER

On heavy beams it is necessary to calculate not only for concentrated loads such as the suspended weights and cylinder thrust, but to figure in the weight of the beam itself. If the beam is uniform, so many pounds per foot of length, the calculation is relatively easy. In the example above the beam has a uniform weight of 150 lbs. per foot, is partially counterbalanced by a weight of 500 lbs. on the left side of the fulcrum, and must be raised by the force of a cylinder applied at a point 9 feet from the right side of the fulcrum. The best method of solution is to use the principle of moments. A moment is a torque force consisting of so many pounds applied at a lever distance of so many feet or inches. The solution here is to find how much cylinder thrust is needed to just balance the beam. Then, by increasing the hydraulic cylinder thrust about 5 to 10% to take care of friction losses, the cylinder would be able to raise the beam. Using the principle of moments, it is necessary to calculate all of the moment forces which are trying to turn the beam clockwise, then calculate all the moment forces trying to turn the beam counter-clockwise, then subtract the two. In this case they must be equal to balance the beam. Clockwise moment due to the 15 feet of beam on the right side of the fulcrum: This can be considered as a concentrated weight acting at its center of gravity 7 feet from the fulcrum. Moment = 150 (lbs. per foot) 15 feet 7 feet = 16,875 foot pounds. Counter-clockwise moment due to the 5 feet of beam on the left side of the fulcrum: 160 (lbs. per foot) 5 feet 2 feet (CG distance) = 1875 foot pounds. Counter-clockwise moment due to hanging weight of 500 pounds: 500 5 feet = 2500 foot lbs. Subtracting counter-clockwise from clockwise moments: 16,875 1875 2500 = 12,500 foot pounds that must be supplied by the cylinder for balance condition. To find cylinder thrust: 12,500 foot pounds 9 feet (distance from fulcrum) = 1388.8 pounds. Remember when working with moments, that only the portion of the total force which is at right angles to the beam is effective as a moment force. If the beam is at an angle to the cylinder or to the horizontal, then the effective portion of the concentrated or distributed weight and the cylinder thrust can be calculated with the power factors on the next page.

366

Cylinder Working at an Angle

To find the effective force exerted by a cylinder pushing at an angle to the machine travel.
Cylinder thrust, F, is horizontal in this figure. Only that portion, T, which is at right angles to the lever axis is effective for turning the lever. The value of T varies with the acute angle A between the cylinder and lever axis.
EFFECTIVE THRUST CYLINDER THRUST HINGE MOUNT CYLINDER ANGLE A LEVER ARM

Angle A Degrees 5 10 15 20 25 30

Pwr. Factor (sin A) 0.087 0.174 0.259 0.342 0.423 0.500

Angle A Degrees 35 40 45 50 55 60

Pwr. Factor (sin A) 0.573 0.643 0.707 0.766 0.819 0.867

Angle A Degrees 65 70 75 80 85 90

Pwr. Factor (sin A) 0.906 0.940 0.966 0.985 0.996 1.000

EXAMPLE: A 4 bore cylinder working at 750 PSI will develop a 9425 lb. force (12.56 sq. in. area 750). Effective force T when working at a 65 angle is: 9425 0.906 (from above table) = 8539 lbs.

To find the cylinder stroke for operating a hinged lever, using the chord factor method.
If the cylinder is rotating the lever to an STROKE equal angle each side of the perpendicular as in this figure, the length of stroke can easily be determined by multiplying the lever ANGLE A length (pin-to-pin) times the chord factor HINGE MOUNT CYLINDER from the table below. If the movement is L unequal on each side of the perpendicular, the stroke may be determined by the method on the next page. A cylinder which operates any hinged device must be free to swing with the motion. It should have a hinge mounting on both the rod end and blind end, or have trunnion mountings. The slot in the rod clevis must be deep enough so the lever cannot touch bottom on extreme angular movements. Angle A Chord Degrees Factor 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0.087 0.174 0.261 0.347 0.433 0.518 0.601 0.684 Angle A Chord Degrees Factor 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 0.765 0.845 0.923 1.000 1.075 1.147 1.217 1.286 Angle A Chord Degrees Factor 85 90 86 100 105 110 115 120 1.351 1.414 1.475 1.532 1.587 1.638 1.687 1.732 Angle A Chord Degrees Factor 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 1.774 1.813 1.848 1.879 1.907 1.932 1.953 1.970

EXAMPLE: Cylinder stroke needed to swing a 14 lever through a 105 arc, when mounted as in this figure, is found by taking the factor 1.587 from the table times 14 lever length = 22.218 stroke. Many times a stock cylinder with a standardized stroke length can be used by lengthening or shortening the lever arm for the desired travel.

367

To find the cylinder stroke for operating a hinged lever, using the scale layout method.
In all cases a sketch should be made, showing EXT the length and angular END ED L travel of the lever and ENG TH showing the mounting RETRACTED LENGTH position of the cylinder. If desired, an exact mathematical solution can be worked out. In many cases it is more practical to lay out all parts to exact scale, either to HINGE MOUNT full or reduced size, and CYLINDER measure the stroke. Pin-topin centers on the proposed cylinder can be obtained from catalogs or from the manufacturer. A ruler, tape, or scale can be used to measure the distance from the cylinder rear hinge to the starting and ending points of the lever travel. These will be the retracted and extended cylinder lengths. The travel of the cylinder piston (stroke) will be the difference between these two measurements. It may be necessary to experiment with different hinge point locations until the best mounting position for the cylinder can be determined. As a matter of interest, for a given amount of angular travel, the longest cylinder stroke is required when the cylinder is mounted at right angles to the lever center position as on the preceding page. All other cylinder mounting positions will use a shorter stroke.

Toggle Mechanism Operated with a Cylinder

For operations such TOGGLE as coining and marking FORCE requiring exact depth control, and requiring very high force for a short distance, the toggle lever system is useful. In this figure, cylinder thrust is horizontal and CYLINDER THRUST toggle force is taken off vertically. Bearings at each end of the toggle lever must B be closely fitted and heavy HINGE MOUNT CYLINDER A enough to carry the full thrust of the toggle. Toggle force can be calculated with the following formula, with T and F in the same units and A and B in the same units. Note that dimension A is not the lever length, but for high leverage toggle calculations can be used as lever length, with only a small error, since the lever is nearly vertical. T (Toggle Force) = F (Cylinder Thrust) A 2B

EXAMPLE: Find the toggle force from a cylinder thrust of 5600 lbs., if the toggle lever is 15 long and is 1/2 from vertical (distance B). SOLUTION: [5600 15] [2 0.5] = 84,000 lbs. This is a multiplication of 15 times the direct cylinder thrust. The remaining travel distance of the toggle arm at any point in the cylinder stroke is twice the difference between Distance A and the true length, pin-to-pin, of the toggle arm. Distance A can be found by geometry or from a scale layout.

368

Square Head Cylinder Sizes

When ordering a replacement cylinder it is important to be sure that not only the bore diameter, but the rod diameter as well, is the same as the original cylinder. Incorrect rod diameter can cause such troubles as loss of speed or force on the return stroke, pressure intensification in the rod end (hydraulic cylinders) which can damage the cylinder or other circuit components, and loss of force in the forward direction of a cylinder used in a regenerative circuit. Tables on this page show square head cylinder bore and rod diameter combinations adopted as standard by the 40 or more manufacturers who supply most of the cylinders manufactured in the U.S.A. Data in these tables were taken from ANSI (American National Standards Institute) Standard B93.8-1968. Write to NFPA (National Fluid Power Association), 3333 N. Mayfair Rd Milwaukee WI 53222 for a listing of available standards. In both of these tables, standard bore diameters are shown in the first column on the left. Standard rod diameter for each bore size is shown in the second column. This is usually the smallest rod available for each bore. In the last column on the right the largest rod for each bore is shown. Except in the sizes shown with an asterisk, these largest rods have approximately one-half the area of the piston, and are called 2:1 ratio rods. Oversize rods for each bore are shown in the center columns of the tables. If a larger than standard rod is needed for structural strength, one of these oversize diameters may be specified. Bore and rod diameters other than listed in the tables are considered special.

Pneumatic & Light-Duty Hydraulic Cylinders

Square-Head Type Bore Diam. 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.25 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 Diam. Stand. Rod 0.625 0.625 0.625 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.375 1.375 1.750 2.000 2.500 Largest Rod (2:1) 1.000 1.375 1.750 2.000 2.500 3.500 4.000 5.500 5.500* 5.500* 5.500*

Oversize Rod Diameters Available ---1.000 1.000 1.375 1.375 1.375 1.750 1.750 2.000 2.500 3.000 ------1.375 1.750 1.750 1.750 2.000 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 ------------2.000 2.000 2.500 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 ---------------2.500 3.000 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 ---------------3.000 3.500 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 ---------------------4.000 4.500 5.000 ------------------------4.500 5.000 -------

*Largest rod normally used in bores over 8. These are not 2:1 ratio.

Heavy-Duty Hydraulic Cylinders

Square-Head Type Bore Diam. 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.25 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 Stand. Diam. Rod 0.625 1.000 1.000 1.375 1.750 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 Largest Rod (2:1) 1.000 1.375 1.750 2.000 2.500 3.500 4.000 5.000 5.500

------1.375 1.750 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000

Oversize Rod ------------------------------3.000 ---3.500 ---4.000 4.500 4.500 5.000

Diameters Available -------------------------------------------------------

Other NFPA Mounting Styles

Standard NFPA mounting styles are designated on page 370. Other styles as listed below may also be available from some cylinder manufacturers. MS1 MSS MS6 MF3 MF4 ME1 ME2 ME3 Side End Angles Through Holes End Plates Rod End Circular Flange Blind End Circular Flange Rod End Circular Cap Blind End Circular Cap Rod End Square Cap ME4 MR1 MR2 MT3 MP2 MP3 MP4 Blind End Square Cap Rod End Male Rabbet Rod End Female Rabbet Intermediate Fixed Trunnion Blind End Detachable Clevis Blind End Fixed Eye Blind End Detachable Eye

369

NFPA Mounting Styles

(Listed by National Fluid Power Association and ANSI)
ME3 ME4

D Double Rod Cylinder

ME3 Head Square Flange ME4 Cap Square Flange

MF1 Head Rectangular Flange

MF2 Cap Rectangular Flange

MF5 Head Square Flange

MF6 Cap Square Flange

MP1 Fixed Clevis

MP2 Detachable Clevis

MS1 Side End Angles

MS2 Side Lugs

MS3 Centerline Lugs

MS4 Side Tapped

MS7 Side End Lugs

MT1 Head Trunnion

MT2 Cap Trunnion

MT4 Intermediate Fixed Trunnion

MU3 Universal Clevis

MX1 Tie Rods Extended

370

Regenerative Circuit Design

A regenerative circuit is sometimes employed to cause a cylinder to advance more rapidly than it could with pump oil flow alone. It can only be used to increase speed in the extension, never the retraction direction. The basic principle of regeneration is to connect the rod end of a cylinder to its blind end, by means of suitable valving, so the oil which normally would be discharged to tank from the rod end will join with the pump oil. This causes the cylinder to advance at an increased rate of speed. This diagram is not a working circuit. It shows the regenerative principle. Actual working circuits are shown on the next page.

A B PF

Calculations for Regenerative Circuits

Cylinder Force. Since equal pressure is applied to both sides of the piston, the net force developed by the rod will be the same as if the pressure were applied only to the rod area. Force = PSI Square Inch area of rod. Cylinder Speed. Since return oil from the rod end fills an equivalent volume on the blind side of the piston, the pump volume only fills a space equivalent to the rod volume. To calculate rod speed, find the pump volume in cubic inches per minute and divide by the rod square inch area. This gives piston travel speed in inches per minute. Oil Flow Volume. First, calculate rod speed (see above). To find the oil flow at point A in the above circuit, calculate the amount of oil flow necessary to cause the piston to travel at your calculated rod speed. This will be speed (inches per minute) piston area (square inches). Convert to GPM by dividing by 231 (1 gallon = 231 cubic inches). To find the oil flow at Point B take the above result and subtract the pump flow from it. Sample Calculation. Assume a pump pressure of 1200 PSI, a pump volume of 8 GPM, a piston diameter of 10 inches, and a rod diameter of 7 inches. Force is 38.49 (square inches rod area) 1200 PSI = 46,188 lbs. Speed is 8 GPM 231 (cubic inches per gallon) 38.49 square inches = 48 inches per minute. Oil flow at A is 48 78.54 (piston area) 231 = 16.32 GPM. Oil flow at B is 16.32 8 GPM (from pump) = 8.32 GPM.

Design Notes on Regenerative Circuits

1. In regeneration, the force produced will be equal to that produced by pump pressure working on the area covered by the rod. The remainder of the piston area is cancelled by an equal and opposing area on the rod side. 2. If and when the full force of the cylinder is required, the rod end must be disconnected from the blind end and connected to tank. The circuits on the next page show valving for accomplishing this. 3. Regeneration is used mainly with big rod cylinders, especially 2:1 (piston to rod area ratio). If used with small rod cylinders, the extending speed is too great, the force is too small, and the return speed too slow. 4. When a 2:1 ratio cylinder is retracting, discharge oil from the blind end is twice the pump flow. Select suitable valving to handle this flow. 5. With 2:1 ratio cylinders, as used in regenerative circuits, pressure intensification occurs in the rod end during the forward stroke if the discharge oil is restricted or blocked. Install a safety relief valve in the rod end if intensification could endanger the cylinder or the piping. 6. The regenerative portion of the cycle is usually for moving the machine part rapidly into working position, and the actual force required is relatively small. Therefore, it is permissible, and good practice, to allow the oil velocity to be high in the valving and piping. The high pressure drops developed will not be harmful, and considerable expense can be saved by using smaller components and piping than would ordinarily be considered good practice in more conventional circuits. 7. Because large rod cylinders are used in regenerative circuits, the oil level in the reservoir will fluctuate more than it normally would for small rod cylinders. Be sure the reservoir has sufficient capacity so the level will not fall dangerously low as the cylinder extends.

371

Regenerative Circuit Examples

NOTE: Circuits on this page are limited to bare essentials of the regenerative valving, with pump, relief valve, and other circuit components omitted. See page 404 for a regenerative circuit used with accumulators. Shifting the 4-way valve, V1, to position V1 4-WAY 1 causes the cylinder to start extending. It 1 VALVE is in regeneration because rod oil passes 2 through check valve V3 and joins the pump V2 oil to the blind end of the cylinder. The circuit 3 stays in regeneration until or unless work resistance builds sufficient pressure on the V3 pilot of valve V4 to cause it to shift. Rod oil then goes to tank and the circuit becomes non-regenerative and capable of developing V4 PRES. full tonnage. Shifting the 4-way valve, V1, to position 3 causes the cylinder to retract, and pump oil to pass through check valve V2. Valve V4 with no pilot pressure, closes preventing pump oil from bypassing to tank. To prevent the cylinder dropping by gravity, a counterbalance valve may be added at X. V4 must be a spool-type valve which can throttle flow better than a poppet type valve. A pilotoperated check valve does not work well here. Directional valve V1 has a closed center spool. It may have any other spool type in which both cylinder ports are blocked from the inlet in the center, such as a tandem center spool for unloading the pump. In this variation of the circuit above, valve V1 is a standard 4-way valve with CYL 2 port plugged and CYL 1 port connected to the cylinder. V3 is a 1/4 inch sequence valve with an internal free flow check valve. It must be connected for internal pilot, external drain. V2 is a standard 4-way, pilot-operated type valve with CYL 2 port plugged. Its capacity may be only one half that of V1.

1 V3 2 3

V1

V2

PRES.

This circuit gives an operator solenoid control of regenerative forward, reverse, or stop at any point in the cylinder stroke. For regenerative forward, solenoids SOL1 and SOL3 should be energized. For normal forward, only solenoid SOL1 is energized. For retract, solenoids SOL2 and SOL4 are energized. De-energize all solenoids to stop. A counterbalance valve may be added at X if needed. A pressure switch connected to the blind end port will provide an automatic changeover from regeneration to normal forward.

V1 1 2 V2 3 V3 V4

4-WAY VALVE

PRES.

CAUTION: Use a holding relay, in association with the pressure switch, wired to take the pressure switch out of the circuit for the remainder of the cycle once the pressure switch has tripped. Otherwise, a condition of hunting will occur during the period of changeover. A limit switch may be mounted to be actuated by the cylinder at a given point in its stroke, to change the circuit from regeneration to normal forward. The spool of V1 has both cylinder ports V1 4-WAY connected to pressure in the center position. This 1 VALVE is the regenerative position. The side positions of 2 V1 are normal extend and retract. If the cylinder must be stopped in mid stroke, V2 must be V2 3 installed. If a counterbalance valve is needed, install it at X. NOTE: A 4-way valve with a spool V3 type as shown usually has about 1/2 the rated flow capacity when in the center position.

V4

PRES.

372

Synchronizing Several Cylinders

V3 V4
The best way to synchronize two or more cylinders is by mounting the cylinders so that they are mechanically yoked together with a rigid machine member. If this is not possible, cylinders can be synchronized with a degree of error by equally dividing the oil flow between the cylinders. Oil may be divided with a pair of pressure compensated flow regulators. One valve is placed in each cylinder line to meter discharge oil. Install valves with flow arrow pointing away from cylinder. These valves meter to an accuracy of 5% to 10%. The pump operates continuously at relief valve setting. The possibility of overheating of the oil should be considered. Order flow regulators in matched sets. Pump GPM must be slightly greater than combined flow to cylinders. Pilot-operated check valves, V7 and V8, prevent transfer of oil from one cylinder to another if cylinders are stopped in mid stroke. To increase efficiency, put check valves around the regulators for free flow in the opposite direction.

V1

V2

V7

V8

V5

V6

PF

Caution! This type of circuit should not be used with manual 4-way valves (They could be throttled by the operator), nor used on structures where structure weight would shift toward one cylinder if the cylinders should get out of synchronization.

Two pumps or a double pump may be used to supply each cylinder. Accuracy is 5% to 15% with gear or vane type pumps, greater with piston pumps. 4-way valves may be tied together if desired. Using manual lever valves, the cylinders can be jockeyed if necessary. The cylinders must be bottomed out at the end of each cycle to correct position errors due to unequal oil flow or unequal leakage in the cylinder or valves.

PF

PF

V4 V1 75 PSI

V2 CYL2

SW PF V3 CYL1

A Series Circuit is cylinders connected in series, with out-going oil from one cylinder entering the next. Cylinders must have double end rods. Leakage oil must be replenished at the end of each cycle to avoid cumulative position errors. This is done with a cam or solenoid valve de-actuated at the end of each cycle.

A flow divider/combiner, pressure compensated valve divides the oil into two equal streams for cylinder extension, and combines equal flows for retraction. Accuracy is 3% to 10% depending on load unbalance, oil volume, and working pressure. Pilot-operated check valves, V4 and V5, prevent oil transfer between cylinders if V2 is centered to stop the cylinders in mid stroke.

V1 V3 PF

V4 V5

V2

373

Cylinder Speed Control

The speed of an air cylinder or that of a hydraulic cylinder supplied from a positive displacement pump may be regulated by metering the flow either in series or in shunt with the cylinder. The circuits below show series metering controls connected either to meter fluid into or out-of a cylinder. Meter-out circuits are preferred in the majority of cases except where the build up of pressure behind the control might interfere with proper operation of a sequence valve, a pressure switch or similar device. A flow control valve is any type of throttling valve, with or without a return check valve, and either pressure compensated or non-compensated.

FLOW CONTROL AIR IN EX.

Meter-Out Control

FLOW CONTROL AIR IN

Meter-In Control

Series Control Locations

Series-Type Speed Control

Series speed controls may be installed at w and e, connected either as meter-in or meter-out devices, and bypassed with check valves as shown. This gives individual adjustment of speed in either direction. Or a single control at q will give meter-in control in both directions. For the same speed valve setting, hydraulic cylinder speed will be faster while retracting because of the cubic volume displaced by the cylinder rod.

Bypass Type Speed Control
Shunt, or bypass control, is shown above. Unwanted oil is shunted directly back to reservoir, either with individual valves at w and e for individual control in each direction, or with one valve at q, for controlling both directions of movement.

Bypass Control Locations

Dual Air Exhaust Controls

Most air valves have two exhaust ports, one for each direction of motion of the cylinder. A very simple and effective control of speed is obtained by installing a needle valve into each exhaust port. This gives individual control of speed in each direction.

AIR IN

374

Counterbalance Valve Technical Information

The basic purpose of counterbalance valves is to convert overrunning, or negative loads into positive loads so that directional control valves always see a positive load. This provides for safety of the machine and operator. In Figure 1, when the directional control valve shifts C1 to lower the load, that load V1 starts to fall out of control as gravity takes over. The load PF may fall faster than oil can be supplied by the pump and a vacuum will be create behind Load the piston. This could draw air through the pump into the blind Figure 1 end of the cylinder. By adding a counterbalance valve as shown in Figure 2 C1 to the circuit, we now have a V1 smooth and shockless way of slowly lowering a heavy load. PF Sun counterbalance valves are available in 3:1, 4.5:1 and V2 10:1 operating ratios. This Load ratio determines the amount V3 of pilot pressure required to open the by-pass valve and Figure 2 allow the load to lower. Figure 3 shows the formula that calculates the amount of pilot pressure required to open the counterbalance valve. In general, lower pilot ratios provide better motion control and stability, especially in spongy systems and in systems with high inertial loads. High pilot ratios generally provide adequate control of motors, although hydraulically released brakes should still be used to lock static loads due to motor leakage. High pilot ratios also improve system efficiency through lower heat generation, but sometimes at the cost of stability and motion control. High ratios may also be required in systems with very high load induced pressures. The valve shown in Figure 2 is an internally and externally piloted valve. The external pilot provides the signal required to open the counterbalance, while the internal pilot provides the smooth, shockless lowering of massive loads. When external piloting is used, all of the pump pressure is available when working against static loads. The counterbalance valve may be drained either externally or internally. However, external draining is preferred, especially if there are filters, heat exchangers, or other components in the tank return line which could cause back pressure. With external draining, the spool of the counterbalance valve will already be in correct counterbalancing position at the moment the directional valve is shifted. The counterbalance valve setting should be 1.3 times the load induced pressure and this setting should be made on a test stand if possible. P = Pilot pressure required to Lower Load L = Load induced pressure S = Setting of the valve PR = Pilot ratio of valve CR = Cylinder area ratio Figure 3

S-L P= PR + CR

375

Horsepower to Drive a Pump

Figures in the body of this table show the horsepower needed to drive a hydraulic pump having an efficiency of 85%. Most positive displacement pumps fall in the range of 80% to 90% efficiency, so this chart should be accurate to within 5% for nearly any pump. The table was calculated from the formula: HP = PSI GPM (1714 0.85). For pumps with other than 85% efficiency, this formula can be used, substituting actual efficiency in place of 0.85.

Using the Table

The range of 500 to 5000 PSI covers most hydraulic systems, but power requirements can be determined for conditions outside the table, or for intermediate values, by combining values in the table; For example, power at 4000 PSI will be exactly twice the figures shown for 2000 PSI. At 77 GPM, power will be the sum of the figures shown in the 75 and 2 GPM lines, etc. For systems of less than 500 PSI, horsepower calculations tend to become inaccurate because mechanical friction losses reduce pump efficiency.

Rule Of Thumb
Approximate power requirements can be figured with simple mental arithmetic with this rule-of-thumb: 1 HP is required for each 1 GPM @ 1500 PSI For example, a 5 GPM pump operating at 1500 PSI would need 5 HP, or at 3000 would need 10 HP. A 10 GPM pump at 1000 PSI would need 6 HP, or the same pump operating at 1500 PSI would need 10 HP, etc. Another rule-of-thumb states that about 5% of the pump maximum rated horsepower is required to idle that pump when it is unloaded and the oil is circulating at zero PSI. This amount of power is consumed in flow losses plus mechanical friction losses in bearings and pumping elements.

Figures in table are HPs required to drive a hydraulic pump

GPM 1/2 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 500 PSI .172 .343 .515 .686 .858 1.03 1.20 1.37 1.72 2.06 2.40 2.75 3.09 3.43 4.12 5.15 6.86 8.58 10.3 12.0 13.7 15.4 17.2 18.9 20.6 22.3 24.0 25.7 27.5 29.2 30.9 32.6 34.3 750 PSI .257 .515 .772 1.03 1.29 1.54 1.80 2.06 2.57 3.09 3.60 4.12 4.63 5.15 6.18 7.72 10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0 20.6 23.2 25.7 28.3 30.9 33.5 36.0 38.6 41.2 43.8 46.3 48.9 51.5 1000 PSI .343 .686 1.03 1.37 1.72 2.06 2.40 2.75 3.43 4.12 4.80 5.49 6.18 6.86 8.24 10.3 13.7 17.2 20.6 24.0 27.5 30.9 34.3 37.8 41.2 44.6 48.0 51.5 54.9 58.3 61.8 65.2 68.6 1250 PSI .429 .858 1.29 1.72 2.14 2.57 3.00 3.43 4.29 5.15 6.00 6.86 7.72 8.58 10.3 12.9 17.2 21.4 25.7 30.0 34.3 38.6 42.9 47.2 51.5 55.8 60.0 64.3 68.6 72.9 77.2 81.5 85.8 1500 PSI .515 1.03 1.54 2.06 2.57 3.09 3.60 4.12 5.15 6.18 7.21 8.24 9.27 10.3 12.4 15.4 20.6 25.7 30.9 36.0 41.2 46.3 51.5 56.6 61.8 66.9 72.1 77.2 82.4 87.5 92.7 97.8 103 1750 PSI .600 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 6.00 7.21 8.41 9.61 10.8 12.0 14.4 18.0 24.0 30.0 36.0 42.0 48.0 54.1 60.0 66.1 72.1 78.1 84.1 90.1 96.1 102 108 114 120 2000 PSI .686 1.37 2.06 2.75 3.43 4.12 4.80 5.49 6.86 8.24 9.61 11.0 12.4 13.7 16.5 20.6 27.5 34.3 41.2 48.0 54.9 61.8 68.6 75.5 82.4 89.2 96.1 103 110 117 124 130 137 2500 PSI .858 1.72 2.57 3.43 4.29 5.15 6.00 6.86 8.58 10.3 12.0 13.7 15.4 17.2 20.6 25.7 34.3 42.9 51.5 60.0 68.6 77.2 85.8 94.4 103 112 120 129 137 146 154 163 172 3000 PSI 1.03 2.06 3.09 4.12 5.15 6.18 7.21 8.24 10.3 12.4 14.4 16.5 18.5 20.6 24.7 30.9 41.2 51.5 61.8 72.1 82.4 92.7 103 113 124 134 144 154 165 175 185 196 206 5000 PSI 1.72 3.43 5.15 6.86 8.58 10.3 12.0 13.7 17.2 20.6 24.0 27.5 30.9 34.3 41.2 51.5 68.6 85.8 103 120 137 154 172 189 206 223 240 257 275 292 309 326 343

376

Three-phase Electric Motors

For most in-plant hydraulic systems, the preferred electric motor is the squirrel cage induction motor, 3-phase NEMA Design B (normal torque). They may be used at full nameplate HP ratings under correct environmental conditions as listed below. In fact, under ideal environmental conditions most motors of this type can be operated 10% to 15% above their nameplate rating without heating enough to be detrimental to the motor. Ideal environmental conditions are: 1. In a surrounding air temperature no lower than 50F and no higher than 104F. Special motors may be required outside this range, or a standard motor must be derated. Consult motor manufacturer. 2. Operation at altitudes less than 3300 feet. They will overheat at higher elevations unless de-rated. 3. They must be mounted in the open, where there is a free circulation of air around the housing. Overloading 3-Phase Motors. If running under ideal environmental conditions, an induction motor can be overloaded for short periods. The rule-of-thumb for the amount of overloading is: overload time should not be more than 10% of the total running time, and the amount of overload should not exceed 25% above the nameplate rating. Motors designed for 60 Hz (cycles per second) operation may sometimes be used on 50 Hz, for example, if permitted by the manufacturer, but in every case must be de-rated to a lower horsepower. The speed of a motor on 50 Hz will be 5/6 of its speed on 60 Hz.

Single-phase Electric Motors

Although single-phase motors are built to 20 HP, they are not often used to drive hydraulic pumps except on systems which must operate from a wall outlet, limited to 1 HP, usually 115 volts. If 3-phase power is available at 230 volts, it is usually preferred, especially at levels over 1 HP. Overloading Single-Phase Motors. Their overload capacity varies widely with type. A capacitor start motor is usually preferred, and gives starting and overload torque comparable to a 3-phase motor. Other single-phase motors, the capacitor start and run type for example, may not deliver sufficient overload torque to accommodate short periods of overload in the hydraulic circuit. Before selecting a single-phase motor, consult your electric motor representative.

Reversing Electric Motor Rotation

Rotation is usually specified on an electric motor when viewing the end opposite the shaft. To reverse the direction of rotation of a 3-phase motor, any two of the three wires either in the line side or load side of the motor starter may be interchanged. If the motor is moved to a new location and rewired it must again be checked for correct rotation. Rotation of single-phase motors is accomplished by reversing the polarity of the rotor winding with respect to the stator winding, and this is done by reconnection inside the motor junction box.

Horsepower for Engine Drives

The horsepower required to drive a pump is the same for any kind of power source. The chart on page 390 is just as applicable to engine drive as to electric motor drive. However, there are other factors to be considered when selecting an engine with sufficient horsepower. The catalog HP rating of an engine is usually given at optimum speed condition which may or may not be the desired speed for the hydraulic pump. A HP graph should be obtained from the engine manufacturer in order to determine the actual HP output at the desired pump speed. It may be necessary to belt drive from engine to pump to allow each unit to operate at its most efficient speed. An engine will lose compression with age and its HP output will decrease. It is hard to predict the amount of power loss, but on the original design it would be well to over-power the engine by 10 to 25%. An engine will develop less HP at higher elevations. If the installation is more than a few hundred feet above sea level, it would be well to consult the engine manufacturer as to the amount it should be derated in power. While an electric motor can tolerate short severe overloads without stalling, and can operate at sustained overloads at a level slightly above its nameplate rating, an engine does not have the torque reserve, and may stall on overload pressure surges in the hydraulic system. For this reason the engine should have enough horsepower to handle peaks just as if these peaks were to be sustained continuously. Thus, the horsepower of an engine selected for a certain application may be considerably higher than the nameplate HP of an electric motor that could handle the same application.

377

Hydraulic Pump Unloading

All hydraulic systems, at least those larger than fractional horsepower size, should be designed in such a way that the pump(s) will be allowed to idle, or run in an unloaded condition during periods in the machine operation when the output actuators, cylinders or motors, are not working. If the pump is allowed to discharge across the system relief valve, under pressure, while the actuators are not working, the normal full system horsepower is being changed from fluid power energy into heat energy which is carried back into the oil reservoir by the returning oil. Thermometers placed at the inlet and outlet of the relief valve would show an increase of oil temperature as the oil passes through the valve. The penalties for failing to unload the pump during non-working periods are high consumption of input power from the electric power line or high fuel consumption of an engine. Life expectancy is reduced on all components which continue to run without being unloaded. The hydraulic pump, for example, is designed for (so many) hours of operation at full rating. A common design figure for many gear pumps is 3000 hours. In theory, at least, a gear pump could be worn out by operating it for 3000 hours across a relief valve at full pressure without the pump ever performing a minutes work. Overheating of the oil in the system is another penalty. Overheating chemically degrades the oil making it unfit for further service. It shortens the life on all soft seals in the entire system and increases the rate of wear in many components. Diagrams below and on the next page illustrate some of the ways that a hydraulic pump can be unloaded. In studying these systems remember that power flowing through the pipes in a hydraulic system consists of two components, pressure and flow. There can be no power in the pipes unless both pressure and flow are present. This works the other way around, too. The power level can be reduced to zero (pump unloaded) by reducing either the pressure or the flow to zero. It is not necessary to reduce both to zero at the same time. Some of the circuits shown unload the pump by reducing the pressure to zero. Other circuits maintain the pressure at full value but reduce the flow to zero.

Dump Valve
The simplest way to unload a pump is to by-pass the oil directly to tank by opening a 2-way manual valve. However, this method has limited use as the operator may forget to unload the pump when pressure is not required. A better way is to use a 2-way solenoid valve which is automatically operated with a limit switch. The switch may be placed so it is actuated by the machine at the end of a cycle and breaks current to the solenoid. For this type of circuit the solenoid valve should be a 2-way normally open type.

PF RELIEF

UNLOADING VALVE

RELIEF PF UNLOADING VALVE

Pilot Control Valve

This is essentially the same circuit as the dump valve except that a small (1/4 inch) unloading valve is capable of unloading a very large oil flow by dumping the pilot or RC connection of a large pilot-operated relief valve. The relief valve is sized to handle the volume of flow. The dump valve may be a manual 2-way type, or a 2-way normally open solenoid valve of miniature size.

Tandem Center 4-Way Valves

This system may be applied equally well to either TANDEM CENTER VALVES manual or solenoid 4-way valves, and for any number of such valves connected in series. However, the pressure losses may become high when more than 2 or 3 valves are used, and a pump capable of supplying sufficient pressure must be used to supply the losses. CAUTION: Some valves are not capable of handling full system pressure on their tank ports, and these should not be used in tandem circuits of more pump pressure than their tank port rating. Check manufacturers rating.

378

Low Pressure Unloading

This circuit may be used for counterbalancing V2 a press ram or cylinder against downward 100 PSI V1 drift due to gravity. The main circuit relief valve, V1, is set for the maximum required working pressure of the system. This valve is sized to handle the full pump flow. An PF auxiliary relief valve, V2, works on the vent V3 connection of V1, to reduce system pressure to a very low value when the control valve, V3, is shifted to retract the cylinder. V2 may be of miniature size, and because its outlet is connected to the blind end cylinder port instead of to tank, it is effective in reducing the setting of the main relief on the return stroke, and has no effect on the system pressure while the cylinder is extending.

Cam Valve Unloading

A cam may be placed on the cylinder rod or a part of the machine located so it will depress V1 V2 the roller on a cam PF valve when the cylinder V3 reaches the desired unloading position. The cam valve is a 2-way normally closed type, or a 4-way type, or unused ports that are plugged. When the directional valve, V2, is shifted to start the cylinder forward, the pump is automatically loaded to full pressure while the cylinder rod end is now vented to tank.

High Pressure Forward, Low Pressure Return

The system relief valve, V1, is set for the desired maximum pressure for the forward stroke, V1 and the auxiliary relief valve, V2, V3 PF is set for the minimum pressure which will retract the unloaded HIGH cylinder. When the cylinder PRES. V2 retracts and bottoms out, pump RELIEF flow discharges across V2. For circuits in which the cylinder is virtually at no load while retracting, this method will unload to a pressure low enough to minimize overheating of the oil.

LOW PRES. RELIEF

usually

Pressure Compensated Pump

Other circuits shown in this section unload a pump by Pressure allowing free oil flow at very low Compensated Pump or no pressure. Another method of unloading is to stop the oil flow. This is done by using a A B 4-way directional control valve which has a closed pressure port in center position, thus P T 4-Way reducing the oil flow and the Strainer Closed power level to zero. A pressure Center Valve compensated type of pump is required in this type of unloading. The compensator is usually a built-in part of the pump. It receives a pressure signal from the pump pressure line. When the system pressure builds up to a level set on the compensator adjustment, the compensator automatically reduces the pump displacement to zero, thus unloading the pump and the driving motor.

Hydraulic Cylinder

379

High-Low Hydraulic Circuits

Some hydraulic systems need high speed movement of the cylinder at low force up to the work, then a slow rate of travel at high force for feeding or pressing. Sometimes this requirement can be met with a 2pump high-low system in which both pumps supply oil at low pressure for rapid advance. When work resistance causes system pressure to rise, one pump is automatically unloaded, with its oil flow diverted to tank under no pressure, and the entire input drive power is used to drive the remaining low volume pump to a high force on the cylinder at a slow speed. This is the familiar 2pump HighLow System Design high-low system in which a high volume of oil is provided OUT for rapid cylinder advance by combining the flow from PF1 and PF2 while the system is PF1 MOTOR PF2 operating at low pressure. As UNLOADING system pressure rises due to VALVE HIGH HIGH RELIEF load resistance, an unloading VOL PRES VALVE point is reached where pump PF1 is automatically unloaded by a pressure signal to the pilot of the unloading valve, Item q. Then, after PF1 is unloaded, the entire motor horsepower can be applied to pump PF2, and can drive this pump to a high pressure level, although the cylinder speed will be less with this pump working alone. The unloading valve, Item q, is a spool-type by-pass valve connected for external pilot operation. The unloading point can be varied by adjusting it's knob. The unloading point is usually set at a pressure where maximum horsepower of the motor has been reached. The relief valve, Item w, is the circuit relief valve, and is adjusted for the maximum safe PSI of the system, or to the pressure at which the driving motor is loaded to its full HP rating when operating PF2 with PF1 unloaded. A pilot-operated type of relief valve is preferred. If the entire system is unloaded, at the end of each cycle by venting the relief valve, it will have to be large enough to pass the flow of both pumps. However, if the high-low circuit is to be unloaded through a tandem center 4-way valve, the relief valve can be smaller; large enough to pass the flow of PF2 only. The check valve isolates the two pumps so that the oil generated by PF2 cannot bleed off to tank when pump PF1 is unloaded. NOTE: The unloading or bypass action of the unloading valve should not be confused with relief valve action. A relief valve connected to pump PF1 would merely cause PF1 pressure to level off at the relief valve setting and not to unload. Because the unloading valve is externally piloted and receives its unloading pressure signal from the other pump, it can open wide and allow PF1 oil to flow unrestricted back to tank.

Efficient Design of High-Low System

Although not always possible, ideally the design should select the GPM rating of the two pumps so that maximum motor horsepower will be reached at the unloading point of PF1, and will also be reached when system pressure reaches a maximum with PF1 unloaded and PF2 working. This can be checked with the horsepower table on page 376. In figuring horsepower at the unloading point use the combined flow of both pumps. At the high pressure point use the GPM only of PF2, allowing HighLow System Design about 5% margin to take care of mechanical idling losses on OUT PF1 while unloaded. Unloading of the high volume pump, PF1, can be done by PF1 MOTOR PF2 a pressure switch connected UNLOADING to energize a 2-way normally VALVE HIGH HIGH RELIEF open solenoid valve when the VOL PRES VALVE set pressure is reached. A slow switch can be added to keep the high volume unloaded during set-up and testing of the machine. In slow operation only the volume of the high pressure pump is used with the other pump remaining unloaded. To be electrically failsafe, V1 solenoid valve should be spring returned to its normally open position.

380

Torque/HP/Speed Relations
This chart can be used to find the torque, horsepower or speed of any kind of drive (electric motor, hydraulic or pneumatic motor, engine, rotary actuator, etc.) if two of those three values are known. The chart is a tabular solution to the following basic formulas: To find Horsepower (HP), use the formula: HP = (T RPM) 5252 To find Torque in ft. lbs. (T), use the formula: T = (HP 5252) RPM To find Speed (RPM), use the formula: RPM = (HP 5252) T The figures in the body of the chart are torque values in foot/pound RPM (Revolutions Per Minute) HP 1/4 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1 2 3 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 100 13.1 17.5 26.3 39.4 52.5 78.8 105 158 263 394 525 788 1050 1313 1576 2100 2626 3131 3940 5250 6565 7878 10,500 13,130 500 2.63 3.50 5.25 7.87 10.5 15.7 21.0 31.5 52.5 78.8 105 158 210 263 315 420 523 630 788 1050 1313 1580 2100 2630 750 1.76 2.34 3.50 5.24 7.00 10.5 14.0 21.0 35.0 53.2 70.0 105 140 175 210 280 350 420 525 700 875 1050 1400 1750 1000 1.31 1.75 2.63 3.94 5.25 7.88 10.5 15.8 26.3 39.4 52.5 78.8 105 131 158 210 263 315 394 525 657 788 1050 1310 1200 1.10 1.46 2.20 3.28 4.38 6.56 8.76 13.1 22.0 32.8 43.8 65.6 87.6 110 131 175 220 262 328 438 548 656 876 1100 1500 .876 1.17 1.75 2.62 3.50 5.26 7.00 10.5 17.5 26.3 35.0 52.6 70.0 87.7 105 140 175 210 262 350 437 526 700 877 1800 .730 .972 1.46 2.18 2.92 4.38 5.84 8.76 14.6 21.8 29.2 43.8 58.4 73.0 87.4 116 146 175 218 292 364 438 584 730 2400 .548 .730 1.10 1.64 2.19 3.28 4.38 6.57 11.0 16.4 21.9 32.8 43.8 54.8 65.7 87.5 110 131 164 219 274 328 438 548 3000 .438 .584 .875 1.31 1.75 2.63 3.50 5.25 8.75 13.1 17.5 26.5 35.0 43.8 52.6 70.0 87.5 105 131 175 218 265 350 438 3600 .365 .486 .730 1.09 1.47 2.19 2.92 4.38 7.30 10.9 14.6 21.9 29.2 36.5 43.7 58.2 72.8 87.4 109 146 182 219 292 365

Pump and Motor Torque

This chart can be applied either to a hydraulic motor or pump. Figures in the chart are theoretical torque values, in foot pounds, required to turn the shaft of a hydraulic pump or that will be placed on the shaft of a hydraulic motor. Chart values were calculated from the formula: T = D PSI 24 Where: T is torque in foot pounds, D is displacement in cubic inches per revolution (C. I. R.), PSI is pressure across pump or motor, and = 3.14 The figures in the body of the chart are torque values in foot pounds GPM @ 1200 RPM 3 5 8 10 12 18 25 40 50 75 85 100 DISPL. C. I. R. 0.577 0.962 1.54 1.92 2.31 3.46 4.81 7.70 9.62 14.43 16.43 19.2 PSI 750 5.74 9.56 15.7 19.1 22.9 34.4 47.9 76.5 95.6 144 163 191 (Pounds Per Square Inch) 1000 1250 1500 2000 7.65 9.57 11.5 15.3 12.7 15.9 19.1 25.5 20.9 26.1 31.3 41.8 25.5 31.9 38.2 51.0 30.6 38.2 45.8 61.1 45.9 57.4 68.8 91.7 63.9 79.7 95.7 127 102 127 153 204 127 159 191 255 191 239 287 383 217 271 325 434 255 319 382 510

250 1.91 3.19 5.22 6.37 7.64 11.4 15.9 25.5 31.9 47.8 54.2 63.7

500 3.82 6.38 10.4 12.7 15.3 22.9 31.9 51.1 63.8 95.6 108 127

2500 19.1 31.9 52.2 63.7 76.4 115 159 255 319 478 542 637

3000 23.0 38.2 62.7 76.5 91.6 138 191 306 382 574 651 765

381

Mechanical Transmission Efficiency

A hydraulic motor coupled to a load through mechanical transmission items must have additional power to supply transmission losses. Values given below are average, and where calculations must be precise, efficiency ratings should be requested from the transmission item manufacturer. Losses must be figured progressively through each stage of mechanical transmission. For example: start with the final stage. Figure loss through this stage. Add the extra power required. Then proceed to the next stage upstream on the power flow. Figure extra power for this stage, add it to the total, then proceed to the next stage, etc., up to the driving motor or engine. The following chart shows typical efficiencies for various mechanical transmission items.

Typical Power Transmission Efficiencies

Machine V-belt drives Timing belt drives Poly-V or ribbed belt drives Flat belt drives, leather or rubber Nylon core Variable speed, spring loaded, wide range V-belt drives Compound drive Cam-reaction drive Helical gear reducer Single-stage Two-stage Worm gear reducer 10:1 ratio 25:1 ratio 60:1 ratio Roller chain Leadscrew, 60 deg helix angle Flexible coupling, shear-type Typical Efficiency 95% 98% 97% 98% 98% to 99% 80% to 90% 75% to 90% 95% 98% 96% 86% 82% 66% 98% 65% to 85% 99%+

382

Hydraulic Motor Circuits

These are partial circuits, illustrating some of the ways hydraulic motors can be connected and controlled. Each circuit is condensed to its simplest form to illustrate one basic idea. These circuits can be combined with other hydraulic circuitry to make up a complete working circuit.

MF

MF

PRES.

V1

Parallel Motors Two identical motors connected in parallel will develop twice the torque and half the speed as one of these motors working from the same pump. Unless the motors are mechanically tied together in some way, more oil will go to the one with the lighter load. Sometimes flow splitting valves are used to divide the oil equally.

Series Motors Two identical motors in series will run approximately the same speed regardless of the difference in their loads. They will divide the pump pressure in proportion to the load on each. Make sure that motors used in a series circuit are capable of having both ports pressurized.

MF

MF

PRES.

V1

PRES.
Single-Direction Rotation A standard 4-way, 2-position valve is used to start and stop a hydraulic motor. In the stop position shown in the schematic, the motor can free wheel. That is, it can coast to a stop or be rotated manually while stopped. Also, in the stop position the pump is unloaded.

MF V1

Reversible Rotation Motor Direction of rotation is controlled with a standard 3-position, 4-way valve used in the same way as it would be used to control a double-acting cylinder. In center position the pump is unloaded to tank, and the motor can free wheel.

PRES. MF

V1

V1 V2 PRES. MF V3

Manual Throttle Braking Controlled braking by metering toward the center position of a manual valve. Reversible motor operation in valve side positions. V2 and V3 relief valves are used to absorb high pressure peaks if the 4-way valve should be

centered quickly. Surge Relief Circuit Similar to above circuit but with a single relief valve, V1, acting as a safety valve in both directions of rotation through a network of V2 shuttle valve, and V3 and V4 check valves.

V3 V4 V1 V2

MF

PRES. MF V1 V2
Relief Valve Braking Single-direction rotation, free wheeling in valve top position with V2 serving as the main circuit relief valve, and braking in other position with V2 acting as a brake

383

Series/Parallel Motors For vehicle wheel drive, two hydraulic motors may be used in series for fast speed, and in parallel for high torque, low speed. V2 is the speed shift, giving free wheeling in position 1 for towing. V1 is the directional control with pump unloading in center position. V3 is the system relief valve.

MF1 V3 PF V1 V2 MF2

V2

V3

V4

MF1

MF2

MF3

MF4

V1 PRES.

Four Motors in Series/Parallel

With V2, V3, and V4 in center position as shown, all four motors are in series. With these valves in left position, all motors are in parallel. With V2 and V4 centered and V3 in left position, MF1 is in series with MF2, MF3 is in series with MF4, and these groups are in parallel with each other. The right hand position of these valves is non-functional and should be mechanically blocked. This gives speed and torque ratios of 1, 2, or 4 without using any mechanical transmission components. V1 is the forward/reverse directional control for all motors. Over-Run Limiter Use this circuit to prevent a hydraulic motor from overrunning, as on a vehicle travelling downhill. V1 is a 2-way bypass valve, of spool-type construction preferably, connected for internal pilot, external drain operation.

PRES.

MF V1

Constant Motor Speed To keep Motor MF running at a constant speed, a small pump coupled to it generates pilot pressure across needle valve V2 to operate a 2-way bypass valve, V1. If the motor overspeeds, the higher pilot pressure generated causes V1 to bypass some oil, slowing the motor to normal speed.

PRES. MF PF

V1 PLT.

V2

PRES.

V2

MF

V1

V3

Controlling Large Motors A small 3-position valve, V1, controls a large single rotation motor. V2 and V3 are pilot-operated relief valves with vent connections. Center position of V1 is free wheeling, as V2 and V3 are both vented. Top position is the braking position with V2 vented and bypassing circuit oil to tank. Bottom position is the running position with brake valve V3 vented and V2 as circuit relief valve.

Conveyor Drives Modified series operation of 2 identical motors in which the second motor must run slightly faster than the first. Example: MF1 driving a feeding conveyor, MF2 driving a carry-off. V2 is a bypass type flow control with excess oil, shown in dashed line, plumbed back into the second motor inlet.

PRES. MF PF

V1 PLT.

V2

384

Hydraulic Motor Speed Control

Successful speed control of a hydraulic motor is more difficult than for hydraulic cylinders, because of the internal slippage present in all hydraulic motors. Slippage causes bad speed regulation resulting in a loss of speed as torque load is applied to the motor shaft. Slippage increases in direct proportion to system PSI (and motor torque) but remains about constant for all motor speeds. Slippage may affect motor performance only slightly at the high end of the range, but may cause it to stall on a slight increase of load when operating on the low end of the range. How well the motor will perform depends on several factors: the type, quality, and brand of the motor itself; the kind of speed control circuit which is selected; and on the type and accuracy of the flow control valve. Pressure compensated flow control valves are required in all of the circuits below except the final circuit in which a needle valve is used. Motor Type The type of motor should be selected on the basis of the adjustable speed range which must be covered: Mobile-type gear and vane motors may not be able to cover more than a 2:1 speed range with good performance. Industrial type gear and vane motors, being of higher quality, may be able to cover a 3:1 or 4:1 range. Piston motors should be used where more than a 4:1 range must be covered. They should be able to cover a 6:1 range with meter-in speed control, but can cover a wider range when the speed control valve is placed in the outlet where it will not be affected by internal slippage oil. Bypass Speed Control Although this method usually produces a minimum amount of oil heating, it is the poorest system to use with a hydraulic motor, and should only be used when the required range of adjustable speed is very limited. Series Meter-in Speed Control This is an improved method when a wider speed range is required. It should give good motor performance over about twice the adjustable range of the bypass method. Several branch circuits can be operated from one pump, but this method tends to generate more heat in the oil.

PUMP

MOTOR RELIEF SPEED VALVE CONTROL

SPEED CONTROL PUMP MOTOR

RELIEF VALVE

Three Port Speed Control A three port flow control valve meters the oil in series to the motor, giving good speed regulation, but it has a 3rd port through which the unused oil is diverted to tank at a pressure only slightly above load pressure rather than at relief PUMP MOTOR valve pressure. It combines the best features of 3-PORT both the series and the bypass methods, but has SPEED one limitation: Only one branch circuit can be CONTROL operated from a pump. Meter-Out Bypass Speed Control When used with piston motors, this is the best method of controlling motors which must operate over a wide range of adjustable speed. A needle valve is placed in the motor outlet for MOTOR RELIEF meter-out control. Pressure drop across this VALVE BYPASS needle valve must always be 75 PSI. VALVE If motor speed should tend to increase due to drop off of load, pressure drop across the needle valve would tend to increase to more than 75 PUMP SPEED PSI. This increased pressure should tend to shift CONTROL the bypass valve slightly more open to bypass the excess oil before it reaches the motor. Internal leakage must be routed directly to tank from the motor case drain. Only one branch circuit can be operated from a pump when using this method.

385

Hydraulic Motor Speed Control

ANSI Shaft and flange code assignments for fluid power pumps and motors. Complete dimensions may be obtained from ANSI B93.6-1972. ANSI Shaft Code 13-1 16-1 22-1 25-1 32-1 38-1 44-1 ANSI Shaft Code 13-4 16-4 22-4 25-4 32-4 38-4 44-4 50-4 ANSI Shaft Code 13-2 16-2 22-2 25-2 32-2 38-2 44-2 ANSI Shaft Code 13-3 16-3 22-3 25-3 32.3 38-3 44-3 50-3 Shaft Diam. 0.500 0.625 0.875 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.750 Shaft Diam. 0.500 0.625 0.875 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.750 2.000 Shaft Diam. 0.500 0.625 0.875 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.750 Shaft Diam. 0.500 0.625 0.875 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.750 2.000 Short Shaft Lgth. 0.750 0.938 1.312 1.500 1.875 2.125 2.625 Shaft Lgth. 0.750 0.938 1.312 1.500 1.875 2.125 2.625 3.125 Str. Shaft Lgth. 0.750 0.938 1.312 1.500 1.875 2.125 2.625 Tprd. Shaft Lgth. 0.688 0.688 1.125 1.375 1.375 1.875 2.125 2.875 Long Shaft Lgth. 2.000 2.500 2.750 3.00 3.250 3.625 Key Width 0.125 0.156 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.437 SAE Shaft Code A-A A B B-B C C-C D, E SAE Shaft Code A-A A B B-B C C-C D, E F Key Width 0.125 0.156 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.437 Key Width 0.125 0.156 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.375 0.437 0.500
Shaft Length Shaft Diam.

Spline Specifications 9T, 20/40 DP 9T, 16/32 DP 13T, 16/32 DP 15T, 16/32 DP 14T, 12/24 DP 17T, 12/24 DP 13T, 8/16 DP 15T, 8/16 DP Thd. Size 3/8-24 1/2-20 5/8-18 3/4-16 1-12 1-12 1-12 Thd. Shaft Lgth. 0.500 0.719 0.906 1.062 1.219 1.375 1.562 1.562 Thd. Lgth. 0.532 0.719 0.906 1.062 1.219 1.375 1.562 Thread Size 5/16-32 1/2-20 5/8-18 3/4-16 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12

Straight Shaft (Without Threads) Shaft Length

Shaft Diam.

30 Involute Spline
Thread Length Shaft Length Shaft Diam. Thread Size

Straight Shaft (With Threads)

Tprd Thd. Shaft Lgth. Length Shaft Diam. Thread Size

Tapered Shaft (With Threads)

ANSI SAE SAE Mount Mount Pilot Flange Flange HP Bolt Hole Diam., Code Code Rating Circle Diam. Ins. 50-2 A-A 5 3.250 .406 2.00 82-2 A 10 4.188 .438 3.25 101-2 B 25 5.750 .562 4.00 127-2 C 50 7.125 .688 5.00 152-2 D 100 9.000 .812 6.00 165-2 E 200 12.500 1.062 6.50 177-2 F 300 13.781 1.062 7.00 ANSI SAE SAE Mount Flange Flange HP Bolt Code Code Rating Circle 101-4 B 25 5.000 127-4 C 50 6.375 152-4 D 100 9.000 165-4 E 200 12.500 177-4 F 300 13.780 Mount Pilot Hole Diam., Diam. Ins. .5625 4.00 .5625 5.00 .8125 6.00 .8125 6.50 1.063 7.00

Mounting Hole Diam. Mounting Bolt Circle Mounting Flange (Two Bolt)

Mounting Hole Diam. Mounting Bolt Circle Mounting Flange (Four Bolt)

386

Directional Valve Patterns

These drawings are for reference only. Please consult the appropriate standard when dimensions are critical. Some holes are added per industry convention. Dimensions may vary on products. It should not be assumed that each hole shown is found on a given product.

D03

ISO 4401-03-02-0-94 NFPA T3.5.1 R2 D03 0 X

D05

ISO 4401-05-04-0-94 NFPA T3.5.1 R2 D05 0 X

D05H
0

NFPA T3.5.1 R2 D05 Alternative B X

0 Y

F1 A

T B

F2

0 Y TA

F1 A

P B

F2

0 Y Y TA

F1 A

P B

F2 X TB

L P F4 G1 F3

TB F4 F3

F4

F3

D05HE
0

ISO 4401-05-05-0-94

NFPA T3.5.1 R2 D05 - Alternative A

D07

ISO 4401-07-06-0-94 NFPA T3.5.1 R2 D07 0 X

D08

ISO 4401-08-07-0-94 NFPA T3.5.1 R2 D08 0 X

X 0 Y F1 X A TA F4 B TB F3 Y F4 L P F2 Y 0 F1 T

F5 P A G2 F6

G1 X B Y

F2

0 Y L

F1 T X F4 G2

F5 P A

G1 Y B F6

F2

F3

F3

Pattern D03 D05 D05H D05HE D07 D08 Pattern D03 D05 D05H D05HE D07 D08

Axis X Y (max) X Y (max) X Y (max) X Y (max) X Y (max) X Y (max)

P 0.850 1.020 0.295 1.060 0.250 0.440 1.060 0.250 0.440 1.060 0.250 0.440 1.970 0.560 0.690 3.030 0.690 0.984

A 0.500 0.610 0.295 0.660 0.840 0.440 0.660 0.840 0.440 0.660 0.840 0.440 1.340 2.190 0.690 2.090 2.930 0.984

T (TA) 0.850 0.200 0.295 0.130 1.280 0.440 0.130 1.280 0.440 0.130 1.280 0.440 0.720 0.560 0.690 1.160 0.690 0.984 F3 1.594 1.250 #10-24 2.125 1.812 .25-20 2.125 1.812 .25-20 2.125 1.812 .25-20 4.000 2.750 .38-16 5.125 3.625 .50-13

TB 2.000 1.280 0.440 2.000 1.280 0.440 2.000 1.280 0.440

B 1.190 0.610 0.295 1.470 0.840 0.440 1.470 0.840 0.440 1.470 0.840 0.440 2.600 2.190 0.690 3.970 2.930 0.984

X 2.563 0.090 0.190 -0.310 0.440 0.380 3.016 0.620 0.250 0.690 2.880 0.440 F6 1.970 2.815 .25-20 3.031 3.625 .50-13

Y -0.440 1.720 0.190 2.440 0.440 0.380 3.470 2.250 0.250 4.440 0.750 0.440 G1 1.300 1.250 0.160 3.016 0 0.160 3.719 -0.187 0.280

L 1.830 0.990 0.295 -0.433 0.020 0.157 0 1.370 0.250 0.220 1.810 0.440 G2 0.720 2.750 0.160 1.156 3.625 0.280

Axis F1 F2 X 0 1.594 Y 0 -0.030 (max) #10-24 #10-24 X 0 2.125 Y 0 0 (max) .25-20 .25-20 X 0 2.125 Y 0 0 (max) .25-20 .25-20 X 0 2.125 Y 0 0 (max) .25-20 .25-20 X 0 4.000 Y 0 0 (max) .38-16 .38-16 X 0 5.125 Y 0 0 (max) .50-13 .50-13

F4 F5 0 1.220 #10-24 0 1.812 .25-20 0 1.812 .25-20 0 1.812 .25-20 0 1.342 2.750 -0.063 .38-16 .25-20 0 2.094 3.625 0 .50-13 .50-13

387

CV Factors for Hydraulic Valves

DEFINITION OF CV. Some manufacturers publish CV flow ratings on their valves to assist in sizing them correctly for flow and pressure drop. Unless otherwise stated, CV factors are stated for water flow. If the flow of 1 GPM of water through an orifice creates a 1 PSI pressure drop, the orifice has a rating of 1.0 CV. If 2 GPM can flow at a pressure drop of 1 PSI, the orifice has a rating of 2.0 CV, etc. CV factors based on water flow must be corrected for viscosity and specific gravity of fluids other than water. Information on this page shows how to correct water-based CV factors for use on hydraulic fluids. Step 1. Viscosity Correction. Take the CV rating of your valve (on water) and find the corrected CV for the viscosity of the fluid you are using at the operating temperature (not at 100F). No other temperature correction is required. Take the correction factor from the second line and divide it into the viscosity figure on the first line. This will be the corrected CV factor for your valve on the fluid you are using. Your Viscosity, SUS Divide by this figure 50 1.70 100 2.16 200 2.57 300 3.49 400 5.15 500 5.81 1000 12.2

If converting from one SUS to another, the CV factor will change in inverse proportion to the change in SUS viscosity - as the viscosity goes up, the CV factor goes down at the same rate. This holds true only for SUS viscosities of 150 SUS and above. Below this the relation is not linear. Step 2. Using the corrected CV from Step 1, make an additional correction for specific gravity. Select the appropriate factor from the last column of this chart and divide it into the corrected CV from Step 1. Specific Grav.(G) Typical Hydraulic Fluid Divider 0.90 Mineral hydraulic oil 0.95 0.93 Water/oil emulsion 0.96 1.07 Water/glycol solution 1.03 1.20 Synthetic (phos. ester) 1.10 Step 3. With your corrected CV, use the chart in the box to determine the maximum flow capacity of your valve. Follow instructions below.

Flow Capacity at CV = 1.0

PSI Pressure Drop 1 2 5 10 15 20 25 25 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 GPM Flow Volume 1.0 1.41 2.24 3.16 3.87 4.47 5.00 5.48 5.92 6.32 6.71 7.07 7.42 7.75 8.06 8.37 8.94 9.49 10.00 11.18 12.25 13.23 14.14 15.00 15.81

Instructions for use of Chart

The chart is calculated for corrected CV of 1.0. Figures in the right column show the GPM which can flow (at CV, = 1.0) at the pressure drops (losses) shown in the left column. First, decide on the maximum pressure loss through the valve which is acceptable. Then take the corresponding GPM flow figure from the right column and multiply it times your corrected CV. This will show the maximum GPM flow capacity of your valve, on that fluid, at the acceptable pressure loss. If flow capacity is too low, a larger valve must be used. EXAMPLE: Find the GPM flow of phosphate ester fluid (viscosity 200 SUS) through a valve with CV rating of 8.5 (based on water flow), at a pressure loss no greater than 20 PSI. SOLUTION: Correct the 200 SUS viscosity per Step 1 above. Factor from viscosity chart is 2. 57. Corrected CV is 8.5 2.57 = 3.31. Next, correct for specific gravity of fluid per Step 2. Factor from chart is 1.10 Corrected CV is 3.31 1.10 = 3.0. Finally, go into the main chart at 20 PSI. Multiply the chart value of 4.47 times the corrected CV of 3.0 = 13.41 GPM. This is the maximum flow without exceeding 20 PSI.

Metric & SI (International Standard) CV Factors Metric CV factors are in liters/min flow & Kg/sq. cm pressure. Divide by 14. 22 to convert into U.S. CV factors. SI CV factors are in cu. decimeters per minute & bars pressure. Divide by 14.5 to convert into U.S. CV factors.

388

CV Factors for Air Valves

This chart shows how to size a compressed air valve by using its CV (flow factor) ratings. To use this method of sizing, the CV factor must be furnished by the valve manufacturer. The chart, although calculated for a valve having a CV of 1.00, can be used equally well for any valve on which the manufacturers CV rating is known, and will work for any application within the pressure range shown. Since a 2-way valve has only one flow path, there will be only one pressure drop across the valve from inlet to outlet. A 4-way valve has two flow paths. If the CV factor for both paths is the same, there will be about the same pressure loss through each. If the CV factors are different, the total loss through the valve will be the sum of the two losses. The path with lower CV factor will, of course, have the higher loss. The chart shows the relation between inlet pressure, outlet pressure and flow capacity for any orifice or valve passage which has a CV factor of 1.00. On valves or orifices with other Cv factors, the flow capacity will be directly proportional to the CV rating. For example, a valve with a CV of 4.00 will pass 4 times as much air flow at the same pressure difference as that shown in the chart. Notice that flow is not proportional to DP (pressure difference between inlet and outlet pressures). Flow does increase as DP increases, until the critical pressure ratio is reached. For air and other gases, this critical pressure ratio is reached when outlet pressure drops to less than 50% of inlet pressure. Flow at the critical pressure ratio is the maximum that can be passed through the orifice regardless of how much more the DP may become. This can be seen in each column of the chart. When outlet pressure drops to less than 50% of inlet pressure, the flow levels off to a maximum for that value of inlet pressure. P1 - Inlet Pressure to the Valve P2 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 Outlet PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI PSI 23.5 29.3 35.1 41.1 46.9 52.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 20 27.3 29.3 35.1 41.1 46.9 52.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 25 31.0 27.1 35.1 41.1 46.9 52.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 30 34.7 24.2 33.0 41.1 46.9 52.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 35 20.4 30.3 38.9 46.9 52.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 40 14.7 27.0 36.3 44.9 52.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 45 22.5 31.9 42.2 50.7 58.7 73.3 88.0 103 50 16.2 29.4 39.3 48.2 56.5 73.3 88.0 103 55 24.5 35.9 45.4 54.1 73.3 88.0 103 60 17.5 31.6 42.1 51.5 72.3 88.0 103 65 26.3 38.3 48.3 70.0 88.0 103 70 18.8 33.8 44.7 67.8 88.0 103 75 28.0 40.7 64.9 86.0 103 80 19.9 35.8 62.0 83.8 103 85 29.6 58.8 81.2 102 90 21.0 54.9 18.5 99.6 95 50.7 75.8 97.3 100 40.3 69.0 92.3 110 23.6 60.9 86.1 120 50.7 79.2 130 36.6 71.1 140 61.0 150 48.1 160 28.0 170 The chart was calculated from a formula published by the Fluid Controls Institute, modified for special conditions of CV = 1.00; specific gravity = 1.00 (compressed air); and air temperature 80F to 100F. Q = 0.6875 P1 - P2 P1 - P2, in which: Q = Air flow, SCFM P1 = Inlet pressure, PSI CV is assumed to be 1.00 P2 = Outlet pressure, PSI Use the formula to calculate for conditions not shown. Remember that for outlet pressures less than 50% of inlet, use 50% of P1 as outlet pressure P2. EXAMPLE: If a valve has a published CV of 3.75, and is connected to a 125 PSI air line, find the pressure loss through it when it is passing 243 SCFM. SOLUTION: Since the chart is for a CV of 1.00, first convert 243 SCFM to the equivalent flow on a valve with CV = 1.00: Equivalent flow = 243 3.75 = 64.8 SCFM. Look down the 125 PSI column of the chart. The value of 64.9 SCFM shown on the 80 PSI line comes very close. Pressure loss is inlet minus outlet pressure: 125 80 = 45 PSI pressure loss through the valve.

389

Required Flow for Operating an Air Cylinder

CV = Area Stroke A Cf Time 29 Area = dia2/4 or see Table 2 (sq. in.) Stroke = Travel (in.) A = pressure drop constant see Table 1 Cf = Compression Factor see Table 1 Time = seconds

Table 1 Compression Factors and A Constants A Constants for Various Pressure Drops Inlet Cf Pressure Compression 2 PSI 5 PSI 10 PSI (PSIG) P P Factor P 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 1.6 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.7 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.2 0.155 0.129 0.113 0.097 0.091 0.084 0.079 0.075 0.071 0.068 0.065 0.062 0.102 0.083 0.072 0.064 0.059 0.054 0.050 0.048 0.045 0.043 0.041 0.039 0.066 0.055 0.048 0.043 0.040 0.037 0.035 0.033 0.031 0.030 0.029 Bore Size

Table 2 Cylinder Area Cylinder Area (sq. in.) 0.44 0.79 0.99 1.23 1.77 2.41 3.14 4.91 8.30 10.32 Bore Size 4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 Cylinder Area (sq. in.) 12.57 15.90 19.64 28.27 38.48 50.27 78.54 113.10 153.94

3/4 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3

Note: Use A constant at 5 PSI DP for most applications. On very critical applications, use A at 2 PSI P. You will find in many cases, a 10 PSI P is not detrimental, and can save money and mounting space.

Required Flow for Operating a Hydraulic Cylinder

GPM = Area Stroke 60 Time 231 Area = dia2/4 or see Table 2 (sq. in.) Stroke = Travel (in.) Time = seconds

390

HP to Compress Air
These tables show the approximate HP required to compress 1 SCFM (standard cubic foot per minute) of air from atmospheric pressure of 0 PSI to the pressures shown in the tables. Since isothermal and adiabatic compression are both theoretical conditions, these tables were calculated for compression conditions about halfway between these two theoretical extremes. Inlet air is assumed to be about room temperature. Tables are shown for single-stage, two-stage, and three-stage piston-type compressors, assuming their efficiency to be about 85%. The effect of jacket cooling water was not considered. The tables were prepared from information published in Machinerys Handbook. Please refer to your copy of the handbook for additional information on the compression of air.

HP to Operate Air Cylinders

One important use for these tables is to estimate the compressor HP capacity needed to operate an air cylinder. The SCFM required by the cylinder under stated operating conditions must first be calculated by the method on page 360. Then the appropriate column in the table below can be used to convert SCFM into HP. For example, if cylinder consumption has been calculated to be 24 SCFM and if the compressor is a 2-stage model, the HP needed at 90 PSI will be: HP = 24 x 0.156 = 3.74.

Power Loss Through a Pressure Regulator

Air compressor power is wasted by compressing air to a pressure higher than necessary then reducing it through a regulator. The power wasted cannot be easily calculated because accurate data cannot be obtained. But it can be estimated with sufficient accuracy with this method. Use the chart below for your kind of compressor. Calculate the HP to compress 1 SCFM of air to the regulator inlet pressure. Then calculate the HP to compress 1 SCFM to the regulator outlet or reduced pressure. Subtract the two. This will show the HP wasted for every 1 SCFM passing through the regulator. Multiply times the SCFM air flow through the circuit.

Horsepower for Compressing Air

Efficiency of All Compressors is Assumed to Be 85% 1-Stage Compressor PSI 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 HP* 2-Stage Compressor PSI HP* 3-Stage Compressor PSI HP*

.021 50 .116 100 .159 .040 60 .128 150 .190 .056 70 .138 200 .212 .067 80 .148 250 .230 .079 90 .156 300 .245 .095 100 .164 350 .258 .099 110 .171 400 .269 .107 120 .178 450 .279 .116 130 .185 500 .289 .123 140 .190 550 .297 .130 150 .196 600 .305 .136 160 .201 650 .311 .143 170 .206 700 .317 .148 180 .211 750 .323 .155 190 .216 800 .329 .160 200 .220 850 .335 .166 210 .224 900 .340 .170 220 .228 950 .345 .175 230 .232 1000 .350 .179 240 .236 1050 .354 .188 250 .239 1100 .358 .196 260 .243 1150 .362 .204 270 .246 1200 .366 .211 280 .250 1250 .370 .218 290 .253 1300 .374 .225 300 .255 1350 .378 .232 350 .269 1400 .380 .239 400 .282 1450 .383 .244 450 .293 1500 .386 .250 500 .303 1550 .390 *HP to compress 1 SCFM from 0 PSI to the values shown NOTE: The power required from other types of compressors of the same number of stages will be related to these values as the efficiency of the other compressor is to the assumed 85% efficiency used for these tables.

391

Vacuum Applications
Vacuum pads are used for handling concrete slabs, metal or paper sheets, leather, cloth, etc. They are used in printing and in packaging machines to grip or transfer paper, cardboard, or cellophane. Figures in body of chart are lift capacities in pounds for a straight vertical lift. Vacuum pads can easily slip sideways when worked on slick surfaces. Therefore, use care when gripping loads which have a Circular Pads Pad Dia., Ins. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 HG PSI Area Sq. Ins. .785 3.14 7.07 12.57 19.63 28.27 50.27 78.50 113.1 30 14.7 Lift 14 Vac 5.5 22 50 88 137 200 350 550 800 28 13.74 Lift 20 Vac 7.8 31 71 126 196 283 503 785 1131 26 12.77 Lift 26 Vac. 10 40 92 160 255 370 650 1000 1460 24 11.78 22 10.8 Pad Dim., Ins. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 20 9.83
ATMOS. PRESSURE VACUUM PUMP VACUUM CUPS

Lifting Force of Vacuum Pads

Square Pads Area Sq. Ins. 1.0 4.0 9.0 16.0 25.0 36.0 64.0 100 144 18 8.84 Lift 14 Vac 7.0 28 63 112 175 252 448 700 1008 16 7.86 Lift 20 Vac 10 40 90 160 250 360 640 1000 1440 14 6.88 Lift 26 Vac. 13 52 117 208 325 470 830 1300 1875 12 5.89

Conversion of Inches Mercury to PSI

For rule-of-thumb figuring: 1 PSI = 2 Hg

Atmospheric Pressure at Various Altitudes

Since vacuum force is developed by weight of atmosphere above, an allowance may have to be made in a vacuum system which is to be operated more than a few thousand feet above sea level. Altitude Hg Pres. PSI Pres. Altitude Hg Pres. PSI Pres. 1000 29.0 14.2 2000 27.8 13.6 4000 25.8 12.7 6000 24.0 11.8 8000 22.2 10.9 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 20.5 19.0 17.5 16.2 10.1 9.3 8.6 7.8

20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 13.76 8.903 5.558 3.444 2.135 1.325 .8273 .5200 .3290 6.76 4.37 2.73 1.69 1.05 .651 .406 .255 .162

Evacuation Time For Large Tank

This chart is for reaching a 20 Hg vacuum, which is the value used in many industrial applications using large vacuum storage tanks. For higher vacuums the time would be greater than shown in the chart. To use the chart you must know the free running air displacement of your pump, and the tank volume to be evacuated. Displacement information is obtained from the manufacturers catalog, or can sometimes be calculated from the physical dimensions of the pump and the rotational speed. Tank Vol., Gals. Tank Vol - Cu. Ft. Pump CFM Running Free 2 3 4 6 10 15 20 30 50 20 2.7 30 4.0 50 6.7 75 10 100 13 150 20 200 27 300 40 500 67

Time in Minutes 2.34 1.56 1.17 0.78 0.47 0.31 0.23 0.16 3.50 2.34 1.75 1.17 0.70 0.47 0.35 0.23 0.14 5.85 3.90 2.93 1.95 1.17 0.78 0.58 0.39 0.23 8.77 5.86 4.39 2.93 1.77 1.17 0.88 0.59 0.35 11.7 7.80 5.85 3.90 2.34 1.50 1.17 0.78 0.47 17.5 11.7 8.77 5.83 3.51 2.34 1.75 1.17 0.70 23.4 15.6 11.7 7.80 4.68 3.12 2.34 1.56 0.94 35.0 23.4 17.5 11.7 7.02 4.68 3.50 2.34 1.40 58.5 39.0 29.3 19.5 11.7 7.80 5.85 3.90 2.34

392

Tank Pump-Down Time

For Large Vacuum Tanks
Use this chart or the formula at the foot of this page to estimate the time to evacuate a tank to a desired degree of vacuum starting either from atmosphere or from a partial vacuum. The chart is for a small vane or piston type vacuum pump which will deadhead (with inlet blocked) at a vacuum of 27 or 28 Hg (when the barometer is at 30 Hg). If using a vacuum pump much different from this, calculate running time from the formula. The chart shows running time, in minutes, for a vacuum pump with a free running displacement (both ports open to atmosphere) of 1 SCFM. For pumps with a different displacement the running time must be adjusted by dividing chart values by the actual pump displacement. Running time values are approximate because the efficiency will vary between pumps of different manufacture.

Running Time on a 1 SCFM Vacuum Pump

Cu. Ft. Gallons Vac Hg 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 3 26.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.4 6.0 6.8 8.2 9.2 11.7 5 37.4 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.2 4.7 5.1 5.7 6.3 6.9 7.7 8.6 9.7 11.7 13.3 16.7 7 56.1 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.1 8.5 9.4 10.4 11.6 12.9 14.6 17.5 19.8 25.0 10 25 40 55 17 74.8 187 300 411 13 Time, in Minutes, to Evacuate Tank 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.6 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.3 10.3 11.3 12.5 13.9 15.4 17.2 19.4 23.3 26.4 33.3 6.8 7.7 8.6 9.8 10.9 12.1 13.4 14.8 16.3 18.0 19.9 21.9 24.3 27.0 30.1 34.1 40.8 46.2 58.3 9.7 11.1 12.3 14.0 15.6 17.3 19.2 21.2 23.4 25.7 28.4 31.3 34.7 38.5 43.1 48.6 58.4 66.0 83.3 15.5 17.7 19.7 22.4 25.0 27.7 30.7 33.9 37.4 41.2 45.4 50.1 55.5 61.6 68.9 77.8 93.4 106 133 21.3 24.3 27.1 30.8 34.3 38.1 42.2 46.6 51.4 56.6 62.4 68.9 76.2 84.7 94.8 107 128 145 183 85 636 33.0 37.6 41.9 47.6 53.1 58.9 65.2 72.0 79.4 87.5 96.5 106 118 131 146 165 198 224 283 130 972 50.4 57.5 64.1 72.7 81.2 90.1 100 110 121 134 148 163 180 200 224 253 303 343 433

How to Use the Chart

Tank volumes, both in cubic feet and gallons, are shown along the top of the chart. Degree of vacuum is shown in the left column. EXAMPLE of running time starting with atmospheric pressure: Estimate pumping time on a 300 gallon tank to a vacuum level of 20 Hg using a vacuum pump having a free running displacement of 9 SCFM. SOLUTION: From the chart find the running time of 50.1 minutes for a pump having a free running displacement of 1 SCFM. Time = 50.1 9 = 5.67 minutes EXAMPLE of running time starting with a partial vacuum: Estimate pumping time to develop a 24 Hg vacuum in a 25-cubic foot tank, starting with 12 Hg vacuum and using a 6 SCFM vacuum pump: SOLUTION: First estimate time from atmosphere up to the present 12 Hg vacuum, then estimate time from atmosphere to the new vacuum of 24 Hg. Then subtract these times to find the running time between 12 Hg and 24 Hg vacuum: Atmosphere to 12 Hg = 14.0 minutes per 1 SCFM capacity Atmosphere to 24 Hg = 48.6 minutes per 1 SCFM capacity 48.6 14.0 = 34.6 minutes per 1 SCFM capacity Adjust for 6 SCFM pump: Time = 48.6 6 = 5.77 minutes

Formula for Any Vacuum Pump

This formula, published by Gast, should give a close estimate for any vacuum pump, used on any tank, and to any degree of vacuum up to 27 Hg. T = [V D] Loge [A (A B)] T is pumping time, in minutes; V is tank volume, in cubic feet; D is free running displacement, in SCFM; A is deadhead rating of pump in Hg (with inlet blocked; B is the desired level of vacuum in tank, in Hg.

393

Hydraulic Oil Filtering

All hydraulic systems should include oil filters. In addition to a pump suction strainer, additional micronic filters can be added at one or more of the locations shown on the diagram.

4 6 PF
PRIME MOVER

PF

Filter Symbols on the Diagram Refer to Paragraphs Below

1. Pump Suction. All positive displacement hydraulic pumps should have a suction strainer of 100-mesh stainless steel wire having a 150-micrometer rating. Other fluids having a higher specific gravity than oil should use a coarser mesh, e.g. 60-mesh with 200 micrometer rating. This includes all fire resistant fluids. Finer filtration can be used in this position if the surface area is large enough so initial pressure drop with clean element does not exceed about 2 PSI at the working temperature. 2. Relief Valve Bypass. Filtering is practical at this point only if there is a substantial discharge across the relief for at least 20% of the total running time. Use a low pressure 10 micrometer filter element. 3. Parallel Bypass. Filtering is practical at this point only if the pump is under full pressure load at least 50% of the total running time. About 10% of the oil can be bled off through a metering orifice to a 10 micrometer filter. 4. High Pressure In-line. When using components such as servo valves which are very sensitive to dirt, a high pressure filter should be installed at the entry to each such component. Usually a 10 micrometer rating is sufficient, although some components require filtration to 1 micrometer. Case must withstand full system pressure and the element should be sized for a pressure drop not to exceed 5 PSI when element is clean. 5. Return Line Filter. This is one of the most convenient locations for a filter when using a tandem center 4-way valve. Filter may be a low pressure type with 10 micrometer rating. Caution! The return oil flow from the blind end of a single-end-rod cylinder is always greater than the pump flow. The filter must be sized to carry this increased flow which may be twice the pump flow in a 2:1 ratio cylinder circuit. 6. Circulating Oil Filter. Pump PF2 is an auxiliary pump added to the system for circulating oil through a 10 micrometer filter. If the filter does not have a built-in bypass valve, a low pressure relief valve should be installed. If an impeller type circulating pump is used no relief is required.

Notes on Filters
All filter elements should be protected with a by-pass relief valve. Many filters have this valve built into the case. If not, an external valve should be installed and set for 20 PSI on pressure or return line filtering, or about 5 PSI maximum for pump suction line filtering. Filters should be selected with a capacity so the pressure drop across the element when new does not exceed 2 PSI on a suction line filter nor exceed 5 PSI in a return line filtering application. If you know the rating of a certain filter at a certain GPM of a certain oil viscosity but do not know the rating under other conditions use these approximations: Pressure drop will be roughly proportional to the square of the flow. EXAMPLE: A filter having 3 PSI drop at 7 GPM flow will have about 12 PSI drop at double the flow, 14 GPM. Pressure drop is proportional to SUS viscosity over a limited range. Example: A filter rated for 3 PSI drop at 150 SUS will have about 6 PSI drop at 300 SUS. The installation of a globe, gate, or plug valve in series with and around the filter will allow element cleaning or replacement while system is running.

394

Cooling in Hydraulic Systems

Heat Generation
Heat is generated in a hydraulic system whenever oil dumps from a higher to a lower pressure without producing a mechanical work output. Examples are: oil flowing to tank through a relief valve, flowing through a flow control or pressure reducing valve, or simply flowing through small piping. Pressure drops noted from one cylinder port to another do not produce heat because the energy is being converted to work output. In lower power hydraulic systems this waste heat is radiated by the walls of the reservoir. In larger systems a heat exchanger must be added. Oil temperature should be held to 130F to 140F in an industrial system, but on moving equipment where heat removal is difficult, the temperature is sometimes allowed to reach 200F although this is not desirable as it is destructive to the oil and to components. At high temperatures various chemical reactions produce sludges which interfere with system operation by clogging orifices and producing excessive wear in moving parts.

Heat Generation Formulas

Heat generated by oil flow through a valve, piping, or through a relief valve can be calculated with the formula below if the PSI pressure difference across the device is known or can be measured, and if the GPM flow through it is known. Formulas are given for converting heat into other units. 1 HP = 2545 BTU/hr = 42.4 BTU/min = 33,000 ft. lbs/min = 746 watts HP = PSI GPM 1714 or, BTU/hr = 1 PSI GPM 1 BTU/hr = .0167 BTU/min = .00039 HP EXAMPLE: 12 GPM bypassing a relief valve at a pressure drop of 500 PSI generates 3HP of heat, most of which is carried back to the tank. NOTE: Heat is generated only when no mechanical work is produced.

Estimating Heat Build-Up

In most systems the main source of heat may be from the relief valve. If this valve is in action for only a part of every cycle, find the heat generated while it is passing oil, by the formula above. Then average this for the entire cycle. For example, if oil is passing the relief for about 1/3 of the time in each cycle and generating 3 HP heat while flowing, then the average rate of heat generation is 1 HP. Another source of heat is flow control valves used to regulate speed of hydraulic cylinders or motors. The metered oil generates heat when the cylinder or motor is running unloaded or lightly loaded. In addition, any oil forced across the system relief valve because of metering to the cylinder or motor also generates heat. Flow control valves connected in a by-pass arrangement tend to generate less heat than series connected flow controls. Pressure reducing valves generate heat during the time oil is flowing through them and during the time when pressure difference is greatest between their inlet and outlet ports. If the hydraulic system is plumbed with pipe sizes adequate to carry the flow at recommended velocity, heat generated by oil flow through the lines will usually be small compared with other sources of heat in the system. In addition to these major causes for overheating there will be heat generated from mechanical losses, mainly in the pump, or in a hydraulic motor. About 15% of the input power will go into heat for each pump or motor. As a rule-of-thumb, an allowance of 25% of the input power will usually be adequate to take care of all miscellaneous losses (and heat) including flow loss through 4-way valves, piping, and mechanical loss in one pump. If there is a hydraulic motor, or more than one pump in the system, the losses will be somewhat higher. Then, to this 25%, add the losses through relief, reducing, and flow control valves, if any, and this will be a good approximation of the heat generated in the system.

Cooling Capacity of Steel Reservoirs

After estimating the HP or BTU heat generation in your hydraulic system, the next step is to decide whether this heat can be radiated entirely from the walls of the oil tank or whether a heat exchanger is needed. In many systems about 1/3 the heat is radiated from walls of cylinders, pumps, fluid motors, valves, and plumbing. The remainder is radiated from the side walls and top of the reservoir. Radiation from the bottom of the reservoir can be counted if the reservoir is elevated at least 6 inches from the floor. The amount of heat which can be radiated from the surface of steel tanks can be calculated from this formula: HP (heat) = 0.001 TD A

395

HP (heat) = 0.001 TD A A is the surface area in square feet; TD is the temperature difference in degrees fahrenheit between surrounding air and oil temperature inside the tank. Oil tanks should be installed where there is free air circulation around all sides and under the tank. A forced blast of air directed on the side of the tank can increase the radiation capacity as much as 50%.

Cooling Capacity of Standard Oil Tanks

This table shows heat radiating capacity of commercially available steel hydraulic oil reservoirs having a 6-inch space underneath and free air circulation on all sides. Figures in the body of table show HP radiating ability of tanks from 10 to 200 gallon capacity at various temperature differences between oil temperature and surrounding air temperature. EXAMPLE: If a 100-gallon reservoir is installed in a room with 70F ambient temperature and the desired maximum oil temperature is 150F, the temperature difference is 80F and the heat radiating ability is 3.6 HP according to the table. Figures in body of chart are heat radiation capacities in HP Nominal Gallon Capacity 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 120 150 200 Sq. Ft. Surface Area 10.8 12.8 14.0 16.1 24.3 29.2 31.6 40.2 47.4 52.9 55.4 69.8 Temperature Difference Oil to Air F 30 .32 .38 .42 .48 .73 .88 .95 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.1 40 .43 .51 .56 .64 .97 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.8 50 .54 .64 .70 .81 1.2 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.5 60 .65 .77 .84 .97 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.4 2.7 3.2 3.3 4.2 70 .76 .90 .98 1.1 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.8 3.1 3.7 3.9 4.9 80 .86 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.9 2.3 2.5 3.2 3.6 4.2 4.4 5.6 90 .97 1.2 1.3 1.5 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.8 5.0 6.3 100 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 2.4 2.9 3.2 4.0 4.4 5.3 5.5 7.0

To Reduce Heat Build-Up 1. Unload the pump during intervals when pressure is not required. 2. On presses where a high active pressure must be held for a long time, an air operated pressure intensifier or an accumulator may be used. 3. Use as large a reservoir as practical, with a large surface area to dissipate heat. 4. Pressure compensated flow control valves, if used, should be connected as bypass instead of series control if possible. 5. Set the main pump relief valve to the lowest pressure that will do the work. 6. Locate oil reservoirs in the open where they will have free air circulation. Enclosing the reservoir in a closed compartment will cause the system to operate at a higher oil temperature. Shading the oil reservoir from direct sunlight will also reduce the oil temperature.

Sizing Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

Surface Area Required. On shell and tube heat exchangers there must be at least 0.46 square feet of heat transfer surface for each 1 HP heat load. 2.16 HP heat load can be removed for every square foot of heat transfer surface under the following conditions of usage: 1. Hydraulic oil in the shell side at entering temperature of 160F, leaving temperature of 140F. 2. Water in the tube side with a flow equal to 1/2 the oil flow, and at a temperature not over 90F. 3. Correct flow velocity in oil and water to obtain optimum heat transfer. Baffles. Baffle spacing should be arranged to give a velocity of 3 ft. per sec. in the oil but not outside the range of 2 to 6 feet per second. Passes. End bonnets should have the correct number of passes on the water side to give 3 feet per second velocity, but not outside the range of 2 to 5 feet per second.

396

Adding Cooling Capacity

Information on this page is for estimating the cooling capacity of a heat exchanger to be added to an overheated hydraulic system to lower the oil temperature to an acceptable level. The method involves finding the amount of heat presently being radiated from the reservoir. Then finding how much of this heat could be radiated by the same reservoir at a specified lower oil temperature. This shows how much heat exchanger capacity must be added. Measure the room temperature and the surface temperature of the steel tank after the system has been running at normal load for several hours, or until the oil temperature stabilizes at its highest level. When this data has been collected, follow the instructions below. If the desired temperature difference is not shown in the chart below, calculate with the formula at the foot of the page, or interpolate between values which do show in the chart. Figures in the main body of this chart are heat radiation values in BTU/hr from a steel reservoir at temperature differences (TD) and tank footages shown. Sq. Ft. Surface 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 175 200 Temperature Difference, in F, Between Oil in Tank and Surrounding Air Temperature. 20 509 764 1018 1273 1527 1782 2036 2291 2545 3054 3563 4072 4581 5090 5599 6108 6617 7126 7635 8908 10,180 30 764 1146 1527 1910 2291 2673 3054 3437 3818 4581 5345 6108 6872 7635 8399 9162 9926 10,689 11,453 13,362 15,270 40 1018 1528 2036 2545 3054 3564 4072 4582 5090 6108 7126 8144 9162 10,180 11,198 12,216 13,234 14,252 15,270 17,816 20,360 60 1527 2292 3054 3819 4581 5346 6108 6873 7635 9162 10,689 12,216 13,743 15,270 16,797 18,324 19,851 21,378 22,905 26,724 30,540 80 2036 3056 4072 5092 6108 7128 8144 9164 10,180 12,216 14,252 16,288 18,324 20,360 22,396 24,432 26,458 28,504 30,940 35,632 40,720 100 2545 3820 5090 6365 7635 8910 10,180 11,455 12,725 15,270 17,815 20,360 22,905 25,450 27,995 30,540 33,085 35,630 38,175 44,540 50,900 120 3054 4584 6108 7638 9162 10,692 12,216 13,746 15,270 18,324 21,378 24,432 27,486 30,540 33,594 36,648 39,702 42,756 45,810 53,448 61,080 140 3563 5348 7126 8911 10,689 12,474 14,252 16,037 17,815 21,378 24,941 28,576 32,067 35,630 39,193 42,756 46,319 49,882 53,445 62,356 71,260 160 4072 6112 8144 10,184 12,216 14,256 16,288 18,328 20,360 24,432 28,504 32,576 36,648 40,720 44,792 48,864 52,936 57,008 61,080 71,264 81,440 180 4581 6876 9162 11,457 13,743 16,038 18,324 20,619 22,905 27,486 32,067 36,648 41,229 45,810 50,391 54,972 59,553 64,134 68,715 80,172 91,620

Instructions for Using the Chart

All data will be read from the line which shows the square footage of your reservoir. Mark this line. It will be referred to as the footage line. Take the difference between room and reservoir temperatures and enter the appropriate column. The figure on the footage line is the present heat radiation from the reservoir. Next, decide what lower oil temperature you would like to maintain as a maximum. Take the difference between this and the room temperature and enter the appropriate column. The figure on the footage line is the maximum that can be radiated without exceeding your selected maximum temperature. The difference between this value and the one previously found is the BTU/hr heat exchanger capacity which must be added to the system.

Example of Cooling Capacity Calculation

Air temperature = 80F; reservoir surface temperature = 180F; reservoir surface = 90 square feet. Desired to reduce reservoir surface temperature (oil temperature) to 140F. Find heat exchanger capacity. SOLUTION: Existing temperature difference (TD) = 180 80 = 100F. On the 90 square feet line, a value of 22,905 BTU/hr is shown for a temperature difference of 100F. To hold a maximum of 140F on the reservoir surface, the TD = 140 80 = 60F. Using the 60F column, a value of 13,743 BTU/hr is shown. This means the proposed heat exchanger must have a capacity of 22,905 13,743 BTU/hr to make up the difference. FORMULAS: Values in the chart were calculated from the formula: BTU/hr = 2.545 Area (sq. ft) TD To convert BTU/hr into HP: 2545 BTU/hr = 1 HP.

397

Closed Loop Hydrostatic Transmissions

Information in this section is extracted in part from the Womack textbook Industrial Fluid PowerVolume 3. Please refer to that book for a complete description of this subject. The book may be purchased at www.womack-machine.com or by phone at 214-631-7983. What is a Closed Loop Hydrostatic Transmission? It is a marriage between a hydraulic pump and a similar hydraulic motor for the purpose of delivering a variable speed, variable HP mechanical output from the motor while driving the pump at a constant speed from an electric motor or an engine. What are the Advantages of Closed Loop? As compared to an open loop hydraulic system, an operator, by using a small control lever on the pump can produce reversible rotation, variable speed, constant or variable HP to a load at a higher efficiency than many open loop systems. Description of a Closed Loop System. In a closed loop system, return oil from the hydraulic motor, instead of being discharged to tank, is ported back to the pump inlet and recirculated. A low volume, low pressure charge pump is part of the system for replacing a small percentage of the oil in the loop with fresh oil on a continuous basis. Valves are added to the system for pressure relief and for directing replacement oil into the loop. Components Used in Closed Loop Systems. In most systems piston pumps and motors must be used because the slippage loss in piston components is less than in gear or vane pumps and motors. Low slippage is vital if the system is to operate over a wide range of speeds. Gear and vane units cannot operate smoothly at low speeds and their higher slippage loss usually will cause the system to overheat. Variable displacement pumps in this manual which are suitable for hydrostatic transmissions include the Rexroth AA4V and Rexroth Hydromatik. Motors suitable for transmissions include the Rexroth AA2F, Rexroth AA6VM and Rineer. Please refer to the Manufacturers Index at the back of this manual for page numbers for these products. In most systems the displacement of the pump and motor should be the same or have a difference of no more than about 20% if the maximum power, torque, and speed range is to be realized.
Check Valve

Filter Low Press. Relief

Piston Pump High Press. Relief

High Press. Relief

Piston Motor

Charge Pump

Shuttle Valve

Strainer Check Valve Heat Exchanger

Low Press. Relief

Typical Circuit of a Closed Loop Hydrostatic Transmission. Most systems use a variable displacement piston pump driving a fixed displacement hydraulic motor. In the above circuit diagram the pump is shown as Item q and the motor as Item e. A charge pump, Item w, is required for all systems. This will usually be a gear-type pump of about 15% of the displacement of the main pump and operating at 250 to 500 PSI. This pump can be external but is usually built into the rear cover of the main. A low pressure relief valve, Item y, is required for the charge pump and is usually in the main pump. Sometimes another relief valve, Item t, is in the motor cover. Two high pressure relief valves, Item o, are required on a reversible system connected back-to-back across the loop lines. These valves are usually in the motor cover. The shuttle valve, Item r, serves to discharge the excess loop oil, which is replaced by fresh oil from the charge pump, into the low pressure side of the loop as the direction of oil flow in the loop is reversed. It is usually in the motor rear cover.

398

Two check valves feed the charge pump oil into the side of the loop which happens at that moment to be the lower pressure side. They are usually contained in the main pump cover. Additional items which are not contained within the pump or motor covers include filters (Item i), strainers (Item u), heat exchanger, and a reservoir sized for about two times the flow rate of the charge pump. Variations in Closed Loop Systems. The circuit shown is used in the majority of applications. Variations for special applications may include a variable, instead of a fixed displacement motor. This will extend the high speed end of the speed range when, after the pump has been placed at full displacement, the displacement of the motor is decreased. Variation of motor displacement will give constant HP operation. As the speed is increased the, torque is decreased by the same amount. Another variation, but seldom used, is to use a fixed displacement instead of a variable displacement pump where speed variation is not required or can be accomplished by varying engine drive speed. Operator Controls for Closed Loop Transmissions. Several types of controls are available for pump and/or motor control depending on the manufacturer. Some act automatically, others are under the control of an operator. The control is mounted on the unit (pump or motor) which it controls. The more popular controls and those available on all brands of equipment are the following: Pressure Compensator. This control must be adjusted for the maximum rated system pressure. If the operator control lever is moved to maximum displacement, the compensator will keep pump displacement at maximum until, due to build-up of load, system pressure reaches maximum. The control will then override the operator to reduce displacement sufficiently to keep pressure from exceeding compensator setting. This control, by itself, does not limit HP, and to prevent stalling of the hydraulic motor the power source must have sufficient HP to satisfy maximum PSI and GPM parameters of the system. HP Limiter. This control has a pressure compensator. It also has a device for detecting the rate of oil flow (or speed of the motor). By combining information from the compensator with flow information it can prevent a HP overload by reducing pump displacement when HP output reaches the maximum. Other Controls. Most transmissions have one of the above controls. Other controls for special applications may include a winch control, pressure compensator for motor, constant speed control, proportional torque control, and electric remote adjustment. Hydraulic Oil for Transmissions. It is highly important to use only an oil which is approved by the manufacturer. This would be similar to an automatic transmission oil for motor vehicles. Oil temperature on industrial applications should not exceed 160 F. On mobile applications the temperature should be kept as low as possible but oil should be changed when it has deteriorated from heat. Oil Filtering. Because of the piston pumps and motors used, transmissions are very sensitive to microscopic dirt. Oil entering the closed loop should be filtered to 10M or better. Oil going into the charge pump should be filtered to 74M or finer. The filler and breather holes on the reservoir should be protected with 10M breathers. Heat Exchanger. Transmissions of 40 or more HP nearly always require a heat exchanger. Drain lines from pump and motor plus charge pump relief oil should be routed through the heat exchanger. On mobile equipment the best cooling is usually by a cooling radiator mounted in front of the engine radiator. Cylinders in Closed Loop Circuits. Although cylinders can be mated to a variable displacement pump to operate in a closed loop, there are special problems. Please read the information in the Womack book Industrial Fluid PowerVolume 3.

399

Air Over Oil Applications

Air/Oil Principle Air-over-oil systems are used where an air cylinder would normally be used but where better metering control is required. Air pressure is applied to the top of a closed oil tank, and this develops an equal oil pressure which can be handled with low pressure hydraulic components such as flow control, check, and directional control valves. Advantages are: The cylinder can be throttled more accurately; better control over lunge if the tool breaks through the work; and the cylinder can be stopped more accurately in mid stroke.

100 PSI AIR IN AIR/OIL TANK 100 PSI

OIL OUT

Basic Air/Oil Circuits

AIR IN V1 V2 SINGLE TANK SYSTEM AIR IN V1 V3 V4 V2

DOUBLE TANK SYSTEM

A single-tank system is used for controlled slow feeding in one direction, with rapid cylinder return. The diagram above on the left shows slow feeding on the extension stroke with flow control valve V2. For slow feed on the retraction stroke, the cylinder connections would be reversed. A double-tank system is used for controlled motion in both directions. There may be a gradual interchange of oil between the two tanks over a long period of time. To restore the balance of oil between the tanks, needle valve V4 may be opened when the air pressure is on the tank with the most oil, and this will transfer to the depleted tank. Design Considerations The tank should be mounted higher than the cylinder to allow air to bleed out of the oil. Cylinders should have leaktight soft packing to minimize transfer of oil. Piping lines should be larger than normally used for hydraulic systems to keep pressure losses low, and to realize acceptable speed. In any air/oil system there will be a slight oil blowout from the air valve exhaust. This may be piped outside the area or discharged into a container. Check oil tank level regularly. Construction of Tanks 1. The top must be removable with a filler plug so level can be checked and replenished. 2. Use an air diffuser to prevent excessive oil turbulence created by high velocity air. An air muffler makes a good diffuser. 3. Tank shape should be tall and thin to keep oil and air connections well separated. 4. Use an oil diffuser to break up the oil stream to prevent transfer into the air circuit. 5. Reduce the oil velocity before it enters the tank by using oversized piping for about 12 inches adjacent to the tank. 1

AIR INLET

2 3

OIL LINE

400

Accumulator Sizing
Accumulator Ratings
Accumulators are catalog-rated by the gas volume when all fluid has been discharged, and are usually rated in English measure, as pints, quarts, and gallons, (1 U.S. gallon = 231 cubic inches). The amount of fluid which can be stored in an accumulator is always less than its total gas volume. Only part of the stored fluid can be used each cycle because the fluid pressure decreases as fluid is discharged, and when the fluid pressure decreases to the minimum usable value which will perform the work in the hydraulic circuit, no more fluid can be displaced from the accumulator. The actual amount is determined by the ratio of maximum system pressure divided by precharge pressure (example: 3000/750 = 4:1, maximum fluid volume in this example is 75% of accumulator volume). In summary, the change in pressure controls the change in volume. The problem in selecting an accumulator is to select a size which will deliver a sufficient amount of fluid each cycle without the system pressure dropping too low. Selection is described in detail later on this page. Required information for selection; system minimum pressure, system maximum pressure, fluid volume to be discharged, and fluid volume discharge time.

Precharge Pressure . . .

Gas Charging

C AUTIO N

PRESSURIZED VESSEL ... USE DRY NITROGEN GAS ONLY!

Precharge new or repaired accumulators with dry nitrogen gas to the recommended gas precharge pressure (P0) listed below, prior to applying hydraulic system pressure.

For Energy Storage For Shock Absorption For Pulsation Dampening P1 = minimum working pressure

P0 = 0.9 P1 P0 = (0.6 to 0.9) Pm P0 = (0.6 to 0.8) Pm Pm = median working pressure

Having the precharge pressure set below the minimum system pressure allows a small amount of fluid to remain in the accumulator, thus preventing the elastomer from chafing against the valve on each cycle.

Estimating Fluid Requirements

1. Leakage Make-Up on bonding, curing, or laminating operation. If the cylinder has leak-tight piston seals, most of the fluid will be lost through the spool of the 4-way directional valve. The valve manufacturers specifications for maximum spool leakage can be used, with an additional allowance for increased leakage as the valve wears. The spool leakage in cubic inches per minute multiplied by the minutes of holding time will give the amount of discharge fluid required from the accumulator. 2. Rapid Cylinder Travel. When an accumulator is used to supplement the flow from a pump for rapid travel of a cylinder, the accumulator discharges while the cylinder is in motion, and recharges each time the cylinder is at rest (between cycles). 3. Pulsation/Shock Absorption. Accumulators are beneficial in reducing the intensity of pulsations from pumps and shock from valve shifts or pump start-up or shutdown. There is no easy way of calculating the required capacity of the accumulator for absorption applications. Gas precharge for an absorption application should be set at 60 to 90% of the system minimum pressure (start at 90% if the response is too rigid reduce the precharge pressure until the desired affect is achieved). Caution must be used in adding an accumulator to an existing hydraulic system because an accumulator will reduce the rigidity of the system, and this may be unacceptable in some applications.

401

Discharge Flow Rate

A discharge flow rate of 2 gpm or less is considered slow, the precharge gas does not loose significant heat, meaning that the gas precharge pressure remains constant, and so does the fluid discharge volume (ideal condition, but not always real world). This is considered an isothermal exchange. A discharge flow rate of 2 gpm or more is considered rapid, the precharge gas does loose significant heat, meaning that the gas precharge pressure changes as the precharge gas temperature changes and so does the fluid discharge volume due to rapid compression and expansion of the gas (most like real world). This is considered an adiabatic exchange. The volume of usable fluid is less with a rapid (adiabatic) exchange. The selection chart below has been calculated based on the rapid (adiabatic) design principle.

Summary
The sizing information is intended to allow the hydraulic system designer the ability to estimate the approximate accumulator size for a given application. There are many factors that go into the final selection of an accumulator, for that reason it is suggested that you consult Womack. Always design cylinders or hydraulic motors of sufficient size to do satisfactory job at this decreased pressure.

Using the Selection Chart

STEP 1. Calculate or estimate the fluid volume, in cubic inches, which will be required on every discharge of the accumulator. Consider the design parameters as previously described. STEP 2. Decide on an acceptable decrease in system pressure when the accumulator has discharged the volume of fluid estimated in Step 1. System pressure always decreases when a charged accumulator delivers a flow of fluid. When using the chart, the minimum acceptable system pressure is listed in the first column while the fully charged accumulator (and system) pressure is shown along the top. STEP 3. With the data from Steps 1 and 2 enter the chart in the column headed by Maximum System Pressure. Go down this column to the line showing the minimum acceptable system pressure. The figure shown is the number of cubic inches of oil delivered from a 1-gallon accumulator during its discharge from fully charged to minimum acceptable system pressure. A 5-gallon accumulator will deliver approximately five times (within 90%) this amount and a 10-gallon accumulator will deliver approximately ten times (within 90%) this amount, etc. From this information an accumulator of sufficient gallonage can be selected which will do the job. Minimum Maximum System Pressure (PSI) Acceptable System 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 Pressure (PSI) 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 9 14 18 23 25 30 35 39 44 49 53 60 65 ----------------------5 9 14 18 23 28 32 37 42 46 51 58 62 -------------------

750

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- ----- --- --- --- --- --- --- --Cubic inches of oil delivered by a 1-gallon accumulator 5 --- --- --- --- --- --- --9 --- --- --- --- --- --- --14 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18 7 --- --- --- --- --- --23 12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28 18 5 --- --- --- --- --32 23 12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39 28 18 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44 35 23 9 --- --- --- --51 42 30 16 - - - - - - - - - - - 58 49 37 25 7 --- --- --62 55 44 32 16 - - - - - - - - --62 51 39 25 - - - - - - - - --- --60 49 35 14 - - - - - --- --- --58 44 25 - - - - - --- --- --67 53 37 12 - - --- --- --- --62 49 25 - - --- --- --- --- --60 39 9 --- --- --- --- --- --53 25 --- --- --- --- --- --69 44

NOTE 1: 231 cubic inches = 1 U.S. gallon. NOTE 2: This chart is calculated using a precharge pressure equal to 90% of the minimum acceptable system pressure with an ambient temperature range between 50F and 120F.

402

Accumulator Circuits
Circuits shown here are limited to basic components. Such items as filters, speed control valves, gauges, etc., are omitted for the sake of clarity. Each circuit shows a basic idea, and the features of more than one circuit can be combined, if desired, to get the desired results. Accumulator Unloading. When the accumulator has been charged to adjustment setting on unloading valve V2, pilot pressure opens V2 and unloads the pump. When the system pressure has dropped about 20%, V2 closes and loads the pump. V2 is not a relief or by-pass valve; it is a special unloading valve with snap action characteristics. This circuit is used for small pumps, up to 20 GPM. For larger pumps, one of the following circuits may be used. High Volume Unloading uses a relatively small accumulator unloading valve, V2, to vent the main relief valve, V1, which is a pilot-operated type of high flow capacity to suit the circuit. Accumulator unloading valves are not usually available in high flow capacities. Electrical Unloading uses a pressure switch, PS, to load and unload the pump for charging the accumulator. This system may work out better with systems using solenoid valves in other parts of the circuit. Cut-in and cut-out pressures can be selected if the pressure switch has an adjustable differential.

V3 V1 PF V2

PRESS. OUT

ACC.

V3 V1 PF V2

PRESS. OUT

ACC.

V3 V1 PF

PRESS. ACC. OUT PS

V2 Basic Accumulator Circuit. For circuits in which the oil flow is required intermittently, with relatively long resting periods between cycles. A low volume pump, PF, running continuously, can store high pressure oil in the accumulator, to be used in large volumes for short periods. Cylinder bore must be large enough so that sufficient force will be obtained even at the end of the required accumulator discharge, just before the pump is connected to recharge the accumulator. Recommendations on the preceding page may be followed to determine the total accumulator capacity needed for a given design. Recharging of the accumulator may take place at any part of the cycle loading, curing, etc. Relief valve V1 is optional, but is recommended for extra safety. V3 V1 PF ACC.
Hi-Lo Circuit. The use of one large and one small accumulator is arranged to perform much like a Hi-Lo pump circuit. During resting periods, both accumulators are charged to full system pressure. When V5 is shifted, oil from the large accumulator provides the necessary volume for rapidly advancing the cylinder, with oil trapped and held at full pressure in the small accumulator during this phase. When the limit switch is actuated, oil from the small accumulator is released by V2 to do the high pressure holding. This high pressure oil closes check valve V4, and the pump starts recharging the large accumulator during the holding cycle. At any time in the loading, pressing, or curing parts of the cycle that the accumulators become fully recharged, valve V1, which is an accumulator unloading valve, will unload the pump.

V2

V4

403

V1 PF

V3

V4 V2 V6 ACC. LARGE ACC. SMALL V5

Fast closing of the cylinder is made possible using an accumulator kept charged by a relatively small volume, low pressure pump, PF1. When the cylinder bottoms out against the work load, PF2, a low volume, high pressure pump, takes over to build up high pressure in the cylinder while PF1 recharges the accumulator. V1 should be an accumulator unloading valve. During idle periods in the cycle, the very low volume of pump PF2 is allowed to discharge over relief valve V2.

V3 V1 PF1

V4 V1 PF2 ACC. V5

Economical Circuit for Long Holding Cycles. Rapid traverse of the cylinder is done with combined oil from both pumps and the accumulator. When the cylinder stalls against the load, pump PF2 takes over and has sufficient flow to maintain full force from the cylinder, with the excess flow charging the accumulator through the restrictor, V4. During the cylinder holding time, pump PF1 is completely unloaded through valve V1, which may be any type of pilotoperated bypass valve. A variation of this circuit would be to omit PF1, V1, and V3 if high

V1 V3 PF1 PF2 V2 V4 V5 V6

ACC.
cylinder speed is not required. Regeneration plus accumulator oil plus pump oil combine to give very rapid advance. Pump plus accumulator plus small rod area combine to give very rapid retraction. Circuit as shown is for high speed travel at low force, as no valving has been provided to get full force on the blind side of the piston at V3 any time. ACC. For best results use a large-rod (2:1 ratio) cylinder. V1 V5 Valves V5 and V6 are pilotPF V2 operated check valves for connecting cylinder blind end either to tank or to rod V4 end. V4 may be a 4-way V6 valve of low capacity, as it handles oil only for the pilots of V5 and V6. Valve V2 is the conventional accumulator unloading valve to unload the pump when the accumulator becomes fully charged. This circuit works best in applications requiring high speed while the cylinder is in motion, but with a relatively long idle time between cycles to give the accumulator time to be recharged. Do not use this circuit on continuously reciprocating applications.

404

Viscosity Rating Systems

Kinematic Viscosity expresses total resistance to fluid flow including internal fluid friction plus effect of mass or weight of the fluid. It is measured in several systems, with equivalent values shown in the chart compared to SUS ratings in the first column. All these systems are based on the time for a quantity of fluid to flow through a standard orifice under specified conditions. In the U.S. the Saybolt Universal Second (SUS) rating is most often used. It is derived from English units. The Centistoke is the standard for international fluid power. It is derived from metric units. (1 Stoke = 100 Centistokes). Absolute Viscosity is an expression only of the internal fluid friction without taking into account the effect of the mass or weight of the fluid. A statement of absolute viscosity must also include a statement of the specific gravity of the fluid. The international standard unit for absolute viscosity is the Poise or Centipoise (1 Poise = 100 Centipoises). It is derived from metric units. In the English system the unit is the Reyn. Centipoise viscosities in the last column of the chart are for any fluid, including standard hydraulic oil, which has a specific gravity of 0.9. The Centipoise is related to the Centistoke. Any value of kinematic viscosity in Centistokes can be converted to absolute viscosity in Centipoises by multiplying Centistokes times the specific gravity. Thus water, with specific gravity of 1.0, has the same kinematic and absolute viscosity ratings. While absolute viscosity is important in scientific processes, it is of little value in fluid power because viscosity effects such as pump cavitation, pressure losses in valving and piping are produced not only by internal fluid friction but by the weight (specific gravity) of the fluid as well. Thus, we express viscosity in kinematic SUS values almost entirely, in the U.S.A. Kinematic Viscosities SUS Saybolt Universal Seconds 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2000 1500 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 90 80 70 60 55 50 45 40 35 SSF Saybolt Seconds Furol 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 150 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 33 24 15 Centistokes 2200 1950 1700 1500 1300 1050 850 630 420 315 220 195 170 150 130 110 87 65 43 20.8 18.3 15.8 13.3 10.5 8.9 7.5 5.9 4.3 2.7 Redwood No. 1 Standard Seconds* 9000 8100 7200 6300 5400 4500 3600 2700 1800 1350 900 810 720 630 540 450 360 270 180 90 81 72 63 54 50 45 41 36 32 Ford No. 3 Seconds 875 788 700 613 525 438 350 263 175 131 87.5 78.5 70.0 61.3 52.5 43.8 35.0 26.3 17.5 8.8 7.9 7.0 6.1 5.3 4.8 4.4 3.9 3.5 3.1 Engler Specific Degrees** 290 266 236 207 177 148 118 89 59 44 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 8.9 5.9 3.0 Absolute Viscosity Centipoises at 0.9 Specific Gravity 1980 1755 1530 1350 1170 945 765 567 378 284 198 175 153 135 117 99 78.3 58.5 38.7 18.7 16.5 14.2 12.0 9.5 8.0 6.8 5.3 3.9 2.4

*For Redwood No. 2 Admiralty Seconds viscosity, divide values in this column by 10. **For Engler viscosity values in seconds, multiply values in this column by 50. Absolute viscosity in Centipoises is related to the specific gravity of the fluid. Values in this column are for hydraulic oil of 0.9 specific gravity. For fluids with other values of specific gravity, Centipoise viscosity is found by multiplying values in Centistokes column by specific gravity of fluid.

405

SUS Viscosity Variation with Temperature

Oil Type 750 SUS Hvd.Oil 500 SUS Hyd.Oil 300 SUS Hyd.Oil 225 SUS Hyd.Oil 150 SUS Hyd.Oil 100 SUS Hyd.Oil 90 SUS Hyd.Oil SAE 10 SAE 20 SAE 30 SAE 40 SAE 50 Pydraul F9 Pydraul 312 Pydraul 625 Skydrol 500A Skydrol 7000 MIL-H-5606A MIL-L-7808 Houghto-Safe 620 Kerosene Diesel Fuel JP4 Fuel SAE 140 Gear Oil Oil Temperature 0F 55,000 22,000 12,000 5000 2200 1700 10,000 27,000 90,000 55,000 420 1900 650 625 4800 160 75 47 20F 55,000 22,000 12,000 5000 2200 1700 10,000 27,000 90,000 55,000 240 650 360 310 2000 110 54 43 40F 10,000 5000 2500 1500 850 440 360 1250 2800 6200 12,000 30,000 4300 3600 60,000 150 300 220 175 980 80 45 40 55,000 60F 3500 2000 1100 720 430 240 200 600 1150 2300 4000 9000 1250 1300 9000 100 165 142 110 500 65 39 18,000 80F 1500 925 550 380 240 150 130 310 550 1000 1600 3200 500 600 2000 75 105 100 78 300 55 6500 90F 1050 650 400 285 190 120 105 240 400 680 1200 2000 325 420 1200 67 88 88 69 240 52 4000 100F 750 500 300 225 150 100 90 180 300 500 750 1400 230 310 630 61 77 78 62 190 49 2700 110F 550 360 230 165 140 85 77 145 230 360 550 950 157 230 400 56 68 70 56 155 47 1900 120F 400 280 185 140 100 74 68 140 180 280 400 680 125 175 260 52 61 64 52 130 45 1350 130F 140F 150F 195 140 110 85 68 55 52 74 99 135 185 280 70 93 98 45 49 52 43 83 40 550 160F 155 115 89 75 62 51 49 66 84 110 150 210 62 80 79 43 46 49 42 75 39 420 180F 110 86 69 61 53 46 44 55 66 80 105 140 51 63 58 41 42 45 39 62 260 200F 82 68 58 52 47 43 42 48 55 64 77 99 45 54 49 40 42 54 175 310 240 220 175 150 122 115 100 87 76 66 60 61 56 100 84 145 115 215 170 300 240 500 370 100 81 140 110 175 125 49 47 56 52 59 55 48 46 110 95 43 41 1000 750

406

Identification of the petroleum base hydraulic oils in the first 7 lines of this chart is by their SUS viscosity ratings at 100F. This data should be approximately correct for any brand of petroleum oil. The values in the chart were taken from the standard SAE viscosity chart. SAE ratings usually cover a range of viscosities, and the approximate SUS range covered by each SAE number is shown to the right.

SAE No. 5W 10W 20W

SUS Range Covered By SAE Oil Ratings SUS Range SAE SUS Range SAE SUS Range @ 100F No. @ 100F No. @ 100F 30-140 140-210 210-500 20 30 40 170-370 370-560 560-810 50 60 70 810-1300 1300-1600 1600-2100

Seal Compatibility with Common Fluids

Leather (Thiokol Impregnated) EPR, EPDM (Nitrile Rubber) Polypropylene 120 (Noryl) Polyethylene High Density Polyethylene Low Density

Polyurethane, Urethane

PVC Polyvinyl Chloride

Teflon 120

Neoprene

Buna-N

Brass

Nylon

Material Air Alkaline Solutions Anti-Freeze (Alcohol Base) Anti-Freeze (Glycol Base) ASTM Reference Fuel A ASTM Reference Fuel B ASTM Reference Fuel C Automatic Transmission Fluid Automotive Gasoline (Standard) Aviation Gasoline, Mil. Chlorinated Water Saturated De-Ionized Water Diesel Oil (Fuel ASTM #2) Drinking Water Gasoline (Sour) Gasoline (Meter) Gasoline (Aviation) Houghto-Safe 271 (Water/Glycol) Houghto-Safe 620 (Water/Glycol) Houghto-Safe 1010 (Phosphate Ester) Houghto-Safe 1055 (Phosphate Ester) Houghto-Safe 1120 (Phosphate Ester) Houghto-Safe 5040 (Water/Oil Emulsion) Hydraulic Oils (Petroleum) Hydraulic Oils (Synthetic) JP-4 (Mil-J-5624) JP-5 (Mil-J-5624) Kerosene Mineral Oil Petroleum Ether Petroleum Oils (Refined) Petroleum Oils (Sour) Petroleum Oils (Crude) Petroleum Oils (Crude, Below 250 F) Petroleum Oils (Crude, Above 250 F) Phosphate Esters Skydrol 500 Skydrol 7000 Transmission Fluid, Type Water, Fresh Water, Distilled

Legend: = Recommended; Performance is not affected. = Fair; Some loss of properties may occur. = Not recommended; Material is unsuitable for service. = No data available at this time. ( ) = Brackets around a rating letter. No data is available, but the rating is made on the basis of exposure tests in similar chemical groups.

407

Viton

Hydraulic Pipe Table

Physical Dimensions and Pressure Ratings

Schedule 40 (Standard Weight) Pipe

Pipe Size 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 O.D. .405 .540 .675 .840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 I.D. .269 .364 .493 .622 .824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 Wall Thickness .068 .088 .091 .109 .113 .133 .140 .145 .154 .203 .216 Inside Area .0568 .1040 .1908 .3037 .5330 .8649 1.495 2.035 3.354 4.785 7.390 Working PSI* 2238 2173 1797 1730 1435 1348 1124 1017 864 941 823 Burst PSI 13,432 13,037 10,785 10,380 8609 8091 6747 6105 5187 5648 4937

Schedule 80 (Extra Strong Weight) Pipe

Pipe Size 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 O.D. .405 .540 .675 .840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 I.D. .215 .302 .423 .546 .742 .957 1.278 1.500 1.939 2.323 2.900 Wall Thickness .095 .119 .126 .147 .154 .179 .191 .200 .218 .276 .300 Inside Area .0363 .0716 .1405 .2340 .4320 .7190 1.282 1.766 2.951 4.236 6.600 Working PSI* 3128 2938 2489 2333 1955 1815 1534 1403 1224 1280 1143 Burst PSI 18,765 17,630 14,933 14,000 11,733 10,890 9205 8421 7343 7680 6857

Schedule 160 Pipe

Pipe Size 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 O.D. .840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 I.D. .464 .612 .815 1.160 1.338 1.687 2.125 2.624 Wall Thickness .188 .219 .250 .250 .281 .344 .375 .438 Inside Area .1690 .2940 .5214 1.056 1.405 2.234 3.545 5.405 Working PSI* 2984 2781 2535 2008 1972 1931 1739 1668 Burst PSI 17,904 16,686 15,200 12,048 11,831 11,587 10,435 10,011

*Working PSI at a safety factor of 6:1. The above charts are for welded and seamless wrought steel pipe. Wall thickness on wrought iron pipe is slightly greater than for steel pipe, and the inside area is, therefore, slightly smaller. Burst strength is about the same. Schedule 40 is the same as standard wall up to 10 inch size. Schedule 80 is the same as extra strong up to 8 inch size. There is no schedule number for double extra strong. Schedule 160 is lighter than double extra strong and heavier than extra strong.

Pressure Ratings
Burst strength has been gured on a tensile strength of 40,000 PSI for butt welded steel pipe. Lap welded steel pipe has a strength of 50,000 PSI, and will stand 20% more pressure than shown in the tables. Burst strength is by Barlow's Formula: P = 2t S O in which P is bursting pressure in PSI, t is wall thickness in inches, S is tensile strength of material in PSI, and O is outside diameter of pipe in inches.

Safety Factor
The working pressure ratings in the next to last column are gured with a safety factor of 6. In the usual hydraulic system a factor of at least 6 should be used. However, to nd working pressure at another safety factor, take the burst pressure rating and divide by the desired safety factor.

408

408

Oil Flow Capacity of Pipes

Schedule 40 (Standard Weight) Pipe
Pipe NPT 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 Ft/Sec. GPM 0.35 0.65 1.19 1.89 3.32 5.39 9.32 12.69 20.92 29.85 46.09 4 Ft/Sec. GPM 0.71 1.30 2.38 3.79 6.65 10.78 18.65 25.38 41.84 59.70 92.18 10 Ft/Sec. GPM 1.77 3.24 5.95 9.47 16.62 26.94 46.62 63.46 104.60 149.24 230.44 15 Ft/Sec. GPM 2.66 4.87 8.93 14.21 24.93 40.41 69.93 95.19 156.90 223.86 345.66 20 Ft/Sec. GPM 3.54 6.49 11.9 18.94 33.25 53.88 93.25 126.92 209.20 298.48 460.88 30 Ft/Sec. GPM 5.31 9.73 17.85 28.41 49.87 80.82 139.87 190.38 313.79 447.72 691.31

Schedule 80 (Extra Strong Weight) Pipe

Pipe NPT 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 Ft/Sec. GPM 0.23 0.45 0.88 1.46 2.70 4.48 8.00 11.02 18.41 26.42 41.18 4 Ft/Sec. GPM 0.45 0.89 1.75 2.92 5.39 8.97 15.99 22.03 36.82 52.84 82.36 10 Ft/Sec. GPM 1.13 2.23 4.38 7.30 13.48 22.42 39.99 55.08 92.04 132.11 205.89 15 Ft/Sec. GPM 1.70 3.35 6.57 10.95 20.22 33.63 59.98 82.63 138.07 198.17 308.84 20 Ft/Sec. GPM 2.26 4.47 8.76 14.60 26.96 44.84 79.97 110.17 184.09 264.22 411.78 30 Ft/Sec. GPM 3.40 6.70 13.14 21.90 40.44 67.26 119.96 165.25 276.13 396.33 617.67

Schedule 160 Pipe

Pipe NPT 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 Ft/Sec. GPM 1.05 1.83 3.25 6.59 8.76 13.93 22.11 33.71 4 Ft/Sec. GPM 2.11 3.67 6.50 13.18 17.52 27.87 44.22 67.43 10 Ft/Sec. GPM 5.27 9.17 16.26 32.94 43.80 69.67 110.55 168.57 15 Ft/Sec. GPM 7.91 13.75 24.39 49.41 65.70 104.51 165.83 252.85 20 Ft/Sec. GPM 10.54 18.34 32.52 65.89 87.59 139.35 221.10 337.13 30 Ft/Sec. GPM 15.81 27.51 48.78 98.83 131.39 209.02 331.65 505.70

Pipe size should be selected on the basis of oil ow velocity. Undersizing results in a high pressure and power loss and system overheating. Oversizing reduces pressure and power losses but may be unnecessarily expensive to plumb.

Pump Suction Lines

Schedule 40 pipe should be used and a size chosen which will keep oil velocity within the range of 2 to 4 feet per second.

Oil Return Lines

Schedule 40 pipe should be used and a size chosen which will keep oil velocity within the range of 10 to 15 feet per second.

Medium Pressure Lines

In those lines carrying 500 to 2000 PSI, ow velocity should be kept at 15 to 20 feet per second. Use Schedule 80 or 160 pipe, or use steel tubing as listed on the next page.

High Pressure Lines

Flow velocity may be allowed up to 30 feet per second in lines carrying 3000 to 5000 PSI. Normally, steel tubing is used, but the tables may be used for nding pipe size, then tubing should be selected with the same inside area.

409

Oil Pressure Loss Through Pipes

Table 1 shows the pressure loss per 100 feet of Schedule 40 pipe. It is for standard hydraulic oil of 0.9 specic gravity and 220 SUS viscosity. For other specic gravities and viscosities, see information at the bottom of this page.

Table 1. Pressure Loss Per 100 Feet of Schedule 40 Pipe

GPM Pipe Pres** Flow Size* Drop Vel 35 1/2 249 36 3/4 83 21 1 32 13 1 11 7.5 1 5.7 5.5 40 3/4 95 24 1 36 15 1 12 8.6 1 6.5 6.3 2 2.4 3.8 45 3/4 106 27 1 41 17 1 14 9.7 1 4.4 7.1 2 2.7 4.3 50 3/4 122 31 1 46 19 1 15 11 1 8.1 7.9 2 3.0 4.8 60 3/4 142 36 1 53 22 1 18 13 1 9.8 9.5 2 3.6 5.7 GPM 70

GPM Pipe Pres** Flow Size* Drop Vel 10 3/8 185 17 1/2 73 11 3/4 24 6.0 1 9.0 3.7 1 3.0 2.2 15 1/2 109 16 3/4 36 9.0 1 14 5.6 1 4.5 3.2 1 2.4 2.4 20 1/2 146 21 3/4 47 12 1 18 7.4 1 6.0 4.3 1 3.2 3.2 25 1/2 180 26 3/4 59 15 1 23 9.3 1 7.6 5.4 1 4.0 3.9 30 1/2 214 31 3/4 71 18 1 27 11 1 9.0 6.4 1 4.8 4.7

80

90

100

125

Pipe Pres** Flow Size* Drop Vel 3/4 205 42 1 63 26 1 21 15 1 11 11 2 4.2 6.7 1 75 31 1 24 17 1 13 13 2 4.8 7.7 2 2.3 5.4 1 80 33 1 27 19 1 15 14 2 5.4 8.6 2 2.6 6.0 1 92 38 1 30 22 1 16 16 2 6.0 9.6 2 2.9 6.7 1 114 47 1 38 27 1 20 20 2 7.5 12 2 9.8 8.4

Table 2. Conversion Factors for Tubing

For pressure loss per 100 feet of tubing, nd tubing I.D. in table below. The next larger NPT size is shown in Column 2. Refer back to Table 1 for pressure loss for this pipe size. Multiply times factor in Column 3 of Table 2; EXAMPLE: For 50 GPM ow through a tube with 1.310 I.D., Column 2 shows 1 NPT to be the next larger pipe size. From Table 1, pressure loss is 15 PSI for 1 pipe. Multiply this times the factor from column 3 of Table 2: 15 PSI 1.11 = 16.65 (or 17) PSI pressure loss per 100 feet. For other schedules of pipe or for hose, ow loss will be in proportion to the inside area of pipe compared to one of the pipe sizes in Table 1. Tube Use Mult. Tube Use Mult. Tube Use Mult. I. D. NPT by I. D. NPT by I. D. NPT by 0.334 3/8 2.18 .760 3/4 1.17 1.134 1 1.48 0.356 3/8 1.92 .782 3/4 1.11 1.152 1 1.43 0.370 3/8 1.77 .810 3/4 1.03 1.260 1 1.20 0.384 3/8 1.65 .834 1 1.58 1.282 1 1.16 0.402 3/8 1.50 .856 1 1.50 1.310 1 1.11 0.416 3/8 1.40 .870 1 1.45 1.334 1 1.07 0.430 3/8 1.31 .884 1 1.41 1.356 1 1.04 0.532 1/2 1.37 .902 1 1.35 1.370 1 1.01 0.560 1/2 1.23 1.010 1 1.08 1.732 2 1.42 0.584 1/2 1.13 1.032 1 1.03 1.760 2 1.38 0.606 1/2 1.08 1.060 1 1.69 1.782 2 1.34 0.620 1/2 1.01 1.084 1 1.62 1.810 2 1.30 0.634 3/4 1.69 1.106 1 1.56 1.834 2 1.27 0.652 3/4 1.60 1.120 1 1.52 1.856 2 1.24 For Flows Not Shown: Pressure loss increases approximately in proportion to the increase in ow or ow velocity. Adjusting for Other Viscosities: Pressure loss through a pipe is directly proportional to uid viscosity (on SUS of 100 and above). A 440 SUS uid would have approximately twice the pressure loss shown in the tables. Adjusting for Specic Gravity: Pressure loss is directly proportional to specic gravity. Water/oil emulsions will have 7% higher, water/glycol uids will have 14%, and phosphate ester uids will have 22% higher pressure loss than calculated from the tables. *Schedule 40 pipe. **PSI loss per 100 feet. Oil ow velocity, ft/second.

410

Carbon Steel Tubing Data

Steel tubing is called out by outside diameter and wall thickness. For hydraulic plumbing a low carbon seamless steel tubing should be used which can be bent and ared without cracking. Order hydraulic grade tubing. Pressure ratings in this table are based on a tubing with tensile strength of 55,000 PSI, and were calculated by Barlows formula: P = 2t S O, in which P = burst strength in PSI, t = wall thickness, S = tensile strength in PSI, and O = outside diameter. This formula may be used to calculate tubing sizes not listed. All dimensions in the table are in inches. For hydraulic plumbing, a safety factor of at least six should be used and ratings for this factor are shown in the table. For pressure rating at other safety factors, take burst PSI and divide by desired safety factor. Wall Thick 0.028 0.032 0.035 3/16 0.032 0.035 1/4 0.035 0.042 0.049 0.058 0.065 5/16 0.035 0.042 0.049 0.058 0.065 3/8 0.035 0.042 0.049 0.058 0.065 1/2 0.035 0.042 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 5/8 0.035 0.042 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 3/4 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 7/8 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 1 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 *Safety factor of 6 Tube O.D. 1/8 Tube Inside I.D. Area 0.069 0.00373 0.061 0.00292 0.055 0.00237 0.1235 0.01197 0.1175 0.01084 0.180 0.02543 0.166 0.02163 0.152 0.01814 0.134 0.01410 0.120 0.01130 0.2425 0.04616 0.2285 0.04099 0.2145 0.03612 0.1965 0.03031 0.1825 0.02615 0.305 0.07302 0.291 0.06647 0.277 0.06023 0.259 0.05266 0.245 0.04712 0.430 0.14515 0.416 0.13585 0.402 0.12686 0.384 0.11575 0.370 0.10747 0.356 0.09949 0.334 0.08757 0.555 0.24180 0.541 0.22975 0.527 0.21802 0.509 0.20338 0.495 0.19234 0.481 0.18162 0.459 0.16538 0.435 0.14854 0.652 0.33371 0.634 0.31554 0.620 0.30175 0.606 0.28128 0.584 0.26773 0.560 0.24618 0.532 0.22217 0.777 0.47393 0.759 0.45222 0.745 0.43569 0.731 0.41947 0.709 0.39460 0.685 0.36834 0.657 0.33884 0.902 0.63868 0.884 0.61344 0.870 0.59417 0.856 0.57520 0.834 0.54601 0.810 0.51504 0.782 0.48005 0.760 0.45342 **Safety factor of 8. Burst Working Working PSI PSI @ 6* PSI @ 8** 24,640 4,107 3,080 28,160 4,693 3,520 30,800 5133 3,850 18,773 3,130 2,347 20,533 3,422 2,567 15,400 2,567 1,925 18,480 3,080 2,310 21,560 3,593 2,695 25,520 4,253 3,190 28,600 4,767 3,575 12,320 2,053 1,540 14,784 2,464 1,848 17,248 2,875 2,156 20,416 3,403 2,552 22,880 3,813 2,860 10,267 1,711 1,283 12,320 2,053 1,540 14,373 2,396 1,797 17,013 2,835 2,127 19,067 3,178 2,383 7,700 1,283 963 9,240 1,540 1,155 10,780 1,797 1,348 12,760 2,127 1,595 14,300 2,383 1,788 15,840 2,640 1,980 18,260 3,043 2,283 6,160 1,027 770 7,392 1,232 924 8,624 1,437 1,078 10,208 1,701 1,276 11,440 1,907 1,430 12,672 2,112 1,584 14,608 2,435 1,826 16,720 2,787 2,090 7,187 1,198 898 8,507 1,418 1,063 9,533 1,589 1,192 10,560 1,760 1,320 12,173 2,029 1,522 13,933 2,322 1,742 15,987 2,664 1,998 6,160 1,027 770 7,291 1,215 911 8,171 1,362 1,021 9,051 1,509 1,131 10,434 1,739 1,304 11,943 1,990 1,493 13,703 2,284 1,713 5,390 898 674 6,380 1,063 798 7,150 1,192 894 7,920 1,320 990 9,130 1,522 1,141 10,450 1,742 1,306 11,990 1,998 1,500 13,200 2,200 1,650 Table continued on next page.

411

Carbon Steel Tubing Data (cont.)

Tube O.D. 1 Wall Thick 0.490 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.134 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.134 Tube I.D. 1.152 1.134 1.120 1.106 1.084 1.060 1.032 1.010 1.370 1.356 1.334 1.310 1.282 1.260 1.620 1.606 1.584 1.560 1.532 1.510 1.482 1.870 1.856 1.834 1.810 1.782 1.760 1.732 Inside Area 1.0418 1.0095 0.98470 0.96024 0.92242 0.88203 0.83604 0.80078 1.4734 1.4434 1.3970 1.3471 1.2902 1.2463 2.0602 2.0247 1.9696 1.9104 1.8424 1.7899 1.7241 2.7451 2.7041 2.6404 2.5717 2.4928 2.4316 2.3549 Burst PSI 4,312 5,104 5,720 6,336 7,304 8,360 9,592 10,560 4,767 5,280 6,087 6,967 7,993 8,800 4,086 4,526 5,217 5,971 6,851 7,543 8,423 3,575 3,960 4,565 5,225 5,995 6,600 7,370 Working Working PSI @ 6* PSI @ 8** 719 539 851 638 953 715 1,056 792 1,217 913 1,393 1,045 1,600 1,200 1,760 1,320 794 596 880 660 1,014 761 1,161 871 1,332 1,000 1,467 1,100 681 511 754 566 870 652 995 746 1,142 856 1,257 943 1,404 1,053 596 447 660 495 761 571 871 653 1,000 749 1,100 825 1,228 921

Copper Tubing Data

Burst pressures are calculated by Barlows formula: P = 2t S O in which P is burst pressure PSI; t is tubing wall thickness; S is ultimate strength of material (32,000 PSI for copper); and O is outside diameter of tubing. Tube O.D. 1/4 5/16 3/8 1/2 Wall Thick 0.030 0.049 0.032 0.049 0.032 0.058 0.072 0.032 0.049 0.058 0.072 0.035 0.049 0.065 0.035 0.049 0.065 0.045 0.065 0.065 0.050 0.083 0.055 Tube I.D. 0.190 0.152 0.249 0.215 0.311 0.259 0.231 0.436 0.402 0.384 0.356 0.555 0.527 0.495 0.680 0.652 0.620 0.785 0.745 0.870 1.025 1.084 1.265 Inside Area 0.02834 0.01814 0.04848 0.03612 0.07593 0.05266 0.04189 0.14922 0.12686 0.11575 0.09949 0.24180 0.21801 0.19234 0.36298 0.33710 0.30175 0.48374 0.43570 0.59417 0.82474 0.92242 1.25620 Burst PSI 7,680 12,544 6,554 10,035 5,461 9,899 12,288 4,096 6,272 7,424 5,376 3,584 5,018 6,656 2,987 4,181 5,547 3,291 4,754 4,160 2,844 4,250 2,560 Working Working PSI @ 6* PSI @ 8** 1,280 960 2,090 1,568 1,092 819 1,673 1,254 910 683 1,650 1,237 2,048 1,536 683 512 1,045 784 1,237 928 896 672 597 448 836 627 1,109 832 498 373 697 523 924 693 549 411 792 594 693 520 474 356 708 531 427 320

5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1 1

*Safety factor of 6:1 **Safety factor of 8:1 These are standard refrigeration sizes available at all mill supply houses.

412

Stainless Steel Tubing Data

Stainless steel tubing is sometimes employed either to handle corrosive uids or higher pressures. If assembled with are-type ttings, great care must be used not to crack the tubing while aring. Pressure ratings are based on a maximum strength of 75,000 PSI, typical of Types 302, 303, 304, 309, 310, 316, 321, and 416. Types 202 and 440C have 100,000 PSI while Types 410 and 430 have only 60,000 PSI maximum. In hydraulic systems, a safety factor of at least six (6) should be used if there is likely to be any shock in the system. To calculate working pressure at any safety factor, take burst strength and divide by desired safety factor. Pressure ratings were calculated by Barlow's formula: P = 2t x S O, in which P is burst pressure in PSI, t is tubing wall thickness, S is maximum strength of tube material in PSI, O is tube O.D. All dimensions are in inches. Tube O.D. 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 Wall Thickness 0.032 0.032 0.035 0.035 0.049 0.035 0.049 0.058 0.035 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.035 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.049 0.058 0.065 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.134 factor of 6:1 Tube I.D. 0.061 0.124 0.118 0.180 0.152 0.243 0.215 0.197 0.305 0.277 0.259 0.245 0.430 0.402 0.384 0.370 0.356 0.334 0.527 0.509 0.495 0.481 0.459 0.435 0.652 0.634 0.620 0.606 0.584 0.560 0.777 0.759 0.745 0.731 0.709 0.685 0.657 0.902 0.884 0.870 0.856 0.834 0.810 0.782 1.084 1.060 1.032 1.010 1.310 1.282 1.260 1.232 Inside Burst Area PSI 0.00292 38,400 0.01197 25,600 0.01084 28,000 0.02543 21,000 0.01814 29,400 0.04616 16,800 0.03612 23,520 0.03031 27,840 0.07302 14,000 0.06023 19,600 0.05266 23,200 0.04712 26,000 0.14515 10,500 0.12686 14,700 0.11575 17,400 0.10747 19,500 0.09949 21,600 0.08757 24,900 0.21802 11,760 0.20338 13,920 0.19234 15,600 0.18162 17,280 0.16538 19,920 0.14854 22,800 0.33371 9,800 0.31554 11,600 0.30175 13,000 0.28828 14,400 0.26773 16,600 0.24618 19,000 0.47393 8,400 0.45222 9,943 0.43569 11,143 0.41947 12,343 0.39460 14,229 0.36834 18,153 0.33884 18,686 0.63868 7,350 0.61344 8,700 0.59417 9,750 0.57520 10,800 0.54601 12,450 0.51504 14,250 0.48005 16,350 0.92242 9,960 0.88203 11,400 0.83604 13,080 0.80078 14,400 1.3471 9,500 1.2902 10,900 1.2463 12,000 1.1915 13,400 **Safety factor of 8:1 Working PSI @ 6* 6,400 4,267 4,667 3,500 4,900 2,800 3,920 4,640 2,333 3,267 3,867 4,333 1,750 2,450 2,900 3,250 3,600 4,150 1,960 2,320 2,600 2,880 3,320 3,800 1,633 1,933 2,167 2,400 2,767 3,167 1,400 1,657 1,857 2,057 2,371 3,025 3,114 1,225 1,450 1,625 1,800 2,075 2,375 2,725 1,660 1,900 2,180 2,400 1,583 1,817 2,000 2,233 Working PSI @ 8** 4,800 3,200 3,500 2,625 3,675 1,000 2,940 3,480 1,750 2,456 2,900 3,250 1,313 1,842 2,175 2,438 2,700 3,113 1,470 1,740 1,950 2,160 2,490 2,850 1,225 1,450 1,625 1,800 2,075 2,375 1,050 1,243 1,393 1,543 1,779 2,269 2,336 919 1,088 1,219 1,350 1,556 1,781 2,044 1,245 1,425 1,635 1,800 1,188 1,363 1,500 1,675

1/2

5/8

3/4

7/8

*Safety

413

Oil Flow Capacity of Tubing

Figures in the chart are GPM ow capacities of tubing, and were calculated from the formula: GPM = V A 3208, in which V = velocity of ow in feet per second, and A is inside square inch area of tubing.

Figures in body of chart are GPM ows

Tube O.D. 1/2 Wall Thick .035 .042 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .035 .042 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .095 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .120 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .120 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .120 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .120 .134 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .120 .134 2 Ft/Sec GPM .905 .847 .791 .722 .670 .620 .546 1.510 1.430 1.360 1.270 1.200 1.130 1.030 .926 2.08 1.97 1.88 1.75 1.67 1.53 1.39 2.95 2.82 2.72 2.62 2.46 2.30 2.11 3.98 3.82 3.70 3.59 3.40 3.21 3.00 2.83 6.50 6.29 6.14 6.00 5.75 5.50 5.21 5.00 9.19 9.00 8.71 8.40 8.04 7.77 12.8 12.6 12.3 11.9 11.5 11.2 10.7 17.1 16.9 16.5 16.0 15.5 15.2 14.7 4 Ft/Sec GPM 1.81 1.63 1.58 1.44 1.34 1.24 1.09 3.01 2.85 2.72 2.54 2.40 2.26 2.06 1.85 4.17 3.93 3.76 3.51 3.34 3.07 2.77 5.91 5.64 5.43 5.23 4.92 4.60 4.22 7.96 7.65 7.41 7.17 6.81 6.42 6.00 5.65 13.0 12.6 12.3 12.0 11.5 11.0 10.4 10.0 18.4 18.0 17.4 16.8 16.1 15.5 25.7 25.2 24.6 23.8 23.0 22.3 21.5 34.2 33.7 32.9 32.1 31.1 30.3 29.4 10 Ft/Sec GPM 4.52 4.23 3.95 3.61 3.35 3.10 2.73 7.54 7.16 6.80 6.34 6.00 5.66 5.16 4.63 10.4 9.84 9.41 8.77 8.35 7.67 6.93 14.8 14.1 13.6 13.1 12.3 11.5 10.6 19.9 19.1 18.5 17.9 17.0 16.1 15.0 14.1 32.5 31.5 30.7 30.0 28.8 27.5 26.1 25.0 45.9 45.0 43.5 42.0 40.2 38.8 64.2 63.1 61.4 59.6 57.4 55.8 53.7 85.6 84.3 82.3 80.2 77.7 75.8 73.4 15 Ft/Sec GPM 6.79 6.35 5.93 5.41 5.03 4.65 4.09 11.3 10.7 10.2 9.51 9.00 8.49 7.73 6.95 15.6 14.8 14.1 13.2 12.5 11.5 10.4 22.2 21.1 20.4 19.6 18.5 17.2 15.8 29.9 28.7 27.8 26.9 25.5 24.1 22.4 21.2 48.7 47.2 46.0 44.9 43.1 41.2 39.1 37.4 68.9 67.5 65.3 63.0 60.3 58.3 96.3 94.7 92.1 89.3 86.1 83.7 80.6 128 126 123 120 117 114 110 20 Ft/Sec GPM 9.05 8.47 7.91 7.22 6.70 6.20 5.46 15.1 14.3 13.6 12.7 12.0 11.3 10.3 9.26 20.8 19.7 18.8 17.5 16.7 15.3 13.9 29.5 28.2 27.2 26.2 24.6 23.0 21.1 39.8 38.2 37.0 35.9 34.0 32.1 29.9 28.3 64.9 62.9 61.4 59.9 57.5 55.0 52.1 50.0 91.9 90.0 87.1 84.0 80.4 77.7 128 126 123 119 115 112 107 171 169 165 160 155 152 147 30 Ft/Sec GPM 13.6 12.7 11.9 10.8 10.1 9.30 8.18 22.6 21.4 20.4 19.0 18.0 17.0 15.5 13.9 31.2 29.6 28.2 26.4 25.0 23.0 20.8 44.3 42.3 40.7 39.2 36.9 34.4 31.7 59.7 57.4 55.6 53.8 51.1 48.2 44.9 42.4 97.4 94.4 92.1 89.8 86.3 82.5 78.2 74.9 138 135 131 126 121 117 193 189 184 179 172 167 161 257 253 247 240 233 227 220

5/8

3/4

7/8

414

Air Line Pipe Size

Figures in body of chart are pipe sizes on a 100 PSI air system to carry air at about a 1 PSI per 100 feet pressure loss. When measuring piping distances, to be conservative, count each pipe tting as equal to 5 feet of pipe. At other than 100 PSI, ow capacity will be in inverse proportion to pressure (as based on PSIA (absolute) pressure levels and calculated by Boyles Law). Length of Run Feet SCFM Compr. Flow HP 25 50 75 100 150 200 300 500 1000 6 18 30 45 60 90 120 150 180 240 300 360 450 600 750 1/2 1/2 3/4 3/4 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1/2 1/2 3/4 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1/2 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1/2 3/4 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3/4 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3/4 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 1 3 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125

Air Pressure Loss

Figures in this table are approximate PSI compressed air pressure losses for every 100 feet of clean commercial steel pipe, Schedule 40.

Nominal Pipe Diameter

CFM Free Air 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 1/2 INCH 80 PSI .45 1.75 3.85 6.95 10.5 125 PSI .30 1.15 2.55 4.55 7.00 3/4 INCH 80 PSI .11 .40 .90 1.55 2.40 3.45 4.75 6.15 7.75 9.60 15.5 23.0 125 PSI .08 .28 .60 1.05 1.60 2.35 3.15 4.10 5.15 6.35 9.80 14.5 1 INCH 80 PSI .04 .15 .30 .45 .75 1.00 1.35 1.75 2.25 2.70 4.20 5.75 8.10 10.9 125 PSI .02 .08 .20 .30 .50 .70 .90 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.80 4.00 5.45 7.10 1 INCH 80 PSI .18 .25 .35 .45 .55 .65 1.05 1.45 2.00 2.60 4.05 5.80 7.90 10.3 125 PSI .12 .17 .23 .30 .40 .45 .70 1.00 1.30 1.75 2.65 3.85 5.15 6.75 1 INCH 80 PSI .16 .20 .25 .30 .45 .65 .90 1.15 1.80 2.55 3.55 4.55 5.80 7.10 125 PSI .10 .14 .17 .20 .32 .45 .60 .80 1.20 1.70 2.35 3.05 3.80 4.70

415

Air Flow Through Orifices

Figures in this chart show theoretical SCFM air ow through sharp edged orices. In practice, only about 2/3rds of this ow is obtained. The chart may be useful for roughly estimating travel speed of a loaded air cylinder. Assume about 75% of the line PSI is actually working on the load, with the remaining 25% consumed in ow losses in the 4way valve and connecting lines. Calculate 75% of your incoming line PSI and use this gure to enter the rst column in this chart. Move across the table to the column headed by the actual port size of the 4way valve in the circuit. Use about half the ow shown, because a 4way valve is not a sharp edged orice, and will usually pass only about half as much air as a sharp edged orice. After nding the SCFM (free air) ow, convert this to CFM (compressed air ow) at the pressure required to move the load. From this the speed of travel of the air cylinder can be estimated. Chart shows approximate SCFM (free air) ow through sharp edged orices. PSI Orice Diameter, in Inches Across Orice 1/64 1/32 1/16 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 5 .062 .249 .993 3.97 15.9 35.7 63.5 99.3 143 195 254 6 .068 .272 1.09 4.34 17.4 39.1 69.5 109 156 213 278 7 .073 .293 1.17 4.68 18.7 42.2 75.0 117 168 230 300 9 .083 .331 1.32 5.30 21.2 47.7 84.7 132 191 260 339 12 .095 .379 1.52 6.07 24.3 54.6 97.0 152 218 297 388 15 .105 .420 1.68 6.72 26.9 60.5 108 168 242 329 430 20 .123 .491 1.96 7.86 31.4 70.7 126 196 283 385 503 25 .140 .562 2.25 8.98 35.9 80.9 144 225 323 440 575 30 .158 .633 2.53 10.1 40.5 91.1 162 253 365 496 648 35 .176 .703 2.81 11.3 45.0 101 180 281 405 551 720 40 .194 .774 3.10 12.4 49.6 112 198 310 446 607 793 45 .211 .845 3.38 13.5 54.1 122 216 338 487 662 865 50 .229 .916 3.66 14.7 58.6 132 235 366 528 718 938 60 .264 1.06 4.23 16.9 67.6 152 271 423 609 828 1082 70 .300 1.20 4.79 19.2 76.7 173 307 479 690 939 1227 80 .335 1.34 5.36 21.4 85.7 193 343 536 771 1050 1371 90 .370 1.48 5.92 23.7 94.8 213 379 592 853 1161 1516 100 .406 1.62 6.49 26.0 104 234 415 649 934 1272 1661 110 .441 1.76 7.05 28.2 113 254 452 705 1016 1383 1806 120 .476 1.91 7.62 30.5 122 274 488 762 1097 1494 1951 130 .494 1.98 7.90 31.6 126 284 506 790 1138 1549 2023

Vacuum Flow Through Orifices

This chart approximates the ow that might be expected through a practical orice. Flows are about 2/3rds the theoretical ow obtained through a sharp edged orice. At best, these gures are only approximate because the ow characteristic of your orice can only be determined by actual measurement under specied conditions. DESIGN NOTE: This chart shows that multiple-hole grippers work more efciently at reasonably high vacuums. For example, looking at the chart for a 1/4 diameter hole, the rst 6 Hg of vacuum ows 8.25 SCFM, while the increase in ow over the last 6, from 18 to 24, is only 2.2 SCFM. The more efcient design would be to use more smaller holes working at a higher vacuum. Figures in body of chart are air ows in SCFM (standard cubic feet/minute) Orice Degree of Vacuum Across Orice, Inches Mercury (Hg) Diam., Inches 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 18 24 1/64 .018 .026 .032 .037 .041 .045 .048 .055 .063 1/32 .074 .100 .128 .148 .165 .180 .195 .220 .250 1/16 .300 .420 .517 .595 .660 .725 .780 .880 1.00 1/8 1.20 1.68 2.06 2.37 2.64 2.89 3.12 3.53 4.04 1/4 4.78 6.74 8.25 9.52 10.6 11.6 12.4 14.0 16.2 3/8 10.8 15.2 18.5 21.4 23.8 26.0 28.0 31.8 36.4 1/2 19.1 27.0 33.0 38.5 42.3 46.3 50.0 56.5 64.6 5/8 30.0 42.2 51.7 59.5 66.2 72.6 78.0 88.0 101 3/4 43.0 60.6 74.0 85.3 95.2 104 112 127 145 7/8 58.8 82.6 101 116 130 142 153 173 198 1 76.5 108 131 152 169 185 200 225 258

416

416

Oil Flow Through Orifices

These charts show PSI pressure drops to be expected in hydraulic oil when owing through sharp edged orices. Caution! Calculated pressure drops are only approximate because factors such as specic gravity, viscosity, shape of orice, and plumbing ahead of and following the orice may cause variations. It is best to make the orice slightly undersize to start, then to gradually enlarge it while measuring actual pressure drop. By making the orice as sharp edged as possible, it becomes less sensitive to oil temperature changes (which affect oil viscosity). Specic gravity of the uid signicantly inuences the pressure drop, which increases approximately as the square of the increase of specic gravity. The charts were calculated for oil with a gravity of 0.9, a close approximation for hydraulic oil. Using other uids, a multiplying factor must be applied to chart values. For example, to nd the pressure drop of water, which has a gravity of 1.00, nd the multiplier as follows: 1.00 2 0.9 2 = 1.00 0.81 = 1.23 Multiplying Factor Therefore, multiply all chart values by 1.23 when calculating for water ow. These charts were calculated from information supplied by Double A Products Co. The constant, 23.5, shown in the formula below was developed experimentally by measuring pressure drops across average orices. Values not shown may be calculated from the same basic formula used in calculating the chart: P = GPM 23.5 A Pressure Drop
2

Pressure Drop Across Orices from 3/64 to 3/16

Figures in the body of these charts are PSI pressure drops to be expected in a ow of hydraulic oil across sharp edged orices of various diameters. GPM 3 4 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 27 30 35 40 Orice Diameters in Inches 3/64 1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64 5445 1730 710 340 185 110 68 44 30 3075 1260 608 328 192 120 79 54 4803 1970 950 513 300 188 123 84 4430 2140 1155 677 422 277 189 3800 2050 1205 750 493 336 3205 1880 1175 770 526 4615 2705 1690 1110 757 3685 2300 1510 1030 4810 3005 1970 1345 3800 2495 1705 Chart Values are in PSI 4690 3080 2100 3725 2545 4435 3025 4120 3/16 21 38 59 134 238 371 534 727 950 1205 1485 1795 2140 2910 3800

Pressure Drop Across Orices from 13/64 to 1/2

GPM 3 4 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 27 30 35 40 13/64 16 28 43 97 172 270 388 528 690 873 1075 1305 1550 2115 2760 7/32 12 21 32 72 128 200 288 393 513 649 800 970 1155 1570 2050 Orice Diameters in Inches 15/64 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 7/16 1/2 16 12 Chart Values are in PSI 25 19 12 55 42 26 17 12 98 75 47 31 21 15 153 117 73 48 33 23 13 220 169 106 69 47 33 18 11 300 230 144 94 64 45 25 14 392 301 188 123 84 59 32 19 496 380 237 156 106 75 41 24 612 470 293 192 131 93 50 29 741 568 355 233 159 112 61 36 880 675 420 277 189 134 72 42 1200 920 575 377 258 182 98 58 1570 1200 751 492 336 237 128 75

417

Flange Dimensional Data

Pipe Threaded O-Ring Flange
3000 PSI Only
A C Y K L
.170 .165

Socket Weld O-Ring Flange

500 PSI, 3000 PSI, 6000 PSI
A C Y
E F
.040 Max. .170 .155

Socket Weld Flange

500 PSI, 3000 PSI, 6000 PSI
A C
Y
.040 Max.

Four Bolt Split Flange

500 PSI, 3000 PSI, 6000 PSI
O-Ring Packing Finished Hexagon Bolt SAE Grade 5

E F
Y

D B

D B G

D B G

Y O-4 Holes

M P-Spotface N-Female
NPTF Thd. Section Y-Y

.115 .110

Y O-4 Holes

.115 .110 Section Y-Y

Y R-4 Holes

Section Y-Y

Section Y-Y

Nom. Flng. Size 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3

A 1.87 2.06 2.31 2.88 3.25 3.81 4.28 5.16 5.12 5.50 6.00 7.12 1.88 2.38 2.75 3.06 3.75 4.50 5.87 7.00

B 2.12 2.56 2.75 3.12 3.69 4.00 4.50 5.31 5.31 6.00 6.38 7.25 2.22 2.81 3.19 3.75 4.44 5.25 6.87 8.50

C D +0.010 +0.010 0.688 0.875 1.031 1.188 1.406 1.688 2.000 2.438 2.438 2.750 3.062 3.625 0.718 0.937 1.093 1.250 1.437 1.750 2.312 2.812 1.500 1.875 2.062 2.312 2.750 3.062 3.500 4.188 4.188 4.750 5.125 6.000 1.594 2.000 2.250 2.625 3.125 3.812 4.875 6.000

E 0.75 0.75 0.87 0.94 1.19 1.37 1.75 2.12 1.37 1.44 1.50 1.75 0.87 0.87 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.06 2.62

F 0.19 0.19 0.25 0.25 0.44 0.50 0.75 0.87 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.37 0.25 0.25 0.37 0.56 0.75 0.87 1.06 1.37

G H DIA. DIA. 0.855 1.063 1.328 1.672 1.923 2.406 2.906 3.547 3.547 4.047 4.578 5.797 0.855 1.063 1.328 1.672 1.923 2.406 2.906 3.547 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

J DIA.

N NPTF O Thrd. DIA.

P DIA. 0.469 0.594 0.594 0.656 0.781 0.781 0.781 0.937

R Thrd. UNC-3 5/16-18 3/8-16 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 1/2-13 1/2-13 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/16-18 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 5/8-11 3/4-10 7/8-9 1-7

SOC HD Cap Screw (Thrd. Flng.) 5/16-18x1 Lg. 3/8-16x1 Lg. 3/8-16x1 Lg. 7/16-14x1 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg.

HEX or SOC HD O-Ring ARP-568 Cap Screw Uniform (Socket Weld) Dash # 5/16-18x1 Lg. 3/8-16x1 Lg. 3/8-16x1 Lg. 7/16-14x1 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 5/8-11x3 Lg. 5/8-11x2 Lg. 5/8-11x2 Lg. 5/8-11x2 Lg. 5/8-11x2 Lg. 5/16-18x1 Lg. 3/8-16x1 Lg. 7/16-14x1 Lg. 1/2-13x2 Lg. 5/8-11x2 Lg. 3/4-10x3 Lg. 7/8-9x3 Lg. 1-7x4 Lg. -210 -214 -219 -222 -225 -228 -232 -237 -237 -241 -245 -253 -210 -214 -219 -222 -225 -228 -232 -237

418

3000 PSI Recommended Working Pressure 1.005/1.000 1.25 0.91 0.87 1/2 0.344 1.255/1.250 1.25 0.84 0.87 3/4 0.406 1.565/1.560 1.37 0.97 1.12 1 0.406 1.755/1.750 1.50 1.03 1.12 1 0.469 2.125/2.115 1.62 1.09 1.12 1 0.531 2.500/2.490 1.62 1.09 1.12 2 0.531 3.005/2.995 2.00 1.47 1.56 2 0.531 3.625/3.615 2.00 1.59 1.72 3 0.656 500 PSI Recommended Working Pressure 3.625/3.615 0.656 4.115/4.095 0.656 4.615/4.595 0.656 5.615/5.595 0.656 6000 PSI Recommended Working Pressure 1.005/1.000 0.344 1.255/1.250 0.406 1.565/1.560 0.469 1.755/1.750 0.531 2.125/2.115 0.656 2.500/2.490 0.781 3.005/2.995 0.906 3.625/3.615 1.156

Straight Thread Fitting Sizes

This chart gives thread size and O-ring size as used on straight thread connectors, straight thread tube ttings, etc. These sizes are applicable for SAE, AN, and MS connections. O-rings used for straight connectors do not conform to so-called standard size. They should be purchased specically for this service and should conform to dimensions shown. Fitting Dash No. 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 24 32 Tubing O.D. 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1 2 Thread Size 5/1624 3/824 7/1620 1/220 9/1618 3/416 7/814 112 112 112 112 112 212 ARP 568 Uniform Dash No. 902 903 904 905 906 908 910 912 914 916 920 924 932 O-Ring I.D. 0.239 0.301 0.351 0.414 0.468 0.644 0.755 0.924 1.048 1.171 1.475 1.720 2.337 O-Ring Thickness 0.064 0.064 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.087 0.097 0.116 0.116 0.116 0.118 0.118 0.118

Equivalent Pipe & Tubing Sizes

This table suggests a comparable size when going from pipe into tubing and vice versa. These sizes have approximately equal ow capacity. For sizes over one inch, use pipe and tubing of the same size rating. Tubing O.D., Inches Pipe Size NPT 1/4 1/8 5/16 1/8 3/8 1/4 1/2 3/8 5/8 1/2 3/4 3/4 7/8 3/4 1 1

ISO Standardization Effort

The International Standards Organization (ISO) is attempting to establish a set of port and tube/hose connection standards for worldwide use. They intend to recognize 10 standards as outlined in the table below. They endorse strongly the ISO 6149 port standard for all new designs in hydraulic uid power. Tube/Hose Connection Application For All Designs Port 24 Cone Bite Type 37 Flare Metric ORFS 24 Cone Weld Nipple

Metric ISO 6149 ISO 8434-1 ISO 8434-2 ISO 8434-3 ISO 8434-4 (SAE J2244) ISO 8434-4

BSPP Not For New ISO 1179 ISO 8434-1 ISO 8434-2 Designs In Hydraulic Fluid (DIN 3852-2) Power Metric ISO 9974 ISO 8434-1 (DIN 3852-1) UN/UNF ISO 11926 (SAE J1926) ISO 8434-2

ISO 8434-4

419

Thread Forms of Fluid Connectors

National Pipe Thread Fuel (NPTF)
Thread conforms to ANSI B1.20.3 Physically interchangeable with NPT but has modified threads for better pressure tight sealing Tapered thread profile seals by metal to metal interference fit, usually requires sealing compound for pressure tight connections Pitch and diameter are measured in inches Taper angle is 0.75 per foot or 1 47 Thread angle is 60

Straight Thread O-Ring (SAE)

Thread conforms to ISO 263 and ANSI B1.1 Unified Port conforms to ISO 11926 and SAE J1926 Commonly called straight thread O-ring fittings Pitch and diameter are measured in inches, 1-12 UN-2B Threads are parallel and requires O-ring for pressure tight connection Thread angle is 60

British Standard Pipe Tapered (BSPT)

Thread conforms to ISO 7 Pitch and diameter are measured in inches, e.g. G3/8-19 Tapered thread profile seals by metal to metal interference fit, usually requires sealing compound for pressure tight connection Taper angle is 1 47, the same as NPT(F) Thread angle is 55 Not interchangeable with NPT(F)

British Standard Pipe Parallel (BSPP)

Thread conforms to ISO 228-1 Port conforms to ISO 1179 Pitch and diameter measured in inches, e.g. G1/4-19 Parallel threads require O-ring, crush washer, gasket or metal to metal seal between connections for pressure tight connection Thread angle is 55 Not interchangeable with SAE or NPT(F)

Metric Straight Thread O-Ring

Thread conforms to ISO 261 Port conforms to ISO 6149 and SAE J2244 Pitch and diameter measured in millimeters, e.g. M22 x 1.5 Parallel threads require O-ring for pressure tight connection Thread angle is 60 Easily identified by raised ridge on female port counterbore Not interchangeable with SAE or BSPP

420

Common O-Ring Sizes

Dimensions are O.D. inches. Sizes are ARP 568 Uniform Dash No. 1/16 Section Size O.D. 1/4 006 9/32 007 5/16 008 11/32 009 3/8 010 7/16 011 1/2 012 9/16 013 5/8 014 11/16 015 3/4 016 13/16 017 7/8 018 15/16 019 1 020 1 021 1 022 1 023 1 024 1 025 1 026 1 027 1 028 1 029 1 030 1 031 2 032 2 033 2 034 2 035 2 036 2 037 2 038 2 039 3 040 3 041 3 042 3 043 3 044 4 045 4 046 4 047 4 048 5 049 5 050 3/32 Section 1/4 102 9/32 103 5/16 104 11/32 105 3/8 106 13/32 107 7/16 108 1/2 109 9/16 110 5/8 111 11/16 112 3/4 113 13/16 114 7/8 115 15/16 116 1 117 1 118 1 119 1 120 1 121 1 122 1 123 1 124 1 125 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 165 166 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378

1/8 Section 3/4 206 13/16 207 7/8 208 13/16 209 1 210 1 211 1 212 1 213 1 214 1 215 1 216 1 217 1 218 1 219 1 220 1 221 1 222 1 223 2 224 2 225

3/16 Section 13/16 309 7/8 310 15/16 311 1 312 1 313 1 314 1 315 1 316 1 317 1 318 1 319 1 320 1 321 1 322 1 323 1 324 1 325 2 326 2 327 2 328 2 329 2 330 2 331

1/4 Section 5 425 5 426 5 427 5 428 5 429 5 430 5 431 5 432 6 433 6 434 6 435 6 436 6 437 6 438 7 439 7 440 7 441 7 442 8 443 8 444 8 445 9 446 9 447 10 448 10 449 11 450

421

U.S. Twist Drill Diameters

Fractional drill sizes are not shown. They are available in increments of 1/64 from 1/64 through 1; sometimes larger. Conversion tables from fractions to decimal and metric equivalents will be found on page 451. The holes produced by these drills may be slightly oversize. Recommended drill sizes for hole tapping of U. S. threads are shown on page 423. Drill sizes for pipe tapping are shown on page 424. Drill Number 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 Inch Diameter 0.0063 0.0067 0.0071 0.0075 0.0079 0.0083 0.0087 0.0091 0.0095 0.0100 0.0105 0.0110 0.0115 0.0120 0.0125 0.0130 0.0135 0.0145 0.0160 0.0180 0.0200 0.0210 0.0225 0.0240 0.0250 0.0260 0.0280 0.0292 0.0310 0.0320 0.0330 0.0350 0.0360 0.0370 0.0380 0.0390 0.0400 0.0410 0.0420 0.0430 0.0465 0.0520 0.0550 0.0595 0.0635 0.0670 0.0700 0.0730 0.0760 0.0785 0.0810 0.0820 0.0860 0.0890 0.0935 0.0960 0.0980 0.0995 0.1015 0.1040 0.1065 mm Diameter 0.160 0.170 0.180 0.190 0.200 0.211 0.221 0.231 0.241 0.254 0.267 0.280 0.292 0.305 0.318 0.330 0.343 0.368 0.406 0.457 0.508 0.533 0.572 0.610 0.635 0.660 0.711 0.742 0.787 0.813 0.838 0.889 0.914 0.940 0.955 0.991 1.016 1.041 1.067 1.092 1.181 1.321 1.397 1.511 1.613 1.702 1.778 1.854 1.930 1.994 2.057 2.083 2.184 2.261 2.375 2.438 2.489 2.527 2.578 2.642 2.705 Drill Number 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Inch Diameter 0.1100 0.1110 0.1130 0.1160 0.1200 0.1285 0.1360 0.1405 0.1440 0.1470 0.1495 0.1520 0.1540 0.1570 0.1590 0.1610 0.1660 0.1695 0.1730 0.1770 0.1800 0.1820 0.1850 0.1890 0.1910 0.1935 0.1960 0.1990 0.2010 0.2040 0.2055 0.2090 0.2130 0.2210 0.2280 0.2340 0.2380 0.2420 0.2460 0.2500 0.2570 0.2610 0.2660 0.2720 0.2770 0.2810 0.2900 0.2920 0.3020 0.3160 0.3230 0.3320 0.3390 0.3480 0.3580 0.3680 0.3770 0.3860 0.3970 0.4040 0.4130 mm Diameter 2.794 2.819 2.870 2.946 3.048 3.264 3.454 3.569 3.658 3.734 3.797 3.861 3.912 3.988 4.039 4.089 4.216 4.305 4.394 4.496 4.572 4.623 4.700 4.800 4.851 4.915 4.978 5.054 5.105 5.182 5.220 5.309 5.410 5.613 5.791 5.944 6.045 6.147 6.248 6.350 6.528 6.629 6.756 6.909 7.036 7.137 7.366 7.493 7.671 8.026 8.204 8.433 8.611 8.839 9.093 9.347 9.576 9.804 10.08 10.26 10.49

422

Tap Drill Sizes for U.S. Threads

From this table the correct hole diameter can be determined for tapping with 65% to 100% of full thread. It is based on the number of threads per inch (left column) and the percent of full thread tapping desired. To determine the correct hole diameter start with the threads per inch in left column. Under the desired percentage of full thread column, nd the double thread depth. Subtract double thread depth from the screw or bolt outside diameter. EXAMPLE No. 1: Find hole diameter for 1/4-20 tapping of 75% full thread. Start with 20 in Column 1 and look across to the 75% column. This shows 0.0486 as the double thread depth. Subtract from 0.250 bolt diameter = 0.2014. Select the next smaller size twist drill from chart on page 422, which would be a No. 7 drill. (Drills tend to drill slightly oversize). EXAMPLE No. 2: Find hole diameter for tapping an 80% thread for a 7/8 bolt. From the table, double thread depth on 14 threads per inch is 0.0742. Subtract from bolt diameter of 0.875 (7/8) = 0.8008. From chart on page 451, a 51/64 twist drill would be the nearest size. For most ordinary tapping, specications usually call for 75% full thread.

Double Thread Depth, Inches

Threads per Inch 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 56 60 64 68 72 80 100% Full Th'd 0.5774 0.5470 0.5196 0.4949 0.4724 0.4518 0.4330 0.3997 0.3712 0.3248 0.2887 0.2598 0.2362 0.2165 0.1856 0.1624 0.1443 0.1299 0.1180 0.1083 0.0999 0.0928 0.0866 0.0812 0.0722 0.0650 0.0590 0.0541 0.0500 0.0464 0.0433 0.0406 0.0382 0.0361 0.0342 0.0325 0.0309 0.0295 0.0282 0.0271 0.0260 0.0250 0.0232 0.0217 0.0203 0.0191 0.0180 0.0162 95% Full Th'd 0.5484 0.5196 0.4936 0.4702 0.4488 0.4292 0.4112 0.3797 0.3526 0.3084 0.2743 0.2468 0.2244 0.2057 0.1762 0.1542 0.1370 0.1234 0.1120 0.1028 0.0950 0.0880 0.0822 0.0770 0.0686 0.0616 0.0560 0.0514 0.0474 0.0440 0.0412 0.0384 0.0362 0.0342 0.0324 0.0306 0.0294 0.0280 0.0268 0.0256 0.0246 0.0236 0.0220 0.0204 0.0192 0.0182 0.0170 0.0154 90% Full Th'd 0.5196 0.4922 0.4676 0.4454 0.4250 0.4066 0.3896 0.3597 0.3340 0.2922 0.2598 0.2338 0.2126 0.1949 0.1670 0.1460 0.1298 0.1170 0.1062 0.0974 0.0900 0.0834 0.0778 0.0730 0.0650 0.0584 0.0530 0.0488 0.0450 0.0416 0.0390 0.0364 0.0344 0.0324 0.0308 0.0290 0.0278 0.0266 0.0254 0.0242 0.0234 0.0224 0.0208 0.0194 0.0182 0.0172 0.0162 0.0146 85% Full Th'd 0.4908 0.4648 0.4416 0.4207 0.4014 0.3840 0.3680 0.3397 0.3154 0.2760 0.2454 0.2208 0.2008 0.1840 0.1576 0.1380 0.1226 0.1104 0.1002 0.0920 0.0850 0.0788 0.0736 0.0690 0.0614 0.0552 0.0500 0.0460 0.0424 0.0394 0.0368 0.0344 0.0324 0.0306 0.0290 0.0274 0.0262 0.0250 0.0240 0.0228 0.0220 0.0212 0.0196 0.0182 0.0172 0.0162 0.0152 0.0138 80% Full Th'd 0.4618 0.4376 0.4156 0.3959 0.3778 0.3614 0.3464 0.3197 0.2968 0.2598 0.2310 0.2078 0.1890 0.1732 0.1484 0.1298 0.1154 0.1040 0.0944 0.0864 0.0800 0.0742 0.0692 0.0648 0.0576 0.0520 0.0472 0.0432 0.0400 0.0370 0.0346 0.0324 0.0304 0.0288 0.0272 0.0258 0.0248 0.0236 0.0224 0.0218 0.0208 0.0200 0.0184 0.0172 0.0160 0.0152 0.0144 0.0128 75% Full Th'd 0.4330 0.4100 0.3896 0.3712 0.3542 0.3388 0.3246 0.2998 0.2784 0.2436 0.2165 0.1948 0.1772 0.1624 0.1392 0.1218 0.1083 0.0975 0.0884 0.0810 0.0750 0.0696 0.0648 0.0609 0.0538 0.0486 0.0442 0.0406 0.0374 0.0348 0.0324 0.0304 0.0286 0.0270 0.0256 0.0242 0.0232 0.0222 0.0210 0.0202 0.0194 0.0186 0.0174 0.0162 0.0150 0.0144 0.0134 0.0122 70% Full Th'd 0.4040 0.3846 0.3636 0.3464 0.3306 0.3162 0.3030 0.2798 0.2598 0.2272 0.2021 0.1818 0.1653 0.1516 0.1298 0.1136 0.1010 0.0910 0.0826 0.0756 0.0700 0.0648 0.0606 0.0568 0.0504 0.0454 0.0412 0.0378 0.0350 0.0324 0.0302 0.0284 0.0266 0.0252 0.0238 0.0226 0.0216 0.0206 0.0196 0.0188 0.0182 0.0174 0.0162 0.0150 0.0140 0.0134 0.0126 0.0112 65% Full Th'd 0.3752 0.3572 0.3376 0.3217 0.3070 0.2936 0.2814 0.2598 0.2412 0.2110 0.1877 0.1688 0.1535 0.1407 0.1206 0.1054 0.0938 0.0844 0.0766 0.0704 0.0650 0.0602 0.0562 0.0526 0.0466 0.0422 0.0384 0.0352 0.0324 0.0300 0.0282 0.0264 0.0248 0.0234 0.0222 0.0210 0.0202 0.0192 0.0184 0.0174 0.0168 0.0162 0.0160 0.0140 0.0132 0.0124 0.0116 0.0106

423

423

Tap Drill Sizes

Thread Size 0-80 NF 1-64 NC 1-72 NF 2-56 NC 2-64 NF 3-48 NC 3-56 NF 4-40 NC 4-48 NF 5-40 NC 5-44 NF 6-32 NC 6-40 NF 8-32 NC 8-36 NF 10-24 NC 10-32 NF Thread Diam. 0.060 0.073 0.073 0.086 0.086 0.099 0.099 0.112 0.112 0.125 0.125 0.138 0.138 0.164 0.164 0.190 0.190 Tap Drill 3/64 53 53 50 50 47 45 43 42 38 37 36 33 29 29 25 21 16 14 13 Drill Diam. 0.0469 0.0595 0.0595 0.0700 0.0700 0.0785 0.0820 0.0890 0.0935 0.1015 0.1040 0.1065 0.1130 0.1360 0.1360 0.1495 0.1590 0.1770 0.1820 0.1850 Thread Size 1/4-20 NC & UNC 1/4-28 NF & UNF 1/4-32 NEF 5/16-18 NC & UNC 5/16-24 NF & UNF 5/16-32 NEF 3/8-16 NC & UNC 3/8-24 NF & UNF 7/16-14 NC & UNC 7/16-20 NF & UNF 1/2-13 NC & UNC 1/2-20 NF & UNF 9/16-12 NC & UNC 9/16-18 NF & UNF 5/8-11 NC & UNC 5/8-18 NF & UNF 3/4-10 NC & UNC 3/4-16 NF & UNF 7/8-9 NC & UNC 7/8-14 NF & UNF 1-8 NC & UNC 1-12 NF & UNF Tap Drill 7 3 7/32 F I 9/32 5/16 Q U 25/64 27/64 29/64 31/64 33/64 17/32 37/64 21/32 11/16 49/64 13/16 7/8 59/64 Drill Diam. 0.2010 0.2130 0.2l57 0.2570 0.2720 0.2812 0.3125 0.3320 0.3680 0.3906 0.4219 0.4531 0.4844 0.5156 0.5312 0.5781 0.6562 0.6875 0.7656 0.8125 0.8750 0.9219

12-24 NC 0.216 12-28 NF 0.216 12-32 NEF 0.216

Pipe Tap Drill Sizes

The drill sizes shown are those recommended for tapping American National (NPT) taper pipe threads. The same drill sizes can also be used for tapping Dryseal (NPTF) threads. Dryseal pipe taps should always be used for tapping hydraulic oil connections to reduce thread leakage. Taper reaming is not usually necessary to produce a good seal although reaming may reduce the horsepower needed for tapping. Taper is 3/4 per foot. Pipe Threads Drill Decimal Pipe Threads Drill Decimal Size per Inch Diam. Equiv. Size per Inch Diam. Equiv. 1/8 27 R 0.339 1 11 1 1.500 1/4 18 7/16 0.437 1 11 1 1.734 3/8 18 37/64 0.578 2 11 2 2.218 1/2 14 23/32 0.719 2 8 2 2.625 3/4 14 59/64 0.921 3 8 3 3.250 1 11 1 1.156 3 8 3 3.750 4 8 4 4.250

SAE Pads
These mounting dimensions are for SAE rectangular 4-bolt solid or split anges used on pumps, motors, and valves. Please note reduced pressure ratings on the larger size anges in the 3000 PSI Series. Size 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 3000 PSI Flanges Hole Centers 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 4 2 4 3 5 3 6 Max. Bolt PSI Size 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2500 2000 500 500 500 5/16-18 3/8-16 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 1/2-13 1/2-13 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/8-11 6000 PSI Flanges Hole Centers 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 Bolt Size 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 5/8-11 3/4-10 O-Ring Size -210 -214 -219 -222 -225 -228 -232 -237 -241 -245 -253

424

Drilling and Tapping Factors

HP for Drilling
Chart values are based on the use of properly sharpened tools working with satisfactory coolants to minimize friction and chip welding. In some applications drills may be run to a dullness which increases the HP and thrust requirement by half (1.5 factor), or thread cutting tools to a dullness which doubles the HP and thrust requirement (2.0 factor). An acceptable tool dullness factor should be included in all computations. Values in this table are for mild steel. For other materials, multiply HP and thrust values by values in the Material Factors table. Drill Diameter Recom. Recom. Feed Rate** Estimated HP Fraction Decimal RPM* Thrust Lbs** Inches/Rev Req'd 1/8 0.125 1835 30 0.002 0.05 3/16 0.1875 1220 61 0.003 0.09 1/4 0.250 915 104 0.004 0.15 3/8 0.375 610 225 0.006 0.28 7/16 0.4375 525 305 0.007 0.36 1/2 0.500 460 380 0.008 0.44 5/8 0.625 365 590 0.010 0.84 3/4 0.750 305 820 0.012 1.00 718 0.875 260 1000 0.014 1.40 1 1.000 230 1230 0.016 1.75 1 1.250 180 1930 0.020 3.30 1 1.500 150 2700 0.024 4.10 *Recommended RPM gives a surface speed of 60 feet per minute. **Other values of RPM, thrust, feed rate will require an adjustment in HP.

HP for Tapping and Threading Straight Threads

Power Factors Threads per Inch 32 24 20 18 16 13 11 10 8 Power Factor Material Factors Material Factor Soft steel 1.0 Brass 0.6 0.000167 Aluminum 0.5 0.000333 0.00050 Cast Iron, soft 0.6 Malleable iron 0.6 0.000683 Tool steel 1.7 0.00075 0.001 1020 steel 1.4 1335 steel 1.3 0.00133 4140 steel 1.4 0.00167 0.0026 416 stainless steel 1.2 316 stainless steel 1.7 To estimate HP for tapping or threading, follow these steps: STEP 1: Calculate surface speed of the tap in inches per minute by taking the circumference of the tap in inches and multiply by RPM of the spindle. STEP 2: Take speed calculated in STEP 1 and multiply by Power Factor for threads per inch from the table above. This gives HP for mild steel. STEP 3: For other materials multiply result from STEP 2 by the Material Factor from the chart above. Results obtained from above calculation is approximate, since many factors affect the result, such as tap drill size used, amount and kind of lubricant, etc. Do not use the charts for guring pipe threads

Tonnage for Hole Punching

Use the following method to nd the cylinder force required for punching a round or rectangular hole, notching corners or shearing sheet metal. STEP 1: Find length of cut to be made, in inches, and multiply times the material thickness, in inches. This gives the number of square inches to be sheared. STEP 2: Multiply results of STEP 1 times shear strength of the material as shown in this table or as obtained from a handbook. Material Aluminum, half-hard sheet Brass, half-hard sheet Dural Copper, rolled Steel, mild Steel, 50 carbon Steel, cold drawn Stainless 18-8 Lead Shear Strength 20,000 PSI 35,000 PSI 40,000 PSI 28,000 PSI 50,000 PSI 70,000 PSI 60,000 PSI 70,000 PSI 4,000 PSI

425

Drilling Speed, HP, and Thrust

Drilling Recommendations by HyPneuMat, Inc. Material: Steels SAE 1020, 1045, 2320, or 3135 Hardness: Brinell under 200 or Rockwell under C16 Drill Dia. 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 Decimal .0625 .0938 .1250 .1875 .2500 .3125 .3750 .4375 .5000 .5625 .6250 .6875 .7500 Spindle RPM for 60/Min 3685 2445 1835 1220 917 733 611 524 458 408 367 334 306 Spindle RPM for 60/Min 2 Feed per Minute Feed HP Thrust I.P.R. Req'd. Lbs. .0006 .0008 .0011 .0016 .0022 .0027 .0033 .0038 .0044 .0049 .0054 .0060 .0065 .030 .055 .088 .15 .22 .25 .40 .59 .65 .80 1.00 1.15 1.35 14 19 26 73 140 208 280 355 455 560 620 670 748 2 Feed per Minute Feed HP Thrust I.P.R. Req'd. Lbs. .00068 .0010 .0014 .0020 .0027 .0034 .0041 .0048 .0055 .0061 .0068 .0075 .0082 .034 .064 .10 .17 .27 .31 .47 .75 .80 .98 1.23 1.45 1.62 16 23 31 87 165 240 325 425 545 650 755 825 915

Material: Steel SAE 1112 Hardness: Brinell 217 or Rockwell C20 Drill Dia. Decimal 2 Feed per Minute Feed HP Thrust I.P.R. Req'd. Lbs. 2 Feed per Minute Feed HP Thrust I.P.R. Req'd. Lbs.

1/16 .0625 3685 .0006 .015 8.0 .00068 .016 8.8 3/32 .0938 2445 .0008 .025 13.8 .0010 .030 16.8 1/8 .1250 1835 .0011 .041 24 .0014 .050 30 3/16 .1875 1220 .0016 .075 50 .0020 .090 61 1/4 .2500 917 .0022 .122 88 .0027 .143 104 5/16 .3125 733 .0027 .174 132 .0034 .204 163 3/8 .3750 611 .0033 .240 188 .0041 .280 225 7/16 .4375 524 .0038 .295 250 .0048 .355 305 1/2 .5000 458 .0044 .365 315 .0055 .435 380 9/16 .5625 408 .0049 .540 380 .0061 .650 465 5/8 .6250 367 .0054 .625 480 .0068 .840 590 11/16 .6875 334 .0060 .742 580 .0075 .880 700 3/4 .7500 306 .0065 .840 675 .0082 1.02 820 Material: 0.97% Carbon Tool Steel Hardness: Brinell 152 or Rockwell B82 2 Feed per Minute 2 Feed per Minute Spindle RPM for Feed Drill DeciHP Thrust Feed HP Thrust 60/Min. I.P.R. Dia. mal Reqd. Lbs. I.P.R. Reqd. Lbs. 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 .0625 .0938 .1250 .1875 .2500 .3125 .3750 .4375 .5000 .5625 .6250 .6875 .7500 3685 2445 1835 1220 917 733 611 524 458 408 367 334 306 .0006 .0008 .0011 .0016 .0022 .0027 .0033 .0038 .0044 .0049 .0054 .0060 .0065 .032 .057 .090 .16 .23 .32 .43 .54 .68 .80 .95 1.11 1.26 15 24 43 90 160 240 340 455 660 820 880 1070 1250 .00068 .0010 .0014 .0020 .0027 .0034 .0041 .0048 .0055 .0061 .0068 .0075 .0082 .037 .067 .13 .18 .27 .38 .51 .65 .82 .96 1.13 1.33 1.52 16 30 53 110 190 290 415 560 810 990 1100 1300 1520

426

Drill Dia. 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4

Material: Gray Cast iron Hardness: Brinell 179 or Rockwell C10 2 Feed per Minute 3 Feed per Minute Spindle RPM for Feed DeciHP Thrust Feed HP Thrust 70/Min. I.P.R. mal Reqd. Lbs. I.P.R. Reqd. Lbs. .0625 .0938 .1250 .1875 .2500 .3125 .3750 .4375 .5000 .5625 .6250 .6875 .7500 4270 2850 2135 1425 1070 856 713 611 535 475 428 389 357 .00047 .00070 .00094 .0014 .0019 .0023 .0028 .0033 .0037 .0042 .0047 .0051 .0056 .013 .023 .034 .59 .10 .13 .17 .21 .26 .38 .47 .54 .61 7.0 12.2 20.2 40 89 107 142 185 230 300 360 430 490 .00070 .00105 .0014 .0021 .0028 .0035 .0042 .0049 .0056 .0063 .0070 .0077 .0084 .017 .030 .045 .078 .14 .18 .24 .29 .36 .56 .62 .73 .83 9.0 16.4 27 54 98 140 190 250 310 400 490 580 660

Material: Cast Aluminum SAE-33 Hardness: Brinell 70 or Rockwell B38 6 Feed per Minute 8 Feed per Minute Spindle RPM for Feed Drill DeciHP Thrust Feed HP Thrust 200/Min. I.P.R. Dia. mal Reqd. Lbs. I.P.R. Reqd. Lbs. 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 .0625 .0938 .1250 .1875 .2500 .3125 .3750 .4375 .5000 .5625 .6250 .6875 .7500 12120 8150 6065 4070 3056 2444 2038 1746 1528 1358 1222 1102 1018 .0005 .0007 .0010 .0015 .0020 .0025 .0030 .0034 .0039 .0044 .0049 .0054 .0059 .012 .024 .042 .084 .14 .22 .29 .37 .46 .57 .69 .80 .93 1.6 3.5 7.0 13.4 22.8 39.0 57.5 79.0 104 107 135 170 210 .0007 .0010 .0013 .0020 .0026 .0033 .0039 .0046 .0052 .0059 .0065 .0073 .0078 .016 .032 .052 .14 .18 .27 .36 .47 .59 .72 .87 1.02 1.17 2.3 5.0 9.0 18.3 30.0 52.0 75.0 108 142 147 182 235 285

Material: Leaded Brass Screw Stock Hardness: Brinell 100 or Rockwell B66 4 Feed per Minute 6 Feed per Minute Spindle RPM for Drill DeciFeed HP Thrust Feed HP Thrust 150/Min. I.P.R. Dia. mal Reqd. Lbs. I.P.R. Reqd. Lbs. 1/16 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 .0625 .0938 .1250 .1875 .2500 .3125 .3750 .4375 .5000 .5625 .6250 .6875 .7500 9160 6120 4580 3050 2292 1833 1528 1310 1146 1013 917 834 764 .00044 .00065 .00087 .0013 .0017 .0022 .0026 .0030 .0035 .0039 .0044 .0048 .0052 .012 .015 .024 .048 .098 .15 .20 .26 .30 .47 .57 .70 .77 3.8 7.1 11.3 22 36 52 69 87 110 130 165 190 215 .00066 .00098 .0013 .0020 .0026 .0033 .0039 .0046 .0052 .0059 .0065 .0072 .0079 .018 .021 .034 .070 .14 .21 .28 .36 .41 .64 .76 .94 1.03 4.8 9.1 14.3 28 46 66 88 112 140 170 205 245 280

427

Metric Tap Drill Sizes

Metric diameter twist drills are available in dozens of sizes from several American manufacturers. One manufacturer lists these standard stock sizes plus many special sizes on order. Morse shank twist drills are also available from 5,00mm to 100,00mm diameter. Drill diameters in this table are in millimeters. To convert to inches divide millimeters by 25.4. In the SI metric system the comma is used as a decimal point. 0,32 1,10 2,00 2,90 3,90 5,40 6,90 8,40 9,90 11,7 13,7 0,35 1,15 2,05 2,95 4,00 5,50 7,00 8,50 10,0 11,8 13,8 0,38 1,20 2,10 3,00 4,10 5,60 7,10 8,60 10,1 11,9 14,0 0,40 1,25 2,15 3,10 4,20 5,70 7,20 8,70 10,2 12,0 14,3 0,42 1,30 2,20 1,15 4,25 5,75 7,25 8,75 10,3 12,1 14,5 0,45 1,35 2,25 3,20 4,30 5,80 7,30 8,80 10,4 12,2 14,8 0,48 1,40 2,30 3,25 4,40 5,90 7,40 8,90 10,5 12,3 15,0 0,50 1,45 2,35 3,30 4,50 6,00 7,50 9,00 10,6 12,4 15,3 0,55 1,50 2,40 3,35 4,60 6,10 7,60 9,10 10,7 12,5 15,5 0,60 1,55 2,45 3,40 4,70 6,20 7,70 9,20 10,8 12,6 15,8 0,65 1,60 2,50 3,45 4,75 6,25 7,75 9,25 10,9 12,7 16,0 0,70 1,65 2,55 3,50 4,80 6,30 7,80 9,30 11,0 12,8 16,5 0,75 1,70 2,60 3,55 4,90 6,40 7,90 9,40 11,1 12,9 17,0 0,80 1,75 2,65 3,60 5,00 6,50 8,00 9,50 11,1 13,0 17,5 0,85 1,80 2,70 3,65 5,10 6,60 8,10 9,60 11,3 13,1 18,0 0,90 1,85 2,75 3,70 5,20 6,70 8,25 9,70 11,4 13,2 18,5 0,95 1,90 2,80 3,75 5,25 6,75 8,25 9,75 11,5 13,3 19,0 1,00 1,95 2,85 3,80 5,30 6,80 8,30 9,80 11,6 13,5 19,6 1,05 20,0

Metric Machine Screw Threads

ISO threads are called out by diameter and pitch (the distance between threads), both in mm. For example a thread of 5mm in diameter and with a pitch of 0.8mm would be called out as M5 0,8. There is a coarse and a ne thread series. Normally, the coarse thread series is used and can be called out by diameter alone, as M5. The ne thread series must have both diameter and pitch called out, as M5 0,5. If pitch is not called out, the coarse thread is assumed. Coarse Series Size, mm M1,6 0,35 M1,8 0,35 M2 0,45 M2,2 0,45 M2,5 0,45 M3 0,50 M3,5 0,60 M4 0,70 M4,5 0,75 M5 0,80 M6 1,00 M7 1,00 M8 1,25 M10 1,50 M12 1,75 M14 2,00 M16 2,00 M18 2,50 M20 2,50 M24 3,00 M30 3,50 M33 3,50 M36 4,00 M39 4,00 Tap Drill Dia., mm 1,25 1,45 1,60 1,45 2,05 2,50 2,90 3,30 3,70 4,20 5,00 6,00 6,75 8 50 10,2 12,0 14,0 15,5 17,5 21,0 26,5 29,5 32,0 35,0 Fine Series Size, mm M1,6 0,20 M1,8 0,20 M2 0,25 M2,2 0,25 M2,5 0,35 M3 0,35 M3,5 0,35 M4 0,50 M4,5 0,50 M5 0,50 M6 0,75 M7 0,75 M8 1,00 M10 1,25 M12 1,25 M14 1,50 M16 1,50 M18 1,50 M20 1,50 M24 2,00 M30 2,00 M33 2,00 M36 3,00 M39 3,00 Tap Drill Dia., mm 1,40 1,60 1,75 1,95 2,15 2,65 3,15 3,50 4,00 4,50 5,25 6,25 7,00 8,75 10,7 12,5 14,5 16,5 18,5 22,0 28,0 31,0 33,0 36,0

The chart shows the more standard sizes for machine screws and bolts from M6 to M39. Sometimes other sizes are available. Larger standard sizes run up to 300mm or more. Smaller sizes go down to 0,3mm. Recommended tap drills will produce from 70% to 80% of full thread depth. On many threads a good drill size for tapping can be gured by subtracting pitch from major (outside) diameter.

428

Suggested Cutting Speeds

These are suggested cutting speeds with HSS cutting tools, as published by the Johnson Drill Head Co. HSS reaming tools should be run at approximately 2/3rds of drill RPM. Carbide tools should be run at approximately twice the values shown. Brinell (BHN)
99 - 101 170 - 187 --192 - 202 166 - 183 187 - 202 149 - 163 --80 - 85 134 90 - 104 179 - 207 126 196 293 - 302 402 112 - 126 149 - 170 187 - 202 196 - 241 --170 - 196 175 - 225 170 - 196 170 - 196 241 - 302 321 - 512 187 - 217 170 - 202 196 - 235 402 150 - 225 460 - 520 170 - 196 160 149 241 402 112 - 126

Material
Aluminum Aluminum Bronze Bakelite Brass Bronze, Common Bronze, Phos., 1/2 Hard Bronze, Phos., Soft Celluloid Copper Copper Mang., 30% Mn. Duralumin Everdur Iron, Cast, Soft Iron, Cast, Medium Soft Iron, Cast, Hard Iron, Cast, Chilled Iron, Malleable Monel Nickel, Pure Nickel Steel, 3% Rubber, Hard Steel, Screw Stock, C.R. Steel, Carbon Steel, Drop Forged Steel, Machinery Steel, Magnet, Soft Steel, Magnet, Hard Steel, Mang. 7 - 13% Steel, Mild.20 -.30C Steel, Molybdenum Steel, Spring Steel, Stainless Steel, Stainless Steel,.40 -.50C Steel, Structural, A36 Steel, Tool; SAE & Forging Steel, Tool; SAE & Forging Steel, Tool; SAE & Forging Zinc Alloy

Drills SFM
200 - 250 60 80 200 - 250 200 - 250 175 - 280 200 - 250 100 70 15 200 60 140 -150 80 -110 45 - 50 15 85 - 90 50 75 60 100 110 70 60 110 35 - 40 15 15 110 - 120 55 20 50 20 80 110 75 50 15 200 - 250

Taps - SFM Threads per Inch 37

50 12 50 50 40 25 40 50 40 --50 20 30 25 10 5 20 8 25 8 50 20 30 12 35 20 5 15 40 20 10 8 8 20 40 25 15 8 50

815
100 25 100 100 80 40 80 100 80 --100 30 60 40 20 5 30 10 40 10 100 30 40 25 50 40 10 20 55 30 10 10 10 30 55 35 15 10 100

1624
150 45 150 150 100 50 100 150 100 --150 40 90 50 30 10 40 15 50 15 150 40 50 45 60 50 15 25 70 35 15 15 15 40 70 45 25 15 150

25 and Up
200 60 200 200 150 80 150 200 150 --200 50 140 80 40 10 50 20 80 20 200 50 50 60 85 75 25 30 90 45 15 20 20 50 90 55 25 20 200

Cutting Tool Failure

The cutting speeds in the table above are selected to provide optimum life of the cutting tools. Excessive tool wear or breakage can usually be traced to one of the following causes: Improper surface speed of tool Improper feed rate of tool Improper cutting tool material Excessively dull tool Hard spots, scale, or sand in the material Improper coolant or lubricant Lack of coolant at point of cut Non-rigid tool guidance (oversize drill bushings, guide rods, etc Excessively deep cut and/or chip packing Improperly ground tool (clearance angles, rake angles, lip angles, rough nish, etc

It is important to follow recommendations of cutting tool manufacturers to be sure that speeds, feeds, coolants, and other operating conditions are proper for the particular perishable tools.

429

Electrical Diagram Symbols

These symbols are the ones used most often on electrical ladder diagrams. They are standard JIC (Joint Industry Council) symbols as approved and adopted by the NMTBA (National Machine Tool Builders Association). They have been extracted from NMTBA specication EGP1-1967.

Limit Switches
Limit Switch, N.O. Non-Actuated

Selector Switches
1 2

Proximity Switches

Temperature Switches

Resistors

Potentiometer
Limit Switch, N.O. Held Closed
Temperature Switch Normally Open

Proximity Switch Normally Open Selector Switch 2-Position 1 2 3 Proximity Switch Normally Closed

Resistor

Limit Switch, N.C. Non-Actuated

Temperature Switch Normally Closed

Rheostat

Limit Switch, N.C. Held Open

Relay Coils and Contacts

Tapped Resistor

Pressure or Vacuum Switches

Limit Switch Neutral Position Non-Actuated
Selector Switch 3-Position Pressure or Vacuum Switch, N.O.

H
Relay or Timer Coil Heating Element

Capacitors
Relay Contact Normally Open
Capacitor, Fixed

Limit Switch Neutral Position Actuated

Foot Switches
Pressure or Vacuum Switch, N.C. Foot Switch Normally Open

Relay Contact Normally Closed

Capacitor, Adjustable

Pushbuttons
Relay Contact, Time Delay After Coil Energized N.O.

Limit Switch Maintained Position

Foot Switch Normally Closed

Capacitor, Electrolytic

Pushbutton, N.O.

Toggle Switches
Toggle Switch

Flow Switches

Load Devices
Pushbutton, N.C.

Relay Contact, Time Delay After Coil Energized N.C. Load Device Solenoid Valve, etc.

Rotary Selector Switches

Flow Switch Normally Open Pushbutton Double Circuit

Relay Contact, Time Delay After Coil De-energized N.O. Three-Phase Electric Motor

Rotary Selector Switch Non-Bridging Contacts

Flow Switch Normally Closed

Alternate Symbol Rotary Selector Switch Non-Bridging Contacts

Liquid Level Switches

Pushbutton Mushroom Head

Relay Contact, Time Delay After Coil De-energized N.C.

A
Meters
DC Electric Motor

Rotary Selector Switch Bridging Contacts

Liquid Level Switch Normally Open

Pushbutton Maintained Contact

VM
Voltmeter

Disconnect Switch

Thermal Overload

Alternate Symbol Rotary Selector Switch Bridging Contacts

AM
Liquid Level Switch Normally Closed Disconnect Switch

Ammeter

Alternate Symbol Thermal Overload

430

Miscellaneous
Thermocouple
Diode (Crystal Rectifier) AC
Horn, Siren, etc.
X2 X1 H1 H2 H3 H4

Conductors Not Connected

+
Circuit Interrupter
AC

Buzzer

Control Transformer

Conductors Connected

Bridge Rectifier
Earth Ground

10
11 12 13

+
Battery

Bell

Chassis Ground

Circuit Breaker

R
Pilot Light
Terminal Board

Fuse

Plug & Receptacle

Device Designations
These are intended for use on diagrams in connection with the corresponding symbol to amplify the information on the function of a device. Suitable sufx numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) may be added to distinguish between several similar devices. Similar letters (A, B, C, D, etc) may be added to distinguish between several sets of contacts on the same device. Examples: CR1A, CR1B, CR3A, etc. AM - Ammeter FU - Fuse RH - Rheostat CAP - Capacitor GRD - Ground RSS - Rotary selector switch CB - Circuit breaker LS - Limit switch S - Switch CI -Circuit interrupter LT -Pilot light SOC - Socket CON - Contactor M - Motor starter SOL - Solenoid CR - Control relay MTR - Motor SS - Selector switch CS - Cam switch PB - Pushbutton T - Transformer CTR - Counter POT - Potentiometer TAS - Temperature activated switch F - Forward PRS - Proximity switch TB - Terminal block FB - Fuse block PS - Pressure switch T/C - Thermocouple FLS - Flow switch R - Reverse TGS - Toggle switch FS - Float switch REC - Rectier TR - Time delay relay FTS - Foot switch RECEP - Receptacle VM - Voltmeter HTR - Heating element RES - Resistor VS - Vacuum switch

Electrical Formulas
To Find Kilowatts, single phase: I E PF 1000 Kilowatts, three-phase: I E 1.73 x PF 1000 Kilowatts direct current: I E 1000 KVA (kilovolt amperes), single phase: I E 1000 KVA, three phase: I E 1.73 1000 HP output, single phase: I E %Eff PF 746 HP output, three phase: I E 1.73 %Eff PF 746 HP output, direct current: I E %Eff 746 Amps when HP known, single phase: [HP 746] [E %Eff PF] Amps when HP known, three phase: [HP 746] [1.73 E %Eff PF] Amps when HP is known, direct current: [HP 746] [E %Eff] Amps when kW known, single phase: [kW 1000] [E PF] Amps when kW known, three phase: [kW 1000] [1.73 E PF] Amps when kW is known, direct current: [kW 1000] E Amps when KVA is known, single phase: [KVA 1000] E Amps when KVA is known, three phase: [KVA 1000] [1.73 E] Where E = volts, I = amperes,%Eff =%efciency, PF = power factor. I = E R or E = I R or R = E I, Where I = Amps, E = Volts, R = Ohms

OHMs Law

Power Equations
E = P I2 E2 = P R

P=EI P = I2 R P = E2 R

I=PE I2 = P R

R = P I2 R = E2 P

Where: P = Watts E = Volts I = Amps R = Ohms

431

ThreePhase Motor Data

Frame Assignments and Dimensions for Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors 3-Phase, 60 Hz, Design B

V
O D U

Drip-proof (Open Type) Enclosures

HP 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 5 5 5 7 7 7 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 25 30 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 50 60 60 60 75 75 75 100 100 100 Speed RPM 1200 1800 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 NEMA Frame 145T 172T 145T 145T 143T 184T 145T 145T 213T 182T 145T 215T 184T 182T 254T 213T 184T 256T 215T 213T 284T 254T 215T 286T 256T 254T 324T 284T 256T 326T 286T 284TS 364T 324T 286TS 365T 326T 324TS 404T 364T 326TS 405T 365T 364TS 444T 404T 365TS (This

U
7/8 7/8 1 7/8 7/8 1 7/8 7/8 1 1 7/8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 table is

C*

V
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 3 2 4 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 3 5 5 3 5 5 3 7 5 3 7 5 3 8 7 3

12 6 3 6 12 6 3 6 12 9 4 9 12 6 3 6 12 6 3 6 13 9 4 9 13 9 3 6 13 6 3 6 15 11 5 10 12 9 4 9 13 6 3 6 17 11 5 10 13 9 4 9 12 9 4 9 20 13 6 12 15 11 5 10 13 9 4 9 22 13 6 12 17 11 5 10 15 11 5 10 23 14 7 14 20 13 6 12 17 11 5 10 25 14 7 14 22 13 6 12 20 13 6 12 26 16 8 16 23 14 7 14 22 13 6 12 27 16 8 16 24 14 7 14 22 14 7 14 28 18 9 18 26 16 8 16 23 14 7 14 29 18 9 18 27 16 8 16 24 16 8 16 32 21 10 20 28 18 9 18 26 16 8 16 34 21 10 20 29 18 9 18 26 18 9 18 39 22 11 22 32 21 10 20 27 18 9 18 continued on the next page)

Shaft Key 3/16 3/16 1/4 3/16 3/16 1/4 3/16 3/16 5/16 1/4 3/16 5/16 1/4 1/4 3/8 5/16 1/4 3/8 5/16 5/16 1/2 3/8 5/16 1/2 3/8 3/8 1/2 1/2 3/8 1/2 1/2 3/8 5/8 1/2 3/8 5/8 1/2 1/2 3/4 5/8 1/2 3/4 5/8 1/2 7/8 3/4 1/2

432

HP 125 125 125 150 150 200 200 250 250

(This table is continued Speed NEMA U C* RPM Frame 1200 445T 3 39 1800 405T 2 34 3600 404TS 2 29 1800 444TS 2 34 3600 405TS 2 31 1800 445TS 2 36 3600 444TS 2 34 1800 445T 3 39 3600 445TS 2 36

from the previous page)

A
23 21 21 23 21 23 23 22 23 11 10 10 11 10 11 11 11 11

O
22 20 20 22 20 22 22 22 22

V
8 7 4 4 4 4 4 8 4

Shaft Key 7/8 3/4 1/2 5/8 1/2 5/8 5/8 7/8 5/8

Totally Enclosed, Fan Cooled (TEFC)

HP 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 5 5 5 7 7 7 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 25 30 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 50 60 60 60 75 75 75 100 100 100 125 125 125 150 150 Speed RPM 1200 1800 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1200 1800 3600 1800 3600 NEMA Frame 145T 143T 182T 145T 143T 184T 145T 145T 213T 182T 182T 215T 184T 184T 254T 213T 213T 256T 215T 215T 284T 254T 254T 286T 256T 256T 324T 284T 284TS 326T 286T 286TS 364T 324T 324TS 365T 326T 326TS 404T 364T 364TS 405T 365T 365TS 444T 405T 405TS 445T 444T 444TS 445T 445TS

U
7/8 7/8 1 7/8 7/8 1 7/8 7/8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 2

C*
13 13 14 13 13 15 13 13 17 14 14 19 15 15 22 17 17 24 19 19 25 22 22 27 24 24 28 25 24 30 27 26 32 28 27 33 30 26 36 32 30 38 32 31 42 38 35 44 42 38 44 40

A
7 7 9 7 7 9 7 7 11 9 9 11 9 9 13 11 11 13 11 11 14 13 13 14 13 13 16 14 14 16 14 14 19 16 16 19 16 16 21 19 19 21 18 19 24 21 21 24 24 21 24 24

D
3 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 5 4 4 5 4 4 6 5 5 6 5 5 7 6 6 7 6 6 8 7 7 8 7 7 9 8 8 9 8 8 10 9 9 10 9 9 11 10 10 11 11 11 11 11

O
7 7 9 7 7 9 7 7 10 9 9 10 9 9 12 11 11 12 11 11 14 13 13 14 13 13 16 14 14 16 14 14 18 16 16 18 16 16 20 18 18 20 18 18 23 20 20 23 23 23 23 23

V
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 5 3 5 5 3 7 5 3 7 5 3 8 7 4 8 8 4 8 4

Shaft Key 3/16 3/16 1/4 3/16 3/16 1/4 3/16 3/16 5/16 1/4 1/4 5/16 1/4 1/4 3/8 5/16 5/16 3/8 5/16 5/16 1/2 3/8 3/8 1/2 3/8 3/8 1/2 1/2 3/8 1/2 1/2 3/8 5/8 1/2 1/2 5/8 1/2 1/2 3/4 5/8 1/2 3/4 5/8 1/2 7/8 3/4 1/2 7/8 7/8 5/8 7/8 5/8

NOTES: Dimensions are given to the nearest sixteenth of an inch to standard NEMA specication. *Dim. C will vary with motor brand as this is not specied by NEMA.

433

Motor Installation Data

3Phase Motor Starters
1/2 To 20 H.P. Motor HP, 3 Voltage Full Load Current (Average Values) Max. Fuse Amps. Standard N.E.C. Max. Fuse Amps. Dual Element Circuit Breaker Max. Amps. Minimum Wire Size T, TW Min. Wire Size RH, RHW, THW, THWN Min. Wire Size RHH, THHN, XHHW 25 To 200 H.P. Motor HP, 3 Voltage Full Load Current (Average Values) Max. Fuse Amps. Standard N.E.C. Max. Fuse Amps. Dual Element Circuit Breaker Max. Amps. Minimum Wire Size T, TW Min. Wire Size RH, RHW, THW, THWN Min. Wire Size RHH, THHN, XHHW 1/6 To 5 H.P. Motor HP, 1 Voltage Full Load Current (Average Values) Max. Fuse Amps. Standard N.E.C. Max. Fuse Amps. Dual Element Circuit Breaker Max. Amps. Minimum Wire Size T, TW Min. Wire Size RH, RHW, THW, THWN Min. Wire Size RHH, THHN, XHHW 1/2 230 460 2.0 1.0 6 3 3 1 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 25 230 460 68 34 200 100 100 50 175 90 3 6 4 8 4 8 3/4 230 460 2.8 1.4 10 3 3 1 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 30 230 460 80 40 200 100 125 70 200 100 1 6 3 6 3 6 1 230 3.6 10 6 15 14 14 14 460 1.8 6 1 15 14 14 14 1 230 460 5.2 2.6 15 10 6 3 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 2 230 6.8 20 10 20 14 14 14 460 3.4 10 6 15 14 14 14 230 9.6 25 15 25 14 14 14 3 5 460 230 460 4.8 15.2 7.6 15 45 20 6 15 6 15 25 15 14 12 14 14 12 14 14 12 14 7 230 460 22 11 60 30 25 10 40 20 10 14 10 14 10 14 10 230 460 28 14 80 40 35 15 60 30 8 12 8 12 8 12 15 230 460 42 21 125 60 70 35 110 60 6 10 6* 10 6* 10 20 230 460 54 27 150 80 90 45 150 70 4 8 6 8 6 8

3Phase Motor Starters

40 230 460 104 52 300 150 175 90 300 150 00 4 1 6 1 6 50 230 460 130 65 350 75 200 100 350 175 000 3 00 4 00 4 60 230 460 154 77 450 225 250 125 400 200 0000 2 000 3 000 3 75 230 460 192 96 500 250 300 150 500 250 300 0 250 1* 100 125 230 460 230 460 248 124 312 156 700 350 800 450 400 200 500 250 700 350 800 400 500 000 750 0000 250 00 600* 000 150 200 230 460 230 460 360 180 480 240 1000 500 600 600 300 700 400 1000 450 1200 600 1000 300 500 750* 0000 1500* 350*

434

Single Phase Motor Starters

1/6 1/4 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1 2 3 5 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 115 230 4.4 2.2 5.8 2.9 7.2 3.6 9.8 4.9 13.8 6.9 16 8 20 10 24 12 34 17 56 28 15 6 15 10 20 10 25 15 40 20 45 20 45 20 70 35 100 50 150 80 7 3 10 5 12 6 15 8 20 10 25 12 30 15 35 17 50 25 90 45 15 15 15 15 20 15 25 15 35 20 40 20 50 25 60 30 90 45 150 70 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 14 12 4 10 14 10 14 6 10 4 8 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 14 12 14 12 10 10 14 8 10 4 8 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 14 12 14 12 10 10 14 8 10 4 8

Motor branch circuit protection. *Use one size smaller wire for RHH, THHN, XHHW NOTE: All information based on 1971 N.E.C. and NEMA Standards.

ThreePhase AC Motor Windings & Connections

1 1 7 4 6 9 6 3 5 2 3 8 8 5 2

4 7

Y OR STAR HIGH VOLTAGE

6
9 3 T-3

DELTA
HIGH VOLTAGE
4
8
2
T-2

5
8 2 T-2

4
7 1 T-1

9
5
3
T-3

6
7
1
T-1

LOW VOLTAGE
6
9 3
T-3

LOW VOLTAGE
4
8
2 T-2

5
8
2 T-2

4
7
1 T-1

9
5 3 T-3

6
7 1 T-1

NOTE: The most important part of any motor is the nameplate. Check the data given on the plate before making the connections.

Three Wire StopStart Station

WIRING DIAGRAM
CONTROL TRANSFORMER 1 3 480 VAC
H1 CIRCUIT BREAKERS 1 2 3

H2

H3

H4 START

FUSES

X4

X3

X2 X1 FUSE

AUX L1

L2

L3

120 VAC

STOP M

GND

OVERLOAD HEATER

OL

OL

OL

120 VAC
T1 T2 T3

FUSE STOP

START
OL M OL OL GND

GND 3 AC 480 V MOTOR

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
NOTE: Controls and motor are of different voltages.

435

Control Transformer Sizing

Control transformers are rated for nominal VA (volt-ampere) capacity, shown in the left column. A transformer must be selected of a nominal size to handle the total VA of all loads which could be in operation or be switched on at the same time. This includes inductive loads such as solenoids in which inrush current can be many times the holding current, plus the VA of non-inductive (or resistive) loads such as pilot lights in which inrush current is the same as holding current. Figures in the chart show momentary VA capacity of each nominal size during inrush periods. The VA rating of each nominal size must not be exceeded during continuous (holding) periods of operation. The chart shows values for 20% and 40% load power factor. Most inductive loads will have a power factor (P.F.) within this range. Use the 15%, 10%, or 5% sections of the chart according to the permissible drop in transformer secondary voltage during current inrush periods (about 20 ms duration) without affecting circuit operation. Obtain inrush and holding VA ratings from the manufacturer of each component.

Inrush VA @ 20% and 40% Power Factors

Nominal VA Rating 50 75 100 150 250 300 350 500 750 1000 1600 2000 3000 6000 15% Voltage Drop 20% P.F. 40% P.F. 362 224 579 354 839 522 1326 842 3447 2281 3894 2616 5418 3689 6496 4675 8377 5811 11329 9005 25518 18803 28178 21600 34797 28391 138500 84542 10% Voltage Drop 20% P.F. 40% P.F. 289 179 462 283 664 413 1003 637 2462 1629 2812 1890 3870 2635 4691 3304 5913 4102 7789 6191 18013 13273 19372 14850 24562 20041 100000 61058 5% Voltage Drop 20% P.F. 40% P.F. 317 134 346 211 489 304 679 431 1477 977 1731 1163 2322 1581 2887 2033 3449 2393 4248 3377 10508 7742 10566 8100 14328 11690 61550 37574

Motor Starter Ratings

VA Contact Ratings of Typical Magnetic Motor Starters
Brand & Series Allen Bradley 500 Allen Bradley Series K ASEA Heavy Duty Furnas General Electric Telemechanique Siemens-Allis Square D Westinghouse C-H Citation Series A1 C-H Citation B1 3-Pole Models at 120 Volts, 60 Hz. NEMA Size 00 0 1 2 3 VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding VA Inrush VA Holding 192 192 29 29 110 175 20 22 85 100 9 11.5 218 218 25 25 151 151 24 24 214 214 25 25 76 76 12 12 245 245 27 27 160 160 25 25 103 103 20 20 103 103 20 20 4 5

53 15 85 9 218 25 151 24

76 12 165 33 160 25 87 15 102 13

240 660 1225 1490 29 45 69 96 240 580 1000 1950 22 43 66 98 150 480 900 1200 15 35 55 65 318 310 957 1518 25 26 75 116 528 1152 1248 2580 60 83 86 191 340 740 1430 925 32 60 93 10 194 365 530 1630 21 35 40 110 311 700 1185 2870 37 46 85 212 160 625 625 1700 25 50 50 180 1158 100 140 390 1158 1158 24 50 100 100

436

Wire Selection Guide

Two important considerations in choosing the conductor size for electric wiring are: (1) the safe current carrying capacity, and (2) the voltage loss due to wire resistance. On short runs, up to 20 feet, voltage loss is very low and need not be considered. Wire size should be selected for its current capacity as shown in Chart 1. On longer runs, several hundred feet or more, the voltage loss may be too high if wire size is selected solely on the basis of current capacity. A larger wire size should be used to keep voltage loss to a selected minimum. Chart 2 may be used for this.

Permissible Voltage Loss

There is always a voltage loss on any wiring run. The designer must decide on how much loss can be tolerated without seriously affecting performance, and must select a wire size in which this loss will not be exceeded. A rule-of-thumb suggests that electric motors should not be run on a voltage less than about 10% of their nameplate rating. In deciding on allowable voltage loss in the wiring a designer must consider the minimum available power line voltage which may occur at a certain time of the day. For example, a 230-volt rated motor should not be run on less than 208 volts (which is 10% less than nameplate voltage Rating). If the lowest power line voltage is 220 volts, then the wiring should not have more than 12 volts loss. A rule that works in most cases is to choose a wire size which does not give more than a 5% loss of input voltage.

Chart 1 Wire Ampacity For Short Wiring Runs

Ampacity is an abbreviation for ampere capacity. This chart is for short wiring runs of less than 20 feet. Ampere capacity is taken from the NEC (National Electrical Code) on wire sizes of No. 14 and larger. It is for insulated copper wire of the kind that is widely used for house and building wiring. A larger ampere capacity is allowed on wire with certain types of insulation when used under certain conditions, but the NEC handbook should be consulted.

Amperage Rating for Copper Wires

Wire size, AWG In raceway or cable In open air 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 0 00 000 6 9 15 20 30 40 55 70 80 95 110 125 145 165 8 12 20 25 40 55 80 105 120 140 165 195 225 260

Chart 2 Voltage Loss on Long Wiring Runs

This chart is for long wiring runs of several hundred feet or more. To use the chart, several facts must be established: (1) the current draw of the device to be operated must be determined; (2) the amount of voltage loss that can be tolerated must be decided on; and (3) the length of wire must be estimated or measured, using the sum of outgoing and return wire lengths. On 3-phase devices such as electric motors, each of the three wires must carry the current shown on the motor nameplate. Wire length is the sum of two (not all three) connecting wires. Read across the top of the chart to nd the column which matches the amperage rating of the device. Figures in this column show voltage losses for 1000 feet of wire, outgoing plus return. If for example, your total wire length was 250 feet, voltage losses would be 1/4th that shown in the chart.

Figures in Chart Show Voltage Loss Per 1000 Feet of Wire

Wire Size AWG 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 0 00 000 0000 5 32.55 20.47 12.8S 8.095 5.090 3.203 2.014 1.267 1.005 10 40.94 25.75 16.19 10.18 6.405 4.028 2.533 2.009 1.593 1.264 1.002 15 38.63 24.28 15.27 9.608 6.042 3.800 3.014 2.390 1.896 1.503 1.193 Current Flow, Amperes 20 25 30 40 32.38 20.36 25.45 30.54 12.81 16.02 19.22 25.62 8.056 10.07 12.08 16.11 5.068 6.335 7.602 10.14 4.020 5.025 6.030 8.040 3.184 3.980 4.776 6.368 2.528 3.160 3.792 5.056 2.004 2.505 3.006 4.008 1.592 1.990 2.388 3.184 1.260 1.575 1.890 2.520 1.000 1.250 1.500 2.000 50 20.14 12.68 10.05 7.960 6.320 5.010 3.980 3.150 2.500 75 15.08 11.94 9.480 7.515 5.970 4.725 3.750 100 12.64 10.02 7.960 6.300 5.000

437

437

Color Codes
Resistor Color Code
1st & 2nd Signif. Figure Black 0 Brown 1 Red 2 Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green 5 Blue 6 Violet 7 Gray 8 White 9 Gold Silver No Color Color Multiplier 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000 0.1 0.01 Tolerance % 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 10% 20%

Multiplier

Tolerance

2nd Signicant Figure 1st Signicant Figure

Resistors w/black body color are composition - non-insulated. Resistors w/colored body are composition - insulated. Wirewound resistors have 1st digit color band double width.

Thermocouple Color Codes ANSI MC96.1 (82) (JIS)

Color coding is used for easy identication of thermocouple types and for separations of posiJ tive and negative therK moelements. The U.S., T the U.K., France, GerE many, Japan, Russia, and N China each have their own color coding and they are not the same. The table shows U.S. color codes for thermocouples and thermocouple extension wire as designated by the ISO. For the thermoelements, the insulation of all negative conductors is red. Color codes for positive conductors is shown by * * in the table. Color codes for the jacket of the extension wire is shown by in the table. Brown is used as the color for the thermocouple jacket, with the same color tracings as the extension wire. Type Conductors Jacket Jacket Positive Extension Color Cond.** + White Red Black White White Yellow Red Yellow Yellow Yellow Blue Red Blue Blue Blue Purple Red Purple Purple Purple Orange Red Orange Orange Orange **Color codes for positive conductors. Color codes for jacket of extension wire.

Color Codes for Power Wiring

Grounded Conductors In general, all grounded conductors in a branch circuit shall be identied by white or natural gray color. These colors must never be used for any ungrounded conductor. Where several grounded conductors are in one raceway, one conductor may be white or gray, the other conductors white or gray with stripes of other colors (except green).

Equipment Grounding Conductor

Equipment grounding conductors in a branch circuit are to be connected to the frame of a machine or the metal cabinet of electrical equipment. These conductors are to be continuous green or continuous green with one or more yellow stripes unless the conductor is bare.

Ungrounded Conductors
Ungrounded conductors shall be distinguished by colors other than white, natural gray, or green; or by a combination of color plus distinguishing marking which shall also be in a color other than white, natural gray, or green and shall consist of a stripe or stripes, or a regularly spaced series of identical marks. For exceptions to these general rules, see National Electrical Code (N.E.C.)

438

Electrical Enclosures
NEMA Ratings
An enclosure is a surrounding case constructed to provide a degree of protection to personnel against accidental contact with the enclosed equipment and to provide a degree of protection to the enclosed equipment against specied environmental conditions. These are the more common enclosures used by the electrical industry. TYPE 1. Intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against contact with the enclosed equipment. TYPE 2. Intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt. TYPE 3. Intended for outdoor use to provide a degree of protection against windblown dust, rain, sleet, and external ice formation. TYPE 3R. Intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against falling rain, sleet, and external ice formation. TYPE 3S. Intended for outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against windblown dust, rain, sleet, and provide for operation of external mechanisms when ice laden. TYPE 4. Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water and hose directed water. TYPE 4X. Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water and hose directed water. TYPE 5. Intended for indoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against dust, falling dirt and non-hazardous lint. TYPE 6. Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against entry of water during occasional submersion to a limited depth. TYPE 6P. Intended for indoor or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against entry of water during prolonged submersion to a limited depth. TYPE 7. Intended for indoor use to meet the application requirements of the NEC for Class I hazardous locations, Groups B, C, and D. (see page 441) TYPE 9. Intended for indoor use to meet the application requirements of the NEC for Class II hazardous locations, Groups E and G. (see page 441) TYPE 11. Intended for indoor use to provide, by oil immersion a degree of protection to enclosed equipment against the corrosive effects of liquids and gases. TYPE 12. Intended for indoor use to provide a degree of protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive liquids. TYPE 12K. Intended for indoor use to provide a degree of protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive liquids. Tested at the knockout locations after ttings are properly installed. TYPE 13. Intended for indoor use to provide a degree of protection against dust, seepage, external condensation and spraying of water, oil, and other noncorrosive liquids.

Solid State Switching

+V
Load Main Circuit

NPN Output (Sinking)

22 4.7 k
Main Circuit

PNP Output (Sourcing)

(Brown) +V

(Brown)

(Black) 2.2 Output (Blue)

Tr

2.2 (Black) 4.7 k

Load

Tr

Output 22

0V

0V (Blue)

These circuits depict the common 3-wire DC sensor with NPN (sinking) and PNP (sourcing) outputs wired to a direct or transistor load (shown by dotted lines). Some sensor manufacturers use the colors Red, White, and Black in place of Brown, Black, and Blue respectively.

439

Electrical Enclosures IP Ratings

2nd Numeral: Degree of protection with respect to harmful ingress of water 1st numeral: 0 Degree of protection with reNon spect to persons and solid protected objects

3
Protected against spraying water of 60 angle
Test time 10 min.
max. 200

6
Protected against heavy seas

7
Protected against immersion

8
Protected against submersion
Test time 30 min.

Protected Protected against drip- against dripping water of ping water 15 angle
Test time 10 min.
200 300

Protected Protected against against splashing wa- water jets ter

Test time 10 min.

200 300

Test time 10 min. Test time 1 min/m2 Test time 1 min/m2 Test time 30 min.
3m 6.3
3m 12 .5
min. 1 m

30

min. 3 min

min. 3 min

15

Non-protected Protected against solid objects greater than 50mm Protected against solid objects greater than 12mm Protected against solid objects greater than 2.5mm Protected against solid objects greater than 1.0mm Dust Protected Depression: 200mm water column, Max. air ow 80 volume of encl. Dust-tight Same Test Procedure

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

IP00 IP10 IP20 IP30 IP40

IP01 IP11 IP21 IP31 IP41

IP02 IP12 IP22 IP32 IP42

10 l/min. 80 kN/m2

10 l/min. 80 kN/m2

12.5 l/min. 30 kN/m2

100 l/min. 100 kN/m2

IP13 IP23 IP33 IP43 IP34 IP44 IP54 IP45 IP55 IP65 IP46 IP56 IP66 IP67 IP68

min. 0.15 m

440

Hazardous Locations and the National Electrical Code*

See Current NEC for Complete Listing of Hazardous Substances
The National Electrical Code* treats installations in hazardous locations in articles 500 through 517. Each hazardous location can be classi ed by the denitions in the NEC. Following are interpretations of these classications and applications. CLASS I. Those in which ammable gases or vapors are or may be present in the air in sufcient quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. CLASS II. Locations which are hazardous because of the presence of combustible dust. CLASS III. Those hazardous because of the presence of easily ignitable bers or yings, but in which such bers or yings are not likely to be in suspension in the air in quantities suf cient to produce ignitable mixtures. DIVISION 1. Locations where hazardous concentrations exist continuously, intermittently, or periodically under normal operating conditions. DIVISION 2. Locations where hazardous concentrations are handled, processed, or used but are normally within closed containers or systems from which they can escape only in case of accidental rupture or breakdown. GROUP A. Atmospheres containing acetylene. GROUP B. Atmospheres containing hydrogen, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard, such as manufactured gas. GROUP C. Atmospheres containing ethyl-ether vapors, ethylene, or cyclo-propane. GROUP D. Atmospheres with gasoline, hexane, naptha, benzine, butane, propane, alcohol, acetone, benzol, lacquer solvent vapors, or natural gas. GROUP E. Atmospheres containing metal dust, including aluminum, magnesium, and their commercial alloys, and other metals of similarly hazardous characteristics. GROUP F. Atmospheres containing carbon black, coal or coke dust. GROUP G. Atmospheres containing our, starch, or grain dusts.

*All references to the National Electrical Code are from the 1990 edition.

Intrinsically Safe
Refer to the Current NEC for Specic Requirements
Equipment operating in a hazardous environment must be designed to be explosion proof or intrinsically safe. Both designs carry the UL label (in the U.S.A.). The main faults with an explosion proof system are that a single human error can create a high explosion probability. Such occurrences as failing to tightly replace covers on explosion proof housings, failing to shut off power before removing the cover of such a housing, or damaging the specially machined surfaces of such covers are prime examples. Intrinsically safe can be described as safe by its very nature. As applied to electrical equipment, it means that suf cient heat cannot be produced normally or by accident, either thermally or electrically, to cause material in the surrounding environment to reach ignition temperature. An intrinsically safe system overcomes the shortcomings of the explosion proof system and virtually eliminates the probability of explosion due to human error. The advantage over an explosion proof system is that explosion proof housings are designed to harmlessly contain an internal explosion which is presumed to be possible. In contrast, an intrinsically safe system, operating in the hazardous area is, in itself, unable to produce a temperature high enough to ignite gases in the surrounding area. Intrinsically safe systems are now recognized as a highly desirable means of providing automated control functions in explosive environments. The technique relies on the inherent parameters of electronic circuits, so that no energy can be released under normal or abnormal conditions, of sufcient magnitude to ignite a speci ed atmospheric mixture. To design an intrinsically safe system, energy sources that enter the hazardous area must be limited. For electronic instrumentation, energy limiting is accomplished by controlling and limiting the voltages and currents that can enter the hazardous area. In addition, stored electrical energy in inductances and capacitances in eld instruments is limited to levels that cannot cause ignition of a given atmosphere. Almost needless to say, conditions which produce an intrinsically safe system in one environment may or may not be intrinsically safe in another environment. National certifying authorities issue Apparatus and/or Systems Certi cates for approved equipment. Electric or electronic equipment which has been certi ed as intrinsically safe will carry a stamp or label with the UL label (in the U.S.A.) and the certicate number. Equipment and associated wiring approved as intrinsically safe shall be permitted in any hazardous (classied) location for which it is approved, and the provisions of Articles 500 through 517 of the National Electrical Code shall not be considered applicable to such installation.

441

Motion Control Formulas

Terms:
A CT D d e FT GR JBELT JLOAD JLS JMOTOR = acceleration rate {in/sec2} = carriage thrust force {oz} Tc Td ta tc td te TACC {oz-in2} {oz} = constant velocity torque = deceleration torque = acceleration time = constant time = decelerate time {sec} {sec} {sec}

= deceleration rate {in/sec2} = lead of screw {in/rev}

= lead screw efciency ball screw 90% = total frictional force = gear ratio = belt/rack inertia = load inertia {oz}

= constant velocity time {sec} = torque to accelerate load {oz-in} = breakaway torque {oz-in} = required torque to overcome friction {oz-in} = required torque to overcome gravity {oz-in}

TBREAKAWAY TFRICTION

= lead screw inertia {oz-in2} = motor inertia {oz-in2}

JPULLEY = pulley/pinion inertia {oz-in2} L LRMS L1 L2 t1 t2 = lead screw length = RMS value of load = load during time period 1 = load during time period 2 = Duration of time period 1 = Duration of time period 2 = angle from horizontal {degrees} = material density (lead screw) steel 4.48 {oz/in3} = number of teeth in gear 1 = number of teeth in gear 2 = radius of lead screw = radius of gear 1 = radius of gear 2 {in} {in} {in} {inch}

TGRAVITY

TMOTOR = motor output torque at desired speed {oz-in} TOTHER TSYS = function of mechanical system selected = required torque to move the load {oz-in} = coefcient of friction = maximum linear velocity {in/sec} = angular velocity {rad/sec} = average velocity = maximum velocity {in/sec} WGEAR1 WGEAR2 WLOAD = weight of gear 1 = weight of gear 2 = weight of load {oz} {oz} {oz} {in/sec}

N1 N2 r r1 r2 SF T Ta

VLOAD

Vavg Vmax

= safety factor 1.25-2.5 recommended = total move time = acceleration torque {sec}

WPULLEY = weight of pulley/pinion {oz} WOTHER = weight of carriage {oz}

Note: 16 oz-in = 1 lb-in

Duty Cycle Calculation

L RMS = L1 t1 + L2 t2 ---------------------------------------t1 + t2
2 2

442

Motion Control Formulas

Torque Equations
Horizontal Applications
Ta = TACC + TFRICTION + TOTHER Tc = TFRICTION + TOTHER Td = TACC + TFRICTION + TOTHER

Vertical Applications Upward Move

Ta = TACC + TFRICTION + TOTHER + TGRAVITY Tc = TFRICTION + TOTHER + TGRAVITY Td = TACC TFRICTION TOTHER TGRAVITY

Downward Move
Ta = TACC + TFRICTION + TOTHER TGRAVITY Tc = TFRICTION + TOTHER TGRAVITY Td = TACC TFRICTION TOTHER + TGRAVITY

Lead Screw Equations (Linear Motion)

T SYS T ACC
=

T ACC + T FRICTION + T BREAKAWAY + T GRAVITY

1 J LOAD -------- ------------------- - + J LS + J MOTOR e ta 386 2 d W LOAD + W OTHER J LOAD = --------------------------------------------------------------2 2 4 Lr J LS = ----------------2
=

C T = 2 T sys d J MOTOR
= = See Motor Data

2 V LOAD ------------------------d
=

T FRICTION FT
=

d FT ----------2e

W LOAD + W OTHER
=

T GRAVITY

d W LOAD + W OTHER Sin --------------------------------------------------------------------------2e

1) TSYS is the torque the motor must deliver at a velocity of (radians/second). This usually occurs during the acceleration portion of a move prole for horizontal applications and an upward move for vertical applications. During the deceleration portion of a move prole, TFRICTION and TBREAKAWAY are subtractions from TSYS. For horizontal applications TGRAVITY has a zero value. 2) The divisor 386 in the TACC equation represents acceleration due to gravity (386 in/sec2 or 32.2 ft/sec2) and converts inertia from units of oz-in2 to oz-insec2 3) Verify that the angular velocity of the lead screw is below the manufacturers recommended rating for critical speed.

NOTES:

443

Motion Control Formulas

Thrust Equations
2eT MOTOR C T = --------------------------------d

Direct Drive Equations (Rotary Motion)

T SYS = T ACC + T FRICTION SF
1 - J LOAD + J MOTOR ---T ACC = -------386 ta

Solid Cylinders
W LOAD r Lr J LOAD = ---------------------------- = ----------------2 4

W LOAD = Lr J MOTOR =

r
See Motor Data

Hollow Cylinders
W LOAD L - r + r = ----------- r r J LOAD = ------------------2 2 1 4 4 1

W LOAD = L r r
2 2 2 1

r2 r1

J MOTOR =

See Motor Data

Gear Drive Equations (Rotary Motion)

T LOAD - SF T SYS = T ACC + T BREAKAWAY + -----------------e GR

N1
J LOAD 1 - + J GEARS - -------------------T ACC = -------+ J MOTOR ---ta 386 e GR
2

Gear1 r1

= V LOAD 2 GR

Gear2
N GR = -----N
1 2

r2

N2

1) TSYS is the torque the motor must deliver at a velocity of (radians/second). The divisor 386 in the TACC equation represents acceleration due to gravity (386 in/sec2 or 32.2 ft/sec2) and converts inertia from units of oz-in2 to oz-insec2

NOTES:

444

Motion Control Formulas

Gear Drive Equations (Rotary Motion) (cont.)
J GEARS = J GEAR 1 + J GEAR 2
2 W GEAR 1 r 1 1 ------------------------------- --------------- 2 2 GR

J GEAR 1 =

r1 N1 r2

2 W GEAR 2 r 2 J GEAR 2 = ------------------------------2

N2

Worm Gear

Belt/Tangential Drive Equations (Linear Motion)

T SYS = T ACC + T FRICTION + T BREAKAWAY + T GRAVITY SF

1 - J T ACC = -------LOAD + J PULLEY + J BELT + J MOTOR ---386 ta

2 J LOAD = W LOAD r

W PULLEY 2 Multiply by J PULLEY = ------------------------- 2 - r Number of Pulleys

2 J BELT = W BELT r

J MOTOR =

See Motor Data

T FRICTION = W LOAD r Cos T GRAVITY = W LOAD r Sin

W

V LOAD = -----------------r

r

1) TSYS is the torque the motor must deliver at a velocity of (radians/second). This usually occurs during the acceleration portion of a move prole for horizontal applications and an upward move for vertical applications. During the deceleration portion of a move prole, TFRICTION and TBREAKAWAY are subtractions from TSYS. For horizontal applications TGRAVITY has a zero value. 2) The divisor 386 in the TACC equation represents acceleration due to gravity (386 in/sec2 or 32.2 ft/sec2) and converts inertia from units of oz-in2 to oz-insec2

NOTES:

445

Motion Control Formulas

Move Proles Triangular Move
Vmax Vavg
Velocity (in/sec) V max =
2

V avg =

X --T

T t a = t d = --2

ta T (time in sec)

td

X (distance in inches)

2V 4X max A = D = ----------------- = ------T T

2

Trapezoidal Move
Vmax
Velocity (in/sec)

ta

tc T (time in sec) X (distance in inches)

td

Assume: t = t = t = T --a c d
3

1.5 X Then: V max = ----------T 4.5 X A = D = ----------T

2

Selected Coefcients of Friction

Coefcient Materials Conditions of Friction Hard steel on hard steel Dry static 0.78 Greasy sliding 0.15 Mild steel on cast iron Greasy sliding 0.183 Mild steel on mild steel Dry static 0.74 Greasy sliding 0.16 Mild steel on babbit Dry sliding 0.42 Greasy sliding 0.17 Teon on Teon Dry static 0.04 Teon on steel Dry static 0.04 Brass on steel Dry static 0.51 Brass on cast iron Dry static 0.35 Cast iron on oak Dry sliding 0.49

Leadscrew Efciencies
Type Efciency (%) High Median Low Ball-nut 95 90 85 Acme with 55 35 20 metal nut Acme 85 65 50 plastic nut

Since viscous lubricant is required, the coefcient of friction is both speed and temperature dependent.

446

Circumference & Area of Circles

Dimensions are in inches. Refer to page 451 for fraction/decimal/metric equivalents. To solve for circles not listed in the table, use these formulae in which D = diameter, r = radius, and = 3.14. Area = D2 4, or r2 Circumference = D, or r
Fraction 1/32 3/64 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 13/32 7/16 15/32 1/2 17/32 9/16 19/32 5/8 21/32 11/16 23/32 3/4 25/32 13/16 27/32 7/8 29/32 15/16 Decimal 0.03125 0.04688 0.06250 0.09375 0.12500 0.15625 0.18750 0.21750 0.25000 0.28125 0.31250 0.34375 0.37500 0.40625 0.43750 0.46875 0.50000 0.53125 0.56250 0.59375 0.62500 0.65625 0.68750 0.71875 0.75000 0.78125 0.81250 0.84375 0.87500 0.90625 0.96875 1.00000 1.06250 1.12500 1.18750 1.25000 1.31250 1.37500 1.43750 1.50000 1.56250 1.62500 1.68750 1.75000 1.81250 1.87500 1.96875 2.00000 2.06250 2.12500 2.18750 2.25000 2.31250 2.37500 2.43750 2.50000 2.56250 2.62500 2.68750 2.75000 2.81250 2.87500 2.96875 3.00000 3.06250 3.12500 3.18750 Area Sq. In. .00077 .00173 .00307 .00690 .01227 .01917 .02761 .03758 .04909 .06213 .07670 .09281 .11045 .12962 .15033 .17257 .19635 .22166 .24850 .27688 .30680 .33824 .37122 .40574 .44179 .47937 .51849 .55914 .60132 .64504 .73708 .78540 .88660 .99400 1.1075 1.2272 1.3530 1.4849 1.6230 1.7671 1.9175 2.0739 2.2365 2.4053 2.5802 2.7612 2.9483 3.1416 3.3410 3.5466 3.7583 3.9761 4.2000 4.4301 4.6664 4.9087 5.1572 5.4119 5.6727 5.9396 6.2126 6.4918 6.7771 7.0686 7.3662 7.6699 7.9798 Circumference .09818 .14726 .19635 .29452 .39270 .49087 .58905 .68722 .78540 .88357 .98175 1.0799 1.1781 1.2763 1.3744 1.4726 1.5708 1.6690 1.7671 1.8653 1.9635 2.0617 2.1598 2.2580 2.3562 2.4544 2.5525 2.6507 2.7489 2.8471 3.0434 3.1416 3.3379 3.7306 3.7306 3.9270 4.1233 4.3197 4.5160 4.7124 4.9087 5.1051 5.3014 5.4978 5.6941 5.8905 6.0868 6.2832 6.4795 6.6759 6.8722 7.0686 7.2649 7.4613 7.6576 7.8540 8.0503 8.2467 8.4430 8.6394 8.8357 9.0321 9.2284 9.4248 9.6211 9.8175 10.014 Fraction 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16 Decimal 3.25000 3.31250 3.37500 3.43750 3.50000 3.56250 3.62500 3.68750 3.75000 3.81250 3.87500 3.96875 Area Sq. In. 8.2958 8.6179 8.9462 9.2806 9.6211 9.9678 10.321 10.680 11.045 11.416 11.793 12.177 12.566 12.962 13.364 13.772 14.186 14.607 15.033 15.466 15.904 16.349 16.800 17.257 17.728 18.190 18.665 19.147 19.635 20.129 20.629 21.135 21.648 22.166 22.691 23.221 23.758 24.301 24.850 25.406 25.967 26.535 27.109 27.688 28.274 29.465 30.680 31.919 33.183 34.472 35.785 37.122 38.485 39.871 41.282 42.718 44.179 45.664 47.173 48.707 Circumference 10.210 10.407 10.603 10.799 10.996 11.192 11.388 11.585 11.781 11.977 12.174 12.370 12.566 12.763 12.959 13.155 13.352 13.548 13.744 13.941 14.137 14.334 14.530 14.726 14.923 15.119 15.315 15.512 15.708 15.904 16.101 16.297 16.493 16.690 16.886 17.082 17.279 17.475 17.671 17.868 18.064 18.261 18.457 18.653 18.850 19.242 19.635 20.028 20.420 20.813 21.206 21.598 21.991 22.384 22.776 23.169 23.562 23.955 24.347 24.740 25.133 25.525 25.918 Fraction 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 Decimal 8.37500 8.50000 8.62500 8.75000 8.87500 9.00000 9.25000 9.50000 9.75000 10.0000 10.2500 10.5000 10.7500 11.0000 11.2500 11.5000 11.7500 12.0000 12.2500 12.5000 12.7500 13.0000 13.2500 13.5000 13.7500 14.0000 14.2500 14.5000 14.7500 15.0000 15.2500 15.5000 15.7500 16.0000 16.2500 16.5000 16.7500 17.0000 17.2500 17.5000 17.7500 18.0000 18.2500 18.5000 18.7500 19.0000 19.2500 19.5000 19.7500 Area Sq. In. 55.088 56.745 58.426 60.132 61.862 63.617 67.201 70.882 74.662 78.540 82.516 86.590 90.763 95.033 99.402 103.87 108.43 113.10 117.86 122.72 127.68 132.73 137.89 143.14 148.49 153.94 159.48 165.13 170.87 176.71 182.65 188.69 194.83 201.06 207.39 213.82 220.35 226.98 233.71 240.53 247.45 254.47 261.59 268.80 276.12 283.53 291.04 298.65 306.35 Circumference 26.311 26.704 27.096 27.489 27.882 28.274 29.060 29.845 30.631 31.416 32.201 32.987 33.772 34.558 35.343 36.128 36.914 37.699 38.485 39.270 40.055 40.841 41.626 42.412 43.197 43.982 44.768 45.553 46.338 47.124 47.909 48.695 49.480 50.265 51.051 51.836 56.622 53.407 54.192 54.978 55.763 56.549 57.334 58.119 58.905 59.690 60.476 61.261 62.046 62.832

9
1/4 1/2 3/4

4.00000 1/16 4.06250 1/8 4.12500 3/16 4.18750 1/4 4.25000 5/16 4.31250 3/8 4.37500 7/16 4.43750 1/2 4.50000 9/16 4.56250 5/8 4.62500 11/16 4.68750 3/4 4.75000 13/16 4.81250 7/8 4.87500 15/16 4.96875 5.00000 1/16 5.06250 1/8 5.12500 3/16 5.18750 1/4 5.25000 5/16 5.31250 3/8 5.37500 7/16 5.43750 1/2 5.50000 9/16 5.56250 5/8 5.62500 11/16 5.68750 3/4 5.75000 13/16 5.81250 7/8 5.87500 15/16 5.96875

10
1/4 1/2 3/4

11
1/4 1/2 3/4

12
1/4 1/2 3/4

1
1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16

13
1/4 1/2 3/4

14
1/4 1/2 3/4

15
1/4 1/2 3/4

2
1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16

6
1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8

16
1/4 1/2 3/4

6.00000 6.12500 6.25000 6.37500 6.50000 6.62500 6.75000 6.87500 7.00000 7.12500 7.25000 7.37500 7.50000 7.62500 7.75000 7.87500

17
1/4 1/2 3/4

7
1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8

18
1/4 1/2 3/4

19
1/4 1/2 3/4

3
1/16 1/8 3/16

8
1/8 1/4

8.00000 50.265 8.12500 51.849 8.25000 53.456

20

20.0000 314.16

447

Calculating Areas of Plane Figures

d
Square
A =

Area
2

A = S d =

1.414 S

1.414

A =

Area
2 2 a +b

a = b =

2 2 d b = Ab 2 2 d A = Aa

A = ab d =

b
Rectangle

Area
a b
Parallelogram

= ab

a = Ab b = Aa

Area
a =

= bc ------

b =

2 2 a c

2 2 b +c

c =

2 2 a b

c
Right Triangle

h b

Area
Acute-Angle Triangle

2 2 2 2 a +b c b ----------------------------= --- a 2

2b

448

Calculating Areas of Plane Figures

c a b
Obtuse-Angle Triangle

Area

2 2 2 2 c a b b ----------------------------= --- a 2

2b

h b a
Trapezium

H c

Area

H + h a + b h + c H = ----------------------------------------------------------------------

a h b
Trapezoid

Area

a + bh = ----------------------

l r

l = Length of Arc = Angle in Degrees l =

0.01745 r Area = 0.008727 r2

Circular Sector

R r

d D

Area

= R2 r2

Circular Ring

449

Table of Equivalents
To convert units appearing in Column 1 (left column) into equivalent values in Column 2 (center column), multiply by factor in Column 3. Example: To convert 7 gallons into cubic inches multiply 7 231 = 1617. To convert units appearing in Column 2 (center) into equivalent values of units in Column 1 (left), divide by factor in Column 3. Example: To convert 25 horsepower into BTU per minute, divide 25 by 0.02356 = 1061. To Convert Into Atmospheres Atmospheres Atmospheres BTU BTU per Hour BTU per Minute Celsius (Centigrade) Centimeters Cubic Centimeters Cubic Centimeters Cubic Feet Cubic Feet Cubic Inches Cubic Inches Days Degrees (Angle) Feet Feet Feet of Water Feet of Water Feet of Water Feet per Minute Feet per Second Foot-Pounds Foot-Pounds per Minute Foot-Pounds per Second Gallons (U.S. Liquid) Gallons (U.S. Liquid) Gallons of Water Horsepower Horsepower Horsepower Horsepower Hours Hours Inches Inches of Mercury (Hg) Inches of Mercury (Hg) Inches of Mercury (Hg) Inches of Water Liters Liters Micron Miles (Statute) Miles per Hour (MPH) Miles per Hour Ounces (Weight) Ounces (Liquid) Pints (Liquid) Pounds Pounds Pounds PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) Quarts Square Feet Temperature (F - 32) Tons (U.S.) Watts Into To Convert Feet of Water Inches of Mercury (Hg) PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) Foot Pounds Watts Horsepower Fahrenheit Inches Gallons (U.S. Liquid) Liters Cubic Inches Gallons (U.S. Liquid) Cubic Feet Gallons (U.S. Liquid) Seconds Radians Meters Miles Atmospheres Inches of Mercury (Hg) PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) Miles per Hour Miles per Hour BTU Horsepower Horsepower Cubic Feet Cubic Inches Pounds of Water BTU per Minute Foot-Pounds per Minute Foot-Pounds per Second Watts Days Weeks Centimeters Atmospheres Feet of Water PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) PSI (Pounds per Sq. Inch) Cubic Centimeters Gallons (U.S. Liquid) Inches Feet Feet per Minute Feet per Second Pounds Cubic Inches Quarts (Liquid) Grains Grams Ounces Atmospheres Feet of Water Inches of Mercury (Hg) Gallons Square Inches Temperature (C) Pounds Horsepower Multiply By Divide By 33.9 29.92 14.7 778.3 0.2931 0.02356 C 1.8 + 32 0.3937 0.0002642 0.001 1728 7.48052 0.0005787 0.004329 86,400 0.01745 0.3048 0.0001894 0.0295 0.8826 0.4335 0.01136 0.6818 0.001286 0.0000303 0.001818 0.1337 231 8.3453 42.44 33,000 550 745.7 0.04167 0.005952 2.54 0.03342 1.133 0.4912 0.03613 1000 0.2642 0.00004 5280 88 1.467 0.0625 1.805 0.5 7000 453.59 16 0.06804 2.307 2.036 0.25 144 0.5555 2000 0.001341

450

Decimal and Metric

Equivalents of Common Fractions of an Inch
64ths 1/64 3/64 5/64 7/64 9/64 11/64 13/64 15/64 17/64 19/64 21/64 23/64 25/64 27/64 29/64 31/64 33/64 35/64 37/64 39/64 41/64 43/64 45/64 47/64 49/64 51/64 53/64 55/64 57/64 59/64 61/64 63/64 1 32nds 1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 13/32 7/16 15/32 1/2 17/32 9/16 19/32 5/8 21/32 11/16 23/32 3/4 25/32 13/16 27/32 7/8 29/32 15/16 31/32 1 1 1 16ths 8ths Decimal 0.01562 0.03125 0.04688 0.06250 0.07812 0.09375 0.10938 0.12500 0.14062 0.15625 0.17188 0.18750 0.20312 0.21875 0.23438 0.25000 0.26562 0.28125 0.29688 0.31250 0.32812 0.34375 0.35938 0.37500 0.39062 0.40625 0.42188 0.43750 0.45312 0.46875 0.48438 0.50000 0.51562 0.53125 0.54688 0.56250 0.57812 0.59375 0.60938 0.62500 0.64062 0.65625 0.67188 0.68750 0.70312 0.71875 0.73438 0.75000 0.76562 0.78125 0.79688 0.81250 0.82812 0.84375 0.85938 0.87500 0.89062 0.90625 0.92188 0.93750 0.95312 0.96875 0.98438 1.00000 mm 0.397 0.794 1.191 1.588 1.984 2.381 2.778 3.175 3.572 3.969 4.366 4.763 5.159 5.556 5.953 6.350 6.747 7.144 7.541 7.938 8.334 8.731 9.128 9.525 9.922 10.319 10.716 11.113 11.509 11.906 12.303 12.700 13.097 13.494 13.891 14.288 14.684 15.081 15.478 15.875 16.272 16.669 17.066 17.463 17.859 18.256 18.653 19.050 19.447 19.844 20.241 20.638 21.034 21.431 21.828 22.225 22.622 23.019 23.416 23.813 24.209 24.606 25.003 25.400

Conversions
From English to Metric Units
Pressure:
1 PSI = 0.06897 bar 1 bar = 14.5 PSI

Measurements:
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 cm = 0.3937 in

Volume:
1 CFM = 28.03 liters/min 1 liter/min = 0.0356 CFM

451

Conversions Between English and (SI) Standard Units

SI (International Standards) units should be used on documents prepared for international circulation.
Quantity SI Unit for Fluid Power Customary U.S. Unit Length millimeter (mm) inch (in.) Pressure* bar (bar g, or bar a) pounds/sq. in (PSIG or PSIA) Pressure** mm of mercury (mm Hg) inches of mercury (in.Hg.) Flow*** liters per minute (l/min) U.S. gallons per minute (U.S. GPM) cubic feet per minute (cfm) Flow cubic decimeters/sec (dm3/sec) Force Newton (N) pound (f) or lb (f) (force) Mass kilogram (Kg) pound (m) or lb (m) (mass) Time second (sec) second (sec) Volume*** liter (l) gallon (U.S. gal) Temperature degrees Celsius (C) degrees Fahrenheit (F) Torque Newton-meters (Nm) pounds (f) inches [lbs (f) in.] Power kilowatt (kw) horsepower (HP) Shaft speed revolutions per minute (rpm) revolutions per minute(rpm) Frequency Hertz (Hz) cycles per second (cps) Displacement milliliters/revolution (ml/rev) cu. inches per rev (cir) Kinematic viscosity centistokes (cSt) Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS or SSU) Velocity meter per second (m/s) feet per second (fps) *Pressure above atmospheric, **Pressure below atmospheric, ***Liquid, Gas, Approx. for SSU 225 and over Conversion Factor 1 inch = 25.4 mm. 1 bar = 14.5 PSI 1 Hg = 25.4 mm Hg. 1 U.S GPM = 3.79 l/min. 1 dm3/sec = 2.12 cfm 1 lb (f) = 4.44 N 1 Kg = 2.2 lb(m) 1 U.S.gal.= 3.79 liters C = 5/9 (F 32) 1 Nm = 8.88 lb(f)-in. 1 kw = 1.34 HP 1 Hz = 1 cps 1 ml/rev = 0.061 cir cSt = SSU 4.635 1 m/s = 3.28 fps

452

PSI Gauge Pressure Converted from English to Metric Units

This table is calculated on the basis of 1 PSI = 0.0689655 bar, or 1 bar = 14.5 PSI PSI 10 50 100 250 500 750 1000 Bar 0.69 3.49 6.90 17.2 34.5 51.7 69.0 1500 103.4 2000 138.0 2500 172.4 3000 206.0 5000 344.8

GPM Oil Flow Converted from U.S.Gallons to Metric Units

This table is calculated on the basis of 1 U.S.GPM = 3.79 liters per minute (liquid) or 1 liter per minute = 0.2638 GPM GPM 5 8 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 Liters/min 18.95 30.32 45.48 56.85 75.80 94.75 113.7 132.7 151.6 189.5 75 284.3 100 379.0

SCFM Air Flow Converted from English to Metric Units

This table is calculated on the basis of 1 SCFM = 0.4716 cubic decimeters per second, or 1 dm3/sec = 2.12 SCFM SCFM 5 10 15 25 50 75 100 150 200 2.358 4.716 7.074 11.79 23.58 35.37 47.16 70.74 94.32 Dm3/sec 250 117.9 300 141.5 350 165.1

Interchange Between Units

International Metric Old Metric U.S. Customary Units
These charts will interchange values between the SI International Standard, the U.S. or English system, and the older metric systems. The left column of each chart shows the basic unit in the SI system. Equivalent values of all units are shown on the same line. The easiest way to use the charts is to look down the column of the unit which is to be converted and nd the one on which the gure 1 appears. Then move to the left or right on the same one to the column of the new unit. The value shown is a multiplier to convert to the new unit. Conversions can be easily made with a pocket calculator which has an exponent key or can be made manually. For manual calculations remember that the + or sign in front of an exponent tells whether to move the decimal point to the right (for a + sign) or to the left (for a sign) and how far to move it. Examples: 2.640 x 10-5 is 0.0000264, and 3.048 x 102 = 304.8, etc). Conversion examples are: Convert 627 inches into centimeters. In the LENGTH chart, look down the Inch column to the gure 1. Then move left on this line to the Centimeter column. Use the conversion multiplier 2.540: 627 x 2.540 = 1592.58 centimeters = 15.93 meters = 15,925.8 millimeters. Convert 5000 PSI (pounds/sq. inch) into Bar. Use the UNIT PRESSURE chart on the next page. Look down the Pounds/inch2 column to the gure 1. Then move left on the same line to the Bar column. The gure 0.06897 is a multiplier. Multiply 5000 x 0.06887 = 344.86 bar. Most western countries have abandoned the older metric systems in favor of the new SI metric system. The USA is the only major country which has not of cially adopted the SI system of units.

Torque
Newton- Meters 1 9.807 1.356 1.130 x 10-1 KilopondMeters 1.020 x 10-1 1 1.382 x 10-1 1.152 x 10-2 Foot-Lbs 7.376 x 10-1 7.233 1 8.333 x 10-2 Inch-Lbs 8.851 86.80 12 1

Gravity Acceleration
In the U.S. system, the acceleration due to gravity or g is 32.2 feet per second per second. In the metric system g is 9.81 meters per second per second.

Length (Linear Measurement)

Meter Centimeter Kilometer 10-3 10-5 10-6 Mile 10-4 10-6 10-7 10-1 Inch Foot 6.214 x 39.370 3.281 1 100 1x 6.214 x 3.937 x 10-1 3.281 x 10-2 0.01 1 1x -3 -2 1 x 10 0.10 1x 6.214 x 3.937 x 10 3.281 x 10-3 1 x 103 1x105 1 6.214 x 3.937 x 104 3.281 x 103 3 5 4 1.609 x 10 1.609 x 10 1.609 1 6.336 x 10 5280 2.540 2.540 x 10-5 1.578 x 10-5 1 8.333 x 10-2 2.540 x 10-2 3.048 x 10-1 30.479 3.048 x 10-4 1.894 x 10-4 12 1 1 millimeter = 0.001 meter = 0.10 centimeter = 0.000001 kilometer = 0.03937 inch = 0.003281 foot

Area (Square Measurement)

Square Meter Sq Centimeter Sq Kilometer
4

Square Inch 103 10-1 10-3 109

Square Foot

Square Mile

1x 1.550 x 10.764 3.861 x 10-7 1 1 x 10 -4 -3 1 x 10 1 1x 1.550 x 1.076 x 10 3.861 x 10-11 1 x 10-6 1 x 10-2 1x 1.550 x 1.076 x 10-5 3.861 x 10-13 6 -10 7 1 x 10 1 x 10 1 1.550 x 1.076 x 10 3.861 x 10-1 -4 -10 -3 6.452 x 10 6.452 6.452 x 10 1 6.944 x 10 2.491 x 10-10 9.290 x 10-2 9.290 x 102 9.290 x 10-8 144 1 3.587 x 10-8 2.590 x 106 2.590 x 1010 2.590 4.014 x 109 2.788 x 107 1 1 square millimeter = 0.000001 square meter = 0.00155 square inch = 0.00001076 square foot

106 10-10 10-12

Volume (Cubic)
Cubic Meter Cu Decimeter Cu Centimeter U.S. Gallon
3

Cubic Inch 104

Cubic Foot

1x 2.642 x 6.102 x 35.314 1 1 x 10 1 1x 2.642 x 61.024 3.531 x 10-2 1 x 10-3 1 x 10-6 1 x 10-3 1 2.642 x 6.102 x 10-2 3.531 x 10-5 -3 3 2 4.546 x 10 4.546 4.546 x 10 1.200 2.774 x 10 1.605 x 10-1 3.785 x 10-3 3.785 3.785 x 103 1 2.310 x 102 1.337 x 10-1 -5 -2 -3 1.639 x 10 1.639 x 10 16.387 4.329 x 10 1 5.787 x 10-4 2.832 x 10-2 28.317 2.832 x 104 7.481 1.728 x 103 1 1 imperial gallon = 1.2 U.S. gallon = 0.004546 cubic meter = 4.546 liter = 4546 cubic centimeters

106 103

102 10-1 10-4

453

Force (Including Force Due to Weight)

Newton Dyne
5

Kilopond 10-1 10-6

Metric Ton 10-4 10-9

U.S. Ton 10-4 10-9 -3

Pound

1.020 x 1.020 x 1.124 x 2.248 x 10-1 1 1 x 10 1 x 10-5 1 1.020 x 1.020 x 1.124 x 2.248 x 10-6 5 -3 9.807 9.807 x 10 1 1 x 10 1.102 x 10 2.205 9.807 x 108 1000 1 1.102 2.205 x 103 9.807 x 103 9.964 x 103 9.964 x 108 1.016 x 103 1.016 1.120 2.240 x 103 3 8 2 -1 8.896 x 10 8.896 x 10 9.072 x 10 9.072 x 10 1 2000 4.536 x 10-1 4.536 x 10-4 5 x 10-4 1 4.448 4.448 x 105 1-long ton = 9964 Newtons= 1016 kiloponds = 1.016 metric tons = 1.120 U.S. tons = 2240 pounds

Mass (Not Weight)

Kilogram 1 1 x 10-3 1 x 103 1.020 x 10-1 4.536 x 10-1 14.594 9.072 x 102 Meters/Sec Gram 1000 1 1 x 106 1.020 x 102 4.536 x 102 1.459 x 104 9.072 x 105 Metric Ton 1 x 10-3 1 x 10-6 1 1.020 x 10-4 4.536 x 10-4 1.459 x 10-2 9.072 x 10-1 Newton 9.807 9.807 x 10-3 9.807 x 103 1 4.448 1.431 x 102 8.896 x 103 Feet/Min. 102 10-3 1 Pound 2.205 2.205x 10-3 2.205 x 103 2.248 x 10-1 1 32.170 2000 Feet/Sec U.S. Ton 1.102 x 10-3 l.102 x 10-6 1.102 1.124 x 10-4 5 x 10-4 1.609 x 10-2 1 Inches/Min.

Velocity
Kilometers/Hr Miles/Hr 3.281 2.362 x 103 1 3.6 2.237 1.968 x 1 x 10-1 1 x 10-4 6.214 x 10-5 5.468 x 9.113 x 10-5 6.562 x 10-2 -1 -1 -1 2.778 x 10 1 6.214 x 10 5.468 x 10 9.113 x 10 6.562 x 102 4.470 x 10-1 1.609 1 88 1.467 1.056 x 103 5.080 x 10-3 1.829 x 10-2 1.136 x 10-2 1 1.667 x 10-2 12 -1 -1 1.097 6.818 x 10 60 1 7.2 x 102 3.048 x 10 4.233 x 10-4 1.524 x 10-3 9.470 x 10-4 8.333 x 10-2 1.389 x 10-3 1 1 decimeter/second = 0.1 meters/second = 0.005468 ft/min = 0.06562 in/min

Unit Pressure (Either Fluid or Mechanical)

Bar

(Pascal)

Newton/m2

Kilopond/m2

Atmosphere

Pounds/Ft2

Pounds/Inch2

1 x 10-5 1 1.020 x 10-1 9.869 x 10-6 2.088 x 10-2 1.45 x 10-4 1 1 x 105 1.020 x 104 9.869 x 10-1 2.088 x 103 14.5 9.807 1 9.678 x 10-5 2.048 x 10-1 1.422 x 10-3 9.807 x 10-5 9.807 x 10-1 9.807 x 104 1 x 104 9.678 x 10-1 2.048 x 103 14.220 1.033 x 104 1 2.116 x 103 14.693 1.013 1.013 x 105 47.893 4.884 4.726 x 10-4 1 6.944 x 10-3 4.789 x 10-4 6.897 x 10-2 6.897 x 103 7.033 x 102 6.806 x 10-2 1.440 x 102 1 1 kilopond/sq cm = 0.9807 bar = 98070 Pascal = 0.9678 atmos = 2048 Lbs/sq ft = 14.22 Lbs/sq inch

Power (Fluid, Electrical, or Mechanical)

Kilowatt Watt, Joule/s and N-m/s Foot-Pounds per Minute
4

Foot-Pounds per Second 102 10-1 102 10-2

BTU/Hr
3

BTU/Min

7.376 x 3.412 x 10 56.862 1 1000 4.425 x 10 1 44.254 7.376 x 3.412 5.686 x 10-2 1 x 10-3 7.461 x 10-1 746 3.300 x 104 5.500 x 2.545 x 103 42.44 2.260 x 10-2 1 1.667 x 7.710 x 10-2 1.285 x 10-3 2.260 x 10-5 -3 1.356 x 10 1.356 60 1 4.626 7.710 x 10-2 2.931 x 10-4 2.931 x 10-1 12.971 2.162 x 10-1 1 1.667 x 10-2 -2 2 1.759 x 10 17.586 7.783 x 10 12.971 60 1 1 U.S. = 1 U.K. Horsepower = 0.7461 kW = 33,000 ft-lbs/min. = 2545 BTU/hr = 42144 BTU/min

Energy or Work
Watt-second Kilowatt-Hour Joule, or N-m 1 2.778 x 10-7 2.778x 10-14 7.457 x10-1 3.766 x 10-7 3.138 x 10-8 2.931 x 10-4 3.6 x 106 1 1 x 10-7 2.685 x 106 1.356 1.130 x 10-1 1.055 x 103 HorsepowerHr 1.341 3.725 x 10-7 3.725 x 10-14 1 5.051 x 10-7 4.209 x 10-8 3.931 x 10-4 Foot-Pound 2.655 x 106 7.376 x 10-1 7.376 x 10-8 1.980 x 106 1 8.333 x 10-2 7.783 x 102 Inch-Pound 3.187 x 107 8.851 8.851 x 10-7 2.376 x 107 12 1 9.339 x 103 BTU 3.412 x 103 9.477 x 10-4 9.477 x 10-11 2.544 x 103 1.285 x 103 1.071 x 10-4 1

454

Temperature Conversion Chart

Enter the table in the column marked Temp with the temperature either Fahrenheit or Celsius (Centigrade) that you wish to convert. If converting into Celsius, read the equivalent value in the column to the left. If converting into Fahrenheit, read the equivalent value in the column to the right. C -17.7 -17.2 -16.6 -16.1 -15.5 -15.0 -14.4 -13.9 -13.3 -12.7 -12.2 -11.6 -11.1 -10.5 -10.0 -9.4 -8.8 -8.3 -7.7 -7.2 -6.6 -6.1 -5.5 -5.0 -4.4 -3.9 -3.3 -2.8 -2.2 -1.6 -1.1 -0.6 0 0.5 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.4 4.9 5.5 6.0 6.6 7.1 7.7 8.2 8.8 9.3 9.9 10.4 11.1 11.5 12.1 12.6 13.2 13.7 14.3 14.8 Temp F 0 32.0 1 33.8 2 35.6 3 37.4 4 39.2 5 41.0 6 42.8 7 44.6 8 46.4 9 48.2 10 50.0 11 51.8 12 53.6 13 55.4 14 57.2 15 59.0 16 60.8 17 62.6 18 64.4 19 66.2 20 68.0 21 69.8 22 71.6 23 73.4 24 75.2 25 77.0 26 78.8 27 80.6 28 82.4 29 84.2 30 86.0 31 87.8 32 89.6 33 91.4 34 93.2 35 95.0 36 96.8 37 98.6 38 100.4 39 102.2 40 104.0 41 105.8 42 107.6 43 109.4 44 111.2 45 113.0 46 114.8 47 116.6 48 118.4 49 120.2 50 122.0 51 123.8 52 125.6 53 127.4 54 129.2 55 131.0 56 132.8 57 134.6 58 136.4 59 138.2 C 15.6 16.1 16.6 17.1 17.7 18.2 18.8 19.3 19.9 20.4 21.0 21.5 22.2 22.7 23.3 23.8 24.4 25.0 25.5 26.2 26.8 27.3 27.7 28.2 28.8 29.3 29.9 30.4 31.0 31.5 32.1 32.6 33.3 33.8 34.4 34.9 35.5 36.1 36.6 37.1 38 43 49 54 60 65 71 76 83 88 93 99 100 104 110 115 121 127 132 138 Temp F 60 140.0 61 141.8 62 143.6 63 145.4 64 147.2 65 149.0 66 150.8 67 152.6 68 154.4 69 156.2 70 158.0 71 159.8 72 161.6 73 163.4 74 165.2 75 167.0 76 168.8 77 170.6 78 172.4 79 174.2 80 176.0 81 177.8 82 179.6 83 181.4 84 183.2 85 185.0 86 186.8 87 188.6 88 190.4 89 192.2 90 194.0 91 195.8 92 197.6 93 199.4 94 201.2 95 203.0 96 204.8 97 206.8 98 208.4 99 210.2 100 212 110 230 120 248 130 266 140 284 150 302 160 320 170 338 180 356 190 374 200 392 210 410 212 413 220 428 230 446 240 464 250 482 260 500 270 518 280 536 C 143 149 154 160 165 171 177 182 188 193 199 204 210 215 221 226 232 238 243 249 254 260 265 271 276 282 288 293 299 304 310 315 321 326 332 338 343 349 354 360 365 371 376 382 387 393 399 404 410 415 421 426 432 438 443 449 454 460 465 471 Temp F 290 554 300 572 310 590 320 608 330 626 340 644 350 662 360 680 370 698 380 716 390 734 400 752 410 770 420 788 430 806 440 824 450 842 460 860 470 878 480 896 490 914 500 932 510 950 520 968 530 986 540 1004 550 1022 560 1040 570 1058 580 1076 590 1094 600 1112 610 1130 620 1148 630 1166 640 1184 650 1202 660 1220 670 1238 680 1256 690 1274 700 1292 710 1310 720 1328 730 1346 740 1364 750 1382 760 1400 770 1418 780 1436 790 1454 800 1472 810 1490 820 1508 830 1526 840 1544 850 1562 860 1580 870 1598 880 1616

455

Table of Standard Wire Gauges

(5) Copper Wire Ohms Ohms per per Gauge Sheet Steel Music Drill Copper Circular 1000 Mil Area 1000 No. Metal Wire Wire Rod Wire Meters Feet Diam. 4/0 .3938 .006 .4600 212,000 .0509 .1670 3/0 .3625 .007 .4096 168,000 .0642 .2105 2/0 .3310 .008 .3648 133,000 .0810 .2656 0 .3065 .009 .3248 106,000 .1019 .3342 1 .2830 .010 .227 .2893 83,700 .1290 .4231 2 .2625 .011 .219 .2576 66,400 .1618 .5307 3 .2391 .2437 .012 .212 .2294 52,600 .2054 .6737 4 .2242 .2253 .013 .207 .2043 41,700 .2588 .8489 5 .2092 .2070 .014 .204 .1819 33,100 .3253 1.067 6 .1943 .1920 .016 .201 .1620 26,300 .4105 1.346 7 .1793 .1770 .018 .199 .1443 20,800 .5194 1.704 8 .1644 .1620 .020 .197 .1285 16,500 .6574 2.156 9 .1495 .1483 .022 .194 .1144 13,100 .8286 2.718 10 .1345 .1350 .024 .191 .1019 10,400 1.036 3.400 11 .1196 .1205 .026 .188 .0907 8,230 1.309 4.294 12 .1046 .1055 .029 .185 .0808 6,530 1.650 5.414 13 .0897 .0915 .031 .182 .0720 5,180 2.080 6.822 14 .0747 .0800 .033 .180 .0641 4,110 2.621 8.600 15 .0673 .0720 .035 .178 .0571 3,260 3.304 10.84 16 .0598 .0625 .037 .175 .0508 2,580 4.174 13.69 17 .0538 .0540 .039 .172 .0453 2,050 5.249 17.22 18 .0478 .0475 .041 .168 .0403 1,620 6.636 21.77 19 .0418 .0410 .043 .164 .0359 1,290 8.631 28.31 20 .0359 .0348 .045 .161 .0320 1,020 10.52 34.51 21 .0329 .0317 .047 .157 .0285 810 13.26 43.49 22 .0299 .0286 .049 .155 .0253 642 16.83 55.20 23 .0269 .0258 .051 .153 .0226 509 21.09 69.18 24 .0239 .0230 .055 .151 .0201 404 26.66 87.44 25 .0209 .0204 .059 .148 .0179 320 33.63 110.3 26 .0179 .0181 .063 .146 .0159 254 42.57 139.6 27 .0164 .0173 .067 .143 .0142 202 53.45 175.3 28 .0149 .0162 .071 .139 .0126 160 67.84 222.5 29 .0135 .0150 .075 .134 .0113 127 84.35 276.7 30 .0120 .0140 .080 .127 .0100 100 107.8 353.6 31 .0105 .0132 .085 .120 .00893 79.2 136.0 446.1 32 .0097 .0128 .090 .115 .00795 64.0 168.2 551.7 33 .0090 .0118 .095 .112 .00708 50.4 213.6 700.6 34 .0082 .0104 .100 .110 .00630 39.7 271.1 889.2 35 .0075 .0095 .106 .108 .00561 31.4 342.5 1123 36 .0067 .0090 .112 .106 .00500 25.0 431.7 1416 37 .0064 .0085 .118 .103 .00445 20.3 532.1 1745 38 .0060 .0080 .124 .101 .00396 16.0 671.5 2203 39 .0075 .130 .099 .00353 12.3 872.8 2861 40 .0070 .138 .097 .00314 9.6 1128 3700 (1) Manufacturers standard gauge for hot and cold rolled sheets, based on a weight of 41.82 lbs. per inch of thickness per square foot. (2) U.S. Steel Wire Gauge. Also known as Washburn and Moen, American Steel and Wire, and Roebling gauges. Used by most of the steel producers in the U.S. and has replaced the Birmingham (Stubs) gauge in most instances. (3) Special gauge for piano and music wire for mechanical springs. (4) Stubs Steel Wire Gauge. Used sometimes for carbon steel drill rod. Drill rod may also be called out in other gauges such as Morse Twist Drill Gauge (Manufacturers Standard Gauge for twist drills) or by the American Standard Straight Shank Twist Drill standard dimensions. (5) Copper wire is measured by the B & S gauge (also called AWG). Resistance values are at 77F or 25C. Convert between C and F with chart on page 455. To convert chart resistance values to a new C temperature: [RT = R [1 + 0.00385 (t 25)] RT is resistance at new C temperature; t is new temperature in C; and R is resistance value from chart. A circular mil is a unit of area that is applied to electrical wires and is equal to the area of a circle 1 mil (0.001 inch) in diameter. The area of any circle is equal to the square of its diameter in mils. (1) (2) (3) (4)

456

Densities and Specific Gravities of Common Materials

Specic gravity is a number indicating how many times a certain volume of a material is heavier than an equal volume of water. As the density of water differs slightly at different temperatures, the temperature of 62F is used for comparison. The weight of one cubic inch of pure water at 62F is 0.0361 pound. If the specic gravity of any material is known, the weight of a cubic inch of the material can be found by multiplying its specic gravity by 0.0361. To nd the weight per cubic foot of a material, the specic gravity of which is known, multiply the specic gravity by 62.335. If the weight of a cubic inch of material is known, the specic gravity is found by dividing the weight per cubic inch by 0.0361. If the weight of a cubic foot of a material is known, the specic gravity is found by multiplying the weight per cubic foot by 0.01604. Specic Weight Per Cubic Weight Per Cubic Material Gravity Inch (Pounds) Foot (Pounds) Aluminum Brass: 80C., 20Z Brass: 70C., 30Z Brass: 60C., 40Z Brass: 50C., 50Z Bronze: 90C., 10T Chromium Concrete Copper Gold Iron, Cast Iron, Wrought Lead Magnesium Steel, Carbon Steel, Stainless Tin 2.70 8.60 8.44 8.36 8.20 8.78 6.93 2.31 8.89 19.25 7.03-7.73 7.80-7.90 11.37 1.75 7.83-7.87 7.70 7.29 0.0975 0.3105 0.3048 0.3018 0.2961 0.3171 0.2502 0.083 0.3210 0.695 0.254-0.279 0.282-0.285 0.470 0.062 0.283-0.284 0.278 0.2633 168.50 536.60 526.70 521.70 511.70 547.90 432.40 144.00 554.70 1200.00 438.70-482.40 486.70-493.00 709.00 109.00 489.00-490.80 480.00 454.90

Mechanical Properties of Common Materials

Material Steel, Forged-Rolled 0.10-0.20 C 0.20-0.30 C 0.30-0.40 C 0.60-0.80 C Cast Iron Gray (ASTM 20) Gray (ASTM 35) Gray (ASTM 60) Malleable Wrought Iron Steel Cast Low C Medium C High C Brass Cast Annealed Cold-drawn Bronze Cast Cold-drawn Modulus Modulus Ultimate of Elasticity of Elasticity Tension or Shear Weight Compres(PSI) (lb/in3) Shear Compression (PSI) Tension sion 60,000 67,000 70,000 125,000 20,000 35,000 60,000 50,000 48,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 40,000 54,000 85,000 22,000 85,000 39,000 43,000 46,000 65,000 80,000 125,000 145,000 120,000 25,000 48,000 53,000 56,000 75,000 27,000 44, 000 70,000 48,000 38,000 30,000,000 30,000,000 30,000,000 30,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000 23,000,000 27,000,000 15,500,000 15,000,000 12,000,000 12,000,000 12,000,000 12,000,000 6,000,000 8,000,000 9,200,000 0.28 6,200,000 6,000,000 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31

45,000 18,000

457

457



458 458



459 459



460 460

European Standards
CENELEC Designation Method of Protection Type of Protection d Containment 1. Explosion Proof e Mechanical 2. Increased Safety i Electrical 3. Intrinsically Safe These designations are typically preceded by EEx, the designation indicating an apparatus built to a European standard. European Classification of hazardous Locations Zone 0 Explosive gas present continuously Zone 1 Explosive gas present occasionally under normal operating conditions Zone 2 Explosive gas present for short period Zone 20 Explosive dust present continuously Zone 21 Explosive dust present occasionally under normal operating conditions Zone 22 Explosive gas present for short period Explosion Groups Group 1 Electrical equipment for mining operations Group 2 Electrical equipment for all remaining hazardous areas Ingress Protection (IP rating) defines the degree of protection

Scope of Protection for the IP protection classes

First Digit Digit Physical Protection Foreign Body Protection 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 No protection No protection Second Digit Digit Water Protection 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 No protection Protection against water drops falling vertically Protection against water drops falling at an angle (15) Protection against water drops falling at an angle up to 60 Protection against water spray from all directions Protection against water jets Protection against strong water jets Protection against intermittent immersion in water Protection against continuous immersion in water Protection against high pressure water and temperature jets (water at 80100 bar pressure and 7585 C sprayed from a distance of 100-150 mm from every angle

Protection against Protection against back of hand contact solid foreign bodies 50 mm diameter Protection against finger contact Protection against contact from tools Protection against contact with a wire Protection against contact with a wire Protection against contact with a wire Protection against solid foreign bodies 12.5 mm diameter Protection against solid foreign bodies 2.5 mm diameter Protection against solid foreign bodies 1.0 mm diameter Protection against dust Dust-tight

461

Classification by Group and Category According to Intended Use

(Surface Industry)
Area Category of Presence or Duration of Inflammable Level of Protection Comparison with Equipment Explosive Atmosphere Substances Faults to Allow for Present Practice Continuous Presence Long Periods Frequent
Very High Level of Protection Group II Gas, Vapors, 2 Types of Protection Zone 0 (gas) Mist, Dust or Zone 20 (dust) 2 Independent Faults High Level of Protection Group II Gas, Vapors, 1 Type of Protection Zone 1 (gas) Mist, Dust Habitual Frequent Zone 21 (dust) Malfunction Normal Protection Required Level of Protection Group II Zone 2 (gas) Zone 22 (dust)

Equipment Group II (Surface)

Likely to Occur

Unlikely to Occur Gas, Vapors, Present for a Short Period Mist, Dust

Temperature Rating
The maximum surface temperature of the exposed surface of the electrical apparatus must always be lower than the ignition temperature of the gas or vapor mixture. Temperature Class T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Maximum Surface Temperature 450 C 300 C 200 C 135 C 100 C 85 C Ignition Temperature of Combustible Material >450 C >300 C >200 C >135 C >100 C >85 C

Safety Characteristics of Flammable Gases and Vapors

Medium
Acetaldehyde Acetic Acid Acetic Anhydride Acetone Acetylene Ammonia Amylacetate Benzene Benzol Carbon Disulfide Carbon Monoxide Cyclohexene 1, 2-Dichlorethane Diesel Fuel Ethane Ethylacetate Ethylalcohol Ethylchloride Ethylene Ethylenoxide Ethylether Ethyl Glycol Fuel Oil Hydrogen Hydrogen Disulfide Methane Methanol Methyl Chloride n-Butane n-Butylalcohol n-Hexane n-Propylalcohol Naphthaline Oleic Acid Phenol Propane Tetraline Toluole

Ignition Temp. C
140 485 330 540 305 630 380 220 555 95 605 430 440 220 up to 300 515 460 425 510 425 440 180 235 220 up to 300 560 270 595 (650) 455 625 365 340 240 405 520 360 595 470 425 535

Temperature Class
T4 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T3 T1 T6 T1 T2 T2 T3 T1 T1 T2 T1 T2 T2 T4 T3 T3 T1 T3 T1 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T2 T1 T2 T1 T1 T2 T1

Explosion Group
IIA IIA IIA IIA IIC IIA IIA IIA IIA IIC IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIB IIA IIB IIB IIB IIA IIC IIB IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA IIA

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Proudly announces the expansion of our sales area.

Mississippi, Alabama and the panhandle of Florida

are now included in

Where We Do business!
LEGEND
Birmingham

MISSISSIPPI
Jackson Montgomery

ALABAMA
Mobile Pensacola

FLORIDA

FPS Technologies
1417 Forestdale Blvd. Birmingham, Alabama 35214 Phone: (205) 798-9440 Fax: (205) 798-3532

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Pneumatics Solutions
Experience and expertise combined with world-class products. Working with Rexroth means working with a partner who can show you how to apply pneumatics for your competitive advantage. Standard or custom Providing a sophisticated and extensive standard product line in both NPT and ISO G (BSPP) port configurations, our products include pneumatic valves and actuators, pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, pneumatic fieldbus valve manifolds, electro-pneumatic valves and positioners, FRLs, tubing and fittings, vacuum components, industrial shock absorbers, and tooth chain products. We can also customize products to produce application-specific solutions. Our experience in materials, design and manufacturing, and machine knowledge gives us the flexibility to work with you to craft the exact solution you need. Versatile, modular, precise Our products are designed with market-specific needs in mind. Youll find what you need rather than trying to force-fit a close cousin. Or well give you the custom solution you need. Our modular approach means greater versatility and flexibility in application and customization. Whats more, the modularity allows easier integration and greater cost savings. Customer-based product development Our products have always been stateof-the-art technology. We are constantly developing new products and improving existing ones while working with customers globally to understand evolving needs. By focusing our product development on your real-world needs, we create products that give you a competitive edge in reliability, capabilities, and easy use. Worldwide presence Global presence, global availability, global application with Rexroth you have an international supplier who can support you worldwide. Five development centers in Lexington, Kentucky; Hannover and Schwieberdingen, Germany; Stockholm, Sweden; and Bonneville, France serve as centers of competence for advancing the state-of-the-art in pneumatics in an ISO 9001-certified design and production environment.

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Pneumatics Solutions
New Products
With the new valve terminal systems of the Clean Line Series, Rexroth is pioneering the food processing and packaging industry. This is a completely new generation of valves that have been developed to enhance the success of your business. The NCT series is suitable for all applications where grippers or suction cups can not be used: - Rough surface - Hot or cold objects - Sensitive objects - Dirty objects - Leaky surfaces (up to 50% holes) Easy-2-Combine is the solution for multi-axis automation tasks with individual components that can be combined in simple, time-saving assembly steps. This means that the most common applications in assembly technology can now be done with standardized interfaces. Centering elements are used for interlocking mounting and connections for sensors and the air supply are provided at several positions throughout the system, making complicated and expensive connection kits unnecessary. Rexroth has Easy-2-Combine components that can perform linear movements, pneumatically driven rotation movements, as well as gripper functions. Connection kits to flexibly assemble additional components will also remain in the Rexroth program. As a result of all this, the Easy-2-Combine system is already equipped for expansion. Rexroth's goal is to integrate additional components and sizes in the Easy-2-Combine system for handling technology.

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Rexroth
Bosch Group
Products: Automation Systems Human Machine Interfaces (HMI) I/O Units Servo and Frequency Drives

Electric Drives and Controls

Rexroth Electric Drives and Controls provides best-in-class products as well as best-in-class service and support. Rexroth offers all the benefits of a worldwide supplier, with service centers all over the United States. Motors and Gearboxes DC Electric Tools Resistance Welding Products

To better address your unique challenges, Rexroth Electric Drives and Controls products are segmented into following market segments. Machine Tool and Automotive For more than three decades, Rexroth has been delivering drive and control systems and they are closely connected with the international machine tool industry. Numerous innovations, large and small, have resulted from that connection. Revolutionary technologies like maintenance-free servo drives and PC-based controls have now become worldwide standards. Printing and Converting ShaftlessDriven technology has impacted nearly all modern commercial printing machines. The reduction of mechanical parts and additional equipment with the integration of the "electronic shaft" simplifies startup and maintenance, and it gives its users greater flexibility in machine configuration, as well as higher efficiency, less waste, faster upgrades and higher product quality. Food and Packaging Rexroth is the global leader in providing control technology and is used by packaging machine manufacturers around the world. Support that you can rely on to help you keep your packaging lines online and operating at their most efficient. Automation and Handling Rexroth offers best-in-class components and complete controls and drives solutions, customized for your application. Drive Based Solutions Rexroth also offers a complete range of drive-based system solutions for applications in other markets. DC Electric Tools Rexroth DC Electric Tools distinguish themselves with their modular design, high quality and flexibility. With the new handheld nutrunner, Rexroth ErgoSpin, and the Tightening System 300, Rexroth provides a new way of tightening. Resistance Welding Rexroth sets new standards in quality assurance of spot-welded connections. The ultrasonic measuring procedure is integrated into the process and monitors the quality of the spot-welded points with ultrasonic impulses during the welding process. This saves the user the high costs of conventional, mechanical testing procedures and improves reliability at the same time. Semiconductor and Medical Rexroth has extended its range of motion control systems with the NYCe4000, a rugged, high-end, compact, multi-axis industrial motion control system with integrated drive technology. Everything necessary to control complex equipment is included in a single box that can significantly reduce space requirements.

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Design Data Index

Additional design information is sometimes included with the catalog listings of the products to which it pertains.
Abbreviations, fluid power 351 Absolute viscosity 405 Acceleration, vehicle drive 352 Accumulator circuits 403, 404 Accumulator size selection 401, 402 Air flow through orifices 416 Air line pipe size 415 Air pressure loss through pipes 415 Air resistance, vehicles 352 Air spring applications 261 Air/oil applications 400 ANSI graphic symbols 340, 341 ANSI shaft and flange codes 386 Atmospheric pressure at altitudes 392 Axle torque, vehicles 352 Barlows formula 349, 411, 412 Bars to PSI conversion 350 Booster circuits 198 Boyles Law 348 Calculating areas 448, 449 Cavitation, pump 342, 344 Celsius scale 455 Centistoke viscosity 405 Charles Law 348 Circle area & circumference 348, 447 Circuits accumulator 403, 404 air-over-oil 400 basic hydraulic system 342 booster (amplifier) 198 closed loop hydrostatic transmission 398 cylinder synchronization 373 flow control 374, 385 high-low circuit 380 hydraulic motor 383, 384 oil filtering 394 pump unloading 378, 379 regenerative 371, 372 solid state switching 439 speed control 374, 385 Coefficients of friction 446 Color codes, electrical 438 Compressibility of oil 348 Control transformer sizing 436 Converting SCFM into compressor HP 360 Cooling capacity, added to system 397 Cooling, oil 395397 Crane calculations 365, 366 Cutting tool failure causes 429 Cv factors 388, 389 Cylinder air consumption 360 beam calculations 366 bore & rod sizes 369 column strength 363, 365 designing with 365 force & speed calculation 355 minimum rod diameter 363 mounting styles 163, 369, 370 operating a toggle mechanism 368 operating principles 353 rod end styles 165, 161 speed calculation 355, 359 speed, control of 374 stroke calculation 367, 368 373 synchronization 345 testing thrust 348 travel speed 352, 358 354 types working at an angle 367, 368 Decimal to fractions 451 Device designators 431 Directional valve patterns 387 Drawbar pull, vehicles 352 Drill bit sizes, metric 428 Drill sizes for tapping 423 Drill sizes for tapping, metric 428 Drilling & tapping factors 425 Drilling speed, HP & thrust 426, 427 Electrical enclosures IP ratings 440 NEMA ratings 439 Engler viscosity 405 Equivalent pipe & tube sizes 419 Examples, fluid power design 355 Fahrenheit to Celsius 450, 455 Fitting sizes 419 Flange and shaft types 386 Flange dimensional data 418 Flow controls 374, 385 Flow velocity in hydraulic lines 348, 349 Fluid power equivalents 351, 450 Formulas accumulator selection 401 burst strength, pipes 348, 408 burst strength, tubes 348, 411, 412 cylinder force 348, 353, 355 electrical 431 flow capacity, pipe & tubes 414 fluid power 348, 349 heat exchange 397 heat transfer 395 HP to drive pumps 376 pressure drop 417 side load 348 toggle force 368 vacuum pumps 393 vehicle drive 352 Fraction equivalents 451 Gauges, wire & metal 456 Grade resistance, vehicle 352 Graphic symbols, electric 430, 431 Graphic symbols, fluid power 340, 341 Heat equivalent, fluid power 348, 395 Heat exchanger sizing 396 Heat radiation, tanks 348, 395, 396 High-low pump circuit 380 Hole punching tonnage 425 Horsepower /speed/torque 348, 349, 381 calculations 376 engine drive 377 for drilling 425 for tapping & threading 425 to compress air 391 to drive pump 376 Hydraulic troubleshooting 342344 Hydrostatic transmissions 398, 399 Interchange values, SI/Old Metric/U.S. 453, 454 Intrinsically safe information 441 IP ratings, enclosures 440 Kinematic viscosities 405 Leadscrew efficiences 446 Liters to GPM conversion 350, 452

467

Design Data Index

Mechanical transmission efficiency 382 Metal & wire gauges 456 Metric drill bit sizes 428 fluid power formulas 349 machine screws 428 pipe threads 420 to english conversion 350, 451 to fractions 451 Modulus of elasticity 364 Momentum of a vehicle 352 Motion Control Formulas 442446 Motor 3phase 377, 432, 433 3phase windings and connections 435 circuits, hydraulic 383385 NEMA frame dimensions 432, 433 377 reversing single phase 377 starter ratings 436 starter wire sizes 434 torque/HP/speed 348, 381 NEC electrical code 441 NEMA ratings, enclosures 439 Ohms law 431 Oil cleanliness guidelines 222 Oil cooling 395397 Oil filtration 394 Oil pressure loss, pipes 410 O-ring sizes, U.S. 421 Pipe oil flow capacity 409 oil pressure loss 410 size, air lines 415 tap drill sizes 423, 424 threads, metric 420 Power steering 347 Pressure amplifier data 198 Pressure loss, pipes & tubing 410 Pump cavitation 343, 344 circuits 378, 379 high-low circuit 380 measuring GPM from gears, vanes or pistons 346 torque 381 unloading 378, 379 Regenerative circuits 371, 372 Replacement, pump or motor 346 SAE pads 418, 424 Seal compatibility with common fluids 407 Servicing hydraulic systems 342, 344 Shaft and flange types 386 Sheet metal gauges 456 Shell & tube heat exchanger 396 SI metric units 349, 350, 451 Side load on shafts 348 Single phase motors 377 Sizing accumulators 401, 402 Solid state switching 439 Speed /torque/HP 348, 349, 381 calculation, cyl. 355 control circuits 374, 385 for drilling 426, 427 vehicle travel 352 SUS viscosity, temperature 406 Steering, power 347 Straight thread fitting sizes 419 Stroke calculations, cylinders 367, 368 Suggested cutting speeds 429 Symbols, graphic, electrical 430, 431 Synchronizing cylinders 373 Tables 3phase electrical motors 432, 433 air cylinder force 361 air pressure loss 415 common O-ring sizes 421 conversion, English & SI units 452 copper tubing 412 copper wire 456 cylinder air consumption 360 drilling speed, HP & thrust 426, 427 fractions to decimal & metric 451 heat transfer 397 HP to compress air 391 HP to drive pump 376 hydraulic cylinder force 356, 357 hydraulic cylinder speeds 358, 359 minimum piston rod diameter 363 motor starter ratings 436 NEMA motor frame dim. 432, 433 oil pressure loss 410 orifices, air flow 416 orifices, oil flow 417 orifices, vacuum flow 416 pipe 408415 pipe tap drill sizes 424 SAE pads 418, 424 SUS viscosity, temperature 406 standard gauges 456 suggested cutting speeds 429 tap drill sizes 423, 424 temperature conversion 455 transformer sizing 436 tubing 410414, 419 twist drill diameter 422 viscosity 405 voltage loss 437 Tandem center circuit 378 Tap drill sizes 423 Tap drill sizes, pipe 424 Temperature conversion chart 455 Three phase motors 377, 432, 433 Three wire startstop station 435 Thrust for drilling 425, 426 Tie-rod stretch 364 Tonnage for hole punching 425 Torque, axles 352 Torque/speed/HP 348, 349, 381 Travel speed, vehicles 352 Tubing flow capacity 414 internal fluid PSI 362 stainless steel data 413 Twist drill diameter 422 Unloading, pump 378 Unloading, valve 378 Vacuum applications 392 evacuation times 392 flow through orifices 416 pump inlet 345 tank pump-down time 393 Valve testing 345 Vehicle drive calculations 352 Velocity of oil flow through pipes 409 Wire gauges 456 Wire selection guide 437

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