Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
, 2007), pp. 283-294 Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20460003 . Accessed: 05/03/2014 21:42
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Practice
abstract: This article is concerned with the question of the relevance of the results of sociological research external to the discipline - or, in otherwords, with the form of dealing with sociological knowledge in the environment of the scientific system. When it comes to application, compared to other disciplines sociology has an unusual problem: Unlike jurisprudence or economics, which focus primarily on one specific social function system, sociology is characterized by a strictly external observation perspective and produces extemal descriptions ofwhat the disciplines of the individual function systems have already put forward as self-descriptions. Based on these reflections, this article asks about the consequences for sociological theory and practice and sees one possible answer in viewing sociology as a form of advisory sociology. keywords: advisory sociology * outside description * profession* sociological knowledge * sociological practice * systems theory
I. Introduction
withwidespread lamentations not just confronted of irrelevance by the Sociology is frequently public but also within thediscipline itself, asking: 'What is thepoint of sociology today?'" Furthermore, thereis talkof a crisisdue to the lackof relevanceof the resultsof sociological more recent researchexternal to thediscipline.However, in contrastto theseproblems, the most important results empiricalfinding, ofknowledge application research emphasize, as its While in its underestimated(Beckand Bont, 1989). beginnings knowledgehas been drastically was viewed sceptically(Stehr, thepractical success rateof thesocial sciences 1992), since the most diverse social of theknowledge of thesocial sciences intothe 1960s a continualdiffusion can be observed. Indeed, one can even areas, organizationsand Lebenswelten ('life-worlds') when the reference to social scientific can be seen especially in thepolitical sphere reasoning to as a basis forlegitimizing or referred is either used as a basis for politicaldecision-making mass own scientific court reporter deliveringappropriateresultsand presentingthem in the media asmuch-needed.
Two reasons in particular can be put forward explaining the immense spread of social scien tific ideas, which can certainly be viewed as a success story of the social sciences: First, the broad ening of the social scientific study programmes since the 1970s and the resulting increasing political decisions in the areas of education, law and economy. Every political party has its speak of an increasing social scientification of themost diverse spheres of life in society. This the proof that the factual application of social sciences and in particular of sociological
inpracticeareas outside ofuniversities; presenceof social scientifically educated practitioners mass media, which, in its and second, the absorptionof social scientific knowledge by the
constant search fornew information, first found what was it looking for in the natural sciences Acta Sociologica* September2007 * Vol 50(3):283-294 * DOI: 10.1177/0001699307080933 New Delhiand Singapore) Copyright Association* PublishedbySAGE (LosAngeles,London, C) 2007 NordicSociological www.sagepublications.com
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Acta Sociologica 50(3) and then in thehumanitiesand social sciences. In connection with thesedevelopments, the social sciences have become a part not only of the specialized knowledge of specificoccu pations,but also of the individualculturalcapital of a broadmiddle class.2 would Hence, it notbemisguided tospeak of a daily social scientification ofeveryday life. The extentto which thediffusion of thesocial scienceshas led toa rationalization of social and individualproblem processingorwhether social scientific knowledge is only used strikingly andmetaphorically is anotherquestion - one needmerely think of theuse of the term'knowledgesociety' in the media-informedpublic to illustrate this. Thus, although thesocial sciencesare certainly present inpublic discourse (Lazarsfeldet al., 1967), it ispossible toascertaina certaindeficitin identifying them(Wingens,1997).3 There is
a demand for and in a sense also use of the social sciences
when theyare used the initialform of theknowledge as produced in the social sciences can no longer be identified, and in application researchone can search forthe lost sociology (see Kroner andWolff,1984).And thissearch,or rathertheproofof theeffect of thisknowledge, more difficult with decreasing transparency becomes all the of thepaths or detours thatthis knowledge has takenover itsjourneythroughthe mass media and thepublic. The difficulty inmaking social scientific products visible can alreadybe explained by the simple factthat thesocial sciences,incontrastto thenatural sciences,do not deliverhard facts or discoveries, but ratherprimarilyprovide interpretations (Felt, 2000). And in the broad public, these interpretations are oftenreduced to specificterms, picturesormetaphors. In the following, I limit myself to concentrating on thearea in which one ismost likelyto findsociologicalknowledge ratherthanattempting all theplaces where onemight to identify detect sociology. This area is theapplicationof sociologicalknowledge toconcretecases in the occupational action of sociologicallyeducated practitioners. However, beforedoing this,let me make a briefcommenton social scientific application research.
in occupational
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Kurtz: Sociological Theory and Sociological Practice Schuiztand Luckmann, 1979), the idea of a rationality gap between science and practice was abandoned, as was the intention to steerpractice with scientific theoriesin a causal-technical manner,as practice itself was interpreted as theory and knowledge laden.Schutz (1971)distin and constructs. First-order constructsimplyaction guishes between first-order second-order orientations of directrelevancein the form of everydayknowledge, which itselfis a resultof everyday situationsof practicewith pragmatic action relevance. In contrast,second-order constructs, which Schutz reservedonly forscience,observeproblemsexternalto science with with thehelp of a terminological a higherdegree ofgenerality and describe them framework. and interpretations reconstruction ofpracticeare in thissense always second Social scientific and typifications, order constructs or, inother words: constructs of theconstructs ofpractical action.In thetransformation was continued models ofapplicationresearch, thislineof thought asmerely and led toan interpretation of social scientific but rather knowledgenot as superior point, different (see, forthis Nassehi, 2003: 310 ff.).
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Acta Sociologica 50(3) Sociology itself cannotbe primarily allocated toany one function systemof society.It is, so to speak, thereflection theory of the whole of society. Thus, sociologydescribesa realitythat has always already been described by other theories (Touraine,1974; Bauman, 2000) without having committeditselfin advance to a positive reference to thedescribed systemand its binary codes (key differentiations). The epistemicproblems of the social environmentare primarilyprocessed by sociology under the aspect of truth, and by treatingthe system itdescribes thesesystemsand confronts environment relationas a relation of difference them with thesedescriptions. Thus, indescribing itsenvironment, sociologyas a science observes thedifferentiations of thisenvironment with itsown differentiation As a result, (true/false). itconstructs an image ofpractice that isnot necess foritself, on thebasis of itsown reality, arilycongruent with the image thatthe respective practicehas made of itself(Willke,1993), more precisely,it forms an image thatcannotpossiblybe congruent with theself or toput it imageof therespective practice. not able to takeup theperspective of a first-order world observer Sociology is therefore - even ifadvocates under description (Luhmann,1991) that knowswhat is right forthesystem as a second-orderform of a criticalsociologyclaim todo just that. Rather,sociology functions and blind which has been of observation, which observes observations reveals spots of that described, without being protected fromitsown formsof blindness.Hence, thedifferentia and outside descriptiondoes not referto a hierarchy tionbetween self-description between Michael thedisciplines:Sociology does not hold theposition of the lastobserverdescribed in Power's Audit Society(1997), as sociology also finds itsexternalobserver, which judges its mass media, which does not alwayswant to success, for instancepolitics informed by the acknowledge theusefulnessof thisdiscipline.
IV.Sociology as a profession?
Viewing the field on the basis of the distinctionbetween outside description and self of a professioncan be a realistic description,itbecomes questionablewhether thefoundation as is repeatedly discussionby certain perspectiveforthedevelopmentof sociology, put up for mind the United States debate from over four decades ago, programmes.Indeed, thiscalls to in which a quite different pictureof the future of sociology was presented.For instance,it is clear fromthe works ofEverett C. Hughes (1958), TalcottParsons (1959)andWilliam J. Goode are in agreementthatsociology should seek a profile more as a scientific (1960) thatall three discipline thanas a practicalprofession.In this regard, Hughes (1958: 166 f.), forexample,
wrote: areas of applied sociology in the framework of calls for a stronger practice orientation in study
cal knowledge than in theadvancementof a professionof sociology.'5 And regardless ofwhether one focuseson theconceptofprofessionof one of theseauthors
it is difficult to imagine sociology as a science of action
thatwe
of sociologi
oriented towardsa practicalprofession. Nonetheless, it ispossible,bothwithin thediscipline aswell as in thepublic domain, toobserve an increasedtendencytoascribeprofessions under theassumption that,fundamentally, anywell-qualified occupational work can be profession alized (cf. no longerdistinguishes Wilensky, 1964). In contrastto this term, which effectively
between
discriminating
term - namely
a social theoretical
lifeproblems of individualpeople - whether they be persons inneed of comfort or cure for sickness,persons in conflict or needing education - make up thecore of thecommunicative 286
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Practice Theory and Sociological Kurtz: Sociological events. In thesesystems,theconcern isnot onlywith assuringcommunicativecontinuation of helping, alwayswith inter within the system, but therefore also, under the requirement why the And this is precisely of society. ventions in the lives of persons in theenvironment made into a technique through communicationin these systemscan only be insufficiently with the task of professionallyassisting in the media, leaving professionalpractitioners sickness of theproblems fromthenegative to thepositive- forexample from transformation tohealth. It can therefore be said thatvalues which are specificto theprofessionsat the same time of the theory systemtowhich the reflection of the respectivefunction mark thedistinction 135 more and orients for detail Kurtz, 2000b 2005: ff.). itself (cf. system itsself-description ones, worse better from accomplishments of society distinguishes Thus theeducational system the teaching has the taskofguiding thestudentsto thepositive side of thedistinc profession theory of theeducational systemsupplies theappli tion,for which pedagogy as thereflection cation-orientedtheoreticaltools. Even in other systems inwhich no occupational group of dominating the fieldof practicehas developed, such as in theeconomic system,theories exist. For sociology,however, the situation is fundamentally elaborated self-descriptions nor thepracticalguidance of a function Sociology dominatesneitherthe theoretical different: practice. system. For this,it lacksabove all itsown personallybound and case-oriented become a profession,thissaysnothing Even ifsociology- as is assumed here- cannot itself For RalfDahrendorf (1989), forinstance,sociology about its relevanceforotherprofessions. and fora long timethe thesis was maintained isvirtuallythesubsidiarysubjectpar excellence, ofpracticeexternaltouniversities was only able toenterintofields thatsociologicalknowledge were the over specificaction sciencesand professions(LautmannandMeuser, 1986). If this case,we would have to ask ourselveswhy we bother at all to continueeducating students not numbers. Although theyare largely majoring in sociology - and this in ever-increasing as their studies name occupation, show as sociology the labour they rarely on market, visible most diverse social areas,such as education, practitioners work in the that sociologicallytrained andmedia (Dammann and Zinn, 1997). health socialwork, economy, politics/administration, so toocan trained of all areas of society, producedescriptions as sociologycan, as a science, Just in areas most diverse function outside of science the work successfully sociologists apparently - althoughas yetnothing what becomes of thesociological knowledgeused has been said about to therespective in theseareas.Does it requirements? maintain its distanceor does itadapt itself
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Acta Sociologica 50(3) Viewed in this theobserving systemand uses a choice of distinctionsspecificto thesystem. and descriptions, inreference light, theresults of sociological observations to Heinz von Foerster (1981),can also be termedsecond-orderreality. This theory-practice problem is,of course,also relevant on the leveloforganizationsforthe reflection theories systemssuch as pedagogy, as self-description onlymeans that of function systemcontext (see the theory and that which has been described share the same function Kurtz, 2000a). The problem specificto sociologicaldescriptions, however, is thattheyare also separated fromtheirobject by social systembarriers. Hence, sociology cannot claim direct as it is separated fromthefieldofpracticeby several system access topractice fields, barriers. to thefieldofpractice,cannotgive directions.Itcan Sociological knowledge, as a contribution intotheself-determining atmost be incorporated apparatus of thepracticalsystems, although in thisprocess itbecomes an elementof thatsystemand thusno longerfollowsa scientific logicbut ratherthe logicof the respectivesystem. This is essentiallya resultof the factthatsociologicalknowledgemust follow a different logic in scientific practiceand inpracticeareas externalto science: While one can describe the as communication productionof sociologicalknowledge thedifferentiated of truth, following the sociologicalknowledge outside of science is not thegoal of explaining social structures, And in thisregardit is less amatter knowledge for making decisions relevantto thepractice.7 ofwhether the scientific meaning applies to practice than merely a matter ofwhether the A correct benefits prove tobe of value forthepractice.8 practice descriptionof the respective
by science is only of relevance judged on the basis of the regulative idea of truth but rather in terms of the adequacy of the
rationality resonance remains specificto itsown system. Otherwise, thecapabilityof finding discourse. to thescientific system,forexample, as a topic in thescientific restricted and practicalperspectives remainas such in theirrespectivesystems.It is only Scientific into relation with actors that theyare brought,as points of contrastand similarity, through andWolff,1984). In this each other (Kroner process,however, it isnot thepracticalaction itself
is made scientific, but rather the rationalization of this action as a retrospective and
to the practice
which
prospective formof reflection, or, in thewords of Christoph Lau (1984): the structures of here as reasoningoriented towardsdecisions. Sociologically educated practitioners function and everyday language.This translation translators serviceoccurs,however, in of scientific is thenon the forminwhich sociologicalknowledge is fedback into thecommunicationof
system. It is exactly at this point that themore recent application research faced can be considered the environment of society - in the thoughts of persons - and the focus
what
as such thesociologicalknowledge the mediated in this problem thatitcould not identify way A sociological observation of the in its application beyond the theory-practice distinction. practical relevanceof sociological knowledge is therefore faced in a certain sensewith the in externalcontexts. With regard to thedifferentiation between problem of self-observation in itsepistemicprocesses. By askingwhat theeffects of sociologicalknowledge are in fields onto theother side of thedistinction and then of practiceexternalto science, itprojects itself as observerand as theobjectbeing observed. In any case, incontrast functions simultaneously to theclassical conceptsof theapplication of sociologicalknowledge, onemust askwhether,
based theory and practice, sociology as a science usually treats practice as the object that leads theory
the practical
with scientific whether the concern is truly sociology in the fieldof practice and, iffound,
understood as an
it is at all possible
to find sociology
as
The immeasurably growing increaseinknowledge in current societyopens up amultitude of actionpossibilities (Stehr, 1994), which, however,have failed to make action any simpler.9 Owing to thehuge diversity of actionpossibilities, knowledge is losing in stability/security 288
itself or whether the key issue is more a type of know-how, knowledge in order to act. adequate way of using this knowledge
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Kurtz: Sociological Theory and Sociological Practice with the increaseinknowledge,non-knowledge, as theotherside ofknowledge,also increas ing (Luhmann,1992).At thesame time,theadoption of specific knowledge to thequestion of knowledgewould not have beenmore appropriate (Beck,1992).And also whether different theconcern isnot necess forsociologistsacting inpracticeareas externalto theuniversities, with non-knowledge,and theknowledge arilysomuch with havingmore knowledge as it is for actionas that of thislackofknowledge is justas important which sociologyactuallyknows. Based on this insight,it could therefore be argued that to a large extent the learningof decisions, i.e.how touse non-knowledge.'0 knowledge should be substituted with learning
of practice.
This is of course not the perspective organized one can already determine
Matthes (1973)demanded that thestateof thestudyof sociologysome 30 years ago, Joachim 289
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Acta Sociologica 50(3) graduatesmajoring in sociologybe prepared for advisoryand, at thesame time,for decision making activitiesin thefield ofpractice. And itispreciselythisthat could perhapsbe provided by a sociologicaleducationbut not by sociologicalknowledge, as thestandingof sociology in
the field of practice is less that of an actor than that of an advisor, who, so to speak, delivers
thecorrecting knowledge of modernity (Beck,1982). The educational goal, formulated byMatthes as an integral whole factor, would therefore In the following,I tryto differentiate be more aptly described as a difference. theeducation in sociologyas a major not in terms ofwhat itqualifies itsstudentsfor but ratherregarding fortheactivitiesin theoccu the meaning thatthe mediated knowledge isgiven retrospectively of decision-making or theactivity pational fields,in which what counts is action in terms of When educated sociologistsenter theoccupational fieldsof the first advising. category,the of sociologi studiesofgraduates speak forthemselves. While, with theexceptionforinstance calmethodological education, thespecificsociological elementsof thestudyprogramme,i.e. the theoretical of applicability textbook knowledge, are given a relativelylow value in terms and decision-making, and use inoccupational activities minors such as psychology, micro the It seems thatsociologistscan only assert themselvesagainst othergraduates in theseoccu which ultimately boils down to 'de-sociologizing'. pational areas iftheyadjust theirstudies, Although in these cases sociology is the core of the education, sociological knowledge with sociologyas aminor, as an additionalorientation. as in thestudyprogrammes functions, However, it does notmark the core of the occupational activity. As a result,sociology, in a subsidiary functionforother contrasttowhat thename of the study field implies,fulfils reflection theories and for practicalactivity. In termsof occupational fields inwhich sociological competencyis given primacy and is main focus is on activitiesthatcall not subjected toor put alongside othercompetencies,the with itsdifferentiated On thecontrary, byUlrich Beck (1985). sociology as a science, perspec tiveof theobservationand description theessentialknowledge basis ofothers, offers virtually of such advisoryactivities. does not primarily Sociological knowledge, in thiscontext, acquire
the function of the self-observation of its own action but rather of a case study outside obser vation of the actions and decisions of others as well as of organizational problems. Seen in this advice as well as the advice of members of a profession and other way, both organizational service can also be offered to other occupations as a case-specific supplementary qualification. I speak here of 'advising', my considerations are based on a general systems When for advisory action. However, this does not imply that sociology should be seen as being in a state of transition from an academic profession to an advisory one, as suspected for instance economics and communication sciences as well as the soft skills are given a relatively high value.
members of the occupation can be summarized under thisoccupational field, while this of advising thatcan be summarized intoapproximatelythree theoretical inspireddefinition points: 1. In giving advice, theconcern isnot somuch with imparting knowledge, i.e. differ ences in knowledge, but rather with differencesin the perspectives of observation. For as a rule,organizationscannot takeon an external instance, perspective when addressing their problems. In other words, theycannot observe themselves observing,and forprecisely this reason theyneed advice (Fuchs, 1994). 2.Advisors must beginwith theorganizational self description thattheyencounterand see theirtask in deconstructing and reconstructing this description(Luhmann,2000) - theytherefore produce outside descriptionsof thediscovered problems.3. The purpose of advising cannot,however, lie indeliveringtheorganization with the 'correct' decision, but rather merely inmaking the organization capable of choosing
between
or rathersociologicalknowledge, foradvisory activities. thatqualifies sociology, While giving advice, thepractisingsociologistgeneralizes that which is typicalabout the concrete case to a structuralinterpretation and leaves the solution of the problems thus 290
several options
it is precisely
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Kurtz: Sociological and Sociological Theory Practice - unlike professional brought to light work - to theclienthimself (Dewe and Radtke, 1989). For instance, theadvice, inspiredfrom a systems-theoretical ofno longeroffering perspective, concretereforminstructions but ratherlimitingitselfto giving irritating impulses fromits external perspectiveofobservation,iscurrently At thesame time, successfulinpractice fields. it is,of course,not impossible thatsociologicallyeducated practitioners cause irritation with theirobservationsand descriptionsof an organization froma sociological perspective. An
example
organizations need internalgrumblers (Wiesenthal,1995). The problem for sociological disturbancesis,however, thatover timethese knowledgewith these internal members adapt to theorganizationand adjust theirsociological,distancedperspective. For theadvisingsociologist, thefollowing taskensues: to translate thesociological knowledge intoeveryday languageand in so doing tooffertheclients,in theform ofpersons or organiz ations,context-specific and descriptions which can theninspire observations of their situations, these clients to change themselves. This is the realm of thepracticallyacting sociologist. here in theconclusions thatresultfromthisforsociologyas However,we are also interested a disciplineand forsociologicalknowledge. If, namely,sociologyplaces greater emphasis ineducationon thoseareas of activity in which decisive action counts or of even greater consequence: follows the path of building a assert themselvesin thefieldofpractice profession,itcould be thatitsgraduates successfully and earngood wages. At thesame time, as a discipline,thereis thedanger forsociology itself, thatitor rather some of thespecialized sociologies distanced would, givingup their scientific, perspective,transform themselvesintoreflection theories of mostly alreadyoccupied practical
contexts, which tificdiscipline.
research
but rather fieldsexternalto thediscipline ifitdoes not give up itsdistancedperspective stim with sociologicalobserva ulateswith regardtoconcretecases thepracticecontexts of society
tions and descriptions. The success of sociology can ultimately only lie in sociology as a science, or, as Niklas Luhmann put it in his departing lecture at Bielefeld: Sociology only occurs in society as a science, it has no other working basis (see Luhmann, 1993: 252).
in theworst case scenario would lead to the dissolution of sociology as a scien In contrast to this - as is my thesis - sociology will only be successful in practice
And all thisisnot only trueforsociologyas a scientific Also in theenvironment discipline. of thescientific the system, The successof sociologyis therefore practiceof sociology is science!
in its becoming practical, but rather in the form in which it also interprets form inwhich it can advise. To put it simply, sociology finds its external relevance in the form
not to be sought
and that practiceoutside of the scientific systemscientifically, means more precisely: in the of an advising sociology.
Notes
1. So, forexample, Peter L. Berger (1994) is able to ask,whether sociology still makes sense and Richard Sennett (1994) even announces the end of sociology. 2. That is, what Robert S. Lynd (1946/1939) - who was among thefirst to take an interestin thepractical use of sociological knowledge - called the cultural functionof the social sciences: 'an organized part of the culturewhich exists tohelp man in continually understanding and rebuilding his culture' (p. ix). 3. See, for thispoint, also the '2004 Presidential Address: For Public Sociology' to theASA byMichael Buroway (2005) and the critical comments by Armin Nassehi (2006: 463 ff.)and Ulrich Beck (2005). part of public discourse and practice' and that in contrast 'all the different formsof public and non public sociology are indanger of becoming museum pieces' (p. 335). See, for the relationship between science and public in general, PeterWeingart (2001, 2005). completely by science (Bacon, 1974/1627).
thoughts resonate with Francis Bacon's Nova Atlantis, an utopia of a society, which is controlled Beck, for example, does not share Buroway's 'optimism that sociology can easily become an integral
4. These
291
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6. See the notion of 'two-communities' inCaplan (1979) and Dunn (1980). 7. Gibbons et al. (1994) look on thisdistinction as a unity - in mode 2 theproduction of knowledge is a and between scientists cooperative process practitioners and therefore it is a production for the new But is the whether this practice. question production of knowledge really is a formof science. If this is the case it Weingart, 1997). might only be a peripheral phenomenon of the scientificsystem (cf. 8. See also the philosophical reflections of Immanuel Kant: 'On the common saying: this may be true in theorybut itdoes not apply in practice' (1983/1793). 9. Insecurity of action is a general problem of professional work and of highly qualified work in the 11. See also the distinctions between
'knowledge of acquaintance' and 10. See,
knowledge
to non-members
and
its utilization
in
practical
affairs.'
distinction
between about'
'to know how' and 'to know that' (Ryle, 1949) and between
'knowledge (James, 1890).
non-knowledge
and
nothing-knowledge.
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Biographical Note: Thomas Kurtz is Lecturer (Privatdozent) of Sociology in the Faculty of Sociology, Bielefeld University and at present he is Deputy Professor of Vocational Training Research at Osnabruick University. His research interests include Sociological Theory, Educational Sociology and Sociology ofWork and Occupations. Address: Universitat Osnabrtick, Fachbereich Erziehungs- und Kulturwissenschaften, Albrechtstr. 28, D-49076 Osnabrtick, Germany. [email: thomas.kurtz@uni-bielefeld.de]
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