Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

The mole concept and the closely related concept of stoichiometry are the hardest concepts for most students to fully understand.

The Mole
The mole is the concept of measuring the amount of a substance and it is a fundamental unit in the systme international d'units (International System of Units the modern form of the metric system). It is defined as the number of representative particles in exactly 12.0 grams of C-12. So by this definition, the mass of one mole of carbon-12 must be exactly 12.0 grams.

Representative Particles
The term representative particles is used to describe the particles or entities that represent the smallest unit that has all of the properties of that group examples would be: Large Group geese mice people VW Beetle Representative particle goose mouse person a single car

When counting VW Beetles, you do not count wheels, or windows, because they do not have the same properties of a whole VW Beetle. You must count a whole car, same with counting geese, you do not count feathers or beaks you must count the whole bird (and that is a goose). For chemistry, there are three representative particles that we normally use in mole conversions and one other unit that we use in electrochemistry and oxidation-reduction problems. Again, the representative particles depend on what is being counted and you have to be absolutely sure as to the term used it helps with the AP questions.

for elements the representative particles atoms for ionic compounds the representative particles formula units for covalent compounds (also called molecular compounds) the representative particles molecules
When dealing with electrochemistry and oxidation-reduction problems, the moles of electrons are used in the calculations; the representative particle for electrons is (drum roll please) an electron.

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Substance Iron Water Table salt Oxygen gas

Representative particles for various substances Representative particle Atom Molecule Formula unit (and a formula unit is one grouping of NaCl) Molecule (remember that oxygen is diatomic and is O2, therefore must be a molecule and not an atom.

The number of representative particles in exactly 12.0 grams of carbon-12 (in this case, the representative particles are atoms, since carbon is an element) is 6.0221415 x 1023 (on the AP Chemistry formula charts, it is written as 6.022 x 1023). That number is referred to as Avogadros Number (NA) in honor of the nineteenth century Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. It was Avogadro, in the early 1800s that first proposed that the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of particles of gas (either atoms or molecules again that idea of representative particles and what you are counting). Since gas volume changes with temperature and pressure, the gases have to be at the same pressure and temperature for the comparison to be made.

Molar Mass
There are two definitions that are closely related in chemistry, atomic mass units and that of a mole. They are related so that the following connections can be made. The two definitions are:

Atomic mass unit is exactly 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 nucleus. A mole is the number of particles in exactly 12.0 grams of C-12.
If you want to see how they are related, read the table below. If not, skip below the table to the paragraph at the top of the next page. Lets see how they are related.

Atomic Mass Units

Definition: An atomic mass unit is exactly 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 nucleus An atom of carbon-12 has: 6 protons 6 neutrons 6 electrons

Moles
Definition: A mole is the number of particles in exactly 12.0 grams of C-12 An atom of carbon-12 has: 6 protons 6 neutrons 6 electrons A mole of carbon-12 has: 6 moles protons 6 moles neutrons 6 moles electrons What is the mass of one mole of C-12? By the definition, one mole of carbon-12 has to have a mass of 12 grams. Molar mass = #p+ + #no (since electrons have relatively no mass) So: 12 grams = 6 moles p+ + 6 moles no Since the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are the same, we can substitute protons
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The atomic mass of C-12 is 12 amu. Atomic mass = #p+ + #no (since electrons have relatively no mass) So: 12 amu = 6p+ + 6no Since the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are the same, we can substitute protons
Mole and Stoichiometry Packet

for neutrons (or vice versa) in the equation above and get: 12 amu = 6p+ + 6p+

1 amu = 1 p+

for neutrons (or vice versa) in the equation above and get: 12 grams = 6 moles p+ + 6 moles p+ The mass of a proton is 1 amu, so 12 grams = 6 mol (1 amu) + 6 mol (1 amu) 12 grams = 12 moles of amus 1 gram = 1 mole of amus

So what does this all mean? The definitions of atomic mass units (amu) and moles are related, so as to allow the periodic table to show both the average atomic mass and the molar mass of every element. The average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu, while the molar mass is 35.45 grams. Everything that is done with isotopes and atomic masses, applies to moles and molar masses. The definition of molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance. Units are g/mol Numerically equal to the average atomic weight in atomic mass units. Specific names depend on the representative particles. atoms = gram atomic mass ionic compounds = gram formula mass covalent compounds = gram molecular mass It is common for AP free response questions to ask for the students to find molar mass of an unknown compound. This is especially true with the lab based question. Year 1983 1978 1989 1979 1973 How was problem stated? The molecular weight of a monoprotic acid HX was to be determined. Calculate the molecular weight of the acid HA. In an experiment to determine the molecular weight and the ionization constant for ascorbic acid (vitamin C) In a laboratory determination of the atomic weight What minimum data are needed to determine the molecular weight What does this tell you? Molecular weight = covalent compound Molecular weight = covalent compound Molecular weight = covalent compound Atomic weight = element Molecular weight = covalent compound

Molar Volume
As stated above, it was Avogadro which first proposed that the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of particles of gas at constant temperature and pressure. Since gas volume changes with temperature and pressure, the pressure and temperature have to be stated for the comparison to be made. The temperature and pressure that has been agreed upon is called Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP). Standard temperature is 0OC (273.15 K) and 1atmosphere of pressure (1 atm). If and only if you are at those conditions can you use the value for molar volume! Molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of ANY gas at STP; that volume is 22.4 liters.

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Avogadro used his law with equal volumes of gases under the same conditions and equal numbers of molecules to determine how many particles were in a mole. Students often see volume or liters in a problem and jump to using 22.4 liters! You must have two things in order to use molar volume. 1. Must have a gas! 2. Must be at STP!

Molarity and molar does not mean a gas! You cannot use 22.4 liters in the problem!

Mole Diagram

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The mole diagram is designed to help students visualize how to do the conversions. If you are asked to go from grams to moles, that is a one step conversion going from the mass in grams to the moles in the middle. If you are asked to convert liters @STP to atoms of He, then that is a two step problem: first is to convert from liters (at the top) to moles in the middle, then convert from the moles to the representative particles at the bottom.

Examples
Find the number of moles in 35.78 grams of (NH4)2SO4.

35.78 grams (NH4 ) 2 SO4 x

1 mol (NH4 ) 2 SO4 2.707x101 moles (NH4 ) 2 SO4 132.17 grams (NH4 ) 2 SO4

To do this problem, you need to first find the molar mass of (NH4)2SO4: Element in the formula Nitrogen Hydrogen Sulfur Oxygen Number of moles of the element in the formula 2 8 1 4 Molar Mass (periodic table) 14.01 1.01 32.07 16 Add them up Final value 28.02 8.08 32.07 64 132.17 grams

Find the volume of 4.65 x 1024 atoms of He @ STP.

4.65 x 10 24 atoms He 1 mol of He 22.4 liters 1.73 x 10 2 liters 23 6.02 x 10 atoms of He 1 mol He

Find the number of representative particles in 2.76 moles of HCl.

2.76 mol HCl 6.02 x 10 23 formula units HCl 1.66 x 10 24 formula units 1 mol HCl

Find the moles of 38.9 grams of oxygen gas.

38.9 grams O 2 1 mole O 2 1.22 x 10 0 mol O 2 32.00 grams O 2

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Hardest problem: Find the number of atoms of oxygen in 343 grams of ammonium oxalate.
343 grams (NH4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 1 mol (NH4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 6.02 x 10 23 formula units (NH4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 4 atoms of oxygen x 124.12 grams (NH4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 1 mol (NH4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 1 formula unit (NH4 ) 2 C 2 O 4

6.65x10 24 atoms of oxygen

Whenever you need to break up a formula into smaller parts, always place the number 1 in front of the most complicated formula and then determine the other coefficient.

Determination of the formula of a compound

Percent Composition
PercentComposition mass of desired element (or ion) x 100 total mass

Percent composition is a very useful tool to determine the amount of an element in a compound. Since it is based on the total mass (and we use the molar mass for the total mass) the percent composition of an element in a compound is independent of the amount of that compound. Example: Find the percent composition for nitrogen in (NH4)2SO4. To do this problem, you need to first find the molar mass of (NH4)2SO4: Element in the formula Nitrogen Hydrogen Sulfur Oxygen Number of moles of the element in the formula 2 8 1 4 Molar Mass (periodic table) 14.01 1.01 32.07 16 Add them up Final value 28.02 8.08 32.07 64 132.17 grams

Percent Compositio n

28.02 grams x 100 21.20% 132.17 grams

If the problem asked for the amount of grams of nitrogen in 402 grams of (NH4)2SO4 you can do that problem two ways. The first way is using mole conversions.
402 grams (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 1 mol (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 2 mol N 14.01 grams N 85.2 grams N 132.17 grams (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 1 mol (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 1 mol N

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This problem can also be done using percent composition. 21.20% of (NH4)2SO4 is nitrogen, so 21.20% of 402 grams of (NH4)2SO4 must give you grams of nitrogen. 21.20% x 402 grams (NH4)2SO4 = 0.2120 x 402 = 85.2 grams Notice that the numbers are exactly the same if you look at how the 21.20% was calculated:
Percent Compositio n 2(14.01) grams x 100 21.20% 132.17 grams

Look at the mole conversion, all of the numbers are located in the exact same place, 402, 2 and 14.01 on the top and the 132.17 on the bottom.

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

There are two formulas that are asked for on the AP exam, empirical and molecular formulas. They are related to each other and sometimes the problems ask for one or the other or both. There are two ways to determine the molecular formulas and only one way to get the empirical formula. Since a formula, such as (NH4)2SO4 relates the number of moles of each element present, the molecular and empirical formulas deal with the moles of each element in the compound.

empirical formula the lowest whole number ratio of atoms in a formula generally used to determine ratio of elements in a compound can be used to determine the molecular formula two common problems for determining the data needed to find the empirical formula from percent composition combustion analysis Molecular formula the formula showing the actual ratio of atoms in a formula usually found from the empirical formula the molar mass of the actual compound is usually determined by laboratory data Find the grams of the compound (given to you in the problem) and use the other information
in the problem to do stoichiometry to determine the moles of the compound. Molar mass is grams per mole so take the grams and divide by the moles. There are three common methods in the laboratory to determine the molar mass: colligative properties titration (usually acid-base) gas laws Finding empirical and molecular formulas: find empirical formulas if given grams of each element, start at step three of the percentage problems for percentage problems step one: assume a 100 gram sample step two: for each element multiply the percentage by the mass (100g) to give you grams
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 step three: convert all grams into moles step four: divide by smallest number of moles step five: clear fractions by multiplication each moles by the denominator of the fraction (if needed) find molecular formulas If given the molecular formulas molar mass Use the empirical formulas molar mass and see how many times it goes into the molecular formulas molar mass. Must be a whole number of times (2x, 3x etc.) Can use the molecular formulas molar mass to find molecular formula directly. May have to determine the molecular formulas molar mass from laboratory data There are two common ways to find the molecular formulafind it directly or use the empirical formula. Many times on the AP free response questions, you will have to solve a problem to determine the molecular formulas molar mass. If you want to solve this first and then find the molecular formula that is fine or you can find the empirical formula and then find the molecular formula.

Examples from AP Free Response Questions

Problem involving combustion analysis: (a) A 0.7549 g sample of the compound burns in O2(g) to produce 1.9061 g of CO2(g) and 0.3370 g of H2O(g). (i) Calculate the individual masses of C, H, and O in the 0.7549 g sample. (ii) Determine the empirical formula for the compound. Answer: You start out with an equation: CxHyOz + O2 CO2 + H2O Our job is to find the x, y and z. Using the Law of Conservation of Mass, we know that all of the carbon in CO2 came from the original compound and that all of the H in H2O came from the original compound. So we need to find the C in the CO2 and the H in the H2O and we can do this by either mole conversions or by percent composition. As good review, we are going to find the amount of H by mole conversion and the amount of C by percent composition. (a i) 0.3370 g H 2 O
1 mole H 2 O 2 moles H 1.01 g H 0.03744 g H 18.02 g H 2 O 1 mole H 2 O 1 mole H
12.01 grams x 100 27.28% 44.01 grams 27.28% of 1.9061 g CO 2 0.5198 g of C

Percent Compositio n

0.7549 g sample (0.5198 g C + 0.0374 g H) = 0.1977 g of Oxygen

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1 mole C 0.04322 moles C 12.01g C 1 mole H 0.0370 moles H (a ii) 0.0374 g H 1.01g H 1 mol O 0.1977 g O 0.01236 mol O 16.00 grams O 0.5198 g C

0.04322 mole C
Divide by the smallest number of moles

0.01236

3.5 moles C

3 moles H 0.01236 0.01236 mol O 1 moles O 0.01236 0.0370 mol H

Since 3.5 moles of C is not a whole number, take the denominator of the fraction (0.5 = ) and multiple each moles by 2 and get 7 C : 6 H : 2 O, thus an empirical formula of C 7H6O2. Lets say that the problem said that the molecular formulas molar mass was determined to be 244 g/mol (more likely is that you are going to have to solve for this). The empirical formula has to be a reduced version of the molecular formula, so we can go back and put in the factor that was taken out to get the reduced empirical formula. C7H6O2 = EF = 122 g/mol
X2 X2 First find the empirical formulas molar mass (in this case 122 g/mol). Next, how many times does the EFs mass go into the MFs mass? Answer here is two times. So multiple the EF by two for the number of atoms and get the molecular formula to be C14H12O4.

C?H?O? = EF = 244 g/mol Problem involving percentages:

An unknown compound contains only the three elements C, H, and O. A pure sample of the compound is analyzed and found to be 65.60 percent C and 9.44 percent H by mass. Determine the empirical formula of the compound. Answer: All three percentages have to add up to be a 100, so 65.60 %C + 9.44 %H + X %O = 100, so 24.96% O. Step one: Assume a 100 gram sample. Step two: Then 65.60% of 100 grams = 65.60 grams of C (likewise you have 24.96 g O and 9.44 g H) Step Three: Convert to moles
1 mole C 5.462 moles C 12.01g C 1 mole H 9.44 g H 9.37 moles H 1.01g H 1 mol O 24.96 g O 1.56 mol O 16.00 g O 65.60 g C

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Step Four: divide by smallest number of moles

5.462 mole C 9.37 mol H 1.56 mol O

1.56

3.5 moles C

1.56

6 moles H 1 moles O

1.56

Step Five: clear fractions by multiplication of denominator of fraction (if needed)

3.5 moles C 2 7 moles C 6 moles H 2 12 moles H 1 moles O 2 2 moles O

Empirical formula = C7H12O2

Finding the molecular formula

We are going to use the information above to illustrate the two methods of finding the molecular formula. Again, we will assume that the problem said that the molecular formulas molar mass was determined to be 256 g/mol. So to find it from the empirical formula: C7H12O2 = EF = 128 g/mol
X2 X2

First find the empirical formulas molar mass (in this case 128 g/mol). Next, how many times does the EFs mass go into the MFs mass? Answer here is two times. So multiple the EF by two for the number of atoms and get the molecular formula to be C14H24O4.

C?H?O? = EF = 256 g/mol

NOTE: If the EFs mass does not go evenly into the MFs mass, you made a mistake.
To find the molecular formula directly you use the same process you did for finding the empirical formula. However, to find the molecular formula directly, you will have to do more work at the beginning of the problem to get the grams of each element, but there will be no work at the end of the problem: you will not get a fraction and you do not have to divide by the smallest number. The original problem for the last example was a four part problemonly the first part was shown above. Part (a) and part (b) are below. An unknown compound contains only the three elements C, H, and O. A pure sample of the compound is analyzed and found to be 65.60 percent C and 9.44 percent H by mass. (a) Determine the empirical formula of the compound. (b) A solution of 1.570 grams of the compound in 16.08 grams of camphor is observed to freeze at a temperature 15.2 Celsius degrees below the normal freezing point of pure camphor.
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Determine the molar mass and apparent molecular formula of the compound. (The molal freezing-point depression constant, K, for camphor is 40.0 kgKmol-1.) We have already done the work for part (a) above and shown how to find part (b) from part (a) by giving you the molar mass that would be found from part (b). However, on the AP exam, you can answer the question in any order you would like, so the second method to finding the molecular formula involves doing part (b) first (finding the molar mass), then using the percentages to find the molecular formula and finally using that to find part (a). Again, the answer for the molar mass from part (b) is 256 grams/mol. We are going to assume that we have a one mole sample of this compound that means that we have a sample mass of 256 grams. So using that information, we need to find the amount of each element in that compound. 65.60% of 256 grams = 167.9g C Now convert the grams into moles.
167.9 g C 1 mole C 13.98 moles C 12.01g C 1 mole H 24.2 g H 23.96 moles H 1.01g H 1 mol O 63.9 g O 3.99 mol O 16.00 g O

9.44% of 256 grams = 24.2g H

24.96% of 256 grams = 63.9g O

This will give you the molecular formula automatically, so there is no dividing by the smallest number. The 13.98 moles of C is 14 moles, 23.96 moles H becomes 24 moles and the 3.99 moles of O becomes 4 moles. So the molecular formula is C14H24O4.

Once you have the molecular formula, C14H24O4, just reduce it to lowest terms and get the empirical formula. Since the numbers are 14, 24 and 4, we have a common factor of 2, so they would become 7, 12 and 2 and the empirical formula becomes C7H12O2.

HYDRATES
A hydrate is a compound that has water attached to it. It is common for the AP exam to ask questions about hydrates, usually it is to determine the amount of water that the hydrate has. It is nothing more than an empirical formula problem. A dot is used to state how many water molecules are attached (but not chemically combined) to the crystal. A formula might look like CuSO45H2O. Terms o How to name them uses prefixes to state number of water then put it in the form of compound name followed by the prefix for the amount of water attached to the word hydrate copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate o anhydrous without water o water of hydration amount of water attached to the hydrate
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Usually the problem will give enough information to determine the grams of the water of hydration and the grams of the anhydrous. Once you have the grams of each one, follow the steps to find the empirical formulas. The only difference is that you will be using formulas and not elements. Example: When 1.357 grams of CoCl2x H2O is heated, 1.062 grams of cobalt(II) chloride is left behind. Find the value for x. 1.357 grams of CoCl2x H2O 1.062 grams CoCl2= 0.295 grams H2O.

0.295 g H 2 O x

1 mol H 2 O 0.0164 mol H 2 O 18.02 g H 2 O 1 mol CoCl 2 0.00818 mol CoCl 2 129.83g CoCl 2

1.062 g CoCl 2 x

Divide by the smallest number of moles

0.0164 mol H 2 O

2 0.00818 0.00818 mol CoCl 2 1 0.00818

Empirical formula is CoCl22 H2O

CONCENTRATION
Reactions that take part in solutions are very common in chemistry and will be found on the AP exam. For solutions, it is important to remember that there are two components: solute and solvent. The solute is the substance that is dissolved and the solvent does the dissolving. The solute is always in the smaller amount. There are several methods to describe the amount of solute that is dissolved in a solution. One method is to use the amount of solute in the solvent expressed as a percentage. Since the amount of solute and solvent can be expressed as either mass or volume, you have four common percentages that are listed below. In each case it is proper to have a notation as to how the calculations where done. This is written as m/m, m/v, v/v and v/m with the first letter telling you how the solute was measured (either mass of volume) and the second letter indicates how the solvent was measured. The percentages are listed below: percent by mass (so common that any percent is assumed to be percent by mass if nothing is indicated, but to be perfectly clear, the notation of m/m should be written) grams of solute x100 o Defined as 100 grams of solution percent by volume (written v/v after the percentage) milliliter s of solute x100 o Defined as 100 milliliter s of solution percent mass volume (written m/v after the percentage) grams of solute x100 o Defined 100 milliliter of solution

If the percentages are very small, then they can be expressed as ppm, ppb or ppt parts per million, billion or trillion, respectively. You usually see this with pollution and other environmental hazards.

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Other common methods are mole fraction, mole ratio and molarity (also called molar concentration). Each is defined below. mole fraction (written as Xi) o Defined as X i mole ratio (written as ri) o Defined as ri molarity o Defined as
moles of subtance" i" total number of moles of everything ELSE (don' t count " i" here) moles of substance" i" total number of moles of everything

moles of solute liter of solution

Molarity is the most common unit for concentration encountered on the AP chemistry exam. It is so often used that chemists have a shorthand notation for it. Anything that is written inside square brackets [ ] means the molar concentration (or molarity). The concept is called molarity, the unit is M and M is pronounced as molar, so 3.0 M HCl is read as three molar hydrochloric acid. So [MgCl2] = 0.5 M is read as the molar concentration of magnesium chloride is 0.5 molar and can be thought of as: (a) [MgCl2] = 0.5 M (b) [Mg2+] = 0.5 M (c) [Cl-1] = 1.0 M (i) since MgCl2 has two Cl- ions, 0.5 moles of MgCl 2 2 moles of Cl1 1.0 moles of Cl1 (ii) [MgCl2] = 0.5 M liter of solution 1 moles of MgCl 2 liter of solution

This is very common on the multiple choice part of the AP exam. Simple numbers remember no calculators!!!

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationship between the amount of reactants and products. There is a simple graphical approach to setting up the information in the problem and planning your approach to solving the problem. First you must start with a balanced chemical equation. Graphical approach to solving stoichiometry problems Place the information in the problem. Balance equation on first line. Moles go on the second line. Anything that can be changed into moles on the third line. Grams molarity representative particles liters @ STP
Mole and Stoichiometry Packet Remember that the coefficients of a balanced equation relate the number of moles of each substance that reacts together and the moles of the products that are formed. It is important that you MUST start with a balanced equation.

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Use a question mark (?) to identify the unknown.

Plan how to solve the problem. Use arrows to plan to do the problem and to guide you in your conversions. Draw from you starting information Must be in moles to go from side to side in a balance equation. Draw arrows down if need be. Balanced

2 H2

+ O2

2 H2O

equation here

Moles are placed on this line. Anything that can be changed into moles goes here.

A typical problem should look like this:

Problem: When 150.0 grams of TiO2 is reacted with BrF3, find the number of liters of oxygen gas at STP, the number of molecules of bromine, the number of moles of titanium(IV) fluoride and the grams of BrF3 required for complete reaction. Your setup should look like this:
TiO2 + BrF3 TiF4 + Br2 + O2

?
150.0 g ?g ? molecules ? L@STP

Draw the arrows to help you with the problem, we will draw only one set at a time, however, on your problems, you can draw all of the sets at the same time. The only time that you can go side to side is when you are in moles. A balanced chemical equation relates the moles of each species in the equation. DO NOT FORGET TO BALANCE THE EQUATION.
3 TiO2 + 4 BrF3 3 TiF4 + 2 Br2 + 3 O2

?
150.0 g ?g ? molecules ? L@STP

Anytime that you are going up or down in the diagram, the number in front of moles will ALWAYS be one. You are using the three definitions of (i) mole, (ii) molar mass and (iii) molar volume. Since all three of these definitions are based on one mole, the number in front of moles has to be one. Your problem would be solved like this:

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150.0 grams TiO2 x

1 mole TiO2 2 moles Br2 6.02 x1023 molecules Br2 x x 79.9 grams TiO2 3 moles TiO2 1mole Br2

7.534 x 10 23

3 TiO2

4 BrF3

3 TiF4

2 Br2

3 O2

?
150.0 g ?g ? molecules ? L@STP

150.0 grams TiO 2 x

4 moles BrF3 136.90 grams BrF3 1 mole TiO 2 x x 342 .7grams BrF3 79.9 grams TiO 2 3 mole TiO 2 1 moles BrF3

3 TiO2

4 BrF3

3 TiF4

2 Br2

3 O2

?
150.0 g ?g ? molecules ? L@STP

150.0 grams TiO 2 x

1 mole TiO 2 3 moles TiF4 x 1.877 moles TiF4 79.9 grams TiO 2 3 mole TiO 2

3 TiO2

4 BrF3

3 TiF4

2 Br2

3 O2

?
150.0 g ?g ? molecules ? L@STP

150.0 grams TiO 2 x

1 mole TiO 2 3 moles O 2 22.4 liters O 2 x x 42.05 liters O 2 79.9 grams TiO 2 3 mole TiO 2 1 moles O 2

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Practice Problem #1 How many grams of water can be made from 6.0 grams of hydrogen, and how many moles of oxygen are needed for the reaction to go to completion? H2 + O2 H2O

Nowset up the problem and then solve the problem without a calculator (the numbers are easy!).

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LIMITING REAGENTS
limiting reagent The limiting reagent determines or limits the amount of product formed. At least two amounts are given in the problem (may be more than two, but on the AP test, it has only
been two does not mean that it could not be more than two on the AP exam).

Once identified, ALL calculations MUST be based on this reactant. excess reagent The reagent that is left overhave more than enough of it. Uses up all of the limiting reagent. Easiest way to determine this type of problem is to change each starting amount to moles (or grams
depends on what the problem is asking) of the product that you are looking for. Smaller amount comes from the LIMITING REAGENT and is your answer. MAKE SURE THAT YOU ANSWER THE QUESTION CORRECTLYTHE PRODUCT IS NOT THE LIMITING REAGENT. Read the problem before you start and see what product they are asking aboutand then go find that product. You can always tell this type of problem by setting up the problems with the three lines. Once you have two starting amounts on the diagramyou know that it is a limiting reagent problem see example below. 4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2 Fe2O3(s)

42 g

75 g

?g

The two starting amounts tell you that it is a limiting reagent problem. To solve this problem, talk both starting amounts and find the grams of the Fe2O3. The one with the smallest answer will be the correct value for the amount of Fe2O3.
75 g O 2 1 mol O 2 2 mol Fe2 O 3 159.70 grams Fe2 O 3 250 grams Fe2 O 3 32.0 g O 2 3 mol O 2 1 mol Fe2 O 3 1 mol Fe 2 mol Fe2 O 3 159.70 grams Fe2 O 3 60. grams Fe2 O 3 55.85 g Fe 4 mol Fe 1 mol Fe2 O 3

42 g Fe

Since the 60. grams is smaller than the 250 grams, the 60. grams of Fe2O3 is the amount that is produced. Since the 60. grams of Fe2O3 is produced from the 42 grams of Fe, the Fe must be the limiting reagent and the 75 grams of oxygen gas must be the excess reagent.

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Part of an AP question Practice Problem #2 CH4(g) + 2 Cl2(g) CH2Cl2(g) + 2 HCl(g) Methane gas reacts with chlorine gas to form dichloromethane and hydrogen chloride, as represented by the equation above. (a) A 25.0 g sample of methane is placed in a reaction vessel containing 2.58 mol of Cl2(g). (i) Identify the limiting reactant when the methane and chlorine gases are combined. Justify your answer with a calculation. (ii) Calculate the total number of moles of CH2Cl2(g) in the container after the limiting reactant has been totally consumed. CH4 + 2 Cl2 CH2Cl2 + 2 HCl 2.58 25.0 g ?????

NOTE: You can so the questions in any order that you want so this approach answer part (ii) first and then you answer part (i).

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Part of an AP question Practice Problem #3 4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2 Fe2O3(s) Iron reacts with oxygen to produce iron(III) oxide as represented above. A 75.0 g sample of Fe (s) is mixed with 40.0 grams of oxygen gas. (a) Calculate the number of moles of each of the following before the reaction occurs. (i) Fe(s) (ii) O2(g) (b) Identify the limiting reactant when the mixture is heated to produce Fe2O3. Support your answer with calculations. (c) Calculate the number of moles of Fe2O3 produced when the reaction proceeds to completion.

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Percent Yield
Percent yield is a measurement of the efficiency of a chemical reaction.

theoretical yield This is what you calculate from stoichiometry. This is fantasy land! Most reactions will not give you 100% of the product that you expect. actual yield What you get in the experiment or laboratory investigation (what happens in the real world). Remember, no chemical process is 100% efficient. Therefore no yield will be 100% (useful for lab reports!) if more than 100% contamination of some kind
Percent yield = actual yield (real) theoretical yield (ideal) x 100

You can use a magic circle if it helps you.

AY

%Y TY
Laboratory free response questions on the AP exam may give you the information in a data table. The data table should give you information that will allow you to determine the actual results and the starting amount of the limiting reactant usually in the lab it is clearly stated which reagent is the limiting reagent. From that information, you can do the stoichiometry to determine the theoretical yield (the maximum amount possible) and then determine the percent yield.

Reagent versus reactant

Although most people consider them interchangeable (and in most cases they are) there is a very subtle difference between the two. The AP exam does not care which one you use. Reactant: Any substance that participates in a chemical reaction, especially one that is present at the initiation of that reaction. Reagent: A chemical that generally is added to a substance to produce a specific chemical change or to detect a specific chemical.

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Acid-base and Redox Titrations Terms

Titration: o A procedure in which one solution is added to another solution until the chemical reaction between the two reactants (solutions) is complete; the concentration of one solution is known and that of the other is unknown. Titrant: o the solution in a titration that is added from a burette to a measured quantity of another solution. You are trying to find the concentration of the titrant. Standardized: o A solution in a titration that is of known concentration. o Primary Standard: A substance of known purity that can be weighed directly and used to standardize other solutions. o Secondary Standard: A solution whose concentration has been determined by reaction with a primary standard. o indicator For acid-base titrations, a substance that exhibit different colors in solutions of different acidities; used to determine the point at which reaction between two solutes is complete. For redox titrations, a substance that exhibits a different color when either the oxidizing agent or the reducing agent is consumed. o End Point The point at which an indicator changes color and a titration is stopped. o Equivalence Point The point at which the reactants in a titration are stoichiometrically equal. For acid-base reactions, when the acid and the base are stoichiometrically equal. For redox reactions, when the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent are stoichiometrically equal. o Neutralize (neutralization) The process, by titration, of reacting an acid with a base to form a salt (and usually water). It is another term to describe that you have reached the equivalence point. You have made the acid harmless by reacting with a base and in most cases you only have a salt and water at the end. o The indicator visually indicates the end point (color change) and the end point should be as close to the equivalence point as possible. Equipment: pipet or buret is used to determine the volume of one of the solutions and a buret is used to determine the volume of the unknown solution.

In titration problems, you are usually given the molarity and the volume of one substance (hence the moles) and the volume of the other and are asked calculate the molarity of the titrant by doing stoichiometry to determine the moles of the titrant, then you can calculate the molarity.

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Answers to Practice Problems

Problem 1 Equation is: 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
6 g H2 1 mol H 2 2 mol H 2 O 18 grams H 2 O 54 grams H 2 O 2.0 g H 2 2 mol H 2 1 mol H 2 O 1 mol H 2 1 mol O 2 1.5 grams O 2 2.0 g H 2 2 mol H 2

6 g H2

Problem 2
25.0 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4 1 mol CH 2 Cl 2 1.55 moles CH 2 Cl 2 16.04 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4 1 mol CH 2 Cl 2 1.29 moles CH 2 Cl 2 2 mol Cl 2

2.58 mol Cl 2

Since 1.29 moles is the smallest answer, that is the amount of CH2Cl2 that is formed and the limiting reagent has to be the Cl2. Problem 3
75.0 g Fe 1 mol Fe 1.34 moles Fe 55.85 g Fe 1 mol O 2 1.25 moles Fe 32.0 g O 2

(a)
40.0 g O 2

1.34 mol Fe
(b and c)

2 mol Fe2O3 0.667 moles Fe2O3 4 mol Fe 2 mol Fe2 O3 0.833 moles Fe2 O3 3 mol O 2

1.25 mol O 2

Since the 0.667 moles of Fe2O3 is the smallest amount that must be the amount produced [answer to part (c)]. Since the Fe produces that amount, the Fe must be the limiting reagent [the answer to part (b)].

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Problems
Directions: Put all of your work on separate sheets of paper. DO NOT DO YOUR WORK ON THESE PAGES. Find the number of moles in each of the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) 1.204 x 1024 atoms of He 24.6 grams of Sr 5004 grams of Na2CO3 456 liters of O2 (g) @ STP

Find the number of grams in each of the following 5) 6) 7) 4.57 moles of NH3 2.35 moles of FeCO3 2.20 moles of Sn

Find the number of representative particles in each of the following 8) 9) 10) 11) 3.45 moles of Ar 23.4 moles of Fe2(CO3)3 6.35 grams of Cu 34.5 liters of H2O(g) @STP

Make the following conversions: 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 5.75 grams of H2 gas to liters @ STP 6.35 moles of oxygen gas to grams 2.35 x 1027 atoms of Np to grams 3.54 x 1022 molecules of H2O to grams 45.7 liters of H2 (g) @ STP to atoms of H (be careful on this one!!) 4.5 moles of Ne to grams 6.75 x 1026 molecules of CH4 (g) to liters @ STP 245 grams of SrCO3 to formula units 24.2 liters of chlorine gas to grams @ STP Calculate the empirical formula if a compound is 27.59% C, 1.15% H, 16.09% N, and 55.17% O. Find the empirical and molecular formulas of an unknown compound. Its percent composition is 58.8% C, 9.8% H, and 31.4% oxygen. The molecular compounds molar mass is 306 grams/mol. 23) 24) 25) 26) What is the molar mass of Fe2(CO3)3? What is the percent composition of O in Fe2(CO3)3? What is the grams of oxygen in 867 grams of Fe2(CO3)3? Convert 23.4 moles of Fe2(CO3)3 to grams.
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Mole and Stoichiometry Packet

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Convert 437 grams of Fe2(CO3)3 to atoms of carbon. Styrene is a compound contains only C and H. If 0.438 grams of styrene is burned in oxygen, 1.481 grams of CO2 and 0.303 grams of water are produced, what is the E.F. A hydrate of magnesium iodide has the formula MgI2 X H2O. To determine a value for X , the hydrate sample is heated until all the water of hydration is removed. A 1.628 g sample is heated, leaving 1.072 grams of magnesium iodide. What is the value of X ?
2 NH3 + 5 F2 ?????? 45.75 grams ??? Liters @STP N2F4 + 6 HF ???????

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30)

31) 3 (NH4)2PtCl6

3 Pt + ?

2 NH4Cl + ?

2 N2 +

16 HCl

758 g

? L @STP

? grams

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When 2.56 grams of barium chloride reacts with silver nitrate, how many grams of each product are produced? 5.86 x 1024 atoms of aluminum react with oxygen. How many grams of oxygen are reacted and how many grams of product are produced? If only 354 grams of product is produced, what is the percent yield? What is the molarity if 83.75 grams of (NH4)2SO4 is dissolved in 745 mL of water. What is the molarity of each ion present? It is found that 38.25 mL of a 0.158 M solution of sulfuric acid is required to neutralize 64.35 mL of aluminum hydroxide. What is the molarity of the aluminum hydroxide solution? In order to reach the equivalence point, 20.0 mL of 0.125 M solution of potassium hydroxide is reacted with 50.0 mL of hydrofluoric acid. What is the molarity of the hydrofluoric acid? This is a typical AP chemistry exam question that can be found on the multiple choice problems. The numbers are easy enough that the calculations in this problem can be done without a calculator.

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