Future Exploration of Europa

Ronald Greeley
Arzona State Unversty

Robert T. Pappalardo
NASA Jet Propulson

l-aboratory/Caffirna Insttute of Technology

Louise M. Prockter
Johns Hopkins Unversity Applied physcs laboratory

Amanda R. Hendrix and Robert E. Lock

NASA Jet Propulson LaboratorylCalifuna Insttate

of Technology

Reports from NASA, the National Research councir (NRC), the European Space Agency (ESA)' and science community groups identify Europa as a priority for ouier solar system exploration, especially for astrobiology. From these reports, an intemational group proposed the Europa Jupiter system Mission, involving a NASAJupiter Europa orbitei 1lo, ttre Nesa element), which is the focus of this chapter. Current knowledge of Europa s reviewed, outstanding questions identified, and science objectives formulated. The JEO goal is to .,Explore Europa to Investigate its Habitability;" this goal is to be met rhrough objtives to study (in priority-order) (l) Europa's ocean and deep interior structrre, (2) the icy shell and its structure' (3) its chemistry and composition, (4) the geology, and (5) rhe general Jupiter sysrem, including the other major satellites and their atmospheres, the jovian plasma and magnetosphere,
the parent planet Jupiter, and the small moons, rings, ancl clust.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Since the first glimpses provided by Voyager, Europa has been recognized as an object worthy of exploration. As reviewed in the chapter by Alexander et al., the Galileo mission confirmed the suspicions that Europa in many ways

is unique in the solar system and is a primary target for astrobiology. This chapter draws on results from a study commissioned by NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) in 2008 for a future Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) in which the Joint Jupiter Science Definition Team (JJSDT) (Table l) reviewed prcvious studies for Europa (Table 2), assessed the current state of knowledge, formu_ lated the key questions for the next mission, and identified the measurements that should be made to meet the explo_ ration objectives. A candidate payload was also described, recognizing that the actual payload would be competed with the selection based on the best instruments to answer the key questions.

which could harbor internal oceans are the key to under_ - Thus, the standing the habirability of icy worlds. JJSDT has identified "The Emergence of Habitable Worlds Around Gas Giants" as the overarching theme for a combined NASA_ ESA mission. Since the first extrasolar planets were detected in the late 1980s, their discovery has increased tremendously (Vogt et al., 2005) and 10Vo of all Sun-like stars may have planets. With existing discovery techniques, almost all the known extrasolar planets are giant planets, more akin to Jupiter than to Earth. These bodies are expected to have large icy satellites that formed in their circumplanetary disks, analo_ gous to Jupiter's Galilean satellites. Europa and Ganymede both could be geologically active and harbor internal salt_ water oceans. They are straddled by Io and Callisto, key endmembers that tell of the origin and evolution of the Jupiter system. If extrasolar planetary systems are similar, then icy satellites may be the most common habitats in the universe probably much more abundant than Earthlike habitats, which require very specialized conditions to per_

1.1.

The Relevance of Jupiter System Exploration

mit surface oceans.

EJSM would afford rhe opportuniry for detailed scruriny

Jupiter is the archetype for the giant planets of our so_ lar system, and for the numerous planets known to orbit other stars. Jupiter's diverse Galilean satellites three of

of the archetype gas giant planet and its four diverse large
satellites. EJSM would be invaluable for the insights it could provide into otr solar system and into planetary architec_

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Europa

TABLE
Team Member Co-Chairs Greeley, Ronald Lebreton, Jean-Pierre

Joint Jupiter Science Definition Team.

Team Member United States (continued) Showalter, Mark Showman, Adam Sogin, Mitch Spence John Waite, Hunter European Union

Afliation
Arizona State University
ESASTEC

Affiliation
SETI

Univ. Arizona

MBL
SWRI SWRI

Study Scientists
Lebreton, Jean-Pierre Pappalardo, Robert ESA/ESTEC Jet Propulsion Laboratory

United States Anbar, Ariel

Blanc, Michel Arizona State University

NASA-Goddard/l.JCSD Jet Propulsion Labortory Univ. Texas at Austin Arizona State University Jet Propulsion Laboratory Univ. Washington Jet Propulsion Laboratory Bruzzonem, Lorenzo

Bills, Bruce
Blaney, Diana Blankenship, Don Christensen, Phil Dalton, Brad Deming, Jody Fletcher, Leigh Greenberg, Rick Hand, Kevin Hendrix, Amanda Khurana, Kishan McCord, Tom McGrath, Melissa

Doughert Michele Drossart, Piere

Grasset, Olivier

cole Polytechnique Univ. Trento Imperial College London

Paris Observatory

Univ. Arizona
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Jet Propulsion LaboratorY

UCLA
Bear Fight Center

Human, Hauke Krupp, Norbert Mueller-Wodarg, Ingo Prieto-Ballasteros, Olga Prieur, Daniel Sohl, Frank Tortora, Paolo Tosi, Federico

Univ. Nantes DLR, Berlin Max Planck Inst. Imperial College London INTA

Univ Bretagne Occidentale DLR, Berlin

Univ. Bologna
IFSI

Wurz, Peter
Japan

Univ. Bern

NASA-Marshall

Moore, Bill Moorg Jeff Nimmo, Francis

Paranicas, Chris Prockter, Louise Schubert, Jerry Senske, David

UCLA
NASA-Ames

Fujimoto, Masaki
Kasaba, Yasumassa Sasaki, Sho

ucsc
JHU-APL JHU-APL

UCLA
Jet Propulsion Labortory

Takahashi, Yukihiro Takashima, Tkeshi

ISAS, JAXA Tohoku Univ. NOAJ Tohoku Univ. ISAS, JAXA

TABLE
Committee

2.

Previous studies of Europa and heritage of science objectives and investigations.

Report Title Europa Olbiter Mission and Project Description Reference

Europa Orbiter Science Definition Team Committee on Planetary and Lunar

NASA AO 99-OSS-04 (1999)

A Science Strategy for the Exploration of Europa

Europa and Ttan: Preliminary Recommendations of the Campaign Science Working Group on Prebiotic Chemistry in the Outer Solar System

ss8 (1999)
Chyba et al. (1999)

Exploration (COMPLEX)

NASA Campaign Science Working

Group on Prebiotic ChemistrY

in the Solar System

Solar System Exploration ("Decadal") Survey
Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO) Science Definition Team Europa Focus Group of the NASA Astrobiology Institute Outer Planets Assessment Group (OPAG)

New Frontiers in the Solar SYstem: An Integrated Exploration Strategy

Report of the NASA Science Definition Team for the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO) Europa Science Objectives

ss (2003)
J(MO SDT (2004)
Pappalardo (2006)

Scientific Goals and PathwaYs for Exploration of the Outer Solar System
2006 Solar System Exploration Roadmap for NASA's Science Mission Directorate

)PAG (2006)
NASA (2006)

NASA Solar System Exploration

Strategic Roadmap Committee Europa Science Definition Team

2007 Europa Explorer Mission Study: Final Report Jupiter System Observer Mission Study: Final Report Laplace: A Mission to Europa and the Jupiter System for ESAs Cosmic Vision Programme

Clark et al. (2007) Kwok et al. (2007) Blanc et al. (200'l)

Jupiter System Observer Science Definition Tean The Laplace Team

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ture and habitability throughout the universe. For these reasons, both NASA s Solar System Decadal Survey (SSB, 2003) and ESAs Cosmic Vision (ESA, 2005) emphasize the exploration of the Jupiter system to investigate the emergence of habitable worlds. EJSM would include a NASA Jupiter Europa Orbiter (JEO) and an ESA Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter (JGO); a Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter (JMO) is also being considered by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). While the primary focus of JEO is to orbit Europa, the science return would encompass the entire jovian system with flybys of Io, Ganymede, and Callisto, along with -2.5 years observing Jupiter's atmosphere, magnetosphere, and rings. Similarly, JGO would investigate Callisto and ultimately orbit Ganymede, and its focused observations of the Jupiter system would complement those of JEO. If it comes to fruition, JAXA's JMO has the potential to focus on particles and fields observations of the jovian magnetosphere. While JEO and JGO are complementary and porentially synergistic, both are designed as "stand-alone" missions as a contingency. The remainder of this chapter focuses on JEO and the potential for future exploration of Europa.

However, it too might not be in direct contact with the mantle (Hussman et a1.,2006). Although some Kuiper belt objects and satellites of Saturn and Uranus could have internal oceans, these are expected to be cold ammonia-rich oceans and energy sources for life are probably lacking. It is tantalizing to consider whether life might exist in seas of ethane-methane or cold oceans of ammonia-water. Such environments could be fascinating places to search for life unlike we know it. However, it is more tractable to focus searches on potential icy habitats comparable to those in which we know biology could work. Experience with
Earth shows that carbon-and-water-based life functions well over a wide range of temperature, pressure, and chemical regimes. Thus, Europa is the natural target for the first focused spacecraft investigation of the porenrial habitability of icy worlds. Its putative thin icy shell, candidate sources of chemical energy for life, and potentially active surfaceocean material exchange make it a top priority for exploration. The JEO would be the first critical step in understanding the potential of icy satellites as abodes for life.

Europa's high astrobiological potential and its complex interrelated processes have been rccognized by rnany gloups, including the National Research Council (NRC) and NASA.
The NRC's Committee on Planetary and Lunar Exploration (COMPLEX) (SSB, 1999) stated thar Europa "offers the potential for major new discoveries in planetary geology and geophysics, planetary atmospheres, and, possibly, studies

1,2.

The Relevance of Europa Exploration

Europa's icy surface is thought to hide a global subsurface ocean with a volume more than twice that of Earth's oceans (see chapter by McKinnon et al.). The moon's surface is young, with an estimated age of about 60 m.y. (Schenk et al., 2004; see chapter by Bierhaus et al.), implying that it is probably geologically acrive roday. The molecular constituents of life have fallen onto Europa throughout solar system history, are potentially created by radiation chemistry at its surface, and may pour from vents at the ocean's floor (Baross and Hofftnann, 1985; Pierazzo and Chyba,2002). On Earth, microbial extremophiles take advantage of environmental niches arguably as harsh as those within Europa's subsurface ocean (see chapter by Hand et
al.). Ifthe subsurface waters are eventually found to contain life, the discovery would spawn a revolution in our understanding of life in the universe. It is now recognized that oceans could exist in several

icy solar system objects. Titan could have a subsurface ammonia-water ocean (Lorenz et al., 2008; Tobie et al.,
2005) sandwiched between ice polymorphs and ice, rather than being in direct contact with the mantle. Enceladus shows jets of water vapor and ice grains streaming from its surface, and emits a measurable heat flux from its south polar region (Spencer et a1.,2006), suggesting that pockets of water might exist below the surface (Porco et al., 2006). If Neptune's Triton is a captured Kuiper belt object, it would have experienced tremendous tidal heating during its capture and subsequent orbital evolution (e.g., Prockter et a1.,2005). This heating likely produced an intemal ocean; the -100-rn.y. crater age of the surface (Stern and McKinnon,2000) suggests that a subsuface ocean might still exist.

of extratenestrial life. In light of these possibilities, COMPLEX feels justifred in assigning the furure exploration of Europa a priority equal to that for the future exploration of Mars." The NRC's New Frontiers in the Solar System (referrcd to as the "Decadal Survey") (SSB, 2003) identified a Europa Geophysical Explorer as the rop priority "Flagship" mission for the decade 2003-2013, principally because such a mission addresses the fundamental science question: "Where are the habitable zones for life in the solar system, and what are the planetary processes responsible for producing and sustaining habitable worlds?" This recommendation was reaffirmed by the NRC's Committee on Assessing the Solar System Exploration Program (CASSE) (SSB, 2007), which recommends "NASA should select a Europa mission concept and secure a new start for the project before 20ll:' The NRC recommendations are in turn reflected in the NASA Science Mission Directorate's Solar System Exploration (SSES) Roadmap (NA., 2006), which states "Europa should be the next target for a Flagship mission." NASA's
scientific community-based Outer Planets Assessment Group (OPAG) "affirms the findings of the Decadal Survey, COM-

PLEX, and SSES, that Europa is the top-priority science destination in the outer solar system" (OPAG,2006). Noting that Europa's neighbors Ganymede and Callisto are also considered to have internal oceans, the NASA Roadmap frther states "It is critical to determine how the components of the jovian system operate and intemct, leading to potentially habitable environments within icy moons.

"r
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By studying the Jupiter system as a whole, we can better understand the type example for habitable planetary systems within and beyond our solar system."

NASA s 2007 Science Plan (NASA, 2007) echoes the many previous recommendations, calling Europa "an extremely high-priority target for a future mission." This document acknowledges that several icy satellites are now thought to have subsurface oceans, and states 'Although oceans may exist within many of the solar system's large icy satellites, Europa's is extremely compelling for astrobiological exploration. This is because Europa's geology provides evidence for recent communication between the icy surface and ocean, and the ocean might be supplied from above and/or below with the chemical energy necessary to support microbial life." The Science Plan affrrms the priority of Europa exploration in addressing fundamental themes of solar system origin, evolution, processes, habit-

return. Europa continues to top the priority list for the outer solar system because of its scientifrc potential, especially related to habitability. The scientific foundation for a mission to Europa has been clearly laid.

2.

SCIENCE BACKGROUND

Although scientific studies of Europa predate the space

ofthe satellite has increased greatly years since the Galileo mission. The folpast dozen in the knowledge for Europa, outlines current lowing summarizes including habitability and themes the broad cross-cutting the outstanding science isnotes and processes, planetary
age, the understanding sues to be addressed with new data.

2.1.

Habitability

ability, and life. The NASA Astrobiology Roadmap (Des Marais et al', 2003) includes the goal "Explore for past or present habitable environments, prebiotic chemistry, and signs of life elsewhere in our solar system." A subsidiary objective is to
"provide scientific guidance for outer solar system missions' Such missions should explore the Galilean moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto for habitable environments where liquid water could have supported prebiotic chemical evolution or life." A 2007 lettet from the NASA Astrobiology Institute's Executive Council to the previous Europa Explorer SDT reaffirms that a Europa orbiter mission "is in its highest priority mission category for advancing the astrobiological goals of solar system exploration." The exploration of the Jupiter system and Europa is similarly a high priority of ESA s Cosmic Vision strategic document (ESA, 2005). Key questions to be addressed include (l) What are the conditions for planet formation and the emergence of life? This question includes the subtopic "Life and habitability in the solar system," and the goal "Explore in situthe surface and subsurface of solid bodies in the solife." or have hosted lar system most likely to host (2) How does the solar system work? This includes the subtopic "The giant planets and their environments," and the goal "Study Jupiter in situ, its atmosphere and internal structure."

Europa's probable subsurface ocean has profound implications in the search for past or present life beyond Earth (see chapter by Hand et al.). Coupled with the discovery of active microbial life in harsh terrestrial environments (Rothschild and MancineUi, 2001)' Europa takes on new importance in searching for habitable worlds. Life as we know it depends upon liquid water, a photo- or chemicalenergy source, complex organics, and inorganic compounds of N, R S, and Fe, and various trace elements. Europa appears to meet these requirements and is distinguished by potentially enormous volumes of liquid water and geologic activity that promotes the exchange of surface materials with the subice environment (see chapters by Moore and Hussmann and by Vance and Goodman)' Life on Earth occupies niches supplied by either chemical or solar energy. Europa's ocean has likely persisted

If an orbital mission finds that Europa contains a habitable environment today, with active communication between subsurface water and the near surface, then a Europa Astrobiology Lander has been recommended as an important next step in the satellite's exploration (NASA, 2006). A Europa orbiter would feed forward to a future landed mission.

from close to the origin of the jovian system to the present (Cassen et at., 1982), although its chemical characteristics likely evolved (McKinnon and Zolens,2003; see also chapter by Zolotov and Kargel). Inferences from its young surface and models suggest that an ocean and hydrothermal system may lie beneath a sheet of ice a few to tens of kilometers thick (Greeley et a1.,2004). Tidal deformation may drive heating and geologic activity within Europa, and there could be brine pockets within the ice, partial melt zones, and clathrates. Hydrothermal systems driven by tidal heating or volcanic activity could serve as a favorable environment for prebiotic chemistry or sustaining microbial chemotrophic organisms. Cycling of water through and within the icy shell, ocean, and permeable upper rocky mantle could maintain an ocean

All the above recommendations are consistent with the NASA Vision for Space Exploration (NAS.A, 2004), which places high priority on robotic exploration across the solar system, "In particular, to explore Jupiter's moons ' . . to search for evidence of life (and) to understand the history
of the solar system . . ."
There are many high-priority targets for exploration in our solar system, each offering potential for rich science

rich with oxidants and reductants necessary for life. In order to address this aspect of Europa's habitability a better understanding of the mantle and icy shell is needed.
Radiolytic chemistry on the surface is responsible for the production of Or, H2Or, CO2, SO2, SOa, and other yet to be discovered oxidants (see chapter by Johnson et al.)' At
present, mechanisms ancl timescales for delivery of these tut"tiult to the subsurlace are poorly constrained. Similarly'

cycling of ocean water through seaflool minerals could rptenish the water with biologically useful reductants' If

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much of the tidal energy dissipation occurs in the mantle (see chapter by Moore and Hussman), therl.tbgre could be significnt cycling between the ocean water and rocky mantle. Conversely, if most of the tidal dissipation occurs in the icy shell, then the ocean water could be depleted in the reductants needed for biochemistry. Chemical cycling ofenergy on Europa is arguably the greatest uncertainty in our ability to assess Europa's habitability. Although it is not known if life existed or persists today on Europa with available information, it is possible through new spacecraft data to determine if extant conditions are capable of supporting organisms. Key to this question is the occurence of liquid water beneath the icy surface and whether the geologic and geophysical properties can support the synthesis of organic compounds and provide the energy and nutrients needed to sustain life.

Apojove

2,2.

Ocean and Interior

Europa's surface suggests recently active processes operating in the icy shell. Jupiter raises gravitational tides on Europa, which contribute to thermal energy in the icy shell and roc interior (Ojakangas and Stevensor, 1989; see chapters by Sotin et al., Schubert et al., and Goodman and
Vance), produce near-surface stresses responsible for some surface features, and may drive currents in the ocean. Although little is known about the internal structure, most models include an outer icy shell underlain by liquid water, a silicate mantle, and iron-rich core (Anderson et al., 1998a). Means to constrain these models include measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields, topographic shape, and rotational state of Europa, each of which includes steady-state and time-dependent components. Additionall the surface heat flux and local thermal anomalies may yield constraints on internal heat production and activity. Results can be used to characterize the ocean and the overlying icy shell and provide constraints on the deep interior structure and processes. 2.2.1. Gravity. Observations of the gravitational field provide information on the interior mass distribution. For a spherically symmetric body, all points on the surface would have the same gravitational acceleration, while in those regions with more mass, gravity will be greater. Lateral variations in the field strcngth thus indicate lateral variations in density structure. Within Europa, principal sources of static gravity anomalies can be due to thiclaress variations of the icy shell, or topography on the.ocean floor. If the icy shell is isostatically compensated, it will only yield very small gravity signatures. Gravity anomalies that are not spatially coherent with surface topography are presumed to arise from greater depths. One of the most diagnostic gravitational features is the amplitude and phase of the time-dependent signal due to tidal deformation (Fig. l). The forcing from Jupiter is well known, and the rcsponse will be much larger if a fluid layer decouples the ice from the interior, permitting unambiguous detection of an ocean and characterization of the ocean and icy shell. With the surface ice decoupled fiom the rocky

Perijove

-1.0

E:qxl -0.5 0.0 0.5

Normalized Gravitational Potential

1.0

See Plate 35. Europa experiences a time-varying gravitational potential field in its eccentric orbit (eccentricity = .6994r, with a 3.551-day (l eurosol) period. Its tidal amplitude varies proportionally to the gravitational potential, causing Europa to flex as it orbits. This yiew shows the north pole of Jupiter as Europa orbits counterclockwise with its prime meridian pointed toward Jupiter. Measuring the varying gravity field and tidal amplitude simultaneously allows the interior rigidity structure of Europa to be derived, revealing the properties of its ocean and icy shell (Moore and Schubert, 2000).

Fig.1.

interior, the amplitude of the semidiurnal tide on Europa is -30 m, vs. -l m in the absence of an ocean (Moore and Schubert,2000).

2.2.2. Topography. At long wavelengths (hemisphericscale), topography is mainly a response to tides and thickness variations ofthe icy shell driven by tidal heating (O7akangas and Stevenson, 1989; see chapter by Nimmo and Manga), and is thus diagnostic of internal tidal processes. At intermediate wavelengths (hundreds of kilometers), topographic amplitudes and correlation with gravity are diagnostic of the density and thickness of the icy shell. At

660

Europa

the shortest wavelengths (kilometer-scale), small geologic features tend to have topography diagnostic of formational
processes.

have a conductivity of at least 0.06 S/m. Recently, Schilling et al. (2004) determined the ratio of induction field to primary field at 0.96 + 0.3, leading Hand and Chyba (2007)

2.2.3. Rotation. Tidal dissipation probably drives Europa's rotation into equilibrium, with implications for both the direction and rate of rotation (see chapter by Bills et al.). The mean rotation period should nearly match the mean orbital period, so that the sub-Jupiter point will librate in longitude, with an amplitude equal to twice the orbital eccentricity. If the body behaves rigidly, the expected amplitude of this forced libration should be -100 m (Comstock and Bills,2003), but if the icy shell is mechanically decoupled from the silicate interior, then the libration could be three times larger. Similar forced librations in latitude are due to the finite obliquity, and are also diagnostic of internal structure. The
spin pole is expected to occupy a Cassini state (Peale, 1976), similar to that of Earth's Moon. The gravitational torque exerted by Jupiter on Europa will cause Europa's spin pole to precess about the orbit pole, while the orbit pole in turn precesses about Jupiter's spin pole, with all three axes remaining coplanar. The obliquity required for Europa to achieve this state is -0.1", but depends upon the moments of inertia, and is thus diagnostic of internal density structure (Bil/s, 2005).

to infer that the icy shell is <15 km thick and an ocean water conductivity >6 S/m. To determine the ocean thickness and conductivity, magnetic sounding of the ocean at multiple frequencies is required. The depth to which electromagnetic waves penetrate is inversely proportional to the square root of its frequency. Thus, longer-period wave sound deeper and could provide information on the ocean's thickness, the mantle, and the metallic core. For Europa, the two dominant frequencies are those of Jupiter's synodic rotation period (-l I h) and Europa's orbital period (-85 h). Observing the induction response at these frequencies could allow determination of both the ocean thickness and the conductivity (Fig. a of chapter by Khurana et al.).

Remaining key questions to be addressed regarding

Europa's ocean, bulk properties of the icy shell, and deeper interior include the following: (l) Does Europa undoubtedly have a subsurface ocean? (2) What are the salinity and thickness of Europa's ocean? (3) Does Europa exhibit kilometer-scale variations in the thickness of its icy shell? (4) Does Europa have a nonzero obliquity and if so, what controls it? (5) Does Europa possess an lo-like mantle?

2.2.4. Magnetic field. Magnetic fields interact with conducting matter at scales ranging from atomic to galactic, and are produced when currents flow in response to electric potential differences between interacting conducting fluids or solids. Many planets generate stable magnetic fields in convecting cores or inner shells through dynamos powered by internal heat or gravitational settling of the interior. Europa does not generate its own magnetic field, suggesting that its corc has either frozen or is still fluid but not convecting. Europa, however', responds to the lotating magnetic field of Jupiter through electromagnetic induction (Khurana et al., 1998; see chapter by Khurana et al.). In this process, eddy currents are generated on the surface of a conductor to shield its interior from changing external fields. The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field (the induction field) external to the conductor, as measured by a magnetometer. The induction technique exploits the fact that the primary alternating magnetic field at Europa is provided by Jupiter

2.3.

Icy Shell

Understanding the intemal structure of the icy shell is essential for assessing the processes that connect the ocean to the surface (see chapters by Nimmo and Manga and by Blankenship et al.). The structure and composition of the surface result from various geologic processes and includes
material transport and chemical exchange through the shell.

because its rotation and magnetic dipole axes are not aligned. It is now believed that the induction signal seen in Galileo data arises within a subsurface ocean. The measured signal remained in phase with the primary field of Jupiter (Kivelson et aL., 2000), thus unambiguously proving that the perturbation signal is a response to Jupiter's field. Mocleling the measurecl induction signal, although indicative of an ocean, suffers from nonuniqueness in the derived palameters because of the limited data from Gaileo, forcing certain assumptions. Nevertheless, the analysis of Zimtner et al. (2000) reveals that the putative ocean must

The icy shell may have experienced one or more episodes of thickening and thinning, directly exchanging material with the ocean at its base. Thermal processing could also alter the internal structure of the shell through convection or local melting. Exogenic processes such as cratering influence the surface and deeper structure. 2.3.1. Thermal processing. The thermal structure of the icy shell is governed prirnarily by heat from the interior (see chapters by Moore and Hussman and by Baru and Showman). Regardless of the properties of the shell or heat transport, the uppermost several kilometers is thermally conductive, cold, and stiff. The thickness of this conductive "lid" is set by the total amount of heat that must be transported, and thus measurement of the thickness of the blittle shell is a constraint on interior heat production. Convective instabilities can result in thermal variations in the shell that may be associated with surface features with scales of I km to hundreds of kilometers. When warm, relatively pure ice diapirs from the interior approach the surface, they may be far from the pure-ice melting point, but may be above the eutectic of materials trapped in the lid. This could melt

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Fig.2.

See Plate 36. Europa's ice, assuming a thick shell model: Convective diapirs could cause thermal perturbations and partial melting in the overing rigid ice.

Faulting driven by tidal stresses (upper surface) could result in frictional heating. Impact structures might show central refrozen melt pools, surrounded by ejecta.

parts of the shell above the flattening diapir (Fig. 2). The horizon associated with the melt would provide a measure of the conductive layer thickness. Other sources of local heat such as friction on faults may lead to similar melting (Gaidos and Nimmo, 2000),

2.3,2. Ice-ocean exchange. Europa's icy shell has likely experienced phases of thickening and thinning, as
the orbital evolution alters the internal heating from tides (Hussmann and Spohn,2004). For example, the shell may thicken similar to ice that accretes beneath the ice shelves of Antarctica where ice crystals form directly from the ocean (Moore et al., L994). This model is characterized by slow accretion (freezing) or ablation (melting) on the lower
side of the icy crust (Greenberg et al., 1999). Temperature gradients are primarily a function of ice thickness, and the temperature profile is described by a simple diffusion equa-

tion for a conducting ice layer (Chyba et al., 1998).The

low temperature gradients at any ice-water interface, combined with impurities, would likely lead to structural horizons resulting from contrasts in ice crystal fabric and composition. Melt-through of thin ice probably also would lead to ice accretion beneath the melt-features on the surface. This process will result in a sharp boundary between old ice (or rapidly frozen surface ice) and the deeper accreted ice. The amount of accreted ice would be directly related to the time since melt-through and could be compared with the amount expected based on the surface age. Testing various hypotheses of ice-ocean material exchange requires measuring the depth of interfaces to a resolution of a few hundred meters, and horizontal resolutions of approximately kilometers. 2.3.j. Surface and subsurface structure. Europa represents a unique tectonic regime in the solar system, and the processes controlling the distribution of strain in its icy shell are uncertain. Tectonic structures could range from

subhorizontal extensional fractures to near-vertical stikeslip features, and will produce structures associated primarily with faulting of fractured ice (see chapter by Kattenhom and Hurford). This also involves zones of deformational melt, injection of water, or preferred orientation of crystalline fabric. Some faults may show local alteration of preexisting sffucture including fluid inclusions or juxtaposition of dissimilar regions. There are many outstanding issues regarding tectonic features, including correlation of subsurface structure with surface properties (length, stratigraphic position, height and width of the ridges) to test hypotheses for formation of the fractures and ridges. Extensional structures observed on Europa (e.g., gray bands) may be particularly important for understanding material exchange processes (see chapter by Prockter and Patterson). If the analogy with tenestrial spreading centers (Pappalardo and Sullivan, 1996) is correct, band material is newly supplied from below and may have a distinct structure. Horizontal resolutions of a few hundred meters are needed to discriminate such processes, along with the ability to image structures sloping more than a few degrees. Additionall tens of meters of vertical resolution are required to image near-surface melt zones. Impact structures can reflect significant disruption of the shell. At an impact site, the ice is fractured, heated, and parts
are melted, and ejecta blankets the surrounding terrain. Rebound of the crater leads to tectonism that can include fault-

ing and other subsurface structures detectable by sounding. An outstanding mystery on Europa is the process by which craters are erased from the surface. It may be possible to find the subsurface signature of impacts that are no longer evident on the surfacg which would constrain ideas for the resurfacing processes. Key questions to be addressed regarding the icy shell by future missions include the following: (1) What is the thick-

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I
or from ocean-derived sulfates or other S-bearing species (Carlson et al., 1999b,2002,2005).It is also possible that
these surfaces have a combination of hydrated sulfate salts and sulfuric acid (Da\ton,2000,2007; McCord et a1.,2001, 2002; Carlson et a1.,2005; Orlando et a1.,2005; Dalton et

ness of the icy shell? (2) What is the structure within the icy shell? (3) Do pockets of liquid water and/or brine exist? (4) Is there evidence for diapiric activity, past or present? (5) Have diapirs or "melt-through" zones provided exchange of material between the ocean and the surface?

2.4.

Composition

Surface materials may be ancient, derived from the ocean, altered by radiation, or exogenic in origin. Europa's bulk density and solar system models suggest the presence of both water and silicates. It is likely that differentiation and mixing of water with silicates and carbonaceous materials resulted in chemical alteration and redistribution, with interior transport by melting and/or solid-state convection and diapirism bringing materials to the surface. High-energy particles from Jupiter leave imprints on the surface that provide clues to the exogenic environment, but can also complicate understanding evolution and modification of the surface. Moreover, surface materials can be incorporated into the subsurface and react with the ocean, or can be sputtered from the surface to form Europa's tenuous atmosphere. Thus, characterizing surface composition and chemistry provides fundamental information on the properties and habitability of Europa (see chapters by Carlson et al. and Zolotov and Kargel).

a1.,2005). Thus, an important objective is to resolve the compositions and origins of the hydrated materials. Earth-based telescopes detected sulfur species thought to be linked to effects of Jupiter's magnetosphere (e.g., NoIl et al., 1995). Brown and HiIl (1996) first reported a cloud of sodium around Europa, and B'own (2001) found a cloud of potassium and reported that the Na/K ratio could reflect
endogenic sputtering. A broad suite of additional compounds is predicted for Europa based on observations of other icy satellites, as well as from experiments with irradiated ices, theoretical simulations, and geochemical and cosmochemical arguments. Organic molecular groups, such as CH and CN, occur on

2.4.1. Ice and non-ice composition. Telescopic observations and spacecraft data (e.g., Kuipe4 1957; Moroa, 1965; Clark and McCord, 1980; Dalton 2000; McCord,
2000; Spencer et a1.,2005) show that Europa's surface is composed primarily of crystalline and amorphous water ice (Pitcher et al., 19'72; Clark and McCord, 1980; Hansen and McCord,2004). The dark, non-icy materials on the surface help unravel the geological history, and determining their composition is the key to understanding their origin. Spatial distributions and context provide clues to surface processes and the connections to the interior, Understanding this linkage provides constraints on the nature of the interior, potential habitability, and processes and timescales

the other icy satellites (McCord et aI., 1997,1998a), and their presence or absence on Europa is important to understanding potential habitability. Other compounds that may be detected by high-resolution spectroscopy include HrS, OCS, 03, HCHO, H2CO3, SOr, MgSOo, H2SO4, H3O+, NaSOo, HCOOH, CH3OH, CH3COOH, and more complex species (Moore, 1984; Delits and Lane, 1997, 1998; Hudson and Moore, 1998; Moore and Hudson,2003; Brunetto et a1.,2005; see also chapter by Zolotov and Kargel). As molecules become more complex their radiation cross-section increases and they are more susceptible to alteration by radiation. Radiolysis and photolysis can alter the original materials and ptoduce highly oxidized species that react with other non-ice materials to form a wide array of compounds. Given the extreme radiation environment of Europa (see chapter by Paranicas et al.), organic molecules or molecular fragments are not expected in older deposits nor in those exposed to greater radiation (Johnson and Quickenden, 1997 Cooper et a1.,2001). They might, however, survive in younger deposits or in regions of lesser
radiation.

through which interior materials reach the surface. Compositional variations in surface materials may reflect age
differences indicative of recent activity, while the discovery of active vents or plumes would demonstrate current con-

nections with the subsurface. Non-ice components include CO2, SO2, H2O2, and 02 based on comparison with laboratory spectra of the rclevant compounds (Lane et aI., l98l; Noll et al., 1995; Smythe et aI., 1998; Carlson, 1999,2001; Carlson et aI., 1999a,b; Spencer and Calvin, 2002; Hansen and McCord,2008). Spectral observations fi'om the Galileo Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) of disrupted dark and chaotic tenain indicate water bound in non-ice hydrates. Hydrated materials observed in regions of surface disruption could be magnesium and sodium sulfates that originate from subsurface ocean brines (McCord et al., 1998b, 1999). Alternatively, they may be sulfuric acid hydrates created by radiolysis of sulfur from Io, processing of endogenic SO2,

Improved spectral observations over broad ranges and high spectral and spatial resolution, together with laboratory studies, are needed to understand Europa's surface chemistry. These data will provide major improvements in the identification of the original and derived compounds, radiation environment, and associated reaction pathways. 2.4.2. Relationship of composition to processes. Galileo's instruments wele designed to study surface compositions on regional scales. The association of hydrated and dark materials with certain geologic terrains suggests an endogenic source for the emplaced materials, although these may have been altered by radiolysis. Many surface features with compositionally distinct materials appeil to have been formed by tectonic processes, suggesting that the associated materials are derived from the stbsurface. Major open questions include the links between surface composition and the undellying ocean and rocky interior (Fanale et al., 1999; Kargel et al., 2000 McKinnon and

T
I
I

Greeley et

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663

Europa's diverse surface shows different styles ofdeformation, which provide clues to its geology, possible connectons to tidal processes, and the subsurface ocean. The Galileo NIMS footprint (box) sampled and "mixed" multiple tenain types.

Fig.3.

face ocean is present and outgases through fissures, it might result in transient activity, and its composition could provide clues to ocean composition. Exogenic processes are also important, and much is unknown on the chemistry and sources of implnted materials. Magnetic field measurements of ion-cyclotron waves in the wake of Europa provide evidence of sputtered and recently ionized Cl, 02, SO2, and Na ions (Volwerk et al., 2001). Medium-energy ions (tens to hundreds of keV) deposit energy in the upper tens of micrometers; heavier ions, such as those of oxygen and sulfur, have an even shorter depth of penetration, while MeV electrons can penetrate and affect the ice to a depth of more than I m (see chapters by Johnson et al. and Paranicas et al.). The energy ofthese particles breaks bonds to sputter water molecules, molecular oxygen, and impurities within the ice (Cheng et at., 1986), producing the observed atmosphere and contributing to surface erosion. A major issue is the exogenic vs. endogenic origin of volatiles such as CO, and their behavior in time and space. CO, was reported on Callisto and Ganymede, with hints of COr(McCord et al., 1998a), SOr(Smythe et al., l99B), and H2O2 (Carlson et al., 1999b). Recent analyses of NIMS spectra indicate the concentration of CO, and other nonice compounds on the antijovian and trailing sides of Europa (Hansen and McCord,2008), suggesting an endogenic origin. Radiolysis of CO2 and HrO ices is expected to pro-

Zolens,2003; see chapter by Zolotov and Kargel),

and

the relative significance of radiolytic processing (Johnson and Quickenden, 1997; Cooper et al.,200lt Carlson et al., 2002,2005). To test these hypotheses, compositional data
are required at scales suffrcient to resolve geologic features. One of the critical limitations of NIMS data is the low spa-

tial resolution of the high-quality spectra and the limited spatial coverage. The spectra to identify hydrated materials were typically averaged from areas -75 x 75 km (McCord et al., 1998b' Carlson et al,, 1999b) (although a few higherresolution "postage stamp" datasets were obtained). This typical footprint is shown in Fig. 3, illustrating the problem of "mixing" of terrains. Future observations must resolve non-ice materials at -100-m scales. In addition, sampling a wide range of latitudes and longitudes is needed to understand global effects such as implantation, temperature dependence, and surface ages. Ultraviolet to IR spectroscopy is needed to identify organic, ice, non-ice, and radiolytically generated materials. Such data, together with images, can provide the spatial conelations necessary to develop models for the origin and history of the surface. In addition to compositional differences associated with recent geological activity, changes related to exposure age
also provide evidence for sites of recent or curent activity. The composition of even the icy parts of Europa is variable in space and time. Polar fine-grained deposits suggest frosts formed from ice sputtered or sublimated from other areas (Clark et al., 1983; Dalton,2000; Hansen and McCord,2004). Equatorial ice regions are more amorphous than crystalline, perhaps due to radiation damage, and mapping ice crystallinity might be used to assess relative age or radiation dose. Venting or transient gaseous activity on Europa would indicate present-day surface activity, and could be detected by UV IR, or millimeter spectroscopy, similar to those on Enceladus (Porco et a1.,2006; Spencer et al., 2006; Hansen et a1.,2006;Waite et a1.,2006).If a subsur-

duce additional compounds (Moore, l9B4; Delits and Lane, 1997,1998; Moore and Hudson,2003; Brunetto et al., 2005). Determining the presence and source of organic compounds, such as CH and CN groups detected by IR spectroscopy at Callisto and Ganymede (McCord et aI., 1997, 1998b) and tentatively idenrified on Phoebe (Ctark et al., 2005), would be important for evaluating the astrobiological potential of Europa, especially if there is demonstrable association with the ocean. Some surface constituents are directly exogenic. For example, Io's volcanos release SO, that is dissociated and ionized, accelerated by Jupiter's magnetic field, and implanted in Europa's ice. Once there it can form new molecules and some of the dark surface components. It is important to separate surface materials formed by implantation from those that are endogenic. For example, the detected

will

Na/K ratio is supportive of an endogenic origin

perhaps an ocean source for Na and K (Brown, 2001; Johnson et a1.,2002; McCord et a1.,2002: Orlando et al., 2005).

and

The relative importance of endogenic vs. exogenic

sources of non-ice constituents depends on factors such as the radiation environment. As a result, detailed analysis of spectral observations of disrupted tenain on the leading and

trailing hemisphercs, which encounter far different radiolytic fluxes, would help to determine radiation effects and
unravel the endogenic history. Some key outstanding questions to be addressed regarding Europa's chemistry and composition include the follow-

ing: (l) Are endogenic organic materials on the

surface?

-.

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T
Most models of linear feature formation include fractur-

(2) Is chemical material from depth carried to the surface? (3) Is iradiation the principal cause of alteration of Europa's surface materials? (4) Do materials formed from ion implantation play a major role in surface chemistry?

ing in response to processes within the icy shell (Greeley et a1.,2004). Some models suggest that liquid oceanic material or warm mobile subsurface ice squeezes through
fractures to form the ridge, while others suggest that ridges form by frictional heating and possibly melting along fracture shear zones. Thus, ridges might represent regions of

2,5.

Geology

Europa's surface is geologically young, and parts may

be active today (see chapter by Bierhaus et al.). This youth

is inherently linked to the ocean and the effects of gravitational tides, which trigger processes that include fracturing of the icy shell, resurfacing, and possibly release of materials from the interior. Clues to these and other processes are provided by features such as linear fractures and ridges (see chapters by Kattenhorn and Hurford and by Prockter and Patterson), chaotic tenain (see chapter by Collins and Nimmo), and impact craters (see chapter by Schenk and Turtle).

communication among the surface, icy shell, and ocean, plausibly providing a means for surface oxidants to enter the ocean. Some features, such as cycloidal ridges, appear to be a direct result of Europa's tidal cycle (Hoppa et al.,
1999).

2.5.1. Linear features. Europa's unusual surface is dominated by tectonic features in the form of linear ridges, bands, and fractures (Fig. a), Ridges are common and appear to have formed throughout the visible history. They range from 0.1 to >500 km long, are as wide as 2 km, and can be several hundred meters high. Ridges include simple structures, double ridges separated by a trough, and intertwining ridge-complexes. Whether these represent different processes or stages of the same process is unknown. Cycloidal ridges are similar to double ridges, but form chains

of linked

arcs.

Bands reflect fracturing and lithospheric separation, much like seafloor spreading on Earth, and most display bilateral symmetry (e.g. Sullivan et al., 1998). The youngest bands tend to be dark, while older bands are bright, suggesting brightening with time. Geometric reconstruction of bands suggests that a spreading model is appropriate, indicating extension in these areas and possible contact with the ocean (Tufts et a1.,2000l, Prockter et a1.,2002). Fractures are narrow (hundreds of meters to the -10-m limit of image resolution) and can exceed 1000 km in length. Some fractures cut across nearly all surface features, indicating that the icy shell is subject to deformation on the most recent timescales. The youngest ridges and fractures could be active today in response to tidal flexing. Subsurface sounding could help identify zones of warm ice coinciding with current or recent activity. Young ridges may be places where the ocean has recently exchanged material with the surface, and would be prime targets as potential habitable niches. 2.5.2. Chaotic terrain. Europa's surface has been disrupted into circular lenticulae and inegularly shaped chaos zones (see chapter by Collins and Nimmo). Lenticulae include pits, spots of dark material, and domes where the surface is upwarped and commonly broken. Pappalardo et al. (1998) argued that these features are typically -10 km across, and possibly formed by upwelling of compositionally or thermally buoyant ice diapirs through the icy shell. In such a case, their size distribution would imply the thickness of the icy shell to be at least 10-20 km at the time of formation (McKinnon, I 999). An alternative model suggests that there is no dominant size and that lenticulae are small members of chaos (Greenberg et aI., 1999), formed through either direct (melting) or indirect (convection) communication between the ocean and surface (e.9., Carr et al.,
1998a).

Fig. Volcanic plumes on Io imaged by New Horizons in2007. The 29O-km-high plume from the polar volcano Tvashtar is seen at the top, while the plume from Prometheus is on the left. Beginning with Voyager discoveries, Prometheus has been active during all spacecraft flybys. Long-term observations and flybys with JEO will provide unprecedented detail on Io's active volcanism.

4.

Chaos is characterized as fractured plates of ice shifted into new positions within a matrix. Much like a jigsaw puzzle, many plates can be fit back together. Some ice blocks appear to have disaggregated and foundered into the surrounding finer-textured matrix, while other chaos areas stand higher than the surounding terain. Models of chaos formation suggest whole or partial melting of the icy shell, perhaps enhanced by local pockets of brine (Head and Pappalardo, 1999). Chaos and lenticulae commonly have associated dark reddish material thought to be derived from the subsurface, possibly from the ocean. However, these and

Greeley et al.: Future Exploration of

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665

related models are poorly constrained because the total energy partitioning within Europa is not known, nor are de-

tails of the composition of non-ice components. Imaging,

subsurface sounding, and topographic mapping are required

2.5.5. Innding site characterization, Landers are identified as priority missions if Europa has habitable environments. Landed missions would require high-resolution images (approximately a few meters per pixel or better) for
landing site selection. The roughness and overall safety of landing sites can also be characterized through radar data, photometry, thermal inertia, and detailed altimetry. Such data will also illuminate fine-scale regolith and other surface processes (see chapter by Moore et al.). Along with corresponding high-resolution subsurface sounding, these data would help assess likely sites of recent communication with the ocean. Some outstanding questions for Europa's geology include (l) Do Europa's ridges, bands, chaos, and/or multiringed structures require the near-surface liquid water to form? (2) V/here are the youngest regions? (3) Is cunent geologic activity sufficiently intense that heat flow from the interior is measurable? (4) What is the overall history of the surface?

to understand the formation of chaotic tenain and its implications for habitability. 2.5.3. Impactfeatures. Only 24 impact craters >10 km have been identified on Europa (Schenk et a1.,2004; see chapter by Schenk and Tirrtle), reflecting the young surface. This is remarkable in comparison to Earth's Moon, which is only slightly larger but far more heavily cratered' The youngest known europan crater is 24-km-diameter Pwyll, which rctains bright rays and likely formed less than 5 m.y. ago (Zahnle et al., 1998; see chapter by Bierhaus et al.). Complete global imaging will allow a more comprehensive determination of Europa's surface age and help identify the very youngest areas. Crater morphology provides insight into ice thickness at the time of impact. Morphologies vary from bowl-shaped depressions with crisp rims, to shallow depressions with smaller depth-to-diameter ratios. Craters up to 25-30 km in diameter have morphologies consistent with formation in a warm but solid icy shell, while the two largest impacts (Tlre and Callanish) might have punched through brittle ice about 20 km deep into a liquid zone (Moore et al., 2001; Schenk et al.,2004). 2.5.4. Geologic history. Determining the geologic histories of planetary surfaces requires identifying and mapping surface units and stluctules and placing them into a time sequence. In the absence ofabsolute ages derived from rock samples, planetary surface ages are assessed from impact crater distributions, with more heavily cratered regions reflecting greater ages. The paucity of impact craters on Europa precludes this technique. Thus, superposition (i.e., younger materials seen "on top" of older materials) and cross-cutting relations are used to assess sequences of formation (Figueredo and Greeley, 2004; see chapter by Doggett et al.). Unfortunately, only I}Vo of Europa has been imaged at sufficient resolution to understand relationships among surface features. For most of Europa, data are both incomplete and disconnected from region to region, making the global surface history difficult to decipher. Where images of suffrcient resolution (better than 200 m/pixel) exist, it appears that the style ofdeformation evolved through time from ridge and band formation to chaotic terrain (Greeley et aL,2004), although there are huge areas of the surface where this sequence is uncertain (e.g., Riley et aL., 2000). Europa's surface features generally brighten and become less rcd through time, so albedo and color can selve as a proxy for age (Geissler et al., 1998)' Quantitative topographic data can provide information on the origin of geologic featules and may show trends with
age. Profiles across ridges, bands, and disrupted terrains

2.6.

Jupiter System

Europa cannot be understood in isolation, but must be considered in the context of the entire jovian system' Europa formed from the jovian nebula and evolved through complex interactions with the other satellites, Jupiter, and Jupiter's magnetosphere (e.g., see chapters by Canup and Ward and Estrada et al.). To understand the development of potential habital environments, knowledge is needed for the origin and evolution of the jovian system, and how the
system curently operates. This requires observations ofJupiter and the satellites' magnetosphere and ring system' 2.6.I. Satellite surfaces and interiors, The present environment of Europa depends partly on how it formed and evolved. Europa itselfdoes not record its early surface hisIo, Ganymede, and tory, but its neighboring satellites evolution, and Europa's origin, provide clues to Callisto their own. on are interesting and potential habitability, satellites exGalilean of the innermost 2.6.1 .1. Io. The (Fig. a) and sheds volcanism driven tidally periences intense provides clues Io also engine. tidal heat light on Europa's source of a major could be and interior to Europa's silicate primarily a suggests Io's density Europa. contamination on silicate interior (Mcwen et al., 2004) while the 4:2:l Laplace resonance among Io, Europa, and Ganymede as they orbit Jupiter leads to tidal flexing and generation of the heat for global volcanism (Yoder and Peale, 1981; see chapter

by Sotin et al.).
Galileo data indicate extensive moon-plasma interactions near Io but appear to rule out a magnetic field. Io's moment of inertia suggests that it is differentiated into a metallic core and silicate mantle (Anderson et a1.,2001).The

will

infered Fe-FeS core has a radius slightly less than half of Io and a mass 20Vo of the satellite. The apparent lack of a
magnetic field suggests that the silicate mantle experiences sufficient tidal heating to prevent cooling and a convective dynamo in the core (Weinbruch and Spohn, 1995). Io's mantle may undetgo partial meltin g (Moore, 2001) that produces mafic to ultrarnafic lavas, suggesting an un-

aid in constraining rnodels of origin. Moreover, flexural

signatures rc expected to be indicative of local elastic litho-

sphere thickness at the time of their formation, and may provide evidence of topographic relaxation (e'g., Nimmo et a1., 2003; Billings and Kattenhorn, 2005).

666

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osition; and (4) understanding the silicate and volatile components of lo's crust. Because Io is a dominant source of plasma for the jovian magnetosphere, measurements of trace ion composition in the Io torus and throughout the magnetosphere may reveal details of the internal composition. Knowledge of the composition of material escaping from Io will help distinguish endogenic from Io-derived materials on Europa. Additional gravity data during flybys would place more stringent constraints n interior structure. New discoveries are likely, such as gravity anomalies similar to those detected by Galileo for Ganymede from a flyby (Palguta et a\.,2006). Determination of Io's pole position and changes in the location of the pole would be valuable as constraints
on the satellite's shape and thus internal structure. Heat flow determinations would place important constraints on theories of tidal dissipation, internal structure, and thermal and
I
i

differentiated mantle. Silicate volcanism appers to be dominant, although secondary sulfur volcanism may occur lo-

cally (Greeley et al., 1984). The heat flux infened from long-term thermal monitoring exceeds 2W/nP, making Io by far the most volcanically active body in the solar system (Nasir et al., 1986i Veeder et al., 2004; McEwen et al., 2004; Lopes and Spence4 2007). Despite the high heat flux, mountains as high as l8 km indicate that the lithosphere is at least 20-30 km thick, rigid, and composed mostly of silicates (e.g., Carr et al., 1998b; Schenk and Bulmen 7998;Turtle et a1.,2001; Jaeger et al., 2003). The thick lithosphere can only conduct a small fraction of lo's total heat flux, suggesting magmatic transport of heat through the lithosphere (O'ReiIly and Davies, l98l; Carr et al., 1998b; Moore,200l). Silicate lavas, sulfur, and sulfur dioxide on Io interact in complex and intimate ways, with volcanism that includes massive lava eruptions, high-temperature explosions, and overturning lava lakes. Volcanic plumes erupt from central vents and along lava flow fronts where surface volatiles are mobilized. Volcanism and sputtering on Io feed a unique patchy and variable atmosphere, in which S, O, and Na become ionized to form Io's plasma torus, neutral clouds, and aurorae. Sublimation of SO2 frost is also a source of lo's thin atmosphere but the relative contributions to the atmosphere are not well understood. Electrical currents flow between Io and Jupiter and produces auroral "footprints" in the jovian atmosphere. Near the ionospheric end of the Io flux tube, accelerated electrons interact with the jovian magnetic field and generate decametric radio emissions (Lopes and Williams. 2005). There is an apparent paradox between Io's putative ultramafic volcanism and the widespread intensity of the volcanism on Io. At the current rate, Io would have produced a volume of lava -40 times the volume of Io over the last 4.5 G.y., resulting in differentiation and consequent eruption of more silicic materials. The resolution of this paradox requires either that Io only recently entered the tidal l'esonance and became volcanically active, or that wholescale recycling of Io's lithosphere is sufficient to prevent extreme differentiation (McEw en et al., 2004). JEO could improve knowledge of Io in several rcspects. For example, Galileo studies of Io's dynamic processes were hampered by the low data rate and major volcanic events were missed entirely or seen only in disconnected snapshots. JEO would provide a 100-fold increase in data return per Io flyby compared to Galileo, and much mote long-term monitoring, which is likely to rcveal phenomena not seen previously. Moreover, JEO's superior instruments would allow new investigations, such as high-spatial-resolution spectroscopy of lava flows and in situ sampling of its upper atmosphere and plumes. JEO objectives fol lo include (1) understanding lo's heat balance and tidal dissipation, and their relationship to Eu-

orbital evolution.
2.6.1.2. Ganymede. Ganymede is our largest satellite, exceeding Mercury in diameter, and is the only satellite known to have an intrinsic magnetic field. Its surface is broadly separated into bright and dark terains (Shoemaker et al., 1982; McKinnon and Parmentier 1986; Pappalardo et al., 2004). Dark temain overs one-third of the surface and is dominated by impact craters. It is ancient, and appears grossly similar to the surface of Callisto (Prockter et al., 1998). Dark terrain also displays hemisphere-scale concentric funows, which are probably remnants of vast multiring impact basins. Bright terrain forms a global network of intelconnected lanes, separating dark tenain into polygons, and has a patchwork of smooth surfaces and closely spaced parallel ridges and grooves (Fig. 5). The grooves are extensional tectonic features, and have much in common with terrestrial rift zones (Parmentier et al., 1982; Pappalardo et al., 1998). Ganymede's surface is dominated by water ice (McKinnon and Parmentier, 1986). The polar "caps" appear to follow the magnetospheric boundary between open and closed field lines (Khurana et a1.,2007), which provides an opportunity to examine differences in space weathering under different conditions. Dark non-ice materials at lower latitudes could be hydrated brines similar to those infened for Europa; other minor constituents include CO2, SO2, and some sort of tholin material exhibiting CH and CN bonds (McCord et al., 1998b). There is also evidence for trapped O, and O, in the surface, as well as a thin molecular oxygen atmosphere, and auroral emissions are concentrated near the polar cap boundaries (McGrath et al., 2004),but there are no ionospheric indications frorn Galileo radio occultation data of an equatorial atmosphere. Galileo data indicate that Ganymede's moment of inertia is 0.31 MR2, which is the smallest measuled for any solid body in the solar system (Anderson et a1.,1996). Threelayer models, constrained by plausible compositions, indicate that Ganymede is differentiated into an outermost -800-km ice layer and an underlying silicate mantle of density 3000-4000 kg/m:. A central iron core is allowed, but

ropa's tidal evolution; (2) monitoring active volcanos and their effect on the surface and atmosphere; (3) determining
relationships among volcanism, tectonism, erosion, and dep-

Greeleyetal.: FutureExplorationofEuropa 667

Fig.5.

High-resolution (20 m/pixel) Galileo image of Ganysurface; showing an area about 15 x 16 km. Figure courmede's tesy of NASA/JPL/Brown University.

not required, by the gravity data. Ganymede's magnetic field, however, supports the presence of such a metallic core. Galileo gravity data also indicate that Ganymede has
internal mass anomalies, possibly related to topography on the ice-rock interface or internal density contrasts (Anderson et a1.,2004; Palguta et a1.,2006). Galileo magnetometer data provide tentative evidence for an inductive response at Ganymede, which suggests the presence of a salty internal ocean within 100-200 km of the surface. However, the inference is less robust than for Europa and Callisto, because the data can also be explained by an intrinsic quadrupole magnetic field (superposed on the intrinsic dipole), whose orientation remains fixed in time (Kivelson et al., 2002). Galileo data show that Ganymede has an intrinsic field strong enough to generate a mini-magnetosphere embedded within the jovian magnetosphere (Fig. 6) (Kivelson et al., 1996).4 model with a fixed Ganymede-centered dipole superposed on the ambient jovian field provides a good first-order match to the data and suggests equatoril and polar field strengths of -7L9 and 1438 nT, respectively; these values are 6-10 times the 120-nT ambient jovian eld at Ganymede's orbit. The most plausible mechanism for generation of the intrinsic field is a dynamo in a liquid-iron core (Schubert et al., 1996). Multiple flybys of JEO would provide topographic data, subsurface sounding, and high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy for understanding surface formation and evolution. For example, the role of volcanism in modifying the surfaces of icy satellites is poorly understood. Like many other icy satellites, vidence is ambiguous for cryovolcanic proc-

physical constraints in eruption of cryovolcanic melt onto the surface (Showman et al., 2004), such deposits would give insight into the interior. Thus, it is critical to leam whether cryovolcanism is widespread or rare on Ganymede, with implications for its role on other icy satellites. With its mix of old and young terain, ancient impact basins and fresh craters, and landscapes dominated by tectonism, volcanism, and degradation by space weathering, Ganymede serves as a type example for understanding icy satellites in the outer solar system and would provide insight into how this entire class of worlds evolves differently from terrestrial planets. 2.6.1.3. Callisto. Of the Galilean satellites, Callisto is least affected by tidal heating, thus offering an endmember of icy satellite evolution (McKinnon and Parmentier 1986; Showman and Malhotra, 1999: Moore et a1.,2004). Gravity data and the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium suggest that Callisto's moment of inertia is 0.355 MR2, suggesting partial differentiation with an ice-rich outer layer <500 km thick, an intermediate ice-rock mixture with a density -2000 kg/m3, and a rock/metal core (Anderson et al., 1998b). However, if Callisto's degree-Z gravity structure is not hydrostatically balanced, then Callisto could be more or less differentiated than the moment of inertia suggests. This could have major implications for understanding satellite formation. Pre-Galileo models suggested that Ganymede and Callisto formed from debris in a protdovian disk in -l0a yr; however, for Callisto to be relatively undifferenesses on Ganymede. Given the

Fig.6. See Plate

37. Ganymede's simulated magnetosphere. Field lines are green; perpendicular cunent is represented by color variation. Note intense cunents flow both upstream on the boundary between Jupiter's field and the field lines that close on Ganymede, and downstream in the reconnecting magnetotail region. Figure courtesy of X. Jia.

668

Europa

yr (Canup tiated, its formation time must have exceeded 106 and Ward, 2002; Mosqueira and Estada' 2003)' has an Galileo magnetometer data indicate that Callisto a salty ocean inductive magnetic response best explained by qt'' 1998; Kivelwithin 200 km of the surface (Khurana et
an ocean son et aI., 1999;Zimmer et al',2000)' Maintaining

provide clues and distribution of atmospheric constituents released Once composition' to io tu.fu"" processes and links K are and as Na such from the surface, some constituents

to stifle today either requires a suffrciently stiff ice rheology (amconvection und h"ut loss or existence of "antifreeze" However' monia or salts) in the ocean (McKinnon,2006)' of the existence the with differentiation partial reconciling ice layer must ocean is difficult; some part of the uppermost at the melting temperature today' while the mixed

abundance more readily observed in their gas phase' Their endogenic between relative to It provides a discriminator 2002)' (Johnson.et.al" species rigin for these unJ "*og"ni" active by part supplied in be atmosfhere could

Europai

would g"Vt.t (Nimmi et at.,2007),the discovery of which structure' interior and processes lrviOe clues to subsurfacp B".uur" material from Io is implanted on Europa' it is and important to understand lo's atmosphere' Ganymede

'

remain ice-rock layer must never have attained the melting' ocean' Along with the discovery of Callisto's probable remajor dcoveries include the absence of cryovolcanic ruriu"ing and the inference of surface erosion by sublimaunique tion. Callisto's landscape at decameter scales is that of the Galilean ,ut"llit"t, and might be akin to
among

light Calisto also have tenuous atmospheres, which shed

cometary nuclei.

constituents in an unidentified non-ice material), with trace The color of the non-ice material is

Calliito's surface composition is bimodal (water ice

and

the non-ice material. chondrites' similar to C-type asteroids and carbonaceous include Trace materials detected in the non-ice material 1999al, al" (Carlson et COr, C-H, CN, SO2, and possibly SH an atas Mc'Cord et al., 1998a)' Carbon dioxide is detected the surface' mosphere and is nonuniformly dispersed over more beini concentrated on the trailing hemisphere and 2002)'This abunant in fresh impact craters (Hbbitts et al''
on Europa asymmetry is similai to that for sulfate hydrates effects by coun i, ut. suggestive of externally induced 2001)' rtating magniospir"ric plasma (Cooper et^al'' issues key fhe lgOmission would enable many of the

followed' The on the evolutionary paths these satellites have are remiexample' for atmospheric emissions of Ganymede, than different very emissions, nircerrt ofclassic polar auroral and Europa like thought the case for Europa. Callisto is but atmosphere' O, to huu" a predominantly Ganymede Ganyand Io' Europa' on lacks oxygen emissions as seen CO, emisnede 6rel et a1.,2002). Instead, Callisto has (Carlson' 1999)' Galileo by sion above the limb, detected small performed' not were Although IR limb scans at Europa analby atmospherc' its in present of CO, may be

u.ou,ri, be thicker ogy with Callito. iallisto's atmosphere may a\" 2004; et (McGrath tan either Europa's or Ganymede's

dense Liang et at.,2005, which is reflected by its relatively ionospherc (Ktiore et a1.,2002)' plasma and magnetospheres' The plasma of

forCallistotobeaddressed,includingdeterminingthedischaractribution of impact craters; studying mass wasting; underto terizing the jovian and Callisto magnetospheres

the satJupiter's rapidly rotating magnetosphere overtakes predorniparticles charged of elfites in tnir orbits with flow ions sputnantly onto the trailing hemispheres' Energetic the liberated of Many surfaces' i"t n"uouf particles from the besome but surface' the to parri"t", immediately return to escape so,me and atmospheres, purt of the satellite bound "o*" longer no are that ,pu.".^n fraction of the neutrals (Mauk t a moon can form a circumplanetary neutral torus et a1.,2003). Io is the dominant source of particles in Jupiter's mag2005)'but netosphere (Thomas et a1.,2004; Nozawa et a\"

2.6.3.

und depth of the globally conducting layer; stand te "*t.nt the internal itttibution of mass to gain insight

urr"ttlng

enerinto differentiation on large icy satellites; measuring and duration getic particle fluxes and energies over a long satelicy of time periods to understand radiolysis

iff"r"n,

lites; and tupping surface compositions to understand geological relative influerrces of primordial composition, on similight pro."tttt, and radiolysis. Results would shed iu, pto""tt"t on the other icy satellites' ).6.2. Satettte atmospheres' Europa's tenuous atmosthe inphere (Figs. 5-12 in chapter by McGrath et al') is

the

the satellite's ierface' between Jupiter's magnetosphere and a surface pressurface. Composed principally of O, with 2004; see also sure of only -2x 10-lz bar (McGrath et aL' accepted chapter by McGrattr et al')' there is no widely atmospheric expianation for the nonuniform nature of the rnade to ademissions, and only a single attempt has been atmosphere is dress this issue (Ccrssldy et al',2008)' The the surface' with maintained principally by ion sputtering of by electron molecules subsequently dissociated and ionized The abundance impact, charge exchange, and solar photons'

species other'moons contribute water products and minor et (Johnson interactions surface through atmospheric and (Brown' Na of a source is Europa at, z0; forixample, 2001 Leblanc et a1.,2005)' electroPerturbations of the magnetospheric plasma and the satof diagnostic are satellites magnetic fields near the satellite-induced analysis, such elliLs themselves. Through al'' 2004)' magnetic fields were detected (e'g', Kivelson et In turn' oceans' subsurface for which is the key evidence in changes produce interactions *ugn"torptt"ric particle al',2004)' (Johnson et suriu." chemistry of the 2.6.4. Jupiter atmosphere' Jupiter contains most the in object largest the is and mass in the jovian ,yri"t composition atmospheric Its solar system after te Sun' significant reflects the initial nebula conclitions, albeit with et (Ingersoll formed satellites from which the

reprocessing,

et oi., ZOO|; Wrrt ,t at., 2004; Taylor et aI', 2004; Moses projovian system The 2004)' at., 2004; Yelle and Milten

own sol vicles the best analog for the formation of both our

Greeley et

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system and the hundreds of exoplanetary systems being discovered around other stars. JEO investigations focused on Jupiter's atmosphere are discussed in section 3.5.4. 2.6.5. Rings, dust, and smallmoons. A systemofsmall moons and faint rings encircles Jupiter within Io's orbit. Although Saturn's rings are more familiar, faint and dusty rings are more common in the outer solar system. Such rings may represent the evolution of a much denser ring system such as Satum's. Dusty rings reveal a variety of nongravitational processes that are masked within more massive disks. For example, fine dust grains become electrically charged by solar photons and interactions with Jupiter's plasma. Their orbits are perturbed by solar radiation pressure and Jupiter's magnetic field (e.g., Burns et a\.,2004). Thus, a better description of dust dynamics and properties might provide information on Jupiter's plasma and magnetic field within regions that cannot be probed easily by
spacecraft.

evaluating the processes that have affected Europa through time. Understanding Europa's habitability is intimately tied to investigating the Jupiter system as a whole. Both Ganymede and Callisto may possess subsurface oceans, while Io holds clues to the fundamentals of tidal heating and interactions with the jovian environment, Jupiter can shed light on the

Jupiter's rings share many of their properties with protoplanetary disks. In both systems, dust and larger bodies co-mingle and interact through various processes. Thus, the ring system provides a dynamic laboratory for understanding the formation of the broader jovian system. JEO investigations of rings, dust, and small moons are described in
section 3.5.5.

initial conditions of the planerary system. Each Galilean satellite can be related to the others, and is intimately tied to Jupiter and the jovian magnetospheric environment. As stated in the2006 Solar System Exploration Roadmap, .,By studying the Jupiter system as a whole, we can better understand the type example for habitable planetary systems within and beyond our Solar System." Within this context, hve primary objectives have been defined for the proposed JEO mission; in priority order these relate to (l) Europa's ocean, (2) Europa's icy shell, (3) Europa's chemistr (4) Europa's geology, and (5) Jupiter system science. In the following sections, each objective is described, along with the scientific investigations that are needed to
meet the objectives.

3.1.

Ocean Objective: Characterize the Ocean and Deeper Interior

The first step in characterizing Europa's ocean is to con-

lVith rcgard to the Jupiter system as a whole, some remaining key questions to be addressed include the following: (l) What factors control the different styles of volcanism on Io? (2) Are plasma processes responsible for Ganymede's bright polar caps and if so, how? (3) Has Ganymede experienced cryovolcanism, or does intense tectonism create smooth terrains; what is the distribution and thickness of Callisto's dark component? (4) How does Europa's sputter-produced atmospherc vary? (5) Are Ganymede's and Callisto's atmospheres produced mainly by sputtering or sublimation? (6) How do the sources and dynamics of the fields and plasma in the jovian magnetosphere vary, especially as correlated with Io's activity? (7) How does jovian local atmospheric convection contribute to larger
storms?

frm its existence and extent. If Europa has no ocean and its icy shell is coupled to its rocky mantle, then as it orbits Jupiter the measurable radial tide will vary by only a few
meters. On the other hand, if Europa has liquid water beneath a relatively thin icy shell, the ride will vary by -30 m. Thus, measuring the tides provides a simple and definitive test of the existence of a subice ocean.

3. JUPITER EUROPA ORBITER SCIENCE GOAL, OBJECTIVES, AND INVESTIGATIONS

The scientific objectives for JEO were formulated based on previous strdies (Table 2) and the science as reviewed in section 2. The goal for JEO is to explore Europa to investigate its habitability, which implies undersranding the origin, evolution, and cunpnt state of the satellite. This includes addressing the questions outlined above, while also allowing discovery science unpredicted findings of the type that have often reshaped the very foundations ofplanetary science. "Habitability" includes confirming the existence of water below Europa's icy shell and determining its

In the likely instance that an ocean exists, several geophysical measurements (Fig. 7) will place constraints on its depth, extent, and physical state, as well as provide information on the internal structure of Europa, including the mantle and core. In priority order, investigations would be to (1) determine the amplitude and phase of the gravitational tides, (2) determine the induction response fiom the ocean over multiple frequencies, (3) characterize surface motion over the tidal cycle, (4) determine the satellite's dynamical rotation state, and (5) investigate the corc and rocky mantle. The gravitational tidal potential from Jupiter varies periodically as Europa orbits (Fig.8), applying stress that deforms the satellite. The amplitude and phase of the gravitational and topographic tidal rsponses are determined by the mechanical strength and density of the layered interior. Love numbers are the dimensionless scale factor.s that parameterize these effects, wherc k, rpresents effects on the gravitational potential and h, represents radial topographic effects. A homogeneous fluid body would have values of kz = 1.5 and h, = 2.5. If present, a liquid ocean would dominate the tidal response, while the product of icy shell thickness times icy shell rigidity has a lesser but important ef-

characteristics, understanding the possible sources and cycling of chemical and thermal energy, investigating the evolution and composition of the surface and ocean, and

fect (Fig.9).

-.

670

Europa

Ur* = 10 GPa
Static gravity (density structure) 150
..Y

E
(t,

Tidal deformation (Love numbers)

Magnetic induction

a o
!

c
o o o

1oo

signature
Radar penetration (lower bound)

oso
10
100

lce Shell Thickness (km)

Fig. 7. See Plate 38. The combination of (hypothetical) JEO measurements can constrain the thickness of the icy shell. Based on the bulk density and moment of inertia (from future flybys by JEO and other spacecraft), the thickness of the water + ice layer may be obtained (gray shading) (Anderson et aL, l998a,b); uncertainties arise mainly from lack of knowledge of the rocky interior density (bulk density is already known). Measuring time-variable gravity and topography gives the k2 and h2 Love numbers, respectively; hypothetical Love number constraints (red shading) assume observed h, and k, of 1.202 and 0.245, respectivel and constrain shell thickness as a function of rigidity tt (Moore and Schubert,2000). The hypothetical values assumed here are characteristics of a moderately thick icy shell. In the example shown, the icy shell deformation is sufficiently large that a shell thickness in excess of 40 km is prohibited. Determining both k2 and h2 provides additional information. A lower bound on the icy shell thicknesses may be derived from radar data. Here, a tectonic model of icy shell properties is assumed (Moore,2000), resulting in a radar penetration depth (and lower bound on shell thickness) of 15 km (green shading). Multiple frequency (hypothetical) set of observations results in a range of acceptable icy shell thickness (15-40 km) and a range of acceptable ocean thicknesses (45-70 km). A different set of observations would result in different constraints, but the combined constraints ar more rigorous than could be achieved by any one technique alone. JEO would be able to provide those constraints to determine the thickness of Europa's icy shell.
Based on plausible internal structures, measurement un-

certainties of t0.0005 for and t0.01 for h, will permit the actual k, and h, to be inferred with sufficient accuracy tht the combination characterizes the depth of the ocean
and constrains the thickness of the icy shell (Wu et aL, Z0fl; Wahr et a1.,2006).In turn, icy shell thickness is an important constraint on geologic processes, astrobiolog and heat

flux from the silicate interior.

is estimated from the time-variable gravitational field of Europa, which is measured by perturbations in the paths of orbiting spacecraft. The component of the velocity change that is in the direction to Earth is measured by a Doppler shift in the radio-frequency communication with the satellite. Because the perturbations are measured only by a single projected component at any The Love number

duced noise. Figure 8 illustrates the estimated gravitational spectrum for Europa, \ryith separate contributions from an icy shell and a silicate interio along with simulated error spectra for 30 days of tracking at each of three representative orbital altitudes (cf . Wu et a1.,2001), using the X-bandonly enor estimate. The recovered gravity erors are smaller at lower altitudes because the spacecraft is closer to the anomalies, and thus experiences larger perturbations. Improving accuracy in the measurements allows better determination of long wavelength features and initial discrimination of some shorter wavelength features. Variations in gravitational signal amplitude and correlation with topography are diagnostic ofinternal structures. For the model parameters depicted in Fig. 8, the lowest-altitude orbit errors are small enough to resolve part of the transition from

given time, a complete resolution of the gravity field requires multiple orbits; moreover, a single profile is difficult to interpret because the same data must be used to determine the spacecraft orbit itself. At X-band frequencies, velocity measurement accuracies of 0.1 mm/s are typically attained for 60-s averages. At Kaband the performance is somewhat better and, used together,

the two frequencies help reduce interplanetary plasma-in-

the long-wavelength, silicate-dominated part of the spectrum (in which conelation with topography would be poor) into the shorter-wavelength, ice-dominated regime, where topography and gravity should be spatially coherent (Luftrell and Sandwell,2006). This would permit detection of isostatic anomalies in response to topographic variations (such as volcanos) at the silicate-ocean interface. Radio frequency tracking data will provide initial spacecraft orbit

Greeley er

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Error l 300 km

E
c

ro-8

estimates. As the gravity field knowledge improves during the orbital mission, near-real-time orbit position knowledge will also improve. The tracking data will be used, together with spacecraft attitude and altitude information, to estimate simultaneously the static and tidal components of gravity and topography, and the forced rotational variations includ-

3 c
'
()

io-l

1o-8

ing libration. The Love number ht is derived by measuring the timevariable topography of Europa, specifically by measuring topography,at crossover points (Fig. l0), a technique that
for Earth (Luthcke et a1.,2002,2005) and Mars (Rowlands et aI., 1999; Neumann et a1.,2001). After -60 days in orbit about Europa the subspacecraft track will form a reasonably dense grid, comprised of N (-700) great circle segments over the surface of Europa. Each of the N arcs intersects each of the remaining N I arcs at two roughly antipodal locations, and at these crossover locahas been demonstrated

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Harmonic Degree

100

Fig.8.

Models of Europa's gravity spectrum, assuming an icy shell l0 km thick with isostatically compensated topography above an ocean, and a silicate interior with a mean surface 100 km below the ice surface. The variance spectra of the ice topography and silicate gravity are assumed similar to those seen on tenestrial planets (Bills and lmoine,1995). The signal has contributions from the silicate mantle and icy shell. The error spectra represent 30 days at fixed altitude, and reflect variations in sensitivity with altitude. The error spectra at different orbital altitudes do not have the same shape because the longer wavelength anomalies are attenuated less at higher altitudes. During a few days at these altitudes, the improvement is linear with time; for longer times, repeat sampling leads to improvement proportional to square root of time.

tions, the static components of gravity and topography

should agree. Differences in the measured values at crossover points are equal to a sum of actual change in radius caused by tides and libration, combined with the difference in orbital altitude, along with any enors in range to the center of the body or orbital position (Fig. 10). The erors are dominated by long-wavelength effects and can be represented by four sine and cosine terms in each orbital component (radial, along track, and cross track). The tidal effects in gravity and topography have known spatial and temporal patterns and can each be reprcsented globally by two parameters, an amplitude and phase. The librations are

15

14

0.25

13E
N

-:

-c

r P

tz

J..n

a '...
0.15

40

60

80

100

120

40

60

80

100

120

lce Shell Thickness (km)

lce Shell Thickness (km)

Sensitivity of Love numbers k2 (left) and h2 (right) to thickness and ligidity of the icy shell (assuming a subsurface ocean). For the same curves that depict hr, the righthand axis shows the amplitude (tidal (which is half of the total neasurable tide) as a function ofthickness ofthe icy shell. For a relatively thin icy shell above an ocean, the tidal amplitude is (tidal - l5 m (total measureable ti<le -30 m), while in the absence of an ocean (tidal - | m (Moore and Schubert,2000). Solid curves show the h, and corresponding plausible lange for ice rigidity. A rocky core is tidal for an icy shell rigidity of pice= 3.5 x 10sPa, while the dotted lines bound a ice+ocean thickness= 120km. Triangles show the assumed the 1449km l0llPa and with a radius and rigidityprock= assumed reportecl values from Mooe and Schubert (2000), which did not include a core. Figure courtesy of Amy Bau.

Fig.9.

672

Europa

Orbil

10. Illustration of the crossover technique. Actual change in radius of Europa due to tidal and librational motions is deterFig.
mined by measuring altitude from the spacecraft to the surface, and by accounting for the distance of the spacecraft from the center of mass by means of Doppler tracking (lVahr et a1.,2006).

over a solid angle of 2. Because the energies of the spur tering particles are very high (E > 100 keV) and the energies of the recently picked-up ions is quite low (a few keV), measurements over a broad energy range are desired to quantify the plasma interaction. Primary data on the deeper interior structure (mantle and core) can be derived from the gravitational and magnetic frelds, and the dynamical rotational state, including rate, obliquity, and libration. The amplitude of forced librations in longitude, which are gravitationally forced periodic variations in rotation rate, constrains the combination (B-A)/C for the principal moments of inertia A < B < C, as has been done for the Moon (Newhall and Williams, 1997). There may be two librational signals, one from the icy shell, and another from the deeper interior. The shell's signal would be revealed in both gravity and topography data, whereas the deeper signal would appear only in the gravity. Moreover, the tidally damped obliquity, or angular separation between spin and orbit poles, provides a constraint

effectively periodic rigid rotations with specified axes and periods, and again an amplitude and phase parameter suffices to describe each axis. Thus, there are l2N + 10 parameters to be estimated (12N orbital, 4 tidal, and 6 librational),

from 2N*(N l) crossover points. The accuracy with which the altimetric profiles can be interpolated to the crossover
locations depends on range accuracy, surface spot size over

on the polar moment of inertia C (Ward, 1975; Bills and Nimmo,2008), which in tum constrains radial density variations. The dynamical rotational state of Europa will be determined using Doppler tracking and altimetry data. Initially assuming both steady rotation and zero obliquity, the crossover analysis described above can be used to adjust the spacecraft orbit estimate and to determine the dynamical rotation and tidal flexing of Europa. Magnetometry data, which measure very low-frequency magnetic variations (periods of several weeks), over durations of several months or longer, will shed light on the magnetic properties of the
deep interior, including the core.

which altitude is sampled, and along-track sampling rate. In an ideal case, the surface spots would be small (to minimize topographic variation within spots), and near-contiguous or even overlapping. Those considerations need to be assessed against power and data-rate constraints of an instrument, and the desire to interrogate topography for as much of the surface as possible. The magnetic induction signal from an ocean within Europa is sensitive to the product of the electrical conductivity and thickness of the ocean (Fig. of chapter by Khurana et al.). Determining the induction response at both the synodic frequency with respect to Jupiter's rotation (T = l1.l h) and the orbital frequency of Europa (T= 85.2h) can allow for ocean thickness and conductivity to be determined uniquely. In turn, ocean conductivity constrains its salinity. It is possible that additional longer-period signals, caused by the background fluctuations of the magnetic field (e.g., associated with lo's torus reorganizations), could be used to sound the ocean. This requires the sensitivity of the magnetometry measurements to be 0.1 nT. Magnetometry requires near-continuous observations from Europa orbit for at least 8-10 eurosols, i.e., at least one month. In addition, measurements of plasma density, temperature, and flow are required to quantify the currcnts generated in Europa's vicinity by the moon-plasma interaction and remove their contribution from the measured magnetic field. This requirement can be met by measuring fluxes of charged particles over a broad energy range (tens of eV to several MeV)

3.2.

Icy Shell Objective: Characterize the Icy Shell and any Subsurface Waterr lncluding Their Heterogeneity, and the Nature of
Surface-Ice-Ocean Exchange Knowledge of the structure of Europa's icy shell is critical, especially as related to subsurface water and possible surface-ice-ocean exchange. The dielectric losses in very cold ice are low, yet highly sensitive to temperature anomalies, water, and impurities, and much can be learned from electromagnetic sounding of the icy shell. This is especially true when subsurface profiling is coupled to observations of the topography and morphology of landforms and placed in the context of surface composition and subsurface density distributions. In priority order, investigations are to (1) characterize the distribution of any shallow subsurface water; (2) search for an ice-ocean interface; (3) conelate surface featurcs and subsurface structure to investigate processes governing material exchange among the surface, icy shell, and ocean; and (4) characterize regional and global
heat flow variations.

High-resolution subsurface profiles from near-global

surveys combined with surface topography of similar vertical resolution would enable identification of regions of possible current or l'ecent upwelling of liquid water. Profiling the upper 3 km of the icy shell should be at frequen-

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11. Orbital subsurface profiling of Mars north polar cap demonstrate the value of complementary perspectives provided by the high-center frequency and high bandwidth of the SHARAD instrument (20MHz and l0 MHz, respectively), and the low-centei frequency and low bandwidth MARSIS (5 MHz and I MHz, respectively). In particular, note the clarity of shallow horizons revealed by SHARAD (top right) and the prominence of deep interfaces revealed shown by MARSIS (bottom right). The value of a multifrequency approach on Europa would be enhanced in the presence of strong volume scattering. Figure courtesy of the MARSIS and
Fig. SHARAD teams.

cies slightly higher than Jupiter's radio noise spectrum (i.e., about 50 MHz) to establish the geometry of various thermal,

shell, allowing local penetration to great dept\t (McKinnon and Gumis, 1999). Moreover, while the presence of meterscale voids within the icy shell would confound sounding efforts at higher frequencies (>15 MHz) (Etusxkiewica, 2004), the presence of such large voids is probably unreal-

compositional, and structural horizons to a depth resolution of about 10 m (requiring a bandwidrh of abour l0 MHz). The search for shallow water will produce data analogous to that of the Shallow Subsurface Radar (SHARAD) instrument on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (Fig. l l). Profrling should be done in conjunction with co-located stereo imaging and altimetry to register topography to a vertical resolution of better than l0 m, permitting surface clutter effects to be removed from the radar data. Such profiling should extend over at least 807o of Europa's surface with spacings no more than twice the hypothesized maximum thicknesses of the icy shell (-50 km).
Subsurface signatures from lower resolution but more

istic (Lee er al., 2005).

Deep ocean searches would produce data analogous to those of the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding (MARSIS) insrrument on the Mars Express spacecraft (Fig. 1 1). Such profiles could establish the

deeply penetrating radar might reveal a shallow ice-ocean interface, which could be validated by conelating ice thickness and surface topography. An unequivocally thin icy shell, even within a limited region, would have significant implications for understanding direct exchange between the ocean and the ovellying ice. Similarly, the detection of variations in the subsurface interfaces might suggest convective movement of ductile ice into the cold brittle shell, implying indirect exchange with any ocean. Additional profiles of the subsurface to clepths of 30 km with a vertical resolution of -100 m would establish the geometry of any deeper geophysical interfaces such as an ice-ocean interface. Although warm ice is very attenuating (Chyba et al., 1998), "windows" of cold downwelling material may exist within the icy

geometry of any deeper geophysical interfaces that may conespond to an ice-ocean boundary to a vertical resolution of -100 m (requiring a bandwidth of abour I MHz). Frequencies significantly less sensitive to volume scattering (i.e., about 5 MHz) should be used on rhe anrijovian side of Europa, which is substantially shadowed fiom Jupiter's radio emissions. This low-fiequency low-resolution profiling should be complemented by high-frequency lowresolution profiling over Europa's subjovian surface (where

Jupiter's radio noise is an issue for low-frequency sounding). Combined, the deep low-resolution profrling should cover at least 80olo of the surface with a minimum profile separation of about 50 km. Profiling should be accompanied with co-located stereo imaging and altimetry of better than 100-m vertical resolution, permitting surface clutter effects to be removed from the radar data. Targeted radar observations would lead to understanding the processes controlling the distribution of any shallow subsurface water and either the direct or indirect exchange

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of materials between the icy shell and the ocean. Fractures, topography, and compositional data potentially corelated with subsurface structures can provide information on tidal response and its role in subsurface fluid migration. Similarly, differences in the physical and compositional properties of the near-surface ice may arise due to age differences, tectonic deformation, mass wasting, or impact gardening. Knowledge of surface properties gained from spectroscopy and high-resolution topographic data will be essential for integrated interpretation of subsurface structure, as well as understanding liquid water or ductile ice migration within the icy shell.
Because of the complex geometries expected for subsurface structures, subsurface imaging should be obtained along profiles -30 km long over targeted areas, either at high resolution for shallow trgets or low resolution for deeper featurcs, in conjunction with co-located topographic data. Targeted subsurface sites should be considered a prerequisite for future in situ astrobiological exploration. Gravity data can also provide insight into the icy shell.

cult to image because warm ice is radar absorptive, even a nondetection of the ice-water interface provides a lower bound on the thickness (e.g', 15 km in Fig. 7 in geen). For relatively thick oceans, magnetometer data can be used to
determine both the ocean thickness and water conductivity (Khurana et a1.,2002) (blue shading in Fig. 9). By combining the datasets, a range of acceptable thicknesses of the icy shell and ocean can be derived, yielding more rigorous results than from any one technique. Results include assumptions that, while reasonable, may need additional verification. For example, the moment of inertia is derived by assuming hydrostatic equilibrium; this assumption can be checked independently by measuring the polar as well as the equatorial variation in long-wavelength grav-

ity. Similarly, the calculated values of h, and k,

assume

radially symmetric material properties, which may be an oversimplification.

3.3.

The thermal structure of the shell is influenced by local heat sources and transport from the interior. Regardless of shell properties or mechanisms of heat transport, the uppermost several kilometers are thermally conductive, cold, and stiff. The thickness of this conductive "lid" is governed by the total heat transported; thus, a measurement of the thickness of the lid will provide insight into heat production in the interior. For a thin icy shell, the ice-ocean interface forms a dielectric horizon at the base of the thermally conductive layer. However, when warm pure-ice diapirs approach the surface, they may be far from the pure-ice melting point ancl above the eutectic of many substances, and may lead to melt within the shell. Any dielectric horizon associated with the melt regions would also provide a good measurement of the thickness of the conductive layer' Global radar profiles of the subsurface thermal horizons to depths of 30 km at a vertical rcsolution of 100 m combined with thermal data for the surface enable mapping heat flow variations in the icy shell. Figure 7 shows how a combination of JEO measurements could be used to constrain the thickness of the icy shell. Based on the bulk density and moment of inertia of the satellite derived from spacecraft flybys, the thickness of the water + ice layer may be obtained (gray shading)' Uncertainties arise from lack of knowledge of the roc interior density. Measuring the time-variable gravity and topography gives the k, and h, Love numbers, rcspectively, which in turn constrain the thickness of the icy shell (red shacling). The main uncertainty is the effective rigidity of the icy shell, r,".. In the example shown' deformation of the icy shell is sufficiently large that a thickness in excess of 40 km is prohibited. Determining both k, and h, provides additional information; the ratio of htlk, is quite different depending on whether a subsul'face ocean exists or not, and provides an additional test of the ocean. A lower bouncl on the thickness of the icy shell can be clerivecl using radar. Although the base of the shell is diffi-

Chemistry Objective: Determine Global Surface Compositions and Chemistry, Especially as Related to HabitabilitY
Composition enables understanding Europa's potential habitability in the context of geology. Composition also provides clues to the interior and records the evolution of the surface by internal and external processes. Prioritized investigations are to (1) characterize surface organic and inorganic chemistry, including abundances and distributions of materials, with emphasis on indicators of habitability and potential biosignatures; (2) relate compositions to geologic processes, especially communication with the interior; (3) characterize the global radiation environment and the effects of radiation on surface and atmospheric composition, albedo, sputtering, sublimation, and redox chemistry; and (4) characterize the nature of exogenic materials' Candidate composition measurements and instruments for Europa are listed in Table 3' These investigations require synergistic, coordinated obseruations of targeted geologic features, along with synoptic near-global remote-sensing data, including multispectral and stereo imaging, radar sounding, and thermal maPPing. The first priority investigation is to identify surface organic and inorganic constituents and map their distribution and association with geologic features. The search for organic materials, including compounds with CH, CO, CC, and CN, is especially relevant to astrobiology, while identifying specific salts may constrain the composition, physical environment, and origin of the ocean (Kargel et al., 2000; McKinnon and Zolensky,2003; see chapter by Zolotov and Kargel). Additional compounds of interest include water ice (crystalline and amorphous phases), products of iradiation, such as HrOr, compounds formed by implantation of sulfur and other ions, and other as yet unknown
materials.

3.3.1. Surface spectroscopy. The best means to map surface composition at spatial scales relevart to geologic processes is through near-UV to IR imaging spectroscopy.

TABLE
VIS/{IR Imaging Specrrometer
Europa science
measuremeils

3.

composition measurements for Europa and candidate instruments.

UV Spectrometer

. . . . . .

Composition of organic and inorganic materials (Cla) Relationship of surface materials to geologic processes (B3c; C2a, C3c) Effects of radiation environment (C3a)
Nature of exogenic materials (C4c) Exposure age (Dlf) Recent activiry (D2e)

. . . .

INMS Composition of organic and inorganic surface materials (Clb) Effects of radiadon, sputtering (C3d)
Nature of exogenic materials (C4b)

IR or Millimeter Spectrometer

Plume composition and regional mapping to surface vents (Clc)

. . . .

Species of interest

. Exposure age (Imager; Dlf) . Nature of exogenic materials . H, O (gas emission) ' H,O, SOz (solids) . OH, C, CO (gas mission) . H2O (gas absorption)

Current activity through spatial and temporal variability of venting (D2b) Effecr of radiation, spunering (C3b, C3e) Relationship of surface materials to geologic processes (Imager; B3g; C2c; C3c, D2e)
(Imager; C4d)

Composition of organic and inorganic surface materials (Clb) Effects of radiaion, sputtering (C3d) Nature of exogenic materials (C4b)
Recent activity (D2e)

Identified

Hzo; Coz, So2, H2o2, sulfate hydrares,

CH compounds, CN compounds, O,

' '

Expected
Possible

02 (-106 cm-3); Hz; Na (-300 cm-r); K; Cl+ (atmosphere) SO2 (-1600 cm-3); COz (-700 cm-r;
H2O (-105 cm-3) (surface)

'Hzo

Hc, sH, so, Fez*, s8, HCHO,

H2S,

MgSOo, H2SO., HrO+, NaSOa, NarMgSOo, CH3OH, CH3COOH

. OH, C, CO (atmosphere) . HrO (atmosphere)

NaHCO, NaCO3, H2CO3, MgCO3, MgCl2, NaCl, OCS, HCN, OCN_, KOH, KzO, SO3, CH2CO

. S, Cl, N (gas emission) . CO2, SO2, SO, Or, hydrocarbons .

(gas absorption) Water ice, salts, suflates, acids, tholins (solids)

'

H2O2 e200 cm-3); sulfur sulfate, carbon, carbonate, CN, organics, minerals

Detection limits

CO2, SO2, SO, 03, hydrocarbons, salts, sulfates, acids, tholins Sputtered species, e.g., Mg-sulfate MgSO3, MgO2, MgS, MgO, Mg

Surface: 0.1 to

10Vo abundance, varying

with species and environmental conditions

Measurement requirements Specral/mass 0.4->5 rm (desired) _1.2_4.8 gm (floor)

Atmosphere:

Ix

19ts cm-2 HrO column

-200 cm-3

Atmosphere: Column abundance l0-3 to 307o relative to H2O vapor for

many possible species

range

Spectral/mass resolurion (Grating) 0.4_2.5 rm: 5 nm; 2.5_>5 Fm: l0 nm (desired) 1.2_4.9 rm: l0 nm (floor) Spatial/mass resolurion 25 m/pixel from 100 km (0.25 (desired) SNR Coverage Heritage 100 m/pixel

EUV (60-110 nm); FUV (l10-200 nm); NUV (200-350 nm) (desired) FUV (110-200 (floor) 0.5 nm EUY FUV; 3 nm NUV

to 300 amu

IR: 5-50 prh mm: I l0 x20 GHz;560 + 30 GHz

\)

mad)

mrad/pixel (imager)

. Mass resolution: Dm/m > 500 . Pressure range: 10-6-10-l? mbar . Sensitiviry: lO-s A/mbar
100-200 km (comparable to orbital altitude

IR: l-5

cm-l

mm: 100-250 kHz

100-500 m

s
= i
lJ

mad) (floor) >128 (0.4-2.6 pm), >32 (2.6-5 um) Global

(l

(Grating) NIMS, VIMS, Hyperion, CRISM, ARTEMIS, M3, Roseua VIRTIS, Mars Express OMEGA,
Dawn VIR

>5 Occultation profiles at <25 km spacing over >80Vo of surface Cassini UVIS; New Horizons ALICE

N/A
Regional Cassini INMS; Roseua ROSINA

o >50 Regional CloudSat, EOS-MLS, MIRO, and Herschel-HIFI

o
.o

6',l6

Ewopa

Galileo NIMS data of Europa and Cassini VIMS data of the saturnian system demonstrate the wealth of spectral
features throughout this spectral range (e.g., McCord et al., 1998a; Carlson et al., l999a,b; Clark et a1.,2005; Cruikshank et al., 2007). Of the materials studied in the laboratory, hydrated sulfates appear to closely reproduce the asymmetric and distorted spectral features observed at Europa. In these compounds, hydration shells around anions and/

photons for a blackbody surface temperature of -100 K. For surface temperatures of -130 K, thermal photons dominate down to -6 pm. Detection of longer wavelength reflected

photons and thermal photons could be achieved using a combination of spectral integration made possible by being in orbit around Europa, spectroscopic techniques (such as Fourier transform spectroscopy, which significantly enhances signal throughout), and reduced spatial resolution

or cations contain water molecules in various configurations, held in place by hydrogen bonds. Each configuration corresponds to a particular vibrational state, resulting in complex spectral behavior that is diagnostic of composition. These bands become particularly pronounced at temperatures <150 K as the reduced intermolecular coupling causes the individual absorptions that make up these spectral features to become more discrete (Crowley, l99l; Dalton and Clark, 1998; Carlson et al., 1999b,2005; McCord et al., 2001,2002; Orlando et a1.,2005; Dalton et a1.,2003,2005; Dalton, 2000, 2007). As a result, the spectra of low-temperature materials provide highly diagnostic, nanow featurcs ranging from l0 to 50 nm wide (Fig. 6 in chapter by Carlson et al.). Cryogenic spectra for the hydrated sulfates and brines display diagnostic absorption features near 1.0, 1.25, 1.5 and 2.0 pm that are endemic to water-bearing compounds (Fig.7 in chapter by Carlson et al.). These features generally align with those in water ice and the features observed for Europa. Other spectral features arising from the presence of water occuls including features of moderate stlength near 1.65, 1.8 and 2.2tm. An additional absorption common to the hydrates at 1.35 lm arises from the combination of low-frequency lattice modes with the asymmetric O-H stretching mode (Hunt et al., l97Ia,b; Crowley, l99l; Dalton and Clark, 1999). Although weak, this feature is usually prcsent in hydrates and has been used to place upper limits on abundances of hydrates in prior studies (Dalton cnd Clark, 1999; Dalton,2000; Dalton et a1.,2003). Cassini VIMS observations of Phoebe provide additional examples of the wealth of information available in IR spectra. Clark et al. (2005) reported 27 individual spectral features indicating HrO, CO2, and possibly CN-bearing ices. The 3-5-rm portion of the Phoebe spectrum include absorptions tentatively interpreted as nitdle and hydrocarbon compounds. This spectral range is useful for detecting numerous organic and inorganic species anticipated at Europa. Obtaining spectra at wavelengths >5 rm would enhance mapping and characterizing organic chemistry and potential biosignatures. In paicular, C and N compounds, which are central to the chemistry of known life, have numerous

"point spectroscopy."
The spectral features of hydrated minerals are not seen

in high-spectral-resolution 1.45-1.75-rm Keck telescopic

data collected from dark Europa terrain that are >100 km across (Spencer et aL.,2006). However, while these regions are dominated by dark materials, ice-rich materials likely occur, and significant spatial mixing and dilution of the spectra may occur. It is also possible that the various hydrated species are mixed in such proportions that their diagnostic features overlap, or the drk tenain is dominated by material without diagnostic features in this range, perhaps due to radiation damage or flash-freezing. In this case there may be smaller regions (perhaps the youngest ones) in which diagnostic features can be found. An excellent example of the importance of spatial resolution is observed for martian dark region spectra, in which telescopic spectra in both the thermal and near-IR (e.g., Bell, 1992; Moersch et al., 1997) did not reveal the mineralogic components that werc detected once high-spatial-resolution spectra were acquired (e.g., Christensen et a1.,2001; Bibring et a1.,2006). Going further, laboratory studies show that at Europa's

absorption bands associated with C-O, C-C, and C-N

bonds in the 5-7-rm region. The strong carbonyl and amide bands at -5.9 pm might be detected at concentrations of tens of ppm using sufficiently long integration times and lalge spatial averages. The 5-7-rm region has the added benefit of not being dominated by water features, as is the pm on the shoulder ofthe broad case for C-H bands ^t3.44 3-pm water band. Although the flux of rcflected solar photons decreases toward longer wavelengths, reflectecl photors out to nearly 8 pm are more abunclant than thermal

surface temperature, anticipated materials (in particular hydrates) exhibit fine structure, with the full width ar half maximum (FWHM) of spectral features ranging from 7 to 50 nm (Carlson et al., 1999b,2005; Dalton. 2000; Dalton et al., 2003; Orlando et al., 2005). Detection of materials in relatively low abundance, or in mixtures with dark materials, requires signal-to-noise ratios of >128 for shorter wavelengths ad732 for longer wavelengths (Fig. l2). An ideal spectral resolution of 2 nm per channel would be sufficient to identify all the features observed in laboratory hydrates (Dalton, 2000; Dalton et al., 2003,2005). This would ensure multiple channels across each known feature of interest. As noted above, however, at Jupiter's distance from the Sun the rcflected NIR radiance limits the achievable spectral resolution for high-spatial-resolution mapping. Signal-to-noise performance is further complicated by severe radiation noise at Europa's orbit, which is of cource a general concern for any mission to the Jupiter system. The multiple spectral features and fine (10-50 nm) structure of materials of interest in the 1- to >5-pm range in low-temperature spectra are suffTciently unique to allow these materials to be identified even in mixtures of only 5l0 wlVo (Dalton,2007; Hand,2007). The ability to rcsolve
these featurcs

fully through high-spectral, high-spatial

reso-

lution observations will permit determination of the relative abundances of the astrobiologically relevant molecules

on the surface. A spectral sampling of 5 nm through the visible and near-IR wavelengths of 0.4 to -2.5 rrn, and l0 nm fiom -2.5 to >5 rm would provide the required SNR while maximizing spectral separability (Figs. l2-14) (see

Greeley et

al.: Future Exploration of Eurcpa

677

0.07 0.8

o at o

8 p.
,.

0.06

o o
c
o
()

0.0s
0.04 o.o3 0.02
0.01

0.6

* ()

0.4

F o c)
.

o o

11.52
Wavelength (pm) Fig.

4.5

Wavelength (pm)

12. IR reflectance spectra for a range of signal-to-noise ratios (S/N) show that to detect absorption bands of materials in relatively low abundance, or in mixtures with dark materials, S/N > 128 is desirable in the shorter wavelength range 0.4-2.6 rm, and S/N > 32 is desirable in the longer wavelength range 2.6-5.0 -rm. Figure courtesy of Tom McCord.
also Fig. 4 in chapter by Johnson et al.; Dalton et a1.,2003;

Dalton,2007). Observations should sample across at least 80olo of the globe, with targeted imaging observations having better than I00-m/pixel spatial resolution in order to
resolve small geologic features, map compositional variations, and search for locations with distinctive compositions. By comparison, the Galileo NIMS observations of Europa had a spectral sampling of 26 nm, a spatial resolution of 2 to >40 km, and an SNR that varied from 5 to 50 in individual spectra. Linear spectral modeling using Galileo NIMS data with cryogenic measurements of hydrate spectra displayed sensitivities to abundances at the l}Vo level (Dalton,

2007). High spectral resolution, coupled with high spatial resolution that can permit sampling of distinct compositional units at 25-100-m scales, will allow identification and quantification of the contributions of hydrated salts, sulfuric acid, sulfur polymers, COr, organics, and other compounds anticipated on Europa's surface.

1.0 0.9

tt

I
L

c l
104

'
0.6

102

o.s
0.4 0.3 0.2
0.1
Tompqal!$ntvo
wta lce bnd6

100

20
I 5 10

30

Time of Flight (ps)

20 30 40 50607080

Mass (Da)

0.0

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Wavelength (pm)

5.5

14. Simulated mass spectrum of the anticipated Europa Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) results for neutral species at an orbit altitude of 100 km. The simulation is based on a surface composition given by 600lo sulfuric acid hydrate: HrSOa . 8H2O;
Fig.
20o/o

Fig. 13. Notional reflectance spectra for icy (lower) and nonice (upper) regions on Europa at 6-nm spectral resolution in the l-5-rm spectral range. Various materils and molecules have been identified or inferred from Calileo. These spectra are composites to illustrate the types and variety of features found or expected,
and the cletailed spectral stl ucturc observed in hydrates is not fully represented. The non-ice spectrum is scaled by 2.2 from the ice spectrum, and the 2.8-5-pm lange spectra arc scaled by l0 over the shorter wavelength range. Figure courtesy of Torn McCord.

mirabolite: NarSOo

. lOHrO; lVo hexahydrite: MgSOo .

, THrO; and 5Vo CO, combined with atmospheric the modeled composition and l%o heavy organic represented in this case by benzene (but similal for any heavy oryanic that may be present). This surface composition was used as input
6H2O; 5Vo epsomite: MgSOo

for a Monte Carlo model based on Cassidy el a/. (2008), with

results introduced into an instrument model of the Rosina Relectron Time-of-Flight (RTOF) mass spectrometer to produce the simulated spectrum.

678

Europa

3.3.2. Atmospheric spectroscopy. Remote UV through millimeter spectroscopy of the atmosphere would enhance the study of surface composition and the search for current activity at Europa, with ties to the subsurface ocean and habitability. Venting or transient gaseous activity could occur on Europa. Ultraviolet measurements would provide high sensitivity to very low gas abundances using stellar occultations, as demonstrated in the detection of the Enceladus gas plume (Spencer et al., 2006; Hansen et al., 2006). Ultraviolet imaging of Europa could measure atmospheric density, distribution, and temporal and spatial variations that could be related to surface composition on regional scales. Ultraviolet observations of the icy Galilean moons have detected surface species produced by chemical processing due to charged particle bombardment(Domingue and l^ane, 1997; Hendrix et at., 1999). Such species include H2O2, H2SO4 (Carlson et al., l999a,b), and SO, (Noll et al., 1995)'Mapping these species would provide insight into surface exposure ages. Ozone might be present on Ganymede (Hendrix et aI', 1999) and possibly Europa. Water ice is present on Europa, but the far-UV HrO band measured on the icy moons of Saturn (Hendrix and Hansen,2008) was not observed on Europa, possibly due to larger grains or non-ice species that mask UV absorption. Other candidate surface species inclucle salts, sulfates, acids, and tholins. Ultraviolet imaging should have spatial resolution of I mrad/pixel to resolve features such as linea and chaos. For comparison, the best resolution obtained by the Galileo UVS was -50 km/pixel. A UV imager should provide simultaneous EUV (extreme ultraviolet, 60-110 nm), FUV (far ultraviolet, 110-200 nm)'

TABLE

Water vapor components, including isotopes in expected to be measurable by INMS. atmosphere Europa's
Expected partial Pressure (mbar) at 200 km
>10-10 10-r0

4.

Species H2

Mass
2.01

o2

3t.99
15.9 18.0

o
Hzo l80r60

l0-r2

l70l60

3?.9 32.9

x l0-r 2 x l0-r3 7 x l0-la

5

TABLE

Calculated densities of sputtered Europa surface materials at 100 km'

Predicted densities at 100 km

5.

Species

Na

coz
So
Hzo L-Leucine (Mass l3l)

60-1600 cm- 170-580 cm-3 290-1800 cmr 150-3000 cm-3 3 x l06F cma (F = number-fraction at surface)

moons. As with the UV measurements, an IR or millimeter instrument operating remotely would be less sensitive to distance fiom target, and would be effective for assessing compositions for all targets within the jovian system. Eulopa's tenuous atmosphere has four observed components: O near the surface (HalI et aI., 1995,1998)' Na and K in the region from -3.5 to 50Rs(Brown and HiIl, 1996;

Brown, 2001; Leblanc et al., 2002,2005), and Hr in Europa's co-orbiting gas torus (Mauk et a1.,2003). The robust plasma bombardment of the surface might produce many other components (see chapter by Johnson et al.). Because few data are available, models are used to infer the vertical structurc and abundances of other species (Fig. a in chapter by Johnson et al.). An Ion Neutral Mars Spectrometer (INMS) would provide data for components in Europa's atmosphere that are

and NUV (near ultraviolet, 200-350 nm) with 0.5-3-nm spectral resolution to resolve spectral signatures. A stellar occultation instrument operating only in the FUV could collect data information on the derived atmospheric constituents.

Long-wavelength (IR through millimeter) observations could detect, definitively identify, and determine the abundance of atmospheric species. The rotational-vibrational absorption lines of gases are extremely diagnostic of specific composition, and can provide total column abundances at ppm levels. These observations would provide sensitive detection of plumes at low opacities and indicate the isotopic composition and abundance of major components (e.9., C, O, and N). Millineter to submillimeter observations have modeled sensitivities of 2Vo,3Vo, 127o, and 36Vo for NaCl, MgS, NaO, and CHrCN relative to water vapor for an assumed water column abundance of 5 x l0l3 molecules/cm3 in nadir observations. Imptovements by factors of several hunclred are possible for limb emission and solar occultation observations rcspectively. Long-wavelength observations could provide insight into the physical processes that have lecl to the atmospheres of Europa and the other icy satellites and the processes that underlie the formation of any plumes. These observations could also provide measurements of the temperature of the solid surfaces of the

derived from the surface by sputtering, outgassing, and sublimation. Most of the postulated atmospheric constituents could be detected at a 100-km orbit based on a recommended detection limit of 200 cm-3 (Tbles 4 and 5).
be The vapor. measurements of oxygen-isotopic ratios in water

An important contribution from an INMS would

variations i e tzQlt6Q and 180/160 ratios are the most useful for distinguishing different planetary materials. For 160 example, two gaseots reservoirs, one terrestrial and one variarich, are probably required to explain oxygen-isotopic tions in meteorites. The terrestrial fractionation line is due to mass fractionatiolt of the oxygen isotopes in terrestrial materials and the carbonaceous chondrite fractionation line represents rnixing between diffelent components' Obtaining similal isotope information (as well as D/H) for Europa would provide important constraints on the origin of water ice in the Galilean satellites.

Greeley et

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679

The sensitivity for ions is much higher than for neutrals, and based on experience at Enceladus and Titan (Waite et a1.,2006), ionization will occur by electron impact, photoionization, charge exchange, and electron attachment. Predicted ionization rates for several of these molecules are o.2: 2xl0 6ls;HrO: 3 x l0-/s;O: 2x 10-7ls;Na: 5 x 10-/s; CO; 5 x l0-6/s; SOr: 10-s/s. The trace materials (SO2, CO2) detected from surface spectroscopy should be readily detected using INMS (see chapter by Johnson et al.). Further characterization of the hydrate and associated dark materials could also be accomplished. For example, Mg should be present in the atmos-

by high-spatial-resolution spectra on both leading and trailing hemispheres, in which younger, less-altered materials may be exposed by magmatic, tectonic, or mass-wasting
processes.

Characterization

of the sputter-produced

atmosphere

with UV or long-wavelength observations of Europa's atmosphere would provide data for the species, abundances, and ion implantation rates. This could be accomplished with FUV stellar occqltations and UV imaging of atmospheric

MgSOo is present at the surface. Atmospheric emission measurements have confirmed a surface source for Na and K (Johnson et al., 2002; lBlanc et al., 2002), with some evidence that the Na and K originate in dark regions phere
(LeBlanc et a1.,2005; Cassidy et a1.,2008). However, these have not yet been detected in surface spectral measurements. Vented material or materials from flows emplaced on the surface are rapidly degraded by the incident radiation, but this process also produces sputtered products that could be detected. Trace organics would also be sputtered from the
surface. Based on a modeled atmosphere and assumed trace salts and organics, predicted atmospheric compositions at 100 km

if

altitude can be generated (Figs. l4-15). In order to understand Europa's surface composition, it is important to separate the effects of weathering by photons, neutral and charged particles, and micrometeoroids. In particular, radiolytic processes may alter the chemical signature over time, complicating assessment of the original surface composition. This requires detailed spectroscopy with UV-IR, using global and targeted observations. It is also critical to map ion and electron flux on the surface as a function of species and energy. The separation of the primary and alterated surface compositions will be aided

coa

,-.-..---

NO. NH

------- ""-'
-----'..."--,------

cH

co'

",..,..,so
H2CO'

HCO.
N

NaSO.

emissions; UV imaging through a range of at least 0.10 0.35 pm at equal to or better than 3-nm spectral resolution is needed to map surface species, including radiolytic compounds. Infrared observations from 5 to -50 ym with a spectral resolution of 1-5 cm-l or mm observations between 100 and 600 GHz with spectral resolution of -100-250 kHz should be used to investigate the atmospheric components. These observations would require SNR > 100, profiling obselations for at least 80Vo of the surface with spacing no more than 25 km and spatial resolutions of 100-500 m to resolve geologic features. An INMS would directly measure species sputtered from the surface, which may include organic fragments. It should operate in the mass range from I to >300 amu, with a mass resolution (m/^m) of >500, and pressure range of l0-0 to l0-17 mbar, and should make continuous measurements throughout the mission. For sputtering sources, it is important to measure ions from the plasma energies to about l0 MeV. The number of sputtered molecules is the product of the precipitating ion flux and the neutral yield per ion. For heavy ions, the yield peaks in the few-MeV energy range; thus, it is important to measure ion fluxes into the MeV. Combined with images and geologic maps, such observations allow determination of how surface materials evolve in the radiation environment. 3.3.3. Exogenic materials. Exogenically implanted materials can be characterized by measuring ions. Each ion energy and species has a specific penetration depth in ice; if they reach the surface, cold plasma ions are deposited in the most processed layer. Energetic charged particles can penetrate more deeply into surfaces and therefore will not be removed as readily by processes such as sublimation. A l-MeV proton has a range of 24 pm depth and a l-MeV electron has a range of 4.2 mm in water. In addition to sputtering by ions, which adds molecules to the atmosphere of a satellite, elec[on radiolysis also can create neutral species in the material (e.g., H2O2). Such molecules can dissociate in the ice and the lighter byproducts can escape from the surface and enter the atmosphere with a small amount

of

energy.

To constrain the exogenic materials properly, the flux

of

50

r00

150

200

250

the precipitating charged particles over the entire surface

should be determined for the energy range between the eV and few MeV with resolutions LEIE - 0.1, 15' angular resolution, and basic ion mass discrimination. This is accomplished with a plasma sensor and an energetic charyed particle sensor, both with the capacity to measure the upstrcam

Height (km) See Plate 39. Ionospheric densities vs. altitude for molecules sputtercd froln the surface (Jonson et al., 1998); all densities exceed the detection limit (10-: .1-3; Y-axis) of a modeul mass spectrometer, such as the Cassini INMS.

Fig.15.

flux at the satellite orbits and view (in the precipitating

680

Europa

pling, it is also desirable to have multiple pixels within a given surface unit. Adjacent measurements can then be compared and averaged to improve the signal and reduce
noise.

Galileo images of Europa suggest geologically recent formation for ridges, chaos, and other features. The images also show abundant evidence for much younger materials exposed by mass-wasting (see chapter by Moore et al.). These modification processes have likely affected many surfaces, potentially exposing fresh materials that are less altered than their surroundings. Spectroscopy at a resolution better than 100 m would isolate these surfaces and provide an opportunity to determine the composition of primary materials.
Geology Objective: Understand the Formation of Surface Features, Sites of Recent or Current Activity, and Candidate Sites for Future Exploration
Galileo image of ridged plains (-6 m/pixel). Some ridges have central troughs containing dark deposits -100 m wide, flanked by bright, icy walls. Spectral observations with at least 100-m spatial resolution are needed to determine the composition of both the bright and dark materials.

3,4,

Fig.

16.

Europa's landforms are enigmatic and a wide variety of hypotheses have been posed for their formation. The search for geologic activity is especially significant for understanding Europa's potential for habitability. Moreover, characterizing potential landing sites is important for future exploration. Prioritized investigations are to (l) characterize magmatic, tectonic, and impact features; (2) search for areas ofrecent or current geological activity; (3) investigate global and local heat flow; (4) determine relative surface ages; and (5) characterize the physical properties of the regolith and assess processes of erosion and deposition. Characterizing the distribution, morphology, and topography of surface features at regional and local scales is critical for understanding surface evolution. Galileo images demonstrate that regional-scale data (-100 m/pixel) are excellent for geologic studies, yet less than l09o of the surface was imaged at better than 250 m/pixel (Fig. 17). Thus,
near-global coverage (>80Vo ofthe surface) in at least three

direction) all points in Europa orbit. These measurements should be synthesized with globally distributed IR and UV measurements, along with global multispectral visible images. These data allow materials to be traced from their
magnetospheric sources, to the surface, and into the sputterproduced atmosphere. The atmosphere can then be measured directly (e.g., with the INMS) and by remote sensing. 3.3.4. Relationship to geologic processes. The spatial resolution required for compositional mapping is determined by the scale ofcritical landforms such as bands and ridges (Figs.3 and 16). Europa displays albedo and morphological heterogeneity at scales of 25-100 m, suggesting that compositional variations also exist at this scale. However, the composition of these features remains unknown because Galileo NIMS observations are averages of light reflected from large areas containing both icy and non-icy terrain units (e.g., McCord et al., 1999; Fanale et al., 7999). Spectra of adjacent regions within an instrument field of view combine to produce an average spectrum, with spectral features from all the materials. However, these composite spectra have potential overlap of spectral features and reduced contrast relative to the spectra of the individual surface

units. Spectral mixing and reduced contrast results in an attendant decrease in detectability, and a given target cannot be distinguished from its surroundings. Thus, it is desirable to resolve regions of uniform composition in order to map distinct surface units. While these in tum may be mixtures, spatially resolving dark terrains that have fewer components and are free of the strong and complex absorption features of water ice will greatly facilitate identification of the non-ice materials. For reasonable statistical sam-

colors at 100 m/pixel is needed. Galileo images also show the great value of targeted high-resolution (-10 m/pixel) monochromatic images for detailed characterization of selected landforms. Topographic mapping through stereo images greatly aid morphologic characterization and geologic interpretation. Stereo imaging could be achieved in a single pass with a stereo camera, or through horizontal overlap of adjacent orbits, resulting in -10-m vertical height accuracy from 100m/pixel images. Height accuracy further improves by =.[ by averaging of N overlapping stereo pairs. It is also important to determine topography at high resolution (l m or better) across representative features. Europa's surface is quite heterogeneous and rough at the decameter scale (Fig. 16), and the same may be true at smaller scales. Veryhigh-resolution monochromatic images ( I m/pixel;' <0. I 7o of the satellite) could reveal the detailed character of landforms, regolith properties, and erosion-deposition processes. Moreover, images at this scale are critical for characterizing future landing sites.

Greeley et

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Future Exploration of

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68 I

s 8,
E
(t)

10

Europa

Explorer

have developed at hydrothermal vents on the seafloor. A search for thermal anomalies could be conducted with thermal-IR detectors. Constraints on global heat flow would also come from subsurface ice temperatures derived from radar and estimates of ice thickness derived from gravity

or radar data.
Galileo + Voyager

C)

o) o)
(

-E
(t, (It

E b
o
l

0.1

1
Fig.

l0

100

1000

10000

Resolution (m/pixel)

17.

Cumulative imaging of Europa's surface as a function

of resolution, illustrating the 7-2 orders of magnitude improvement of JEO relative to Voyager and Galileo combined. Unlike the opportunistic coverage obtained from earlier flybys, JEO's
systematic imaging from orbit

will

be in discrete resolution steps.

Determining the relative ages of Europa's surface allows the geologic history to be derived. Relative ages are determined from stratigraphy, cross-cutting, embayment, and the density of impact craters. Galileo three-color images taken at low phase angle showed their advantage in stratigraphic studies because features generally brighten and become less red with time (Geiss/er et a1.,1998). However, withour global coverage, the relative ages of different regions cannot be correlated because they cannot be linked, and this poses an intractable problem for Europa based on Galileo images. Global color imagin g (>80Vo of the surface) at resolution better than -100 m/pixel, with near-uniform lighting conditions and phase angle <45o, would allow Europa's global stratigraphic sequence to be derived. Europa's regolith provides information on modification processes occuning on a submeter scale and for understanding means of communication between the radiation-processed, oxidanrich upper meter ofthe surface ancl the sub-

Geologically active sites are the most promising for astrobiology, and will be important to identify. Active processes typically involve high heat flow and may involve plumes detectable by imaging, laser altimetry, or UV occultations. These would also be the most likely locations for near-surface liquid water. Moreover, recently or currently active regions best illustrate the processes involved in the formation of some surface structures, showing pristine morphologies and possible associations with thermal and/or plume activity. Discoveries of any active regions would be followed by visible and other remote sensing of the inferred source (Fig. l8). In addition, it mighr be possible to observe surface changes within the rimescale of the JEO mission. Imaging at high resolution (10 m/pixel) in stereo, coupled with higher-resolution (-1 m/pixel) images, thermal data, and compositional measurements, would be used to study suspected candidates for rccent activity. If age-sensitive chemi cal or physical indicators are identified (e.g., HrO frost, ice crystallinity, sulfate hydrates, SO2, or H2O), then mapping their distribution may reveal past or plesent active regions. Constraining the global and local heat flow of Europa is of great importance. High heat fluxes (-l W/mz) would be necessary for detection ofuniform conductive heat flow (Spencer et al., 1999), but lower levels of endogenic heat flow can be detected if locally concentrated, as on Enceladus (Spencer et a1.,2006). A high hear flow could indicate that significant tidal heating and likely volcanic activity is occurring in the mantle. This would have important implications for astrobiology, and potentially for understanding the development of life on Earth, where life might

Fig.

18.

The plumes of Enceladus illustrate geologic activity,

rcvealed in Cassini high-phase images. Analogous plumes would

be -70 km high when scaled to Europa's gravity (Nitnmo et al., 2007), and might contribute to Europa's recently discovered torus (Mauk et al., 2003). A combination of thermal ancl UV observations would permit a thorough search and characterization of active regions on Europa.

682

Eutopa

surface. Modification occurs by mass wasting, sputtering,

impact gardening, and thermal redistribution of material' Regolith studies are also important in characterizing highpriority sites for future landed missions' Regolith plocesses
m/pixel resocan be investigated by targeted imaging at lution. Magnetometry data are important for understanding sputtering and its effects on regolith evolution; thus, it is valuable to measure ion-cyclotron waves, which can be related to plasma-pickup and erosion processes.

Ganymede and Callisto are both thought to possess oceans sandwiched between two layers of ice. The presence of such oceans might be conftrmed by measuring the timedependent (tidally driven) gravity field or surface topography; these data would also help determine the amount of tidal heating. Magnetometer data will place bounds on the depth, thickness, and salinity of the putative oceans. The deeper structure ofthese satellites, and in particular the extent to which Callisto is differentiated, may be determined

-l

3.5.

Jupiter System Objective: Understand Europa in the Context of the Jupiter System
Aside from its intrinsic value, understanding the Jupiter
system is critical for placing Europa in context as a member of the jovian system. Jupiter system science includes sat-

by Doppler-tracking during equatorial and polar flybys. Combining regional images taken at different times will establish the spin pole orientation and potentially detect librations (both of which depend on the internal structure). For Ganymecle, characterization of the spatial and tempoml vari-

ability of its internal magnetic field will constrain dynamo

models.

ellite surfaces and interiors; satellite atmospheres, plasma,

and magnetosphere; Jupiter atmosphere; and rings, dust, and small moons. The investigations arc prioritized within each of these categories, with the lower priorities having less relevance to the Europa habitability goal of JEO, yet all are

pertinent to the overarching theme of EJSM. 3.5.1. Satettite surfaces and interiors' The Galilean satellites probably formed in a similar environment, while the inner three affected each other as their orbits and interiors evolvecl. Io's silicate and sulfur-rich surface is dominated by processes related to tidal heating, while Europa,
Ganymede, and Callisto share similar icy surfaces altered to different extents by external and internal processes. Prioritized investigations arc to (1) investigate the nature and magnitude of tidal dissipation and heat loss on the Galilean satellites, particularly Io; (2) study lo's active volcanism for insight into its surface history and its influence on the rest of the Jupiter systemt (3) investigate the presence and lo-

Characterizing surface materials on Ganymede and Callisto will help disentangle the origin of similar materials on Europa. Infrared ancl UV spectroscopy would identify individual compounds and map their distribution (e.g., hydrated non-ice material and trace constituents such as CO2). Combined with high-resolution color images, correlations between particular species and geologic features can be tested. Repeat measurements will allow chamcterization of any surface changes. Visible and IR mapping may be used to determine compositional variability, spatial and temporal distribution, and geological associations of silicates and volatiles at Io,

3.5.2. Satetlite atmospheres. Atmospheres above the

jovian satellites are extremely tenuous. However, as described in section 2, they are important in the Jupiter system and play critical roles in understanding the satellites'
Prioritized investigations are to (1) characterize the composition, variability, and dynamics of Europa's atmosphere
and ionosphere; (2) understand the soulces and sinks of Io's

cation of watel within, and the extent of differentiation of, Ganymede and Callisto; (4) determine the composition, physical characteristics, distribution, and evolution of surface materials on Ganymede; (5) determine the composition, physical characteristics, distribution, and evolution of surface materials on Callisto; and (6) identify the dynamic processes that cause internal evolution and near-strface tectonics of Ganymede and Callisto. Tidal heating is most readily studied on Io, wherc the spatially and temporally variable surface temperature and heat flow can be measurcd using a thermal mapper. Combined with high-resolution images, topographic data, and

crustal volatiles and atmosphere; and (3) characterize the sources and sinks of the Ganymede and Callisto atmospheres.

visible/NlR observations of volcanic thermal emissions,

these measurements would characterize the different styles

The surfaces of the Galilean satellites continuously exchange material with the atmospheres, so it is important to make direct measurements of the atmospheres and ionospheres. Data of major and minor constituents of the neutral atmospheres will greatly aid geological, compositional, and exospheric studies. In addition to water ice, heavy molecules and molecular fragments can be sputtered and subsequently detected by UV and IR spectroscopy (including limb scans such as those used to detect the CO, atmosphere of Callisto) (Carlson, 1999), and in situby an INMS
(see section 3.2.2). lJltraviolet stellar occultations provide stringent constraints on the extent and structure of the sat-

of volcanic compositions and their controlling factors. For

the icy satellites, recent activity is also potentially detectable

with a thermal mapper. Otherwise, the strongly telnperatule-clepenclent raclar absorption

of ice allows subsurface

radar prohling to determine an approximate temperature

graclient ancl, thus, the heat flux. Predicted long-wavelength valiations in sttess and heating (due to tides or other processes) coulcl be investigated using either the thelrnal or the raclar approach, and cortelatecl with spatial variations in sur-

face featnles.

ellites' atmospheres. Measurcments of Europa's ionosphere is critical to understanding the higher-order magnetic rnoments for intetpletation of Europa's induced magnetic field. Radio occultations provicle a proven technique for sounding the ionospheres of all the Galilean satellites (Kliore et aL., 1991, 2001 a,b, 2002). Multiple techniqttes are requircd to unclerstand Io's unusual atmosphere, which is produced from a combination

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throughout the magnetosphere, especially in special regions including boundaries and near satellites. For example, Jupiter's magnetopause separates regions of high intensities of electrons from the solar wind. Furthermore, investigations of magnetic reconnection and sporadic plasma flux enhancements in the magnetotail require continuous field and plasma measurements at distances greater than 60 \ in the nightside sector of Jupiter's magnetosphere. Closer to the planet, the middle magnetosphere contains current systems and electron beams that link the equatorial and polar regions of the magnetosphere and are responsible for auroral emissions. Closer to the planet, the radiation belts must be studied because they are co-located with the orbits of the Galilean satellites and continuously weather their
surfaces.

In addition to the volcanic source at Io, neutrals

are

added to the magnetosphere from surface sputtering and possibly from plumes. The neutrals become ionized quickly at Jupiter and must be accelerated to the co-rotation speed

of the local plasma. By measuring the plasma flow freld

Fig. 19. Artist's rendition of Europa's tenuous atmosphere, supplied chiefly by charged particle bombardment of the surface. If
Europa is cunently geologically active, plumes may also contribute.

of sources. For example, surface volatiles, especially SOr, are a major source, as are the volcanic eruptions. The Io plasma torus is a key link in the transfer of material from Io to Europa (Fig. l9). Understanding the sources and sinks of the volatiles on the surface and in the atmosphere that contaminate Europa is a key undertaking of JEO. Eclipse imaging, plume monitoring, far- and mid-UV and IR spectroscopy of the surface and atmosphere with high spatial and temporal resolution, as well as stellar occultations, will provide critical constraints on the flux of materials escaping Io. Monitoring the neutral clouds and plasma torus, together with measurements of dust and neutral and charged particles, will help detennine how these materials are dispersed throughout the jovian system and beyond. 3.5.3. Plasma and magnetospheres. Jupiter's magnetosphere is significant throughout the entire system, and is potentially important for Europa, which resides near the outer edge of lo's plasma torus. Studies of the magnetosphere in general are important for understanding the Jupiter system, as well as obtaining data on the related charged
pafticles, auroral signatures, and the stress balance between magnetic and particle pressures. Prioritized investigations are to (l) measure the plasma and neutral ejecta from Europa; (2) characterize the composition of and transport in Io's plasma torus; (3) study the pickup and charge exchange processes in the Jupiter system plasma and neutral tori; (4) study the interactions between Jupiter's magnetosphere and Io, Ganymede, and Callisto; (5) unclerstand the structure, composition, and stress balance of Jnpiter's magnetosphere; and (6) determine how plasma and magnetic flux are transportecl in Jupiter's magnetospherc. Investigation of Jupiter's magnetosphere requires near-

over a wide range of radial distances and latitudes and the current systems (through magnetometer measurements), we will be able to understand the addition of new material to the magnetosphere. Plasma observations near satellites should be made at various altitudes and orientations with respect to the plasma

flow direction and under an assortment of background plasma conditions (determined by the satellite's location relative to Jupiter's current sheet). Satellites interact with
the magnetosphere over a large distance (e.g. the so-called 'Alfven wing"), and this interaction indicates the conductivity of the body and the electrodynamics of the ionosphere and atmosphere. In addition to magnetometer measurements near the satellites to constrain the fields and current systems, it is also important to detect modifications to the plasma flow f,reld by the satellite. Because of its critical role in the transfer of material fiom Io to Europa, the Io plasma torus is an important target for UV spectrometer measurements in the range of -70200 nm. For example, during Cassini's flyby, the UVIS obtained perhaps the most illuminating series of synoptic observations of the Io torus ever obtained (Delamere et al., 2004; Steffl et al., 2004,2006, 2008). Because the torus energy loss is primarily by EUV line radiation from multiple sulfur and oxygen ions, these measurements cannot be made from Earth. JEO could provide a much longer set of synoptic observations during which multiple Io volcanic eruptions are likely to occur, leading to plasma injections into the torus, followed by transport of material to Europa. For studies of Ganymede's internal field and magnetosphere, JEO's trajectory could complement that of Galileo. Ganymede's surface is weathered differently on open and closed magnetic f,reld lines and it is critical to measure the charged particle populations on those freld lines. Elucidating the links between Io's volcanic activity and the dynamics of the jovian magnetosphere requires UV and visible observations of the Io torus, jovian atroral oval, and the satellite auroral footprints at high time and spectral resolu-

continuous ternporal observations, with spatial sampling

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tion, combined with monitoring of Io activity in the visible and infrared. The jovian ionosphere can be probed at a range of latitudes through radio occultations at multiple
frequencies, accomplished using precisely time-referenced Ka- and X-band transmissions. 3.5.4. Jupiter atmosphere. Following the Juno mission many questions will probably remain regarding the dynamics, chemistry, and vertical structure of Jupiter's upper atmosphere. Juno has the potential to increase the understanding ofthejet stream depths, the local structure ofJupiter's magnetic field, and the deep abundances of water vapor and ammonia. However, there is insufficient spatial resolution, wavelength coverage, and temporal coverage to map the upper troposphere and stratosphere; such mapping by JEO would constrain local processes and their long-term variations governing the basic structures of the jets, clouds, belts, zones, and vortices. JEO would surpass previous investigations in terms of continuous high-resolution global coverage over many months, with the goal of producing the first comprehensive database with visible imaging and spectroscopic characterization for Jupiter's atmosphere. Prioritized investigations arc to (1) characterize the abundance of minor species (especially water and ammonia) in Jupiter's atmosphere to understand the evolution of the jovian system, including Europa; and (2) characterize jovian atmospheric dynamics and structure. JEO would undertake several studies within these investigations to address some of the puzzles unresolved after the Juno mission. Results will aid the understanding the relations among the upper troposphere, lower troposphere, and internal structure, thereby revealing Jupiter's bulk composition and the evolution of the system as a whole. 3.5.4.1. Jet stream meteorology. High-resolution longterm cloud tracking at VNIR wavelengths at 30 km resolution allows the zonal (east-west) and meridional (north-south) velocities to be obtained, and could allow measurement of the mean-meridional velocity at the cloud level for the first time. Observations at different wavelengths permit studies of the vertical wind shear in the tropospheric jets, which could then be related to the deep structures observed by Juno to determine the vertical coupling between the upper and lower atmospheres. Spectroscopic studies would constrain the thermal and chemical environments in the vicinity of these cloud tracers. 3.5.4.2. Tropospheric hazes and clouds. The characterization of the altitude and global distlibution of photochemical hazes and condensation clouds will provide fundamental clues to their origin and the meridional transport in the troposphere. The haze distdbution is vital to understanding the details of solar energy deposition in the atmosphere and its role in hemispherical asymmetries. Correlation be-

clue for the origin of their various colors. The detection of condensed ammonia, ammonium hydrosulfate, and water ice will provide significant clues to the size and strength of updraft regions in the atmosphere (e.g., Banes et al., 2002). 3.5.4.3. Evolution of discrete cloud features. Weatherlayer phenomena such as thermal hotspots, large anticyclonic vortices, turbulent regions, convective plumes, and thunderclouds can be monitored using VNIR imaging over

a long temporal baseline. Spatial resolutions of -30 km provide data to study cloud properties, energetics, and angular momentum of individual storm systems (cf. Porco et al., 2003) and their relation to the global atmospheric circulation. Measurements of thunderstorms on the dayside and lightning on the nightside will constrain the energetics of the atmosphere at depth. 3.5.4.4. Atmospheric waves and the thermosphere. Radio occultations would characterize the detailed vertical temperature structure in the stratosphere and upper troposphere, thus providing a window into stratospheric dynamics. This would allow characterizing the vertical propagation of various atmospheric waves, including local gravity, larger Rossby waves, the quasiperiod stratospheric oscillation, and the altitude dependence of slowly moving thermal waves that are uncorrelated with cloud structures. Radio and stellar occultations can also be used to study the thermosphere and determine the extent to which wave absorption can cause the high thermospheric temperatures.
3.5.4.5. Tropospheric dynamical tracers. To complement

the Juno investigation of the lower troposphere, HrO and NH, would be measured in the upper troposphere, in addition to disequilibrium species such as PHr, GeHo, and CO as diagnostics of the dynamics associated with jet stream meteorology and discrete cloud features. In particular, highinclination orbits would map these species and tropospheric aerosols at polar latitudes to determine the relative roles of dynamics and seasonally forced radiation in maintaining Jupiter's cold and hazy polar vortices (cf. Vincent et aL.,2000; Porco et a1.,2003). 3.5.4.6. Stratospheric temperature and composition. Spectroscopic studies of Jupiter's stratosphere will shed light on the photochemistry and atmospheric motion responsible for the distribution of hydrocarbons and hazes. Thermal monitoring could allow the first detection of tides raised by the Galilean satellites. Detection of material from exogenic sources (HCN, CO, CO2, HrO) will pennit studies of the changing environment sunounding the satellites and
rings.

tween temporal variations of clond properties (size, optical properties, vertical distribution, color, and albedo) with changes of environmental temperatures and composition will be used to determine the causes for major changes in
Jupiter's cloud properties. These may provide a fundamental

3.5.5. Rings, dust, and small moons. The "skeleton" that holds the jovian ring system together is its collection of source bodies, which include four inner moons. But the ling also contains abundant embedded meter- to kilometersized bodies. Learning the nature and properties of these bodies is critical to understanding the origin, evolution and long-term stability of the system. Prioritized investigations are to (1) characterize the properties of the small moons,

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ring source bodies, and dust; and (2) identify the processes that define the origin and dynamics of ring dust. At a certain point, the distinction between a "moon" and a "ring body" should become moot, because the ring contains a continuum of sizes. However, imaging at low phase angles is needed to characterize the radial distribution of the bodies and identify its largest members. A detection threshold for bodies I km in diameter was achieved by New Horizons. Future imaging should reduced this threshold to -100 m (assuming albedos comparable to Adrastea and Metis) to ensure more complete detection and be sensitive to intensities in the range of 10-e for high-quality ring detections. Searches for the source bodies must be conducted primarily at low phase angles, which means that talgeting be just off the planet with minimal interference from scattered light. Little is known of the composition of the jovian ring or its ring moons, beyond the fact that they are very dark and red. Visible near-infrared spectrophotometry would provide surface composition data. The dust component of the system should also be fully characterized. The size distribution of ring dust probably varies with location, and can be derived from light phase curves and spectra. Imaging of all the ring components must be conducted at a full range of phase angles, up to and including within a few degrees of exact forward-scatter. This is where diffraction by the dust particles dominates, yielding the most prccise size constraints. Such imaging can only be obtained when passing through Jupiter's shadow. Measurements should be sensitive to rings with optical depths as low as -10-9, the approximate value for a faint outward extension to Thebe's "gossamer" ring, The search forjovian dust and moons should not end at the ring boundary. Trojan moons are common in the saturnian system, but a deep, systematic search for small moons orbiting among the Galilean satellites has never been conducted. Any bodies that are found would surely have interesting dynamical histories and place new constraints on how

Because the system has shown clumps and other timevariable phenomena, repeated observations of the system are required. The most rapid phenomena are likely to change in periods of days to months. It is critical to obtain reliable constraints on their timescales to understand the active processes.

4.

SCIENCE IMPLEMENTATION

Since the first return of spacecraft data of the Jupiter system from the Pioneer and Voyager flybys, the scientific study of Europa has evolved from addressing first-order questions on its general characteristics, to a wide variety of investigations based mostly on Galileo data (e.g., see chapter by Alexander et al.). In the late 1990s, most studies of Europa were conducted by Galileo science instrument teams that focused on data validation. Through venues such as the Jupiter System Data Analysis Program and the Outer Planets Research Program, datasets were merged and synthesized by the wider scientific community. In the time since the first return of Galileo data, the scientif,rc understanding of Europa has greatly matured, leading to the formulation of sophisticated questions to be addressed through new data.

4.1.

Payload Considerations

Developing the proposed JEO planning payload involved

identifying the types of instrument that are designed to test

specific hypotheses and have the potential for serendipitous discovery and exploration. Solar system exploration is replete with examples of the latter consideration; for example, the initial payload for the Mars Observer4ars Global Surveyor mission included neither a camera nor a magnetometer, and both were subsequently added. Few would argue that the discoveries from these instruments, including the existence of young water-carved gullies and a remnant magnetic field, revolutionized the understanding of Mars and helped direct future mission. The JEO planning payload (Table 6) enables testing cunent hypotheses, while providing a broad instrument suite for exploration and response

the entire system formed, The detection threshold should be less than I km. The camera should also be used for precision astrometry of any bodies that are found. At higher phase angles, the system should be searched for faint dust belts, which might be indicators of unseen small bodies in
the system.

In addition to precise measurements of the particle properties, a better understanding of the dust grains' motion is needed. Grains do respond to solar radiation pressure and magnetic forces, which produce the "Lorentz resonances" that distribute much of the dust well out of the ling plane. However, the three-dimensional structure of the system's faint inner "halo" and its outer gossamer rings have never been mapped in detail. This requires imaging at a large variety of viewing and lighting geometries, with sensitivity to VF - l0-8 and resolution of finer than 100 km. Such observations may illuminate the dynamics behind some of system's more peculiar features, such as vertical ripples found in some Galileo images (Ockert-Bell et al., 1999).

TABLE

6.

Science planning payload instruments for JEO.

Wide-Angle Camera (WAC) Medium-Angle Camera (MAC) Nanow-Angle Camera (NAC) Vis-IR Spectrometer (VIRIS) UV Spectrometer (UVS) Thermal Instrument (TI) Laser Altimeter (LA) Ice-Penetrating Radar (IPR) Magnetometer (MAG)
Particle and Plasna Instrument (PPI) Ion-Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) Telecom System

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TABLE
Science Objective
Ocean

7.

Mission constraints imposed by science.

Additional Mission Constraints Gravty and altimetry: Knowledge of the spacecraft's orbital position to high accuracy and precision (-meters radially) via two-way DoPPler.

Architecture and Orbit Constraints

al', Bills et al., Schubert et al., Vance and Goodman, Khurana et al., and McKinnon et al.)
(See chapters by Alexander et al., Sotin et

Gravty and altitnetry: Orbiter required, low altitude (-100-

300 km), orbital inclination of -40o-85o (or retrograde equivalent) for broad coverage and crossovers. Ground tracks should not exactly repeat (while near-repeat is acceptable), so that different regions are measured. Requires a mission duration of at least several eurosols to sample the time-variability of Europa's tidal cycle. Magnetomeuy, particles and plasn, INMS: Near-continuous measurements near Europa, globally distributed, at altitudes <500 km,

Gravity: Longundisturbed data arcs are required (>12-h

periods without spacecraft thrusting; see section 4.3), and momentum wheels to maintain spacecraft stability. Magnetometry'. lyfagnetic cleanliness of 0.1 nT at the sensor location, and knowledge of spacecraft orientation to O.lo. Calibration requires slow spacecraft spins around two orthogonal axes each week to month.

for a duration of at least l-3 months.

(See chapters by Moore and Hussman,

Ninmo and Manga, Barr

and Showman, and Blankenship et al.) Radar sounding: Low orbit (<200 km) considering likely instrunent power constraints, Near-repeat groundtracks ate required to perrnit targeting of full-resolution observations of previous surveymode locations. Close spacing of profiles requires a mission dura-

Radar sounding and altimetry: Datasets need to be coaligned, and highly desirable to be time-referenced to

10-30 ms accuracy.
Radar sounding: Raw full-resolution targeted radar data requires >900-Mb solid-state recorder. Early flyby of Europa for radar signal processing assessment.

tion of months, and near-global coverage implies orbital inclination >80o.

Chemistry

al., Canup and Ward, Carlson el al., Zolotov and Karyel, McGrath et al., Johnson et al., Paanicas el al., and Hand et al.) Infrared specuoscopy: Solar incidence angles of l5o, with orbital inclination >80o for near-global coverage' Near-circular orbit is desirable. Close spacing of profile-mode data implies a mission duration on the order of months. A near-repeat orbit is desired, to permit targeted observations to overlap previous profiling-mode observations. /NM.9: As low an orbit as feasible is desired, for direct
(See chapters by Estrada et

Oplical ,z,note sensing: Boresight co-alignment of all nadir-pointed imaging and profiling instruments is

highly desirable.

detection of spuftered prticles. Geology

(See chapters by Dogget et al., Bierhaus et al., Schenk and Turtle,

Kattenhorn antl Hurrd, Prockter and Patterson, Collins and Ninnto, antl Moorc et al.) Opticttl rcmote sensing: Near-repeating orbits required to permit regional-scale coverage overlap, follow-up targeting, and stereo; close spacing of profile data implies a mission duration on the order of monthsi >80o orbital inclination to provide near-global coverage' Imaging: Solar incidence angles of 45o-60o are best for morphological imaging, while a solar phase angle <45" is best for visible color imaging. Near Sun-synchronous and near-circular orbit is highly desired to permit global coverage to be as uniform as practical. Beginning at a higher orbital altitude and reducing to a lower altitude will allow rapid initial areal coverage, followed by improved resolution coverge at low altitude. Thermal mapping: Day-night repeat coverage required; aftemoon orbit is desirable.

Optical remote seasirrS: Boresight co-alignment of all nadir-pointed imaging and profiling instruments is highly desirable, and also highly desirable to be timereferenced to 10-30 ms accuracy. Ratlar sounding and ahimety: Datasets need to be coaligne<|, and highly desirable to be time-referenced to 10-30 ms accuracy. Magnetonetry: Magnetic cleanliness of 0.1 nT at the sensor location, and knowledge of spacecraft orientation to 0.1o. Calibration requires slow spacecraft spins around two orthogonal axes each week to month.
IJ ltraviolet spectroscopyi Atmospheric emissions observations and stellar occultations requirc a view to the sat ellite's lirnb.

to new discoveries.

lt

should be noted, however, that the

actual instrument suite would ultimately result from the NASA Announcement of Opportunity selection process' and might or might not include the instruments listed in
Table 6.

sertion into orbit around Europa. The spaceclaft would then orbit Europa for at least 28 eurosols (l eurosol = 3.55 Earth days), or -3 months. The recommended orbit is near-circular, with an inclination of 95' (i.e., equivalent to 85o but rctrograde, thus offering slower orbital precession). The optical remote sensing instruments are nadir-pointed and mu-

4,2,

Instrument and Mission Requirements

tually boresighted. The initial planned orbital altitude is 200 km, which is reduced to 100 km after several eurosols
to best achieve requirements of gravity, altimetry, magnetometry, and radar data. The planned orbit is not quite Sunsynchronous but precesses slowly, such that the orbit does not exactly repeat the same groundtrack but allows instt'tl-

The JEO goal and objectives place certain requirements on the mission design, as summarized on Table 7. Optimizing arnong these requirements has shaped a mission scenario, which includes -2.5 years in Jupiter orbit before in-

I I

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TABLE
Science Objective

7.

(continued).
Additional Mission Constraints

Architecture and Orbit Constraints

(See chapter by Kivelson et al.)

Jupiter system
Satellite surfaces and interiors

Satellite
atmospheres

Optical remote sensing: Up to three flybys of Io with one at low altitude over an active volcanic region; at least five flybys of Canymede (altitudes of <1000 km with at least four with an alritude <200 km); at least five Callisto flybys including one polar; all with altitudes <1000 km); closest approach distributed globally in latitude and longitude. hnaging: Solar incidence angles of 45o-60o are best for mophological imaging, while a solar phase angle S45o is best for visible color imaging. Radio science: >10 radio occultation observations of the Galilean satellites. INMS: At least very close flyby of Io.
M a gne to me t ry, pa rt ic le.s and p las ma, /NMS.. Near-continuous measurements throughout the tour; dedicaled campaign to observe

Optical remote sensing: Boresight co-alignment of all nadir-pointed imaging and profiling instruments is highly desirable.

Radio subsystem; Inclusion of an ultrastable oscillator

(USO) is desirable. Magnetonrctry: Magnetic cleanliness of 0.1 nT at the sensor location, and knowledge of spacecraft orientation to 0.1o. Calibration requires slow spacecraft spins around trvo orthogonal axes each week to month. Particles and plasma, and INMS: Require observing in the am direction. Optical renote sensing: Boresight co-alignment of all imaging instruments is highly desirable. Radio subsystem: Inclusion of an ultrastable oscillator

Plasma and
magnetospheres

the Io torus; broad distribution of Ganymede-magnetic latitude sampled on both leading and trailing hemispheres; near-continuous rneAsurements near Europa during flybys, globally distributed, at altitudes <500 km.
Jupiter atmosphere

Rings

Optical remote sensing: Coordinated feature-track observations using the entire suite of renote sensing instruments; sufhcient time and resources for dedicated campaigns covering at least two full Jupiter rotations; solar, stellr, and radio occultations covering as wide a range of latitudes as possible. Optical remote sensing: >One shadow passage from long range; >3o inclination off of the ring plane.

(uso).
Optical rcnote sensing: Boresight co-alignment of all imaging instruments is highly desirable.

ment fields of view to overlap with previous tl'acks. Thus, the

orbit would be near-repeating after several eurosols, within about 1o of longitude at the equator. The solar incidence angle is nominally 45" (2:30-4:00 p.m. orbit) on average,
as the best compromise to the requirements of imaging and spectroscopic optical remote sensing measulments.

continuously on the day and nightsides of Europa: radio gravity (by the telecom subsystem), magnetomescience ter, laser altimeter, particle and plasma instrument, and thermal instrument. The INMS would be operated -507o of the
time.

4,3,

Data Acquisition Strategy

4.3. L Jovian tour data acquisition. Jupiter system science would be the principal focus of the 2.5-year jovian tour phase of the mission. Monitoring and measuring the plasma environment, magnetosphere, and Jupiter's atmosphere would be accomplished routinely each week. Flybys of the satellites would be highly varied for latitude and lighting, but are opportunistic as the trajectory is optimized for duration, fuel used (v), and radiation dose. The JEO solid-state rccorder is likely to provide -16 Gb ofscience data storage during the closest approach (1-2 h) for each satellite encounter (Fig. 20). This would enable constant data collection from the magnetometer, plasma instrument, INMS, and laser altimeter along with a radar profile, thermal instrument prole, and several imaging sequences. Real-time data downlink and Dopplel data would be collected as well.

The UVS would observe stellar occultations from orbit when appropriate stars disappear beneath Europa's limb. A two-orbit repeating scenario is planned for the other remote sensing instruments, which would permit po\r/er and data rate equalization. Even-numbered orbits emphasize optical remote sensing by the wide-angle camera, medium-angle camera, and infrared spectrometer, while odd orbits emphasize data collection by the ice-penetrating radar. The radar and infrared spectrometer typically operate in low-data-rate profiling modes, permitting a high degree of areal sampling. These instruments would also operate in higher-data-rate targeted modes, obtaining higher-resolution data of priority features. Taryeted observations are implemented by orbital tim-

ing when passing over a feature of interest, coordinated

4.3.2. Europa orbital mission data acquisition. In

Europa's orbit, data-takes are obtained in the global frarnework campaign, l'egiorlal processes campaign, and the targeted processes campaign. Several instruments collect data

2l) among the various optical remote sensing instruments, long with the profiling mdar mode, and the continuously operating TI and LA. About 800 such targets of -200 Mb each could be obtained during the nominal orbital mission, and each remote sensing instrument has additional noncoordinated targeted opportunities duling the Europa orbiter phase of the mission. In the global framework campaign, the orbiter would be at 200 km altitude for 8 eurosols (-28 d), with highest-prior(Fig.

688

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ncounter

Departure

l___t
5 h < 100,000

LtllJ

5 h < 100,000

l"'l
15 min.

10,000 km

<2000 km

10,000 km

Fig. 20. Example flyby observation tirning for a 4-krn/s, 100-km closest approach encounter early in the Tour science phase.

ity data acquired during the first 4 eurosols, including gravity, altimetry, and magnetonetry to perfotrn a first-order characterization of the ocean and icy shell. In addition, the
wide-angle camera would obtain global color data, and the radal would profile the ice for shallow watel with additional targeted mediurn-angle observations. In the next four eurosols, the wide-angle camera would acquire a global stereo map, the radar would perform a deep ocean search, and other remote sensing instruments would continue to acquire profiling and targeted data based on existing Galileo information. In the regional processes carnpaign, the orbiter would first lower to 100 km altitude for l2 eurosols (-43 d), thus improving gravity, altimeter, and magnetometer data. Glo-

bal napping and shallow water searches ale completed initially, followed by stereo mapping by the wide-angle camera and a deep ocean sealch by the ice-penetrating ladar, which (at lower altitude) are greatly improvecl compared to the first campaign. Optical remote sensing observations continue in profile mode to obtain a denser grid, now at

higher spatial resolution. Key discoveries from the first campaign will be targeted for additional observations. In the targeted processes campaign, coordinated observations (Fig. 21) are targeted with high-data-rate radar clata, focusing on specifrc features at local scales. Profiling observations achieve a grid spacing of <25 km for the optical remote sensing observations, and <50 km fbr each of the
shallow water search and deep ocean search modes of the
radar.

ll

! I I

MAC

80x20km

4.4.
.it

Paving the Way for a Future Landed Mission

I I I I

tRs

10x10km

l\
Fig.

pRan

Coordinated targeted obselvations, with scales basecl on of 100 km; "taryeted" obscrvations are set within WidcAngle Camera (WAC) color context (100 nr/pixel, three colors plus broadband rnonochlomatic) with Meclium-Angle Camerzr (MAC)
an altitucle

21.

monochlomatic imaging (10 rn/pixel), inflarerl spectronretel inraging (25 m/pixcl, 400 wavelengths), and a low-clata-rate radar profilc (lPR, dashcd). The laser altinreter (LA) operates continuously, as <lo the fields ancl palticles instlunrents.

The inherent values of future lander science include ir measurement of strface chernistry and interrogation of the subsurface with seismometers and magnetometers. Astrobiology science would be advanced through gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and optical microscopy of surface samples. Such investigations also provide "ground truth" for orbital observations of the surface. A lander might also enable investigations beneath the radiolytically processed and galdened layer, ancl possible concentrate irnportant chemical, molecular, ancl possibly biological components by filtering meltwater, depending on the lander design (Chyba and Phillips, 2001). 'lb prepare fbr a luture landed mission on Europa, several measurernents from JEO would be critical. For astrobiology, identihcation of young regions dch in interesting surface chemistry (e.g., C-H, C-C, ancl C-N bonds) are likely to yield irnportant infbrmation about potential habitable environrnents and would be key sites fol a future lander. The technical clesign of a Europa lancler lequir:es al un<lelstancling of the rneter-scale topoglaphy ancl surface hetelogeneity. Lrfolrnation on the depth and porosity of the regolith is requirecl to eusrrc that the lancler is not coverecl ol lost in surface materials. In combination, the JEO planning payload is well-suitecl for iclentifying ancl character'iz.ing potential Ianding sitcs.

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APPENDIX

A:

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CASSE COMPLEX EJSM ESA EUV FUV G.y. INMS IR ISAS JAXA JEO JCO JHU/APL JIMO JJSDT JMO JOI JPL MAC MARSIS MBL NAC NASA NIMS NIR NRC NUV OPAG SDT SNR SSB SSES SWRI TI UCLA UV UVS UVIS WAC

Committee on Assessing the Solar System Exploration Program Committee on Planetary and Lunar Exploration Europa-Jupiter System Mission European Space Agency Extreme Ultraviolet

Far Ultraviolet
Gigayears (billion years) Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer Infrared Japan Institute of Space and Astronautical Science Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Jupiter Europa Orbiter Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Joint Jupiter Science Definition Team Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter Jupiter Orbit Insertion Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Medium-Angle Camera
Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding Marine Biological Laboratory

Narrow-Angle Camera National Aeronautics and Space Adnrinistration Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer
Near Infrared National Research Council

Near Ultraviolet' Outer Planets Assessment Group Science Definition Team Signal to Noise Ratio
Space Studies Board

Solar System Exploration Survey Southwest Research Institute Thermal Instrument University of Califomia Los Angeles

Ultraviolet Ultraviolet Spectrometer (Cassini) Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer rilide-Angle Camera

the structure: Inferences from four Galileo encounters. Science, 28/, 2019-2022. to this Anclerson J. D., Schubert G., Jacobson R. 4., Lau E. L., Moore chapter through reviewing the current understanding of Europa, W. 8., and Sjogren W. L. (1998b) Distribution of rock, metals, developing the scientifrc rationale for the mission, and working and ices on Callisto. Science, 280, 1573-1576.
Acknovledgrnents. This work is drawn primarily fron
results of the Science Definition Team for the potential mission the Jupiter system. The full team contributed to elements in

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