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Republic of Yemen
Sana'a University
Faculty of Engineering
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering




Internal Combustion
Engines



A course for final year students
Mechanical engineering



By
DR. KHALED ALI Al-ATTAB


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Course sources:
Domkundwar V. M.. A Course in Internal Combustion Engines. Dhanpat Rai & Co. Ltd.
Third Edition, 2008.
Ganesan V.. Internal Combustion Engines. McGraw. Hill, Inc. Third Edition, 2007.
Heywood J. B..Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw. Hill, Inc.
Pulkrabek W. W.. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine. Prentice
Hall, Inc.
Rajput R. K.. A Text Book of Internal Combustion Engines. Laxmi Publications Ltd.,
Second Edition, 2007.


Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Heat engine
Heat engine operates between two thermal reservoir
receiving thermal power (Q
h
)from the hot reservoir
and discharging thermal power (Q
c
) to the cold
reservoir to generate output shaft power (W) as
stated in the second low of thermodynamic.
Maximum possible thermal efficiency was given by
Carnot which presents the ideal engine without
irreverseblities in the process.

Heat engines can be divided based on the thermal
power supply method into:
Direct or internal firing (combustion) engine (IC): working fluid undergoes combustion
process.
Indirect or external firing engine (EC): thermal power is supplied to the working fluid
externally or indirectly through a heat exchanger.

Internal Combustion Engine (IC) External Combustion Engine (EC)
Higher operation temperature and thermal
efficiency
Lower operation temperature and thermal
efficiency
Lower output torque at startup but faster
startup
Higher output torque at startup but slower
startup
Only clean (filtered) gas of liquid fuels can
be used
Cheaper/dirty fuels can be used, even solid
fuels such as coal and biomass.
Pressurized & complicated combustors with
air/fuel compression equipment.
Simple &low-cost atmospheric furnaces with
easier switch between fuels.
Higher power density (power/weigh ratio) Lower power density (power/weigh ratio)
Faster respond to the output power load. Slower respond to the output power load.
Lower engine cost Higher engine cost

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1.2. Internal combustion (IC) engine
It is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in fuel through combustion or oxidation with
air inside the engine into thermal energy that is converted into mechanical energy available
on a rotating output shaft.

Thermal engines with mechanical shaft power output were developed as early as 1600s but
mostly driven by steam. However, the actual start for patented and commercialized IC
engines was in 1800s. One of the earlier commercialized single cylinder IC engine was
developed by J.J.E. Lenoir (1822-1900) with power up to 4.5 kW but low efficiency of about
5%. IC engine efficiency was improved (up to 11%) by Nicolaus A. Otto (1832-1891) and
Eugen Langen (1833-1895) operating on the same basic four-stroke cycle as the modern
automobile engine. In the 1880s the internal combustion engine first appeared in automobiles,
and also in this decade, the two-stroke cycle engine became practical and was manufactured
in large numbers.In 1892, Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) had perfected his compression ignition
engine into basically the same diesel engine known today. This was after years of
development work which included the use of solid fuel in his early experimental engines.
Early compression ignition engines were noisy, large, slow, single-cylinder engines. They
were, however, generally more efficient than spark ignition engines. It wasn't until the 1920s
that multi-cylinder compression ignition engines were made small enough to be used with
automobiles and trucks.

1.3. IC engine Classification
IC engine can be classified based on the shape, size, speed, working principles, applications
and fuels as following:
1.3.1 I gnition method
(a) Spark Ignition (SI): An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a
spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes
which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding the plug. In early
Heat engine
IC Engine
Rotary
Gas
turbine
Wankel
engine
Reciprocating
SI
engine
CI
Engine
EC Engine
Reciprocating
Steam
Engine
Stirling
Engine
Rotary
Steam
turbine
Externally
fired gas
turbine

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engine development, before the invention of the electric spark plug, many forms of torch
holes were used to initiate combustion from an external flame.
(b) Compression Ignition (CI). The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-
fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high
compression.

1.3.2 Engine Cycle
(a) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for
each cycle (i.e. one power stroke each revolution).
(b) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two
engine revolutions for each cycle (i.e. one power stroke each two revolutions).
(c) Six-Stroke Cycle. A six-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two engine
revolutions and one additional revolution that utilized engine heat to generate power using
steam or water for each cycle (i.e. one (fuel) power stroke + (steam) power stroke each three
revolutions).

1.3.3 Valve Location
(a) L Head engine: Valves in
block, Older automobiles and some
small engines.
(b) I Head engine: Valves in head
(overhead valve), Standard on
modern automobiles.
(c) F Head engine: One valve in
head (usually intake) and one in
block, Some historic engines.
(d) T Head engines (flat head):
Some historic engines.

1.3.4 Engine Movement Mechanism
(a) Reciprocating Engine: It has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back
and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is
delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.
(b) Rotary Engine(wankel): It is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-
concentric rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating
block.

1.3.5 Number of Pistons
(a) single piston Engine: It the earlier design and still available for small engines.
(b) Multi-Piston Engine: It is the common design for modern engines.



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1.3.6 Cylinder Position
)a) Horizontal Cylinder: A
common design in small
engines.
)b) In-Line: Cylinders are
positioned in a straight line,
one behind the other along
the length of the crankshaft.
They can consist of 2 to 11
cylinders or more. In-line
four-cylinder engines are
very common for
automobile applications.
)c) V-Engine: Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single crankshaft.
The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15 to 120, with 60-90
being common. V-engines have even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and
V8s are common automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in some luxury
and high performance vehicles.
)d) Opposed Cylinder Engine: Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a single
crank-shaft (a V engine with a 180V). These are common on small aircraft and some
automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or more. These engines are
often called flat engines.
(e) W Engine: Same as a V-engine except with three banks of cylinders on the same
crankshaft. Not common, but some have been developed for racing automobiles, both
modern and historic. Usually 12 cylinders with about a
06 angle between each bank.
(f) Opposed Piston Engine: Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in
the center between the pistons. A single-combustion process causes two power strokes at the
same time, with each piston being pushed away from the center and delivering power to a
separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder. Engine output is either on two rotating
crankshafts or on one crankshaft incorporating complex mechanical linkage.
(g) Radial Engine: Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the central
crankshaft. The connecting rods of the pistons are connected to a master rod which, in turn, is
connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial engine always has an odd
number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or more. Operating on a four-stroke cycle, every
other cylinder fires and has a power stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth
operation. Many medium- and large-size propeller-driven aircraft use radial engines. For
large aircraft, two or more banks of cylinders are mounted together, one behind the other on a
single crankshaft, making one powerful, smooth engine. Very large ship engines exist with
up to 54 cylinders, six banks of 9 cylinders each.



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1.3.7 Fuel used in the Engine
(a) Gasoline (b) diesel, biodiesel and blends of different grade oil fuels (c) Liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) (d) Natural gas (NG), pressurized natural gas (PNG) or liquefied
natural gas (LNG) (e) Alcohol-Ethyl/ Methyl (F) dual fuel: recently, diesel engines were
operated with diesel and gas fuels in dual fuel mode, gases such as methane or renewable
gases from biomass such as biogas and producer gas.

1.3.8 Air I ntake Processing
(a) Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boost system.
(b) Supercharged: Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven by the engine
crankshaft or a separate electrical motor.
(c) Turbocharged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor unit driven by
the engine exhaust gases.

1.3.9 Engine Cooling
(a) Air cooled: Common in small engines, however, it suffers from the higher engine noise.
(b) Water cooled: Usually, engines with 1 litter size and above are water cooled.

1.4. Main IC engine Components
Main four-stroke engine components
are as following:
1.4.1 Engine Block: Body of engine
containing the cylinders, made of cast
iron or aluminum. In many older
engines, the valves and valve ports
were contained in the block.
The block of water-cooled engines
includes a water jacket cast around the
cylinders. On air-cooled engines, the
exterior surface of the block has
cooling fins.
1.4.2 Camshaft: Rotating shaft used
to push open valves at the proper time
in the engine cycle. In older designs,
camshafts were connected to the
crankshaft through gears then the
motion is transferred to the valves
through connecting rods as shown in
the figure.


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However, in modern designs, camshaft is placed in the cylinder head block and it takes
movement from crankshaft through timing chains / belts. In four-stroke cycle engines, the
camshaft rotates at half engine speed.
1.4.3 Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and the piston face
where combustion occurs. The size of the combustion chamber continuously changes from a
minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a maximum when the piston is at BDC. The
term "cylinder" is sometimes synonymous with "combustion chamber" (e.g., "the engine was
firing on all cylinders"). Some engines have open combustion chambers which consist of one
chamber for each cylinder. Other engines have divided chambers which consist of dual
chambers on each cylinder connected by an orifice passage.
1.4.4 Cylinders: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons reciprocate
back and forth. The walls of the cylinder have highly polished hard surfaces. Cylinders may
be machined directly in the engine block, or a hard metal (drawn steel) sleeve may be pressed
into the softer metal block.
1.4.5 Cylinder Head: The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing
part of the clearance volume of the combustion chamber. The head is usually cast iron or
aluminum, and bolts to the engine block. In some less common engines, the head is one piece
with the block. The head contains the spark plugs in SI engines and the fuel injectors in CI
engines and some SI engines. Most modern engines have the valves in the head, and many
have the camshaft(s) positioned there also (overhead valves and overhead cam).
1.4.6 Head gasket: Gasket which serves as a sealant between the engine block and head
where they bolt together. They are usually made in sandwich construction of metal and
composite materials. Some engines use liquid head gaskets.
1.4.7 Piston: The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder,
transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the rotating crankshaft. The top
of the piston is called the crown and the sides are called the skirt. The face on the crown
makes up one wall of the combustion chamber and may be a flat or highly contoured surface.
Some pistons contain an indented bowl in the crown, which makes up a large percent of the
clearance volume. Pistons are made of cast iron, steel, or aluminum. Iron and steel pistons
can have sharper corners because of their higher strength. They also have lower thermal
expansion, which allows for tighter tolerances and less crevice volume. Aluminum pistons
are lighter and have less mass inertia. Sometimes synthetic or composite materials are used
for the body of the piston, with only the crown made of metal. Some pistons have a ceramic
coating on the face.
1.4.8 Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston and
form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls. Near the top of the piston are usually two or
more compression rings made of highly polished hard chrome steel. The purpose of these is
to form a seal between the piston and cylinder walls and to restrict the high-pressure gases in
the combustion chamber from leaking past the piston into the crankcase (blowby). Below the
compression rings on the piston is at least one oil ring, which assists in lubricating the
cylinder walls and scrapes away excess oil to reduce oil consumption.
1.4.9 Wrist pin: Pin fastening the connecting rod to the piston (also called the piston pin).
1.4.10 Connecting rod: Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft, usually made
of steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in some small engines.

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1.4.11 Connecting rod bearing: Bearing where connecting rod fastens to crankshaft. It is a
two-piece journal bearing.
1.4.12 Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external
systems. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main bearings. It is rotated
by the reciprocating pistons through connecting rods connected to the crankshaft, offset from
the axis of rotation. This offset is sometimes called crank throw or crank radius. Most
crankshafts are made of forged steel, while some are made of cast iron.
1.4.13 Main bearing: The bearings connected to the engine block in which the crankshaft
rotates. The maximum number of main bearings would be equal to the number of pistons plus
one, or one between each set of pistons plus the two ends. On some less powerful engines, the
number of main bearings is less than this maximum.
1.4.14 Valves: Used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in the cycle.
Most engines use poppet valves, which are spring loaded closed and pushed open by
camshaft action. Valves are mostly made of forged steel. Surfaces against which valves close
are called valve seats and are made of hardened steel or ceramic. Rotary valves and sleeve
valves are sometimes used, but are much less common. Many two-stroke cycle engines have
ports (slots) in the side of the cylinder walls instead of mechanical valves. Water jacket
System of liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders, usually constructed as part of the
engine block and head. Engine coolant flows through the water jacket and keeps the cylinder
walls from overheating. The coolant is usually a water-ethylene glycol mixture.
1.4.15 Push rods: Mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on overhead valve
engines with the camshaft in the crankcase. Many push rods have oil passages through their
length as part of a pressurized lubrication system.
1.4.16 Timing chain or belt: It camshaft is connected to the crankshaft in modern engines.
1.4.17 Engine front cover (Timing cover): It is the cast cover of engine front that covers
mainly the timing chain or belt.
1.4.18 Cooling fins: Metal fins on the outside surfaces of cylinders and head of an air-cooled
engine. These extended surfaces cool the cylinders by conduction and convection.
1.4.19 Radiator: Liquid-to-air heat exchanger of honeycomb construction used to remove
heat from the engine coolant after the engine has been cooled. The radiator is usually
mounted in front of the engine in the flow of air as the automobile moves forward. An
engine-driven fan is often used to increase air flow through the radiator.
1.4.20 Fan: Most engines have an engine-driven fan to increase air flow through the radiator
and through the engine compartment, which increases waste heat removal from the engine.
Fans can be driven mechanically or electrically, and can run continuously or be used only
when needed.
1.4.21 Water pump: Pump used to circulate engine coolant through the engine and radiator.
It is usually mechanically run off of the engine.
1.4.22 Catalytic converter: Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytic material
that promotes reduction of emissions by chemical reaction.
1.4.23 Exhaust manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
1.4.24 Exhaust system: Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the cylinders, treating
them, and exhausting them to the surroundings. It consists of an exhaust manifold which

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carries the exhaust gases away from the engine, a thermal or catalytic converter to reduce
emissions, a muffler to reduce engine noise, and a tailpipe to carry the exhaust gases away
from the passenger compartment.
1.4.25 I ntake manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders, usually
made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material. In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air
in the intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor. Some intake
manifolds are heated to enhance fuel evaporation. The individual pipe to a single cylinder is
called a runner.
1.4.26 Throttle Butterfly valve: mounted at the upstream end of the intake system, used to
control the amount of air flow into an SI engine. Some small engines and stationary constant-
speed engines have no throttle.
1.4.27 Carburetor: Venturi flow device which meters the proper amount of fuel into the air
flow by means of a pressure differential. For many decades it was the basic fuel metering
system on all automobile (and other) engines. It is still used on low-cost small engines like
lawn mowers, but is uncommon on new automobiles.
1.4.28 Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air on SI
engines or into the cylinder on CI engines. On SI engines, fuel injectors are located at the
intake valve ports on multipoint port injector systems and upstream at the intake manifold
inlet on throttle body injector systems. In a few SI engines, injectors spray directly into the
combustion chamber.
1.4.29 Fuel pump: Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from the fuel
tank (reservoir) to the engine. Many modern automobiles have an electric fuel pump mounted
submerged in the fuel tank. Some small engines and early automobiles had no fuel pump,
relying on gravity feed.
1.4.30 Oil pump: A pressurized gear pump used to distribute oil from the oil sump to
required lubrication points. The oil pump can be electrically driven, but is most commonly
mechanically driven by the engine. Some small engines do not have an oil pump and are
lubricated by splash distribution.
1.4.31 Oil pan / sump: Reservoir for the oil system of the engine, commonly part of the
crankcase or bolted to the bottom of the engine block. Some engines (aircraft) have a separate
closed reservoir called a dry sump.
1.4.32 Flywheel: Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft of
the engine. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large angular
momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power strokes and smooths out engine
operation. On some aircraft engines the propeller serves as the flywheel, as does the rotating
blade on many lawn mowers.
1.4.33 Spark plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by creating a
high-voltage discharge across an electrode gap. Spark plugs are usually made of metal
surrounded with ceramic insulation. Some modern spark plugs have built-in pressure sensors
which supply one of the inputs into engine control.
1.4.34 Glow plug: Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the combustion chamber
of many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber enough so that combustion will occur when
first starting a cold engine. The glow plug is turned off after the engine is started.

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1.4.35 Starter: Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are started by use of an
electric motor (starter) geared to the engine flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric
battery. On some very large engines, such as those found in large tractors and construction
equipment, electric starters have inadequate power, and small IC engines are used as starters
for the large IC engines. First the small engine is started with the normal electric motor, and
then the small engine engages gearing on the flywheel of the large engine, turning it until the
large engine starts. Early aircraft engines were often started by hand spinning the propeller,
which also served as the engine flywheel. Many small engines on lawn mowers and similar
equipment are hand started by pulling a rope wrapped around a pulley connected to the
crankshaft. Compressed air is used to start some large engines. Cylinder release valves are
opened, which keeps the pressure from increasing in the compression strokes. Compressed air
is then introduced into the cylinders, which rotates the engine in a free-wheeling mode. When
rotating inertia is established, the release valves are closed and the engine is fired. Early
automobile engines were started with hand cranks that connected with the crankshaft of the
engine. This was a difficult and dangerous process, sometimes resulting in broken fingers and
arms when the engine would fire and snap back the hand crank. The first electric starters
appeared on the 1912Cadillac automobiles, invented by C. Kettering, who was motivated
when his friend was killed in the process of hand starting an automobile.
1.4.36 Speed control-cruise control: Automatic electric-mechanical control system that
keeps the automobile operating at a constant speed by controlling engine speed.

1.5. Four-stroke Engine
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction The
piston travels from top dead center (TDC) to
bottom dead center (BDC) with the intake
valve open and exhaust valve closed. This
creates an increasing volume in the combustion
chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum. The
resulting pressure differential through the
intake system from atmospheric pressure on the
outside to the vacuum on the inside causes air
to be pushed into the cylinder (only air in CI
engine). As the air passes through the intake
system, fuel is added to it in the desired amount
by means of fuel injectors or a carburetor (in
SI engine).
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke When
the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes
and the piston travels back to TDC with all
valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel
mixture (or air in CI engine), raising both the
pressure and temperature in the cylinder.

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The finite time required to close the intake valve means that actual compression doesn't start
until sometime after BDC. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired and
combustion is initiated (or fuel is injected then self ignited in CI engine).
3. Combustion: In SI engine, combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but
finite length of time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion). It
starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly before TDC and lasts into the power
stroke slightly after TDC. In CI engine, combustion is fully developed by TDC and
continues at about constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started
towards BDC. Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust
products and increases the temperature in the cylinder to a very high peak value. This, in
turn, raises the pressure in the cylinder to a very high peak value.
4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke
which produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from TDC to
BDC, cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.
5. Exhaust Blowdown: Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust
blow down occurs. Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the
surroundings at this point, and a pressure differential is created through the exhaust system
which is open to atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes much of the hot
exhaust gas to be pushed out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when the piston
is near BDC. This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the
cycle thermal efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained
during the power stroke but is required because of the finite time needed for exhaust
blowdown.
6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is
complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure.
With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the
exhaust stroke. This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the
exhaust system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance
volume when the piston reaches TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke before TDC, the
intake valve starts to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts
the next cycle. Near TDC the exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed
sometime before TDC. This period when both the intake valve and exhaust valve are open is
called valve overlap.

1.6. Two-stroke Engine
1. Combustion: With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the
temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.
2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke Very high pressure created by the
combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke. The expanding volume of the
combustion chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease as the piston travels
towards BDC.

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3. Exhaust Blowdown: At about 75 before BDC, the piston reaches the exhaust valve (slot
in the side of cylinder) and blowdown occurs. After blowdown the cylinder remains filled
with exhaust gas at lower pressure.
4. I ntake and Scavenging: When
blowdown is nearly complete, at about
50 before BDC, the intake slot on the
side of the cylinder is uncovered and
intake air-fuel enters under pressure.
In SI engine, Fuel is added to the air
with either a carburetor or fuel
injection. This incoming mixture
pushes much of the remaining exhaust
gases out the open exhaust valve and
fills the cylinder with a combustible
air-fuel mixture, a process called
scavenging. The piston passes BDC
and very quickly covers the intake port
and then the exhaust port. The higher
pressure at which the air enters the
cylinder is established in one of two
ways. Large twostroke cycle engines
generally have a supercharger, while
small engines will intake the air
through the crankcase. On these
engines the crankcase is designed to
serve as a compressor in addition to
serving its normal function.
5. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke With all valves (ports) closed, the piston travels
towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture (or air in CI engine) to a higher pressure
and temperature. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired (or fuel is
injected in CI engine); by the time the piston gets to IDC, combustion occurs and the next
engine cycle begins.

Table 1.1:Comparison of SI and CI Engines:
Description SI Engine CI Engine
Basic cycle Works on Otto cycle or
constant volume heat addition
Works on Diesel cycle or
constant pressure heat addition
Fuel Gasoline (high volatile) or
gas. High self ignition temp.
Diesel fuel, non-volatile. Self
ignition temp. is relatively low
Introduction
of fuel
Air-fuel mixture is induced
during the suction stroke.
Carburetor and ignition
system is required. Modern
Fuel is injected directly into the
combustion chamber at high
pressure at the end of
compression stroke. Fuel pump

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engines has fuel injector. and injector are required.
Load
control
Throttle controls the air-fuel
quantity.
Fuel quantity is controlled with
no control on air flow.
Ignition Ignition system with spark
plug inside combustion
chamber. Primary voltage is
provided by either a battery or
the alternator.
Self fuel ignition occurs due to
high temperature cause by
compression. electrical ignition
system is not required.
Compression
ratio
6-10. upper limit is fixed by
the antiknock quality of fuel.
16-20. limited by the increase in
engine weigh.
Engine
speed
High speed, due to light
weight and homogenous
combustion
Lower speed, due to heavy
weight and heterogeneous
combustion
Thermal
efficiency
Lower efficiency due to low
temperature and compression
ratio
Higher efficiency due to high
temperature and compression
ratio
Weight Lower weight due to low peak
pressure
Higher weight due to high peak
pressure

Table 1.2:Comparison of 4-stroke and 2-stroke Engines:
Four-stroke Engine Two-stroke engine
Thermodynamic cycle is completed in
four piston strokes or two revolutions
of the crankshaft. Thus, one power
stroke for two engine revolutions.
Thermodynamic cycle is completed in
two piston strokes or one revolutions of
the crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke
each engine revolution.
Because of the above, turning
momentum is not so uniform and
hence a heavier flywheel is needed.
Because of the above, turning
momentum is more uniform and hence
a lighter flywheel can be used.
Lower power/weight ratio Higher power/weight ratio
Because of the lower power stroke
numbers, less cooling and lubrication
is needed, and lower rate of wear.
More cooling and lubrication is
required with higher wear rate.
Have valves and its mechanism
(camshaft,...etc)
No moving valves.
Requires pressurized oil mechanism
(oil pump, oil sump,..etc)
No oil mechanism, oil is induced with
air-fuel mixture.
Higher cost (more complicated and
more components)
Lower cost
Higher volumetric efficiency Lower volumetric efficiency
Higher thermal efficiency, part load
efficiency is better.
Lower thermal efficiency, part load
efficiency is poor

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Used where efficiency is important
(more commonly used)
Used where low weight/cost,
compactness with high power is
important. very small and very large
engines.



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Chapter 2: IC Ideal Cycles

2.1. Basic Thermodynamic Processes
In this section, all processes are Ideal (reversible) and applicable in piston applications
(closed system).
2.1.1 I sentropic Expansion/Compression
Isentropic (adiabatic/reversible) expansion from
point (b) to (a) resulting in pressure reduction and
volume increment.
Isentropic (adiabatic/reversible) compression from
point (a) to (b) resulting in pressure increment and
volume reduction.




From the first low: U
2
U
1
= Q W
Q=0 (adiabatic)
W = U
2
U
1
= Cv (T
2
T
1
)

2.1.2 I sobaric Heat Addition/Removal
Heat is added from point (c) to (d) at constant
pressure resulting in a volume increment.
Heat is removed from point (d) to (c) at constant
pressure resulting in a volume reduction.




W = P dV = P (V
2
V
1
)
Q = (U
2
U
1
) + P(V
2
V
1
) = h
2
h
1
= Cp (T
2
T
1
)

2.1.2 I sochoric Heat Addition/Removal
Heat is added from point (f) to (e) at constant
volume resulting in a pressure increment.
Heat is removed from point (e) to (f) at constant
volume resulting in a pressure reduction.



k k
a
b
k
b
a
a
b
P
P
V
V
T
T
1 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
d
c
d
d c
c
d
c c
d d
T
T
V
V
P P
RT
RT
V P
V P
= = = ) ....(
f
e
f
e
f e
f
e
f f
e e
P
P
T
T
V V
RT
RT
V P
V P
= = = ) ....(

16


Piston does not move, thus, W = 0. Heat added/removed: Q = U
2
U
1
= Cv (T
2
T
1
)


2.2. Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle presents the highest efficiency a heat
engine can achieve. Thus, it resents the reference for
engine designer to compare his design at a certain
temperature range with Carnot efficiency at the same
temperature range. All process in this cycle are ideal
and reversible. Carnot cycle processes are:
(a) to (b) Isentropic compression.
(b) to (c) Isothermal (at constant temp.) heat addition.
(c) to (d) Isentropic expansion.
(d) to (a) Isothermal heat rejection (removal).

17

For Carnot cycle, the heat supply from hot reservoir is Q
H
and heat reject to cold reservoir is
Q
L
:
Thus:
However, from the second low of thermodynamic (for reversible process):

Thus, Carnot cycle efficiency depends on temperature difference between the hot and cold
reservoirs.

2.3. Otto Cycle
Nicolaus Otto proposed his ideal engine cycle based on instant fuel combustion while the
piston is still at the TBC (i.e. constant volume heat addition). this Engine is known as Spark
I gnition (SI) engine and it used gas or light oil fuels.
Cycle processes: 0-1 Suction stroke
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Heat addition at constant volume
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Heat Removal at constant volume




H
C
H
C H
H
Carnot
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
W
=

= = 1 q
C H C H
Q Q W Q W Q = + =
H
C
Carnot
T
T
S T Q == A = 1 . q
( ) ( ) 1
3
4
4
3
1
2
1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

V
V
T
T
AND
V
V
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
3
4
2
1
V
V
AND
V
V
Ratio n Compressio r
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
4
3
1
2
3
4
2
1
T
T
T
T
V
V
V
V
r

18





It can be noticed that Otto cycle efficiency does not depend on pressure ratio nor heat supply
as in gas turbine. However, it depends mainly on fluid properties (specific heat ratio ) and
compression ratio (r) as shown in the figure:
note that the rise in pressure resulted from
piston movement is known as pressure ratio
(P
2
/P
1
), however, pressure rises in Otto
cycle as a result of the combustion and it is
known as Explosion ration and in many
calculations it is commonly referred to as
(pressure ratio r
p
) as well:


For Isentropic compression and expansion:

Thus, net work output (power stroke - compression stroke) is:




New useful parameter is the Mean Effective
Pressure (MEP) since the pressure inside
cylinder is not constant during power stroke,
thus, the mean pressure that produces same
output power is a good indication for
comparison between different engines or for
new engine design as well.
Engine displacement (engine volume):




( ) 1
2
1
2
1
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4 2 3
2 3
1 4 2 3
1
1 1
) (
) (
1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

q
q
V
V
T
T
T T
T T
T T
T T T T
T T C m
T T C m T T C m
Q
Q Q
otto
V
V V
S
R S
otto
( ) 1
1
1

=

q
r
otto
3 4 2 1
V r V AND V r V = =
P
r
P
P
P
P
AND r
P
P
P
P
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
1
4
2
3
4
3
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
1
1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
4 4
1 1
3 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 4 3 3
r
r
r
r
r r V P
W
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P V P V P V P V P V P
W
P
P

( ) ( ) | | 1 1
1
1 1 1

r r
V P
W
P
) 1 (
2 2 1
= r V V V
2
3
ratio) explosion ( Ratio Pressure
P
P
r
P
= =
nt displaceme Engine
output power Net
= MEP

19






2.4. Diesel Cycle
The main down-side of Otto SI cycle is the compression of air-fuel mixture that can cause
self ignition before TDC and caused knocking that can damage engine. Diesel has developed
another cycle that compresses only air to a much higher pressure then the fuel (commonly
heavy oils) is injected at high pressure and self ignited due to high temperature inside
chamber. Oil fuel takes time to mix with air and evaporate completely, thus, diesel has
assumed that the combustion occurs gradually while the piston is moving (at constant
pressure) and the engine is known as Compression I gnition (CI) engine.
Cycle processes: 0-1 Suction stroke
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Heat addition at constant pressure
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Heat Removal at constant volume

Ideal cycle calculations are as following:





( ) ( ) | |
) 1 (
1 1
1
1
) (
2
1
1 1

=

r V
r r V P
P MEP
P
m

( ) ( )
( ) ) 1 ( 1
1 1
1
1


=

r
r r r P
P
P
m

2
1
V
V
r Ratio n Compressio = =
2
3
) ( ) (
V
V
r or Ratio off Cut
C
=
C
r
V
V
T
T
Isobaric
T
V
T
V
= = =
2
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
) (
1
1
2
1
1
2

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

r
V
V
T
T
( )
1
1
2 3
. . T r r T r T
C C

= =

1
1
1
3
1
4
2
2
3
3 4
1
4
3
3
4

- = |
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
- =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

C
C
r T
r
r
T
V
V
V
V
T T
V
V
T
T
100
1
1
%

=
r
r
off Cut
C

20





It can be noticed that the only difference between Otto and Diesel Efficiencies is the factor in
bracket: ,thus, Diesel cycle has lower efficiency compared to Otto cycle at same
compression ratio. However, in practice, Diesel CI engine have much higher efficiency
since they work at quite high pressure and temperature levels compared to Otto SI Engines.









2.5. Dual Cycle
In practice, combustion cannot take place instantly while piston is stopped at TDC since
chemical reaction required time to develop and complete. similarly, rapid and uncontrolled
combustion results in a rise in pressure during piston movement, thus, combustion cannot
occur at constant pressure. Dual cycle is assumes that combustion occurs in the beginning at
constant volume then at constant pressure. It does not present the actual cycle but it is more
practical compared to Otto and Diesel cycles.
Cycle processes: 0-1 Suction stroke
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Heat addition at constant volume
3-4 Heat addition at constant pressure
) (
) ( 1
1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4 2 3
2 3
1 4 2 3
T T
T T
T T C
T T C T T C
T T C m
T T C m T T C m
Q
Q Q
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
S
R S
Diesel

q
q
q
q
) (
) ( 1
1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4 2 3
2 3
1 4 2 3
T T
T T
T T C
T T C T T C
T T C m
T T C m T T C m
Q
Q Q
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
S
R S
Diesel

q
q
q
q
) (
) ( 1
1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4 2 3
2 3
1 4 2 3
T T
T T
T T C
T T C T T C
T T C m
T T C m T T C m
Q
Q Q
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
S
R S
Diesel

q
q
q
q
) (
) ( 1
1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4 2 3
2 3
1 4 2 3
T T
T T
T T C
T T C T T C
T T C m
T T C m T T C m
Q
Q Q
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
P
V P
Diesel
S
R S
Diesel

q
q
q
q
( )
( )
( )
( )

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1 1 1 1
1
1
.
1 1
1
.
1 1
1

q
r r r
r
r r r T
r T
C
C
C
C
Diesel ( )
( )
( )
(

=

1
1 1
1
1
C
C
Diesel
r
r
r
q

( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
=
(

+
=

+ =

+ =

1
1 . 1 1
1
. 1 1
1 1
1
1 1
) (
1 1
2 2
1 2 4 3 2
2
2 1 2 2 4 4 2 3
2 2
1 1 2 2 4 4 3 3
2 3 2

r r r r r
V P
r P P r P r P r P
V W
V r P V P V r P V r P
r V P
V P V P V P V P
V V P W
C C C C C
C
C
( ) ( )
(

1
1 . 1
.
1
1
1 1

C C
r r r
r V P W
( ) ( )
( )

(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

1
1
1 1 . .
) (
1
1
1 1
V
r r r
V P P MEP
C C
m
( ) ( )
( )( )
(

=
1 1
1 . 1 . .
1
r
r r r r
P P
C C
m

( )
( )
(

1
1
C
C
r
r

21

4-5 Isentropic expansion
5-1 Heat Removal at constant volume

Cycle calculations are as following:










It can be noticed that the only difference between Otto and Dual cycle Efficiencies is the
factor in bracket: ,thus, Dual cycle has lower efficiency compared to
Otto cycle at same compression ratio but higher than Diesel cycle efficiency.

2
1
V
V
r Ratio n Compressio = =
2
3
V
V
r Ratio off Cut
C
= =
2
3
Pr
P
P
r Ratio
P
= =
1
1 2
1
2
1
1
2
.

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

r T T
V
V
T
T 1
1
2
3
2 3
2
3
2
3
. .

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

r r T
P
P
T T
P
P
T
T
P
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
3 4 2 3
1 5
3 4 2 3
1 5 3 4 2 3
T T T T
T T
T T C m T T C m
T T C m T T C m T T C m
Q
Q Q
P V
V P V
S
R S
Dual
+

=
+
+
=

q
( )
( )
( ) ( )
(

+

=

1 . 1
1 . 1
1
1
C P P
C P
Dual
r r r
r r
r
q

1
1 3 4
3
4
3
4
. . . .

= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

r r r T r T T r
V
V
T
T
P C C C
. . . . . . . . . .
1
1
1
1
1
5
4 1
1
1
5
4
4 5 P C
C
P C P C
r r T
r
r
r r r T
V
V
r r r T
V
V
T T

= |
.
|

\
|
- =
|
|
.
|

\
|
- =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

( )
( ) ( )
(

+

1 . 1
1 .
C P P
C P
r r r
r r

22












2.6. Air Cycles Calculations
Gas engine cycles is called air cycle if the working fluid is taken as air. Thermal and shaft
powers can be calculated from air tables using air properties Cv, Cp, U, hand T.
Cv &Cp are functions in temperature, thus, if the value is taken for cold air, it will has high
error and it is known as Cold Air Solution. For Accurate Solution, average value has to be
taken:
Cv
avr
& Cp
avr
@

Air property table is shown below, it is indexed by temperature (T) and the related properties
are: relative pressure (Pr), relative volume (Vr), internal energy (U), enthalpy (h).
For compression and expansion processes, if the initial state T
1
is known, thus, Pr
1
and Vr
1

can be determined from air tables. Final state Pr
2
and Vr
2
using the following equations:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1 2
P
P
p p
r r
&
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1 2
V
V
r r
v v
Thus, all properties T
2
, U
1
and h
2
can be determined accordingly. Note that S is not the
absolute entropy, thus:

( )

+ +
=
(

+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

1
1 . . . . . . .
1 1
1 1 1
) (
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
5 5
1 1
4 4
1 1
3 3
1 1
4 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 5 5 4 4
3 4 3

r r r r r r r r r r
V P W
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P
V P V P V P V P V P V P
V V P W
C P P P P C
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
=

1
1 . 1 1 . .
1 1
1 1

C P P C P
r r r r r r r
V P W
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
(

=

1
1 . 1 . 1 . . .
.
1
) (
1 1
1 1
2 1

C P P C P
m
r r r r r r r
V P
V V
P MEP
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
(

+
=
1 1
1 . . 1 . 1 . . .
1
r
r r r r r r r r
P P
C P P C P
m

23


2.7. Comparison between Cycles
Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles can be compared based on pressure ratio, heat addition and
removal, maximum pressure and compression ratio.
2.7.1 Same compression Ratio and Heat Addition
Otto, Diesel and dual cycles have the same compression ratio (1-2) and also same heat input,
thus, all areas under the curves in TS diagram are same: 1-2-3-4 = 1-2-3'-4' = 1-2-2''-3''-4''.
From TS diagram, it can be noticed that Otto cycle has lowest heat rejection (area 1-4-6-5)
then dual cycle (1-4''-6''-5) at lastly diesel cycle (1-4'-6'-5),where higher heat rejection
indicates lower efficiency. It also can be noticed from PV diagram that Otto cycle has the
longest expansion in power stroke (3-4) then duel (3''-4'') then diesel (3'-4').

24

Thus:

2.7.2 Same compression Ratio and Heat Rejection
Heat rejection presented in area under 1-4 in TS diagram is same for all cycles. Net power
output (area 1-2-3-4) for Otto is higher than Diesel (1-2-3'-4). Dual cycle comes always
between Otto and Diesel. It is also noticed from PV diagram that the power stroke (3-4) for
Otto is longer than Diesel (3'-4). Again

2.7.3 Same Peak Pressure and Temperature
All cycles have same power stroke, but net power for Otto is higher since the compression
ratio (1-2) is smaller (less power lost on compression), thus, higher efficiency. Moreover,

25

heat rejection (1-4) is same as in the last case with different eat input. Thus,

2.7.4 Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Addition
Although heat rejection for Otto (1-4) is slightly higher than Diesel (1-4'), net power for Otto
is still higher (1-2-3-4) due to the high power lost in compression (1-2').
Thus:

26

Chapter 3: IC Actual Cycles

2.8. Differences between ideal and actual cycles
In actual cycle:
(a) The working fluid is an air/fuel mixture
(b) The chemical composition of the working fluid changes during the cycle.
(c) Specific heat capacity changes with temperature (not constant).
(d) Working fluid is mixed with the combustion left over gases inside cylinder from previous
cycle, thus, changing its composition and temperature.
(e) Combustion is progressive rather than instantaneous.
(f) Heat transfer to and from the working fluid.
(g) Work losses in power stroke due to the early opening of the exhaust valve (exhaust
blowdown).
(h) Heat loses due to in complete combustion.
(i) Gas leakage, mechanical and fluid friction losses.

Thus, when actual cycles are analyzed, three main aspects has to be considered for more
accuracy: (i) time losses (ii) exhaust blowdown (iii) heat losses (iv) Power loses.

3.1.1 Time losses factor
Combustion in ideal spark
ignition (SI) engine is assumed
to be instantaneous at TDC
(point 3). However, in actual
cycle, if the spark ignites at
point (b), combustion will take
about 30 to 40 of crank angle
after TDC to complete
combustion. Thus, pressure rise
becomes limited (b to c) due to
piston movement. This is known
as time loss that results in work
output losses.
Combustion residence time
depends on many factors as will
be discussed in the following
chapter. Thus, advances spark
ignition timing is used in
practice before TDC that can go
up to 35 before TDC.


27


The following graphs shows the effect of advanced spark on cycle MEP & efficiency
compared to ideal cycle. Starting the spark very early (adv. 35) results in a higher peak
pressure at TDC, but on the other hand, compression (2 to 3) is deviated significantly from
isentropic compression in ideal cycle and additional power is required to compress high
pressure combustion gases, thus, lowering power output and cycle efficiency. With late
ignition (adv. 0), peak pressure is quite low due to piston movement, but compression is
close to isentropic. Thus, spark timing is optimized between (adv. 15 to 30) to get best
efficiency.



28

For compression ignition (CI) engine, heavy fuels are used and flame takes longer time to
propagate and cycle curve is more like dual cycle curve, thus, injecting the fuel at TDC is
not practice and will drop engine power significantly. Fuel advance injected may vary
from 10 to 30 before TDC.

3.1.2 Exhaust blowdown
At the end of expansion process (power stroke), pressure inside cylinder is still high of about
7bar in SI engine. Thus, piston movement at the beginning of the exhaust stroke will require
additional power against cylinder pressure. In actual cycle, exhaust valve is opened 40 -70
before BDC causing what is known as exhaust blowdown. Opening the exhaust valve causes
a sudden drop in pressure down to about 3bar, then piston starts to move upwards pushing
exhaust gases. In ideal cycle, a constant volume heat lose is assumed while in practice heat
lose is done first in blowdown at near-constant process then the rest of thermal power is
rejected in exhaust stroke (variable volume process).

The figure below show a three case comparison: (i) early valve opening with smaller cycle
area (net power) (ii) late opening at BDC (iii) optimum opening time in between, which is
closest to the ideal cycle (vertical line at constant volume).





29

3.1.3 Heat losses
In ideal cycle, heat addition
(combustion) and expansion
(power stroke) does not
include any heat losses to the
ambient. However, heat
flows in actual engines
during combustion and
expansion through cylinder
head and walls and taken
away by cooling water or
fins. Some thermal power is
also removed by lubrication
oil. As a result of that, large
amount of thermal power is
inevitably lost, thus dropping
expansion process line
significantly below isentropic
(adiabatic) line (as shown in
the figure) which in turn
reduces the net output power
and cycle efficiency.

3.1.4 Power losses
In actual cycle, suction and exhaust strokes does not consume power, unlike the compression
stroke. However, Suction, compression and exhaust strokes all takes the power from power
stroke, thus, power required for suction and exhaust can be considered as power losses.
First: for suction stroke, power requirement increases at part throttle opening and at higher
engine speed.
Second: for exhaust stroke, early exhaust valve opening reduces power required for exhaust
stroke since it starts at almost atmospheric pressure, but a considerable power (pressure) is
lost from power stroke by early valve opening. Late valve opening maintains maximum
pressure in power stroke, but exhaust stroke starts at high pressure (about 7 bar), thus, more
power is required for piston movement. In optimum valve opening timing, exhaust stroke
starts at about 3-4bar. Additional power is required to push gas through the valves, exhaust
system and noise muffler.
Losses in these two strokes is known as pumping loses that affects directly the volumetric
efficiency of the engine.




30

2.9. Engine Parameters
From the mechanical point of view, main engine
geometry parameters are the cylinder diameter
(Bore) B; Crank offset (a); Stroke length (S);
Connecting rod length (r); Crank angle ();
Displacement volume (engine or swept volume)
(Vd); Clearance volume (Vc); Top dead center
(TDC); Bottom dead center (BDC); Engine speed
(N) revolution per minute RPM; Number of engine
cylinders (Nc); Piston speed at any point (Up) in
m/s; Piston average (mean) speed (

) in m/s.
S = s = (r + a) - (r - a) = 2a

= 2SN/60
For low speed diesel engines mean speed is about
8.5 m/s mostly for generators at 1500 rpm, medium
speed diesel engines such as in trains and trucks is
about 11 m/s and for high speed automobile
diesel engines is about 14 m/s. for medium
speed petrol/gas engines is about 16 m/s and for
high speed is 2025 m/s.

The distance between the crank axis and the piston pin at any angle is:

The ratio of instantaneous piston speed to mean piston speed:

+
Where: (R = r/a) and it increases with the increment of engine size. (R) can reach up to 10 for
large engines. The effect of (R) on piston speed is shown in the figure below:


31

Displacement volume for engine with (Nc) cylinder:
V
d
= V
BDC
V
TDC
=

Where: V
TDC
= Vc (clearance volume).
Thus, cylinder volume at any crank angle:

+
Where (s) is the distance between the crank axis and the piston pin at any angle.

+}
Where (r
c
) is the compression ratio.

Where: V
c
& V
d
are clearance and displacement volumes for one cylinder only.
In early SI automobile engines, compression ratios were low due to bad fuel qualities (low
octane numbers) that caused self ignition and knocking problems as shown in the graph
below:




3.2.1 Engine Work
Work is the output of the heat engine. In actual cycle, work is indicated by pressure rather
than force by using pressure transducers inside cylinder. work is calculated as following:


Specific work (kJ/kg):


32

Work can be presented in PV diagram. Net
work of ideal cycle is indicated by the
surface area of the cycle and it is known as
INDICATED WORK. The diagram below
is for actual SI engine at full opening (on
right) and part opening (on left) of throttle.
In actual cycle, the upper loop (area A&C)
presents the Gross I ndicated Work which is
the net Indicated work of power stroke
minus compression stroke. The lower loop
(area B&C) presents the pumping work
losses.
The net work (INDICATED WORK) is
calculated as following:

Note that the graphs above does not consider the part load condition, but only part throttle
condition. In part load, (Area A) will be slightly smaller due to lower peak pressure and
temperature.
Also, It is important to notice that in CI engines, there is no throttling and air intake is always
fully opened, thus, it is more efficient from the volumetric efficiency point of view since
(Area B) will remain constant.


33

3.2.2 Engine Power and Torque
Different type of output power can be
defined for IC engines:
INDICATED POWER (IP): It is calculated
engine thermal power.
BRAKE POWER (BP): It is the output shaft
power of the engine measured by brake
dynamometer test bed.

Engine torque () is measured by the brake
dynamometer at different engine speeds, and
the point of maximum torque is known as
maximum brake torque speed (MBT).

Where: (n = 1) for 2-stroke & (n = 2) for 4-stroke

The graph shows maximum brake power
and maximum toque at different engine
speed, it can be noticed that same engine
will have different optimum speed for
power and torque. Engine power is
measured in kW (kJ/s) or horse power
(hp) where: 1hp = 0.7457 kW.

Piston surface area:

34

3.2.3 Engine efficiency

Input thermal power to the engine:

Where: (LHV) is the low heating value of the fuel (kJ/kg);

is the fuel flow rate (kg/s);

c
is the combustion efficiency that indicates the combustion completion (usually high 95-98%).
Combustion efficiency is sometimes included in engine overall efficiency, thus, input power
can be considered as the fuel power:

Thermal efficiency of the engine can be calculated for indicated power or brake power.

Indicated efficiency:

It indicates thermal losses such as exhaust and coolant, etc.

Brake efficiency:

It is lower than the indicated efficiency since it adds friction losses to the other losses.

Mechanical efficiency:

It calculates the engine friction losses, however, friction can be determined using friction test
bed.

Volumetric efficiency:

It depends on many factors: inlet/outlet valve size and number; ambient temperature and
pressure; engine speed; throttle opening; fluid friction losses in air/exhaust manifolds.

) (

For steady state air flow:

for 2-stroke

for 4-stroke

a
is the intake air density and it is a function of pressure and temperature as shown in the
following table:

35



3.2.4 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
It is a very important parameter to compare heat engines of different sizes and even of
different types and designs. It give a good indication about how economic the engine is, since
it provides the fuel consumption for each power unit gained from the engine. usually, SFC is
measured in (kg
fuel
/kW.h)

It can be for the output Indicated power (iSFC) or most commonly for brake power (bSFC).
SFC can also be used to determine fuel losses from friction (fSFC) and pumping losses
(pSFC), ect.



36

SFC can be used in engine design to choose optimum engine speed for fixed-speed type such
as electrical generators. The figure above shows the optimum speed at minimum SFC value.


Some other uncommon engine parameters based on brake work (W
b
) are used to compare
between engines:
Specific power SP = W
b
/A
p

Output per displacement OPD = W
b
/V
d

Specific volume SV = V
d
/ W
b

Specific weight SW = Engine weight / W
b