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Concepts, Ideas and Terms

The name Bharatvarsha was given to the whole country after the name of ancient tribe called the Bharata and the people were called Bharatasantati. Our ancient poets, philosophers and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. They spoke of the land stretching from the Himalayas to the sea, as the proper domain of a single universal monarch.

Bharatvarsha
According to the scriptural description of the Brahmand, the entire Earth is called Bharatvarsha but particularly, the area of the continent that lies South of the Himalayas is called Bharatvarsha. It is also called Aryavarta. The inhabitants of Aryavarta are called Aryans as referred in the Rig Veda. Thus, the words Bharatiya or Aryans were both used for the inhabitants of Bharatvarsha or Aryavarta. Persians used to call Hindu for the Sindhu river and thus, Hindustan came into being. The English called the river Sindhu, Indus and thus the English name for Hindustan became India.

Sabha and Samiti

A very striking feature of the Rigvedic polity was the institution of two political units known as the Sabha and the Samiti. The Sabha was a body of elders and was attended by persons of noble truth Brahmanas and rich patrons. Judicial matters were decided by the Sabha and it was as important as the Samiti. The Samiti was an ordinary assembly of the tribe and its members were called Visha. The king attended the Samiti and the most important work of the Samiti was to elect the king. Justice was based on dharma and the king was the head of the judicial set up. The village head, Gramin led the villagers in time of war and attended the meetings of the Sabha and Samiti.

Varnasrama
The Sanskrit word Varna means colour and suggests the origin of the four classes, priest (Brahmana), warrior (Kshatriya), peasant (Vaishya) and serf (Sudra) in the development of the old tribal class structure, through contact with people of different complexion and alien culture. Asrama or Stage of life The life of an individual Aryan was divided into four stages : (Brahmacharya); on his investiture with the sacred thread and leading a celibate

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History

and austere life as a student at the home of his teacher, next having mastered the Vedas, he returned to his parental home and was married, becoming a householder (Grihastha), when, well advanced in middle age, he left his home and went away to the forest to become a hermit (Vanaprastha); by meditation and penance, he freed his soul from material things, until, atlast a very old man he left his hermitage and became a homeless wanderer (Sanyasin) with all his earthly ties broken. A special group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with dharma (righteous conduct) are collectively known as Dharmashastras. It recognises three sources of dharma: Shruti (the Vedas), Smriti (the Smriti texts) and Sadachara (good custom and practices of the learned people). A persons dharma depends on gender, age, marital status, varna and ashrama. The four varnas are Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. The first three are referred to in the Brahmanical tradition as Dvija (twice-born) as they alone have the right to the sacredthread ceremony, which is considered similar to a second birth. The ashrama system went through several stages of development and ultimately divided the life of a dvija male into four stages: brahmacharya, grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa.

Doctrine of Karma
The doctrine, according to which actions have consequences, that manifest themselves in present and future lives. Jaina doctrine holds that jivas (souls) transmigrate due to Karma, but its ideas of transmigration and karma are unique. Karma is understood as consisting of material particles floating about in space. Karmic matter is of different kinds some have directly negative effects on jiva and others do not.

Dandaniti/Arthashastra
Dandaniti, the administration of force, or rajaniti; the conduct of kings, was a severely practical science and the texts curiously dismiss the more philosophical aspect of the state and the conduct of governmental affairs. The earliest and most important text book specifically devoted to state-craft is the Kautilyas Arthashastra, which is attributed to Kautilya, the famous Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.

Saptanga
(Literally Meaning the Seven-Limbed State)
The Arthashastra is the first Indian text to define a state. Its concept of saptanga rajya considers the state as consisting of seven inter-related and inter-locking constitutional limbs or elements (angas) Swami (the lord), Amatya (the ministers), Janapada (the territory and the people), Durga (the fortified capital), Kosha (the treasury), Danda (justice of force) and Mitra (ally). The idea of saptanga rajya was accepted with minor modifications in many Dharmashastra texts, the Puranas and the Mahabharata.

Purusharthas
In Hinduism, purushartha (that, which is sought by man) refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. There are generally considered to be four such purusharthas namely : Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

Samskaras
The Dharmashastras describe the samskaras (literally preparation or arrangement) as rituals marking important stages of life such as Upanayana (initiation), Vivaha (marriage) and Antyeshti (funerary rites). According to the texts, there were some 40 ceremonies (samskara), which covered the whole life of a man from his conception to his death; some of these were of great importance and were performed by all respectable members of the Aryan Community.

Dharmavijaya
(Literally Meaning Lawful Conquest)
Dharmavijaya did not involve the absorbtion of the conquered kingdom, but merely its reduction to vassal status. Though, many later kings, such as Samudragupta ignored the sacred law and incorporated conquered kingdoms into their empires, custom was against this practice.

Stupa/Chaitya
The term chaitya means a sacred space, but is more specifically used to refer to Buddhist shrines. Many of the early Buddhist cave shrines contained a stupa as the object of veneration and large independent stupas soon came to form an integral part of Buddhist monastries. The stupa represented many things in Buddhist tradition. It stood for the axis mundi (the centre of the universe), it

Yajna
In Hinduism, yajna is a ritual of sacrifice derived from the practice in Vedic times. Yajna is a ritual of sacrificing and sublimating the hawana samagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of Vedic mantras.

Concepts, Ideas and Terms

symbolised the parinibbana (the passing away of the Buddha) of the Buddha, it was a repository of relics of the Buddha and it was also a place of veneration, worship and pilgrimage for monks and laity.

Memorial Stones
The erection of memorials to honour the dead is an ancient and worldwide phenomenon. The memorials took different forms in different countries and times. In Tamil Nadu, the act of erecting memorials gets its firm foot in the megalithic culture. The gradual transformation of the megalithic cult into the hero cult is reflected in Sangam literature. The rituals for erecting hero-stones (Nadu kal) are also mentioned in Tamil grammatical works. Specimens of hero-stones are available only from 6th CE onwards.

Nagara/Dravida/Vesara

Nagara Style The Northern style of temple architecture, marked among other things, by a curvilinear shikhar (tower). Dravida The Southern style of temple architecture,
marked among other things, by a pyramidal shikhara (tower).

Vesara A style of temple architecture, which has a

blend of elements associated with the Nagara and Dravida styles, also referred to as Karnata-Dravida.

Agraharas
Agraharas is the name given to the Brahmin quarter of a heterogenous village or to any village inhabited by Brahmins. These were gifted to the Brahmanas by the king. Agraharas were also known as Chaturvedi-mangalams in ancient times. Agraharas at times blossomed into centres of traditional education and are well described in the ancient literary works and in the inscriptions of the various kings. Sometimes two or more agraharas were joined together to create a larger one, which was then renamed.

Bodhisatva/Tirthankara
(Bodhisatva or Future Buddha)
The most direct implication of Mahayana ideas at the level of popular practice was the worship of Buddha and Bodhisatvas in the form of images in shrines. The older Buddhism had considered the veneration of stupas and relics meritorious, but not essential. Mahayana attached great importance to devotion to the Buddha and Bodhisatvas. Tirthankara is another word for jina and means ford-builder i.e., one, who builds fords, that help people across the ocean of suffering. The word Jaina means follower of jina, which means victor, a person, who has attained infinite knowledge and teaches others how to attain moksha, i.e., liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924), was a pan-Islamic political protest campaign launched by Muslims, in British India, to influence the British Government, to protect the Ottoman Empire during the aftermath of First World War. This was an attempt by the Indian Muslim Community to unite together in support of the Turkish empire, ruled by the Khalifa, which was attacked by European powers. The Muslims considered the Khalifa as the custodian of Islam. The Khilafat Movement was organised by the Ali Brothers, (Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali against the injustices) done to Turkey (which had fought against the British) after the First World War.

Kara/Vishti
Kara has been interpreted as regular revenue, periodical tax or oppressive tax like vishti or forced labour, prevalent during post-Gupta period.

Stridhana
There was a category of propertystridhana, over which the smritikaras conceded, that a women did have rights. Stridhana means womens property, but referred specifically to certain special kinds of moveable property given to a woman on various occasions during her lifetime. These included presents (jewellery, clothes, household articles etc) given by her parents, at the time of marriage and by her relatives on other occasions. The Dharmashastra agreed, that stridhana was passed on from mother to daughter.

Sulh-i-kul
Sulh-i-kul literally means peace with all in Persian. The term is associated with the Mughal emperor, Akbar the Great, who integrated many Hindus into high positions in his empire and removed many of the civil disabilities, to which Hindus had been subject in his empire. He also encouraged and participated in debates between authorities of various religious traditions and started his own synchretic religious cult.

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History
inheritance to the next generation. The Iqta system was established in AD 9th century, to relieve the state treasury, when insufficient tax revenue and little booty from campaigns made it difficult for the government to pay army salaries.

Sulh-i-kul was to become his method of judging, what was legally right or wrong within his empire and was created. Akbar understood that, he was trying to build political institutions for predominantly non-Muslim society. He wanted all his subjects to be judged equally before the law.

Maharashtra-Dharma
Maharashtra-dharma is a subject of absorbing interest. In the history of the Marathas, it has great significance since, it was this concept, soul-stirring and dynamic, that gave moral sanction to the establishment of swarajya as well as to its expansion into an empire, firing them with a religious zeal in their political mission. At the same time, it is highly controversial as it admits of no generally accepted interpretation.

Jizyah
Under Islamic law, jizyah is a per capita tax levied on a section of an Islamic states, non-Muslim citizen, who meet certain criteria. The tax was to be levied on able-bodied adult males of military age and affording power. From the point of view of the Muslim rulers, jizyah was a material proof of the non-Muslims acceptance of subjection to the state and its laws. In return, non-Muslim citizens were permitted to practice their faith, to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy, to be entitled to the Muslim statess protection from outside aggression and to be exempted from military services and the zaqat taxes. The word jizyah is derived from the root word, that refers to part hence taken from a part of the wealth of the non-Muslim citizen.

Turkan-i-Chahalgani
Qutb-ud-din was succeeded by Iltutmish of the Slave dynasty (AD 1206-AD 1290), who made Delhi his capital. His reign is marked by his efforts in securing his throne from rivals, attacks by Chengiz Khan and the Mongol hovdes. Iltutmish organised his government and made several reforms. First, he organised the ruling elite or nobility, which is known as Turkan-i-chahalgani or chalisa, means forty. It was an organisation of a group of forty loyal nobles.

Madad-i-Maash
While the jagirdars were given revenue assignments in lieu of cash salary, there was another category, which was given revenue grants for their subsistence. This was the class of religious men, who were patronised by the state. These grants were known as suyurghal or Madad-I-Maash (aid for subsistence). A department, Sadr-us-sudur looked after these grants. If the aid was given in cash, it was known as wazifa.

Baluta
The servants in the 18th century Maharashtrian village categorised as twelve baluta servants served and were maintained by the village as a territorial whole. The Bara Balutedar system is a servant-system in Maharashtras villages, which occurs in some castes, who used to work for farmers in their surroundings. The balutedars, whose services are still in demand are carpenters (sutar), the barber (nhavi), idol-dresser (gurav), the water-carrier (koli), the shoe maker (chambhar), the watchman (mahar), the blacksmith (lohar), the washerman (parit), the potter (kumbhar) and the rope-maker (mang).

Amaram
The Nayakar and Ayagar systems were the backbones of the Vijayanagara administration. Under the Nayakar system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram. These chiefs called nayaks, had revenue and administrative rights on their lands. They were required to maintain elephants, horses and soldiers in certain numbers, which were included in the royal army during wars.

Iqta
Iqta was an Islamic practice of tax-farming, that became common during the Buyid dynasty. Iqta was a form of administrative grant and its nature varied according to time and place. The Iqta holders generally did not technically own the lands, but only assumed the right to the revenue of the land. Many Iqta holders did not hold their Iqtas for life, and at least in most cases, they were not subject of

Alvars/Nayanars
The Alvars (those immersed in God) were Tamil poet-saints of ancient India, who lived between the AD 6th and 9th centuries, espoused emotional devotion or bhakti to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service. The Nayanars were Shaivite devotional poets of Tamil Nadu, active between the 5th and 10th century.

Concepts, Ideas and Terms

Nayanars were from varied backgrounds, ranging from kings and soldiers to untouchables. The foremost Nayanars are: Appar, Sundarar, Manikkavacakar and Sambandar. Together with the 12 Vaishnava Alvars, the Nayanars are sometimes accounted as South Indias 75 apostles of bhakti because of their importance in the rise of Hindu Bhakti Movement.

Polygars
The Polygars were the offshoots of the Nayankara system prevalent in the Vijayanagara administration. They were quite similar to the Rajputs of North India and were given land in exchange for military service, when called upon. However, their influence and power increased beyond the traditional lines and they often acted as sovereigns even to the extent of extracting taxes from people, but the companys government sought to control them.

Sreni
Sreni was an association of traders, merchants and artisans. Generally, a separate sreni existed for a particular group of persons engaged in the same vocation or activity. Srenis are like guilds.

Jagir
Jagir (ja-means place, gir-means keeping/holding) was a piece of land held by the mansabdar, which was granted by the Sultan, in recognition of his loyal service to the crown. A jagir was technically a feudal life estate, as the grant lawfully reverted back to the monarch on death. The jagirdar would typically reside at the capital, to serve as a minister appearing twice a day before the monarch. The jagir system, during the Mughal empire was considered as an institution, that was mainly used to reserve the surplus from the class of peasants and was also used to distribute the income resources among the dominating classes.

Chauth
(From the Sanskrit, Meaning One-Fourth)
Chauth or Chauthai was an annual tax or tribute imposed from early 18th century by the Maratha empire in India. It was normally levied at 25% on revenue or produce, hence, the name. The right to assess and collect this tax was asserted first by Shivaji in the later 17th century. The Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the Chauth. It is a tribute paid to the king. Chauth was levied on the promise, that the Marathas will not raid the areas, which pays them Chauth.

Dastur
The Mughal Government supplied dastur-ul-amal or codes of customary practice, explaining the mode of payment of land revenue at the tehsil. Taxes were levied and expenses paid in accordance with the dastur-ul-amal. After his accession, Jahangir passed 12 orders (dastur-ul-amal) and according to the 10th order hospitals were to be built in all big cities and physicians were to be appointed and expenditure for this purpose were to be made from the Khalisa establishment (royal treasury).

Hundi (Bills of Exchange)

The Indian name for Bills of Exchange is a Hundi. It is a written note given by one person to another, instructing a third person to pay, whoever presents it to them, a sum of money. Bills of exchange appear to have been in use in India from at least the 16th century. As a safety precaution, the bills were only written in an elaborate script, which only bankers knew, how to read and write.

Sarraf
A community engaged in monetary transactions and whose reference began to appear from the Sultanate period. However, by the Mughal period. It developed three distinct functions 1. As money changers, the role of the Sarraf was, that he was considered an expert in judging the metallic purity of coins as well as their weight. He also determined the current exchange rate of specific coins. 2. As bankers, they received deposits and gave loans on interest. 3. As traders, they dealt in gold, silver and jewellery. Besides, they also issued hundis or bills of exchange.

Mansab (Rank)
Mansabdar was the generic term for military-type grading of all imperial officials of the Mughal empire. The mansabdars governed the empire and commanded its armies in the emperors name. Though, they were usually aristocrats, they did not form a feudal aristocracy, for neither the officers nor the estates, that supported them were hereditary. Mansab means rank and hence, mansabdar means rank-holder, were of 3 classes : 70003000Amir-i-azam, the greater nobles, 2500-500-Amir, noble; 400-20, mansabdar office holder. During the reign of Akbar, the size of mansabs increased. Mansabdars were given control over an area of land, a jagir, whose revenue was to be used for maintaining troops.

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Deshmukh

History

Shahna-i-Mandi
Ala-ud-din Khaljis measures did not remain confined to rural economy, but extended to the urban market as well. He is credited for issuing a set of 7 regulations, which came to be known as market control measures. He fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattle etc. A controller of market, Shahna-i-mandi, Barid (intelligence officers) and Minhiyan (secret spies) were appointed. The grain merchants were placed under the Shahna-i-mandi and sureties were taken from him. All grain carriers (the caravan) of the kingdom were brought into a single corporation (yak wujud), under the charge of Shahna-i-mandi.

Deshmukh (a patriot) was a historical title given to a person, who was granted a territory of land in certain regions. In Marathi, desh means a country and mookh means mouth, hence deshmukh means a spokesman of a district. It was the title given to a person, who was granted a territory of land in certain regions of India, specifically Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The granted territory was usually referred to as the deshmukhi and the deshmukh was in effect the ruler of the territory, as he was entitled to the collected taxes. It was also his duty to maintain the basic services of the territory, such as police and judicial duties. It was typically a hereditary system.

Nadu
Nadu was the locality consisting of several settlements in early medieval South India. It was a more important unit than the village. The term nadu also referred to the assembly of the locality. Nadus were usually named after one of the villages and varied a great deal in size indicating, that they were not artificial administrative divisions created by the state. Clusters of villages similar to the nadu existed in the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. Members of nadu assembly were known as the Nattar.

Jangama
Jangama are the Shaivite order of wandering religious mendicants. They are the priests or gurus of the Shaivite, sect of the Lingayats. The word Jangam is derived from the emblem (linga) of Lord Shiva. They migrated from Karnataka in order to propagate the Shaivite cult as to act as priests for those, who do not avail the services of Brahmanas for performing religious rites.

Dyarchy
It is a system of Double-Government introduced by the Government of India Act (1919), for the provinces of British India. It marked the first introduction of the democratic principle into the executive branch of the British administration of India. Though much criticised, it signified a break through in British Indian Government and was the forerunner of Indias full provincial autonomy (1935) and independence. Dyarchy was introduced as a constitutional reform by Edwin Samuel Montagu (Secretary of State for India, 1917-22) and Lord Chelmsford (Viceroy of India, 1916-21).

Pargana
A Pargana is former administrative unit of the Indian sub continent, used primarily but not exclusively by the Muslim kingdoms. Parganas were introduced by the Delhi Sultanate, and the word is of Persian origin. As a revenue unit, a pargana consists of several mouzas, which are smallest revenue units, consisting of one or more villages.

Bengal Vaishnavism
Bengal Vaishnavism or Gaudiya Vaishnavism after Bengals older name Gaur is unique in India in several ways. It claims, that Krishna is the supreme deity rather than an incarnation of Vishnu and that he is in external play (lila) with his beloved consort Radha. The geographical focus of Bengali Vaishnavism is Nadiya district, especially the town of Navadvipa, which has some of the largest and best known communities. The Vaishnavite movement arose in the AD 11th and 12th centuries in Bengal. The 2 offshoots of Gaudiya (also Chaitanya) Vaishnavism are : Sahajiya or Tantiro Vaishnavism and International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) or Hare Krishna.

Federalism
Federalism is a political concept, in which a group of members are bound together by covenant with a governing representative head. The term federalism is also used to describe a system of the government, in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions, in which the power to govern is shared between National and Provincial/State Governments creating, what is called a Federation. The Government of India is organised along federalist lines.

Concepts, Ideas and Terms

Utilitarianism
It is a theory in normative ethics holding, that the proper course of action is the one, that maximises overall happiness. It is now generally taken to be a form of consequentialism, although, when Anscombe first introduced that term, it was to distinguish between old-fashioned utilitarianism and consequentialism.

Satyagraha
Soul Force or Truth-Force, Satyagraha is a particular philosophy and practice within the broader overall category known as non-violent resistance or civil resistance. The term Satyagraha was coined and developed by Mahatma Gandhi. He deployed Satyagraha in the Indian Independence Movement and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa.

Filtration Theory
According to this theory, education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop, the education should go to the common public so that, at due time it may take the form of a vast stream. The company government needed various types of workers to run the government. They wanted to have cheap servants, who work in different capacities. This aim could be fulfilled only by the educated higher class of people of India, so they started the policy of education of higher class. The British rules felt, that the educated Indians could then set an example to the lower classes.

Swadeshi
Mahatma Gandhi was a champion of swadeshi or home economy. Gandhis vision of a free India was not a nation-state but a confederation of self-governing, self-reliant and self-employed, people living in village communities, deriving their right livelihood from their own produce. Swadeshi means local-self sufficiency and the Swadeshi Movement, part of the Indian Independence Movement and the developing Indian nationalism was an economic strategy aimed at removing the British Empire from power and improving economic conditions in India by following the principles of swadeshi. Strategies of the Swadeshi Movement involved boycotting British products and the revival of domestic products and production processes.

Forward Policy
On 2nd November, 1961, the Indian Government issued a directive for the implementation of what is called the Forward Policy. This directive was passed on by the army headquarter to the area commanders concerned. The premise of the Forward Policy was based on the assurances of the Civil Intelligence Bureau, whose views were shared by the chief of the general staff. The aim of the Forward Policy were to create outposts behind advancing Chinese troops to interdict their supplies, forcing them North of the disputed line. In 1959, India started sending Indian troops and border patrols into disputed areas.

Orientalism
It is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural studies scholars for the initiation and depiction of aspects of middle Eastern and East Asian cultures by American and European writers, designers and artists.

De-Industrialisation
The urban industry of India, at the beginning of the 19th century, was mainly in the nature of handicrafts, producing fine textiles or other luxury products for the aristocracy. In handicraft, Indian urban industry had reached a high water-mark of excellence and enjoyed a worldwide reputation. The urban industry occupied a favourable and important position in Indias economic activity. Inspite of this, we were confronted with the problem of rapid decline, both in artistic excellence and economic importance of these handicrafts, a decline which began as early as end of 18th century and became very marked by the mid of 19th century. This process came to be known as de-industrialisation.

Doctrine of Lapse
This doctrine was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor-General of the East India Company in India between 1848 and 1856. According to the doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India Company as a Vassal state under the British subsidiary system, would automatically be annexed, if the ruler was manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir. The latter supplanted the long established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to choose a successor. The doctrine and its application were widely regarded by Indians as illegitimate.

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Revivalism

History

Indian Renaissance
Indian Renaissance occurred after the emergence of the British forces, when a mass religious awakening took place. The foremost reformists had undertaken the task with a lot of eagerness and enthusiasm. Renaissance stands for rebirth and Indian renaissance refers to that period, which was marked by the quest of knowledge and development of science and arts.

All political discourse that we can distinguish in Indian public life today can be traced back to Indias struggle for independence. The revivalist discourse, which gained considerable political ground in the 80s can be traced back to the philosophical, religious and social movements, that originated in the latter half of the 19th century as part of a quest for Indias independence from British rule.

Communalism
India is a vast country, where people belonging to many religions live. Some of the important religions practiced by its people are Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and Zorastrianism. By communalism, we mean the opposition of religious communities to each other. It means to distinguish people on the basis of religion. In India, the origin and growth of communalism can be traced to the pre-Independence days and the policy of the divide and rule by the British rulers.

Economic Drain
To find out the real cause of poverty in India, more than 100 years ago Dadabhai Naoroji developed explicitly a drain theory and according to him this economic drain by the alien ruler has a bleeding drain inherent in the built-in mechanism, that extracted a large part of the revenue in the form of an export surplus from India and transfered it to England and other European countries.

Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India, still earlier presidency towns and collectively British India, were the administrative units under the tenancy or the sovereignty of either the East India Company or the British crown between 1612 and 1947.

Subsidiary Alliance
The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was introduced by Marques Wellesley, British Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. Early in his governorship, Wellesley adopted a policy of non-intervention in the princely states, but he later adopted the policy of forming subsidiary alliances. Under this doctrine, Indian rulers under British protection surrendered control of their foreign affairs to the British. Most disbanded their native armies, instead maintaining British troops within their states to protect them from attack.

Paramountcy
The doctrine of paramountcy is the legal principle, that reconciles contradicting or conflicting laws in a federalist state. Where both the Central Government and the Provincial or State Governments have the power to create laws in relation to the same matters, the law of one government will be given priority over the other, through the doctrine.

Mercantilism
The first phase of British rule can be termed as exploitation by merchants in the context of mercantilism. The main objective of the East India Company was to buy as much as Indian goods as possible at the cheapest possible price. Mercantilism is the economic doctrine, in which government control of foreign trade is of paramount importance ensuring the prosperity and military security of the state.

Evangelicalism
It is a Protestant Christian Movement, which began in the 17th century and became an organised movement with the emergence (around 1730) of the methodists in England and the pietists among lutherans in Germany and Scandinavia. It is a religious movement, that de-emphasises the pietism of the individual, requiring him/her to meet certain active commitments.

Economic Nationalism
It is a term used to describe policies, which emphasise domestic control of the economy, labour and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labour, goods and capital. It opposes globalisation in many cases or atleast it questions the benefits of unrestricted free trade.

Bhudan/Bhoodan Movement
Bhudan or Bhoodan literally means land-gift. The Bhoodan Movement was a Voluntary Land Reform

Concepts, Ideas and Terms

Movement in India started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1951, started at Poochampally village, now known as Bhoodan Poochampally. The movement was an attempt at land reform and it intended to solve the land problem in the country in a noble way by making land available to the most disadvantaged class of Indian society by distribution of land by voluntary donations.

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economy evolved, so, that both the private and public sectors could contribute to the process of growth.

Indian Left
In general, the left-wing tends to uphold a secular society, egalitarian and multi-cultural. Depending on the balance of all these factors, the political left is divided into many branches ideologically. Left front is an alliance of Indian leftist parties. In West Bengal and Tripura, there are state level committees of the left front. In West Bengal, some of the left front parties are the Communist Party of India (Marxist), the CPI, All India Forward Bloc; in Tripura it is-CPI (M), CPI , RSP and AIFB; in Kerala- CPI (M), CPI, RSP and AIFB, in Maharashtra parties such as Peasant and Workers Party of India, Kamgar Aghadi and allies of the left front.

Panchsheel
The five principles of peaceful co-existence known in India as the Panchsheel (Panch five, Sheel : virtues) are a set of principles to govern relations between states. Their first formal codification in treaty form was an agreement between China and India in 1954. They were inunciated in the Preamble to the Agreement(with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse, between Tibet region of China and India, which was signed at Peking on 29th April, 1954. This agreement stated 5 principles 1. Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and sovereignty. 2. Mutual non-agression. 3. Mutual non-interference in each others internal affairs. 4. Equality and mutual benefit. 5. Peaceful co-existence.

Hindu Code Bills

Following independence for India, the post-colonial government led by Jawaharlal Nehru, completed the codification and reform of Hindu Personal Law, a process, that had begun by the British. Accounting to the British policy of non-interference, reform of personal law should have arisen from a demand from the Hindu community. This was not the case, as there was significant opposition from various Hindu politicians, organisations and devotees, who saw themselves unjustly singled out as the sole religious community, whose laws were to be reformed. However, the administration saw such codification as necessary in order to unify the Hindu community, which ideally would be a first step towards unifying the nation. They succeeded in passing 4 Hindu code Bills which were 1. The Hindu Marriage Act, (1955) 2. The Hindu Succession Act, (1956) 3. Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, (1956) 4. Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, (1956)

Mixed Economy
Mixed economy implies demarcation and harmonisation of the public and private sectors. In it, free functioning of the market mechanism is not permitted and the government intervenes or regulates the private sector in such a way, that the 2 sectors become mutually reinforcing. A mixed economy represents and achievable balance between individual initiative and social goals. Planning and market mechanisms are so adjusted, that each is used for realising the objectives of the economy, to which it is most suited. In India, the concept of mixed