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The World of 3D Bioprinting

Scott Willis explores the rising field of 3D Bioprinting.

The first biological cell printers were 2D desktop printers that were cleaned out and customised to print cells instead of ink. The result was that they were very successful in printing tissues, but the next task was to incorporate the z-axis and create 3D models. This was achieved by adding extra motors to move the printing nozzle up a level as each layer of cells was laid down. However, what was soon discovered was that these gelatinous bodies had no structural strength by themselves and therefore collapsed under their own weight. This problem was solved by the addition of scaffolding which was a ready-made 3D biodegradable cast that would weave through the layers of cells so they could attach to it. Eventually, when the cells had matured, the scaffolding could be broken down leaving crevasses throughout the structure. 3D bioprinting is not as easy as printing with other types of "ink" such as plastic, metal or even food since the "ink" cartridges used in bioprinting are living cells which grow and multiply. This creates difficulties as the cells cannot be placed in the shape of the final matured organ since they would develop in an abnormal organ because the original printed shape will grow into a new larger shape and this must be taken into account. Mathematical modelling of the development of the tissues, or morphogenesis, is required for each organ

A doctor holds a bioprinted ear.

as different tissues grow in different ways. CAD, a powerful modelling design software business that is involved in many fields such as architecture, has decided to pair up with leading scientists in bioprinting to create the missing software in the tissue printing process. This software will determine where to place each individual cell, taking into account the growth stages involved to end up with a fully functioning organ of correct shape and size. The organs would be able to function after printing, but only for a short period of time since no oxygenated blood carrying nutrients was being supplied to them. This complicated the whole procedure even further since the capillaries which would be required are only a few microns thick. These also had to be 3D printed (see photo right). As this procedure is being perfected, new methods involving multiple robotic printing hands are being engineered which weave these printed capillaries within the organ at the same time that it is being printed.

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The fabrication of capillaries is a clear example of how 3D printing works (shown in the pictures below). In this case hydrogel tubes and individual cells are used. Hydrogel is used since it can provide the cells with the water and nutrients they require throughout their growth. The first step is to lay down a layer of hydrogel tubes for the foundations. This is followed by consecutive layers of cells and hydrogels being placed down in an orderly fashion which creates a 3D circular tube. This can be of any length we desire since we can control the number of cells long the final capillary will extend. The cells can then be left to mature into tissue within the hydrogel cast until they are strong enough to support themselves. Then, we can remove the hydrogel with a special chemical which leaves the live cells intact and unaffected. The final result is a long thin tube of living tissue with an empty lumen which can be filled with blood; in other words, a capillary.

by-product of the drug which is sometimes only discovered after clinical trials and possibly after passing animal testing. One way to prevent the massive financial losses incurred as a result of manufacturing a drug on a large scale for it to become banned from the marketplace, and avoiding the potential dangers associated for the drug testing volunteers, is to use artificially printed organs. These will not produce exactly the same effects as if the drug was tested on a living human body, but it would still be far safer in terms of testing than risking animal and human lives. It would also be cheaper since there is no need to pay volunteers the large amounts of money for their participation. Consequently, this will lower the overall costs for developing each drug and speed up their production leading to cheaper final products for the consumer. The most common cause for a drug product being pulled from market is liver toxicity. Skin graph printing and scanning is also another application of bioprinting. The dual scanner and printer will be able to detect the depth of wounds, calculate the different amounts of types of skin cells to be laid down in a specific order and print out the corresponding skin graph onto the patient. This procedure and the machine have already been patented and functioning prototypes have been made. 3D printing is being used to manufacture bone replacements. This new technology will make it possible to print tailored fittings for each individual. Not only is this more comfortable for the patient but it also makes the replacement bone more durable and therefore cost effective in the long term.

These 3D printed organs can be used for drug testing. At the moment, in the Unites States, the pharmaceutical industry spends more than $39 billion on research and development. A large number of the drugs invested in will be pulled from either further clinical trials or even after it has gone to the market place. The reasons are normally due to side effects caused as a
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Implants can be manufactured on a smaller scale now due to 3D printing. This can be used in batteries. Pacemakers require a source of energy which normally comes in the form of a bulky battery that is fixed in place on one of the shoulders of the patient. Extremely small batteries can now be printed which have the same energy output, but will not be prominent like the ones in use currently. Medical students could also take advantage of the innovations of 3D printing. Medics in training would normally practise surgical operations on cadavers such as cutting out cancerous tumours. 3D printing can bring a whole new level of realism by adding functioning, moving organs and corresponding blood supplies that will reproduce the same scenarios which would occur in real operations. The field of bioprinting is expanding rapidly and revolutionising the organ transplant and implant industry. With the ability to print organs, patients will be taken off the waiting list for a transplant earlier and thus more lives can be saved faster. Later this year, the worlds first publically traded 3D bioprinting company plans to begin commercial sale of its tissue. I, for one, wait eagerly to see the next advancement in this marvellous technology.

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