Chapter IV.

HandOut #1 Panel Methods Panel methods are techniques for solving potential flow over 2-D and 3-D geometries. The governing equation (Laplaces equation or the lineari!ed form in compressi"le flow# is recast into an integral equation. This integral equation involves quantities such as velocit$ onl$ on the surface whereas the original equation involved the velocit$ potential all over the flow field. The surface is divided into panels or %"oundar$ elements& and the integral is appro'imated "$ an alge"raic e'pression on each of these panels. ( s$stem of linear alge"raic equations result for the un)nowns at the solid surface which ma$ "e solved using techniques such as *aussian elimination to determine the un)nowns at the "od$ surface. +n some pu"lications especiall$ from ,urope panel methods are referred to as "oundar$ element methods. Panel methods have "een the wor)horse of the aircraft industr$ since the -./0s until toda$ "ecause1 i# The$ can handle comple' configurations such as a complete aircraft or even a 232 aircraft 4 space shuttle configuration. ii# The$ are fast compared to %field& methods or finite difference methods that compute the flow properties in the entire field surrounding the aircraft. iii# The$ are the onl$ techniques that can quic)l$ predict interference effects "etween the various aircraft components such as stores p$lons nacelle 5et e'haust etc. The speed and relia"ilit$ is appreciated "$ designers who have to parametricall$ anal$!e a num"er of configurations. +n this chapter we will restrict ourselves to 2-D flows and in particular to potential flow over single and multi-element airfoils. 6ome papers will "e given (or cited# where 3-D panel methods are discussed. Later on we will address how these anal$ses can "e turned into design tools and stud$ how to model viscous effects on airfoil7aircraft performance. *overning ,quations The equations governing 2-D incompressi"le irrotational flow are1 8ontinuit$1
u v + = 0 x y

(-# and irrotationalit$1

u v = 0 y x

(2# 9ne can define a velocit$ potential such that

 = u; x

= v y

(3# This equation satisfies the irrotationalit$. 8ontinuit$ equation "ecomes1

2 2 + = 0 x2 y2

(3# 9ne can also define a stream function such that

= u; y
-

= v y

(:# which $ields the following relation1

2 2 + =0 x2 y2

(/# ,quations (3# and (/# are each called Laplace equation. +n su"sonic compressi"le flow (see (, 300-# the potential flow equation is modified to give the following appro'imate equation1

( 1 M2 )

2 2 + =0 x2 y2

(2# (ssuming one can solve for either the velocit$ potential or the stream function and its derivatives (which $ield the flow velocities u and v# the pressure can "e computed for incompressi"le flows from ;ernoulliequation as1
p+ 1 1 ( u 2 + v 2 ) = p + V2 2 2

(<# =rom pressure a non-dimensional quantit$ called the pressure coefficient ma$ "e computed1 p p u2 + v 2 V2 Cp = = 1 = 1 2 1 V2 V V2 2 (.# where u and v are 8artesian components of velocit$ >. This pressure coefficient ma$ "e then integrated to compute loads on the airfoil or other components such as flaps and slats. 6ources and 6in)s1

Panel methods "egin "$ stating that the Laplace equation can "e solved as a superposition of several simple solutions which have ph$sical interpretation. ;$ superposing these solutions one can compute a flow pattern that resem"les the flow over the given geometr$ and is tangential to the "od$ surface. +n some panel methods %sources& and %sin)s& are used. These simple solutions have the following simple form1
=
Q 2 and its derivatives are
Radial Velocity patterns are produced.

= v = 0 r and 1 Q = + vr = r 2 r

(-0# ?ere @ is the source strength. ( positive value represents a source while a negative value represents a sin). The quantities v r and v are radial and tangential velocities generated "$ the source7sin) in a polar coordinate s$stem attached to the sources. (s ma$ "e e'pected these sources generate a radial velocit$ pattern with non!ero v r "ut no tangential component (v A0#. Botice that the velocit$ "ecomes infinit$ at the origin i.e. the point where the source7sin) is located. Therefore these solutions are sometimes called singular solutions or singularities. 6ources7sin)s are ver$ useful when we want to model a %thic)& geometr$. The$ produce velocit$ patterns that are s$mmetric. The circulation around sources7sin)s vrdis !ero. The$ can not therefore model a lifting airfoil or wing "$ themselves. >orte' 6olution1 ( second t$pe of simple %singular& solution is the flow field associated with an isolated vorte' of strength . +t generates the following flow field1
=
ln( r ) 2 1 vr = =0 r v = = r 2 r

vr = 0 v = 2r

Circulation =

v rd =

(--# Pa$ attention to the signs. ( countercloc)wise vorte' is considered %positive& in the twisted world of fluid d$namicsC ?ere Dr represents the distance "etween the position of the vorte' and the point where the velocit$ is evaluated. +f the vorte' had "een placed at a location r0 (where r0 represents a point in the '-$ plane with coordinates '0 and $0# then the stream function at a point r (with coordinates ' and $# would "e
=
where ln r ro 2

)
2 2 0

( r r ) = ( x x ) +( y y )
o 0

(-2# (s in the case of sources and sin)s a num"er of vortices can "e superposed to produce an$ flow field. (t the center of the vorte' the velocities are singular. ;ecause these solutions are singular the$ should "e made as wea) as possi"le to produce a smooth flow field. +n the panel method we use here we therefore ma)e these vortices to "e of infinitesimal strength 0 ds0 where ds0 is the length of a small segment of the airfoil and 0 is the vorte' strength per unit length. Then the stream function due to all such infinitesimal vortices at a point in space ma$ "e written as1 0 ln( r r0 ) ds0 where the integral is done over 2 all the vorte' elements on the airfoil surface. The freestream itself has a stream function associated with it given "$ u y v x where u and v are the '- and $- components of the freestream

velocit$. (dding all these effects the stream function at an$ point r in space is given "$
= u y v x

(-3# +f we consider onl$ those points that are on the airfoil then due to the fact that the "od$ itself is a streamline the stream function value at all these points will "e a constant value 8. Then for all points r on the airfoil surface equation (-3# "ecomes
u y v x or u y v x 1 ln r r0 dso C = 0 2 0 1 ln r r0 dso = C 2 0

1 ln r r0 dso 2 0

( (

) )

(-3#

Ph$sical meaning of 1 ;efore we go too far we need to associate a ph$sical interpretation with the a"stract quantit$ 0. 8onsider a small segment ds0 on the airfoil surface. Then 0 ds0 represents the vorte' strength associated with this segment or more precisel$ its circulation. This circulation is caused "$ velocit$ field surrounding this element1
9uside the airfoil

+nside the airfoil

+f we thin) of the interior of the airfoil as %dead& air and if we allow the height of the "o' shown a"ove to shrin) to !ero then onl$ the top part will contri"ute to the circulation surrounding this "o'. That is
Circulation = o ds0 = Vds0 Or , V =0

+n other words 0 must "e interpreted as the tangential component of velocit$ 5ust outside the "od$ surface. This velocit$ is drawn so that it would produce a countercloc)wise circulation. The ;ernoullis equation (.# gives the following e'pression for the surface pressure field in terms of 01

02 Cp = 1 2 V

(-:# Eutta 8ondition1 Eutta condition states that the pressure a"ove and "elow the airfoil trailing edge must "e equal and that the flow must smoothl$ leave the trailing edge in the same direction at the upper and lower edge. 8onsider the figure "elow1 upper = Vupper lower = Vlower =rom this s)etch we see that pressure will "e equal and the flow will leave the trailing edge smoothl$ if and onl$ if
Upper = lower

(-/# Bumerical 6olution of the +ntegral ,quation (-3# and Eutta 8ondition (-/#1 Bow we are read$ to start solving the integral equation (-3# for the un)nowns 0 and the constant 8. Fe divide the airfoil surface into a num"er of panels a total of B. 6ince the flow changes rapidl$ near the elading and trailing edge we should usuall$ place a lot of panels near these two ends. (t the center of each of these panels we choose a control point D + D ( - G + G B# . ,quation (-3# at these points "ecomes1
u yi v xi 1 ln ri r0 dso C = 0 2 0

(-2# Fe also assume that the vorte' strength 0 is a piecewise constant on each of these panels. Then we can appro'imate the line integral over the entire airfoil as several line integrals over the B panels over each of which 0 is a constant. Then equation -2 "ecomes1
u yi vxi

0, j j =1.. N 2

ln( r r ) ds
i 0 j

C = 0

(-<# Botice that we use two indices Di and D5. The inde' D+ refers to the control point where equation (-3# is applied. The inde' D5 refers to the panel over which the line integral is evaluated. The integrals over the individual panels depends onl$ on the panel shape (straight line segment# its end points and the control point H. Therefore this integral ma$ "e computed anal$ticall$. Fe refer to the resulting quantit$ as

Ai , j = Influence of Panel j on inde i =

1 ln ri r0 ds0 2

(-.# ,quation (-<# then "ecomes1

u yi v xi Ai , j 0 j C = 0
j =1 N

(20# 9ne such equation ma$ "e written at each of the B control points. The DB4-th equation is the Eutta 8ondition 1 01 + 0 N = 0 (2-# ,quation (20# and (2-# represent B4- equations for the un)nowns1 the constant 8 which represents the stream function value on the airfoil surface and the B values of the vorte' strength 0. This s$stem ma$ "e easil$ inverted and solved. ,'tension to Iulti-element (irfoils1 Iulti-element airfoils can "e anal$!ed in a similar manner. =or e'ample for a two element airfoil-flap s$stem there will "e B42 equations since there are B panels and (corresponding vorte' strength# and two values of streamfunction 8- and 82 for the two airfoils. Fe will have two Eutta conditions one for the main airfoil and the second for the second element (flap or slat#.