BEB200 Introducing Sustainability

QUT BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND ENGINEERING

EWB CHALLENGE TONLE SAP LAKE PROPOSED HOUSING

Lecturer:
Prof Laurie Buys
Tutors:
Yvonne & Mei

Students:
Anh Van nguyen N7158866
Leo Freeman N0488399
Alex Redman N5036496
Adam Goodwin N7126905

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Cover page (http://www.btinternet.com/~andy.brouwer/tonlesap1.jpg) Accessed: 1 October 2009

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Flag of Cambodia, depicting the Angkor Wat temple.

(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-)

Figure 2: View of Village Showing Thatch Floating Houses along River 1938.
(http://sirismm.si.edu/naa/97/asia/04606600.jpg)

Figure 3: Location of main floating villages on Tonle Sap Lake.

(http://www.peaceofangkorweb.com/TSvillages/geckomapTSap.jpg)

Figure 4: Water levels in the Tonle Sap River and Great Lake.
(http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/T0537E/T0537E07.htm) Accessed: 07 Oct 2009

Figure 5: Map of the Great Lake, Tonle Sap and Mekong Rivers. (Tonle Sap Map.png -
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.)). . Retrieved September 19, 2009
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TonleSapMap.png#filelinks)

Figure 6: Change of flow direction of the Tonle Sap River throughout the year.
(http://www.tsbr-ed.org/english/images/Map_Hydro.jpg)

Figure 7: Stilt house with palm-leaf walls and roof,

(http://www.lexphoto.co.uk/cambodiascrapbook.htm)

Figure 8: Boat-type (http://www.insaat-mimari.com/dinamik/59/resimler/18758.jpg.)

Accessed: 1 Oct. 09

Figure 9: Raft-type (From: http://www.instructables.com/

files/deriv/F17/GKPM/FPWWR04U/ F17GKPMFPWWR04U.MEDIUM.jpg.) Accessed: 1
Oct. 09

Figure 10: Modular houseboat platform using wooden boxes, sheathed in ferrocement, as
floats. Each 3-box module is 2mx3.5m. Overall platform size is 6mx7m. (Image: Author)

Figure 11: Bamboo roof frame using Acrylic Concrete joint wraps.
(http://ferrocement.com/bioFiber/y8-1/wrapJoint.2.en.html.)

Figure 12: Raft using a combination of oil drums and bamboo bundles for flotation.
(http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/8947314.jpg) Accessed: 1 October 2009

Figure 13: Collection of resin from hole in tree.

(http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-1.jpg)
Accessed: 1 October 2009

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Figure 14: A fire is lit after collection to stimulate further production.
(http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-2.jpg)
Accessed: 1 October 2009

Figure 15: Fire allowed to burn for only 30 seconds before being put out.
(http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-3.jpg)
Accessed: 1 October 2009

Figure 16: Fire must be extinguished at the right time to avoid damage to tree.
(http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-4.jpg)

Figure 17: Close-up of houseboat substructure.

(http://blog.lib.umn.edu/victor/hereandthere/Images/Cambodia-69.jpg) Accessed: 1
October 2009

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Climatologically Information for Phnom Penh – Pochentong – World Weather

Information Service - Phnom Penh - Pochentong. (n.d.)

Table 2: The Five Seasons of the Tonle Sap (NEEACInfo_Guide_ENGLISH.pdf, (n.d.)

Table 3: Performance comparison of Stilt House vs Houseboat

Table 4: Possible Materials options for structural components of houseboats. (Data from:
Materials Costings 20090525.pdf, 2009)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................................3

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................4

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................6

TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................7

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................8

CAMBODIA OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................10

EVERYDAY LIFE ON TONLE SAP LAKE...................................................................................................................................11

FOOD................................................................................................................................................................................14

LABOUR............................................................................................................................................................................14

WEATHER .........................................................................................................................................................................14

WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY................................................................................................................................................16

CULTURE & RELIGION:.......................................................................................................................................................21

THE TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE:.................................................................................................................................................22

ECONOMIC ISSUES:..............................................................................................................................................................22

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:.....................................................................................................................................................22

SOCIAL ISSUES:..................................................................................................................................................................23

DESIGN SOLUTION FOR LAKE HOME.............................................................................24

DESIGN CONTEXT................................................................................................................................................................24

COMPARISON OF STILTED HOUSES WITH RAFT HOUSEBOATS.......................................................................................................25

Description of Stilted Houses....................................................................................................................................25

Description of Houseboats........................................................................................................................................27

STILT HOUSE VS RAFT HOUSEBOAT – PERFORMANCE COMPARISONS.........................................................................................30

Table 7. Performance comparison of Stilt House vs Houseboat...............................................................................30

MATERIALS.........................................................................................................................31

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 TRADITIONAL HOUSING MATERIALS .......................................................................................................................................31

CURRENT MATERIAL OPTIONS..............................................................................................................................................31

Table 8. Possible Materials options for structural components of houseboats. ......................................................31

CHOICE OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TYPE.....................................................................................................................32

PROPOSED DESIGN INCLUDING MATERIALS...............................................................33

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......................................................................................................................................................33

DESIGN OF PONTOON..........................................................................................................................................................34

DESIGN OF HOUSE SUPERSTRUCTURE.......................................................................................................................................35

FERROCEMENT FOR FLOTATION DEVICES..................................................................................................................................36

CERAMICRETE....................................................................................................................................................................37

HYBRID RAFT/STILTED DESIGN.............................................................................................................................................38

SUSTAINABLE IMPROVEMENTS TO EXISTING PRACTICES..............................................................................................................39

Use of local resin for waterproofing/preserving timber............................................................................................39

RESIN TAPPING IN CAMBODIA. (N.D.). ...................................................................................................................................39

BAMBOO...........................................................................................................................................................................41

INFRAUSTRUCTURE.........................................................................................................42

ELECTRICAL SUPPLY............................................................................................................................................................42

WATER RESOURCES............................................................................................................................................................42

TRANSPORT........................................................................................................................................................................42

INTERIOR OF HOUSING .........................................................................................................................................................44

CONCULSION.....................................................................................................................45

REFERENCE .......................................................................................................................................................................46

APPENDIX...........................................................................................................................51

APPENDIX 2........................................................................................................................51

INTRODUCTION

Our group aims to design a new form of housing for the Tonle Sap region of Cambodia.
This will be achieved by analysing in detail the existing forms of housing in the region and
the materials that are currently being used. This new form of housing is intended to be
both socially and economically viable to the communities living in the region, therefore an

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analysis of the social and economic needs and impacts of the community will be included
in the report. When designing the new form of housing the unique environmental
conditions of the region must be taken into account. Therefore this report will also contain
a detailed analysis of the environment of the Tonle Sap region including the weather and
geography. Social, economic and environmental issues are not the only important issues
that need to be covered. This report will also aim to analyse the cultural and religious
needs of the communities

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CAMBODIA OVERVIEW

Figure 1: Flag of Cambodia, depicting the

Angkor Wat temple. Image from:
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
world-factbook/graphics/flags/resize/cb-
lgflag.gif
There is a strong relationship between the people and the natural resources of the Great
Lake. It supplies the basis of life to the local people and is one of the largest freshwater
fisheries in Asia. The sustainable management of this highly productive ecosystem is
necessary to ensure food security and biodiversity conservation for Cambodia. (The Tonle
Sap Lake 2009)

The Kingdom of Cambodia is now a multiparty democracy with a constitutional monarchy,

rebuilding after years of war. It became independent from France in 1953, which colonized
the country in the 1860s.

In 1975, the Left-Wing extremist group, the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, seized power. It
left a legacy of destruction in keeping with its aim of creating a classless peasant society.

The Khmer Rouge was ousted in 1979 by more moderate Communist forces from Vietnam
and Cambodia. Socialism ended in Cambodia in 1989 and the monarchy was restored four
years later.

The national language of Cambodia is Khmer, spoken by as many as 95% of the

population. (Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p766)

This reflects the ethnic makeup of the nation, comprising Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%,
Chinese 1%, other 4%. The population of Cambodia is over 14 million. (CIA - The World
Factbook -- Cambodia., n.d)

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The religions of the Cambodian population are: Buddhist 96.4%, Muslim 2.1%, other 1.3%,
unspecified 0.2% (1998 census) (CIA - The World Factbook -- Cambodia., n.d.)

The dominant religious influence in Cambodian society is from Theravada Buddhism. It

was introduced from India in the second century CE, along with many other cultural. Its
influence extends into all levels of cultural life, including political, symbolized by the
Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat depicted on the national flag.

EVERYDAY LIFE ON TONLE SAP LAKE

“Any illusion that living on boats was a cultural tradition that people cherish and
wish to preserve were shattered when the villagers [of Chong Kneas] were
consulted about their living conditions.

Overwhelmingly they said that they would prefer to live on the land and have
access to clean water and sanitation as well as have their children go to proper
schools instead of the poorly maintained floating school.”

- (Water Actions - Cambodia - ADB.org, 2003)

Figure 12: View of Village Showing Thatch Floating Houses Along River 1938. From:
http://sirismm.si.edu/naa/97/asia/04606600.jpg

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MORE THAN 60 SMALL VILLAGES ARE BUILT ON OR NEAR THE TONLE SAP LAKE AND ADJOINING
RIVER (FIGURE 13). THEY OPERATE LIKE ORDINARY KHMER VILLAGES, EXCEPT FOR THE FACT
THAT MANY OF THE BUILDINGS ARE FLOATING, AND PEOPLE USE ROWBOATS TO GO ABOUT
THEIR DAILY LIVES. SOME LARGER SETTLEMENTS BOAST A WIDE ARRAY OF FACILITIES SUCH AS
SHOPS, SCHOOLS AND CHURCHES, EVEN AMUSEMENT CENTRES, TO CATER FOR THE
FLOURISHING TOURIST TRADE.

(hackwriters.com - Tonle Sap Lake with Antonio Graceffo. ,2005)

Figure 13: Location of main floating villages on Tonle Sap Lake. From:
http://www.peaceofangkorweb.com/TSvillages/geckomapTSap.jpg

The idyllic appearance, however, hides a history of displacement, poverty, disease and
pollution which spans generations.

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The floating villages do not provide a desirable lifestyle option, but rather, it is a situation
imposed out of necessity. The people would much prefer to live in permanent land-based
villages with proper facilities. However, they need to remain close to the water because
they are dependent on fishing as their main means of livelihood, given that the lake is one
of the richest areas in the world for freshwater fishing. (Water Actions - Cambodia -
ADB.org, 2003) Cambodia is so dependent on fish for sustenance that its currency, the
riel, is named after a small carp which is a staple food. (NPR Media Player, 2005)

Most of the 340,000 people who live in the immediate vicinity of the lake only survive by
exploiting the natural resources, such as fish. The vast majority are poor, living in squalid
conditions, with 37 percent below the poverty line. Half of all children under the age of 5
suffer from malnutrition, and 70 percent of children will not complete primary schooling.
Less than 10 percent of households have access to safe drinking water or a toilet and less
than 1 percent has electricity. There is no public sewage treatment system in place in the
floating villages, so human and animal excrement and rubbish is dumped straight into the
Lake. Therefore, villagers sometimes pay almost one cent per liter for well water from
vendors from higher ground. (Munthit, 2006) Diseases, which thrive in wet, unhygienic
conditions, such as Malaria, Dengue Fever, Acute Respiratory Infections and
Tuberculosis, are endemic. (NEEACInfo_Guide_ENGLISH.pdf, n.d.)

Health problems are more prevalent in the dry season when the lower water levels means
contaminants such as raw sewage, oil spills and dead fish are concentrated to dangerous
levels.

The seasonal fluctuations in the Tonle Sap lake level due to the flooding of the Mekong
River forces many dwellers of temporary portable huts to move their homes up to seven
kilometres and back each year. This move costs a family up to US$14.40 each way, a
heavy financial burden on a household whose daily income can be as low as 70 cents. In
addition, household items such as clothes and kitchenware must be bought to replace
those destroyed by the monsoonal storms. When the lake is at its lowest level, many
people live near the middle of the lake. Houseboat dwellers can tow their homes to the
most favourable location according to the water level (Tonle Sap an introduction to
Cambodia's great lake. (n.d)

Traditional houses were normally spread out using forest as protection from the weather.
But in the present day, houses tend to group together forming ‘streets’ of throughways for
boats lined with houses. At a community level they are classified as ‘villages’ and there
may be several villages in a single commune. (Tour scheduale.2009)
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Houseboats tend to stay close to the shoreline as the waters rise (House Boat Photo,
Chong Kneas Picture -- National Geographic Photo of the Day. n.d) and are often towed
behind motor craft.

Tour operators who bring numerous tourists to see the floating villages have been accused
of lobbying to prevent relocation of the residents to permanent dwellings, in order to
perpetuate the spectacle. (Munthit, 2006). Operators have been known to charge US$6-15
for guided tours of the floating village near the port of Chong Kneas , near Siem Reap, on
the northern end of the lake. (McCarthy, 2009) )(Tonle Sap Lake - …- New York Times
Travel.2009)

FOOD

Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in Cambodia and is responsible for roughly
37.1% of gross domestic product (GDP) for the country (Socio-Economic Survey of the
Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, 2003). The major crop in Cambodia is rice which is not only a
major part of the Cambodian people’s diet but also a major export. Fisheries are also a
major part of the agricultural sector in Cambodia, as fish are a major part of the
Cambodian people’s diet and are important to the economy (Cambodia, 2009). Rice
production and fishing in the Tonle Sap region especially are important to Cambodia as
together they supply 70% of the protein diet for the entire country (Tonle Sap Information
Guide, 2007).

LABOUR

Labour is essential to the development of all countries, Cambodia is no exception. The

vast majority of Cambodia’s labour force is employed in the agriculture sector. According
to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of the Helsinki University of
technology 70% of Cambodia’s population over the age of 15 is working in the agricultural
sector (Socio-Economic Survey of the Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, 2003). The major
areas of agriculture those are responsible for supplying labour are the fisheries, forestry
and rice fields. Refer to appendix ?? For a general list of labour costings.

WEATHER

Cambodia has two distinct seasons -- the wet and the dry Cambodia's wet season comes
courtesy of the southwest monsoon which blows from May to October, bringing with it

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some 75% of Cambodia's annual rainfall. Not surprisingly, wet season is characterised by
rain, and in the peak of wet season from July to September it can rain as much as two out
of every three days. Rainy days tend to have a few hours of heavy rain rather than being
all-day downpours. (Cambodia: Weather. 2009)

The country is subject to harsh, environmental conditions including droughts, floods and
cyclones due to Cambodia’s monsoonal climate. This has a negative impact to the
community causing damaged houses and diseases. These storms are occasional in
contrast to the surrounding countries.

In the monsoon season the lake attains an area of 16 000km2. This is due to the heavy
rains from the tropical low-pressure systems. The rain is the source to roughly three
quarters of the annual average rainfall.

Cambodia's dry season runs from October to April. By April the weather is scorching. The
dry season brings low humidity and light winds. From November to March the Tonle Sap
River dries and runs into the Mekong River. During this season the lake is approximately
2700km2. November to January is cooler while February to April is hot and dusty.
November is the coolest month, April the hottest. (Cambodia: Weather. 2009)

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WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY

The weather of Cambodia and surrounding countries is influenced by monsoons and

typhoons. (Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p727). Monsoons are large-scale wind systems that
alternately blow in opposite directions due to air temperature differentials between
landmasses and adjacent seas. (MSN Encarta. ,n.d.)

The Tonle Sap region is always hot, with average temperatures between 20°C and 35°C
all year round. There are distinct dry and wet seasons; however they do not correspond
directly to the temperature variations, as shown in Table 5:

Table 5 Climatologically Information for Phnom Penh – Pochentong – From: World Weather Information Service - Phnom Penh
- Pochentong. (n.d.)

Mean Temperature °C
Mean Total Rainfall Mean Number of Rain
Month
Daily Daily (mm) Days
Minimum Maximum

Jan 21.9 31.5 25.5 2.8

Feb 23.0 32.8 11.5 2.4

Mar 24.1 34.9 58.0 5.2

Apr 25.0 34.9 101.0 8.6

May 25.3 34.3 111.6 16.4

Jun 25.0 33.5 177.1 16.6

Jul 24.7 32.5 195.9 19.6

Aug 24.6 32.5 172.0 21.4

Sep 24.3 32.3 248.8 19.8

Oct 23.8 31.1 318.9 24.0

Nov 22.7 29.9 135.0 11.8

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 Dec 21.7 30.1 80.3 4.8

Incidentally, the water level in the Tonle Sap Lake does not relate directly to the amount of
local rainfall, but rather, to the temperature in the Tibetan plateau, which is responsible for
causing the snow melts from which the Mekong River is fed. It is more meaningful to
express seasonal weather variations in terms of rainfall rather than summer/winter. Table
6 describes the “Five seasons” of the Tonle Sap, and Figure 14 shows a graph of the rise
and fall of Tonle Sap Lake throughout the year.

Table 6: The Five Seasons of the Tonle Sap (NEEACInfo_Guide_ENGLISH.pdf, (n.d.)

Mid-late dry season January – April Tonle Sap at lowest level in April.

Early monsoon May – July Rains arrive. The annual “flood

pulse” begins as the Tonle Sap
River reverses its flow.

Mid monsoon August – October Rains continue and the Tonle Sap
lake expands to its maximum size
and depth in October.

Late monsoon October – November Level of the Mekong River drops

and the Tonle Sap River reverses
its flow. Floodwaters recede.

Early dry season November – January The fall in food waters

accelerates.

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Figure 14: Water levels in the Tonle Sap River and Great Lake. (Adapted from:
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/T0537E/T0537E07.htm. Accessed: 07 Oct 2009)

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The main rivers in Central Cambodia are the Mekong, which flows from the Tibetan
Plateau in the north into Vietnam and the South China Sea, and the 100 km long Tonle

Figure 15: Map of the Great Lake, Tonle Sap and Mekong Rivers. (From
File:TonleSapMap.png - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). . Retrieved September 19,
2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TonleSapMap.png#filelinks..)
Sap River, which connects the Tonle Sap Lake to the Mekong at Phnom Penh (see Figure
15).

The Tonle Sap River is one of the few rivers in the world which regularly reverses its
direction. The first reversal begins in June/July, when the summer snow-melt from the
Tibetan Plateau, coupled by monsoonal rains, increases the flow in the Mekong to such an
extent that the waters cannot all flow down to the sea. Instead, some of the floodwaters
start flowing back up the Tonle Sap River and into the lake, increasing its area by 3 to 5
times. (Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p727) In September/October, the river changes
direction again to resume its normal course.

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Figure 16: Change of flow direction of the Tonle Sap River throughout the year. From: http://www.tsbr-
ed.org/english/images/Map_Hydro.jpg

The average water level in the Great Lake is 1 meter in April, and over 9 meters during the
peak flood in October. (Lieng, Yim and Van Zalinge, 1995, p256)

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CULTURE & RELIGION:

Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy with the King as the Chief of State and the Prime
Minister as the Head of Government, the capital of Cambodia is Phnom Penh and the
official language is Khmer (Cambodia, 2009). The official currency of Cambodia is riel
(KR) and it is generally accepted that 4000 riel is the equivalent of $1 USD (Labour
Costings, 2009).

There are people of many different ethnic backgrounds in Cambodia including the Khmer,
Chinese, Vietnamese and Chams (Cambodia Culture, 2009). The people of Khmer
ethnicity account for approximately 90% of the Cambodian Population, the Vietnamese
4%, the Chinese 1% and the remaining 5% for the Chams (Cambodia Culture & Flag,
2009). According to the Encyclopedia Britannica the culture of Cambodia has been greatly
influenced by Indian and Chinese empires throughout its history. The Encyclopedia
Britannica also states that in the past the Cambodian or Khmer empire held dominion over
areas that are now part of Laos, Thailand and Vietnam (Cambodia, 2009).

Historically the official religion of Cambodia was Buddhism, however during the period
when the Khmer Rouge ruled Cambodia all religious practices were abolished. In 1993
the abolishment of religion was lifted and once again Buddhism became the predominant
religion of Cambodia (Cambodia, 2009). The majority of the Cambodian population is
Theravada Buddhists. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica Theravada Buddhists
seek to attain enlightenment as a result of their own efforts (Theravada, 2009). Theravada
Buddhism is also predominant form of Buddhism in Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
Thailand. Amongst the minority populations there are several smaller religious
movements, such as Daoism, Roman Catholics and Muslims (Cambodia, 2009)

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THE TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE:

Triple bottom line is a sustainability term that states there are 3 key dimensions of
accountability of sustainability; economic, environmental and social. This part of the report
will address economic, environmental and social issues with the Tonle Sap Lake.

ECONOMIC ISSUES:

The Tonle Sap Lake is an agricultural hub. With yields of approximately 230,000 tons per
annum the fisheries in the Tonle Sap region are responsible for producing approximately
60% of Cambodia’s fresh fish supply (Tonle Sap Information Guide, 2007). The
production of rice is a major contributor to the Cambodian agriculture sector and the Tonle
Sap region is 1 of the major rice production regions in Cambodia, responsible for
approximately 12% of Cambodia’s annual harvest (Tonle Sap Information Guide, 2007).
Since agriculture is responsible for 37.1% of Cambodia’s GDP (Socio-Economic Survey of
the Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, 2003) and the rice industry and the fisheries are two of the
major contributors to the Cambodian agricultural sector, then the Tonle Sap region can be
considered as a major contributor to the Cambodian economy. As such when considering
undertaking any project involving the Tonle Sap region it is imperative that these projects
will not have any negative impact on the agricultural sector in particular the production of
rice and fresh fish.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:

The Tonle Sap region is largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia and is home to an
extremely large biodiversity (Technical Assistance to the Kingdom of Cambodia for the
Participatory Poverty Assessment of the Tonle Sap, 2003). The Tonle Sap has more than
200 plant species, 225 fish species, 42 reptile species and 46 species of mammals. It also
has 225 species of birds and is considered to have the largest colony of endangered water
birds in Southeast Asia (Tonle Sap Information Guide, 2007). With such a large colony of
endangered water birds it is important that the Tonle Sap’s Biodiversity be conserved.
This was realised in 1996 when Cambodia acceded to the Ramsar Convention and listed
the Tonle Sap Lake as a wetland of significant international importance (Tonle Sap
Information Guide, 2007). As such when considering undertaking any project involving the
Tonle Sap region it is imperative that these projects will not have any negative impact on

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the environment especially the conservation of the biodiversity in the region. However due
to the lack of access to sufficient power and the lack of any economic incentives it is hard
for the communities living on the Tonle Sap to effectively play a role in the protection of the
lake (Environmental Issues in the Tonle Sap: A Rapid Assessment of Perceptions, 2004).

SOCIAL ISSUES:

There are many social issues in Cambodia including poverty, poor health and education
systems and the lack of access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation. These
issues are especially bad in rural areas such as that of the Tonle Sap region. According to
Live & Learn Environmental Education 37% of people living in the Tonle Sap region live on
or below the poverty line (Tonle Sap Information Guide, 2007). The health system for the
Tonle Sap region is very poor, having many cases of malaria, dengue fever and
tuberculosis recorded every year as well as having half of the children under the age of 5
being malnourished. Having 70% of the children in the area not complete primary school,
the education system for the Tonle Sap region is also of a very poor standard (Tonle Sap
Information Guide, 2007). 80% of households living on the Tonle Sap do not have access
to safe drinking water and less than 10% have access to both clean drinking water and
proper sanitation (Tonle Sap Information Guide, 2007). In order to address these social
issues the Cambodian Government formed a poverty reduction partnership agreement
with the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Through this agreement a Poverty Reduction
Fund was formed, that would concentrate on the reduction of poverty in the Tonle Sap
region (Technical Assistance to the Kingdom of Cambodia for the Participatory Poverty
Assessment of the Tonle Sap, 2003). When considering undertaking any project involving
the Tonle Sap region it is imperative that these projects will aim to have a positive impact
on the community.

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DESIGN SOLUTION FOR LAKE HOME

DESIGN CONTEXT

As mentioned earlier, the people who live in the floating villages of the Tonle Sap do so out
of economic necessity, despite facing many problems, such as pollution and disease. They
would much prefer to live on land with proper permanent facilities available. (Water Actions
- Cambodia - ADB.org, 2003)

It is the assumption of this design exercise that some of the problems faced by the people
of Tonle Sap can be alleviated by the provision of more suitable housing.

The client for this exercise is the Dara household, which consists of six people, three
adults and three children. Da Dara and his wife, Chantel have three children with their
eldest son attending high school and their two younger daughters in primary school. They
also take care of Chantel’s elderly mother. The family home is moved seasonally with the
changing lake levels.

Two alternative types of housing which are commonly found on the Lake, stilted houses
and raft houseboats, will be evaluated for suitability to the client family. After a preferred
house type is selected, certain design modification will be evaluated based on
sustainability criteria.

The question remains of whether a floating or stilted home, no matter how comfortable it
is, can be viewed a sustainable, long-term housing solution for the boat people of Tonle
Sap, without profound improvements to the social, economic and environmental situation
of the lake, and indeed, the country as a whole.

This evaluation and design exercise is therefore undertaken with a survivalist mentality
from the outset, based on the pragmatic assumption that the sought-after improvements
will not occur within the lifetimes of the current residents. We acknowledge that the design
solution we propose will not solve any fundamental problems, but may only make the
current situation slightly more tolerable.

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COMPARISON OF STILTED HOUSES WITH RAFT HOUSEBOATS

DESCRIPTION OF STILTED HOUSES

Stilt houses (Figure 17) are dwellings raised from the ground on wooden or concrete
posts, sometimes up to 6 meters high. This allows them to be built on ground subject to
either permanent or seasonal inundation. Because the buildings are fixed to one location,
issues of land ownership can arise. In addition, they must be very structurally sound, as
they are exposed to strong wind pressures during storms, due to their elevation.

Figure 17: Stilt house with palm-leaf walls and roof, (from: http://www.lexphoto.co.uk/cambodiascrapbook.htm)

In some localities, such as Kampong Phluk, (Tonle Sap Lake.2002), villagers live in
permanent stilt houses built above the flood peak, but move out onto the lakebed during
the dry season and live in temporary stilt houses.

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 Performance evaluation of house types

Criterion Stilted House Scor Raft Houseboat Sc

e ore

1. Accessibility Accessed by ladders, except ✘ Accessed from boat at low height. ✔

during height of wet season, when
access is by boat. Dangerous for
children and the elderly.

2. Aesthetics Extremely tall house bases look ✘ Well-made houseboats are very ✔
grotesque in dry weather. picturesque.

3. Construction High. Stilts must be driven deep. ✘ Cheaper. Timber lengths can be ✔
Cost House bases require long, straight, shorter and thinner. No land
strong timber members. Requires ownership needed.
ownership of land. Use of cheaper
materials or construction methods
only passes high costs on to
maintenance. Added Complexity
and Materials, increased costs.

4. Damage Storm or boat-strike can damage ✘ Because houseboat elevation is ✔

resistance house base, need to wait months lower, wind force not as strong.
for dry season before repairs to
Since houseboat can move, it can
base can be made. Risk of
yield and survive forces which
drowning in deep water as
would break a fixed structure. It
damaged building has no little
can be moved to more sheltered
buoyancy. If water levels rise
locations before storms.
above stilt heights, house
Damaged houseboat can still
becomes unliveable and can be
float, and immediate repairs can
destroyed. Global warming may
be made either on water or land.
make future floods deeper than
those previously encountered.

5. Fire safety Depends on construction ✘ Depends on construction ✔

materials. Very susceptible to fire. materials. Water readily available.
Difficult to evacuate. No water Escape to water.
available for fire fighting.

6. Maintenance Timber in contact with mud/water ✘ Modular flotation devices can be ✔

costs for much of year, causing decay. removed, repaired and replaced
Supporting members must be individually without affecting rest
replaced regularly. Need to wait of house.
months for dry season before
maintenance to base can be 26
made.

7. Practicality for During wet season, stilted house ✔ Constant need for moving ✔
DESCRIPTION OF HOUSEBOATS
Houseboats generally fall into two main categories: the boat type and the raft type.

Figure 18: Boat-type (From: http://www.insaat- Figure 19: Raft-type (From:

mimari.com/dinamik/59/resimler/18758.jpg. Accessed 1 Oct. http://www.instructables.com/
09) files/deriv/F17/GKPM/FPWWR04U/
F17GKPMFPWWR04U.MEDIUM.jpg. Accessed: 1 Oct.
09)

Boat type houseboats are basically single-hull boats which have been fitted out for
permanent living. Since they are originally intended to be vehicles, they require a
streamlined shape, making them long and narrow. In addition, because the hull is both the
main living space as well as the only flotation compartment, sophisticated boat-building
skills are required to make it watertight. Wooden boat building is a skilled craft, and an 8
meter fishing boat can command US$1000, many times the average monthly wage of
US$26. (hackwriters.com - Tonle Sap Lake with Antonio Graceffo. 2005) This type of
houseboat is used by the poorest fishermen families. (RAP - Tonle Sap 2004.pdf, n.d.,
p47)

In contrast, the raft type houseboat is a floating platform on which a superstructure has
been built. This type of houseboat has numerous advantages over the boat type.

Firstly, since the raft is not intended to be a navigable ship, it doesn’t need to be
streamlined, so a more naturally shaped house can be built on the larger available
platform area.

Secondly, a raft of numerous smaller flotation devices can be used to support the building
platform. The redundancy of the flotation devices makes the raft safer in the event of the
failure of one or more of the units. The use of smaller flotation devices can also be

27
cheaper as they can be made simpler in form, because the structural integrity of most
materials is better for smaller-scale objects.

For these and other reasons, we shall focus on the raft-type houseboat for this design
exercise.

In general, the components of any raft must perform three distinct functions: there must be
some floatation device, which has positive buoyancy (jars, drums, logs etc); there must be
some sort of structural matrix which holds the flotation devices in place and supports the
floor; and there must be a reasonably smooth, level floor platform, or deck, on top.
Depending on the design, certain components of a raft may perform overlapping functions.
For example, a bamboo log raft can act as flotation device, matrix and deck at the same
time, albeit in a crude way.

Because of the eclectic nature of the construction techniques used in the Tonle Sap raft
houseboats, and the broad spectrum of construction standards applied to any particular
feature, it is difficult to identify a houseboat that is truly representative of a standard
design. Instead, we will “mix and match” the various components to subjectively produce
two distinct “average” houseboat types, which we shall analyse.

28
 Selection Criteria

Structural Comment Environmenta Cost Availability Durability Skill level Life Cycle
Component l (Cradle to
grave)

Flotation
Devices

Steel Oil 220litre Litters lake US$10 ✔ Rusts in time None ✘

Drums with rust

Plastic Drums 220litre Neutral US$2-3 ✔ Cracks in None ✘

sunlight

Cement Jars Approx Waste of US$12 ✔ Cracks easily None Can be

200litre Cement repaired with
ferrocement
sheathing

Bamboo Various Waste of $2/meter ✔ Rots over Local skills. Decomposes

poles sizes. Must building time
be treated material
with
preservative.

Timber box W500x Good option, ? ~US$20 Depends Needs Low Decomposes
coated with H500x if resin is on resin recoating
pitch/resin L2000mm available availability

Buoy: 450kg

Timber box W500x Polluting, high ~US$30 Concrete Repairable. Medium Cement
rendered with H500x energy, materials Wood may portion can
mortar L2000mm unless Available rot over long be reused in
Portland Siem period. new pontoon
Buoy: 450kg
cement Reap
alternative
used.

Ferro cement W500x Polluting, high ~US$40 Concrete No Low, with Reuse as
trough H500x energy, materials maintenance Supervision water trough,
L2000mm, unless Available . pontoon or
buoy:330kg Portland Seem canoe
Repairable
cement Reap
alternative
used.

Roofing

29

Corrugated 2x0.7 m High $5 Available Rusts over Medium ✘

iron galvanized embodied Siem many years
STILT HOUSE VS RAFT HOUSEBOAT – PERFORMANCE COMPARISONS

Table 7 is a matrix which compares the performance of Stilted Houses against Raft
Houseboats. Each of the selection criteria used carries a different weighting according to
its relative importance, however, only a pass/fail score will be assigned based on our
subjective evaluation. The final total score will decide which of the two dwelling types we
will carry forward for further analysis and improvement.

TABLE 7. PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF STILT HOUSE VS HOUSEBOAT

The Raft Houseboat emerges a clear preference for this exercise. We shall now evaluate
the various components of the houseboat, and the various material options for each,
according to a set of selection criteria (Table 8).

30
MATERIALS

TRADITIONAL HOUSING MATERIALS

There are different type of housing in Cambodia, 47 percent of housing structure is built of
permanent material, consisting of wood/plywood, concrete/brick/stone, galvanized
iron/aluminum/other metal sheets, asbestos cement sheets and roof and wall tiles.
Approximately 27 percent of buildings are made of temporary material, such as bamboo
/thatch/grass or plastic/synthetic sheets for the roof and bamboo/thatch/grass /reeds or
earth or salvaged/improvised materials for the walls. About 26 percent are built of semi-
permanent materials that consist of a combination of permanent wall and temporary roof
materials or a combination of temporary wall and permanent roof materials (Traditional
House in The Country side. 2009.)

CURRENT MATERIAL OPTIONS

TABLE 8. POSSIBLE MATERIALS OPTIONS FOR STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF

HOUSEBOATS.

(Data from: Materials Costings 20090525.pdf, 2009)

31
CHOICE OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TYPE

Rural people’s livelihoods in many provinces have traditionally been closely associated
with the forest, especially for firewood, building material and timber. Common materials
available to Cambodian residents are local timbers, such as rubber woods and other
lightweight timbers, silks and other soft fabrics, which are made in Cambodia and readily
available and bamboo which is very popular for boat building as it is so commonly grown
and not expensive. Constructively bamboo requires a lot more attention for it to be made
into a waterproof boat. (Physiographic: Natural Resources. 2009.)

It is clear that there is a wide range of possible building material options. Local materials
tend to have poorer performance and higher maintenance requirements; however, they
score well in terms of environmental sustainability, cost and availability. High technology
materials are costly, harder to source and may take a high environmental toll.

Figure 17: Close-up of houseboat substructure. From: http://blog.lib.umn.edu/victor/hereandthere/Images/Cambodia-69.jpg

Accessed: 1 October 2009

Herein lies the dilemma – whether to specify an environmentally damaging material, which
satisfies the immediate needs of the people, or rely on environmentally sustainable local
products with poorly performing options.

32
PROPOSED DESIGN INCLUDING MATERIALS

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Identifying best location for houseboats throughout the wet/dry season cycle, and ability to
move accordingly.

What happens to the community life when the lake shore recedes, and people have to
negotiate a sea of mud in order to access permanent facilities left at the high-water mark,
or fishing areas, or toileting areas?

Water facilitates personal transport and movement of goods from house to house. If
houseboats were left sitting on mud when the water recedes, this convenient transport
mode would be lost. However, sometimes houseboats need to be beached and refloated,
such as for maintenance.

When severe storms hit the area, houseboats are towed to the shelter of flooded forest
creeks.

The floating houses are sometimes toppled by heavy swells which hit the lake during the
wet season. (The Tonle Sap Initiative: Future Solutions Now. (n.d.). . Retrieved September
30, 2009, (http://www.adb.org/Projects/Tonle_Sap/photo-gallery.asp.)

33
DESIGN OF PONTOON

A good compromise between the use of high-cost advanced materials and local ones is
the use of ferrocement-sheathed wooden box floats. We envisage a pontoon with a
modular design (Figure 20). Using modules makes construction easier, avoids the need for
very long timbers for floor bearers, and allows easier maintenance.

The wooden boxes would be approximately 2 meters long, 500mm wide and deep. This
provides a volume of 500 liters, which, after subtracting an estimated weight of 200kg per
box, leaves 300kg of buoyancy per trough. Boxes are left open at the top for inspection
and ventilation, but must be kept covered with a waterproof fabric to keep out rainwater.

Figure 20: Modular houseboat platform using wooden boxes, sheathed in ferrocement, as floats. Each 3-box module is
2mx3.5m. Overall platform size is 6mx7m. (Image: Author)

34
DESIGN OF HOUSE SUPERSTRUCTURE

A very promising building technology for the houseboat superstructure is described by

Versteegde (2009). It consists of a bamboo framework for a traditional pitched-roof
structure where the bamboo poles are connected by wrapping the joints in muslin soaked
in a cement-acrylic mortar.

(Acrylic Concrete Roofs.pdf, 2003)

Figure 21: Bamboo roof frame using Acrylic Concrete joint wraps. From: http://ferrocement.com/bioFiber/y8-
1/wrapJoint.2.en.html.

Ceramicrete may also be used as the joint mortar.

Since only the ferrocement exteriors of the boxes would actually contact the water, the
other timber members would avoid rotting due to prolonged saturation.

35
Another advantage of this configuration is that the sled-like arrangement of the boxes will
reduce drag, and make the houseboat easier to tow. In addition each 2mx3.5m module
provides a stable flotation platform should the house ever need to be disassembled.

FERROCEMENT FOR FLOTATION DEVICES

Invented by Joseph Louis Lambot in 1848, it can be described as a sustainable way of

using an unsustainable material. Ferrocement is a kind of reinforced concrete, the
difference lies more in the construction method than in the finished article. Traditional
reinforced concrete is a conglomerate of Portland cement, sand and large aggregate
(pebbles), covering a reinforcing network of steel bars. The wet concrete mix is poured
over the reinforcement and must be contained in some kind of mould. The mix must be
workable enough to flow and fill all cavities within the mould, which means a greater
amount of water must be added to the dry ingredients. This excess water reduces the
ultimate strength of the concrete, and increases its porosity. This is why building standards
require a 40mm minimum coverage for steel bars in footings.

Ferrocement construction, on the other hand, uses a higher ratio of cement to sand
(approx. 1:2), with the optimum amount of water (0.4 parts by weight). The resulting mortar
is too thick to be poured, instead, it is plastered over a wire armature, which is simply a
chicken-wire cage in the shape of the finished article. The lower water content of the
mortar allows the ferrocement to achieve the highest possible strength and is completely
waterproof, even in very thin shells. Thus the advantage of ferrocement over ordinary
reinforced concrete is in its economical use of materials.

Ferrocement has been used for building boats since 1887. The use of cement as a boat-
building material is counterintuitive, which explains its low acceptance. However,
thousands of ferrocement boats are manufactured each year in the developing world,
particularly in China (Ferrocement: applications in Developing Countries - Goggle
Books.1973).

Ferrocement sheathing (Colin Brookes. n.d.) is one possible way to improve the durability
of existing houseboat construction methods. A cheaply constructed wooden box will not
float because of the gaps. However, if chicken wire were nailed to the outside, and
rendered with mortar, the gaps will be covered, the timber will be protected from the water,
and a serviceable and simple-to-make floatation unit will result.

36
CERAMICRETE

The negative environmental impacts of Portland cement may be mitigated by the use of a
recent development in chemically bonded phosphate ceramics (CBPCs). The material,
Ceramicrete, developed in 1996 by Arun Wagh at the Argonne National Laboratory, is a
mixture of two commonly available chemicals; Magnesium Oxide (MgO) and magnesium
dihydrogen phosphate dehydrate (WAGH, A. US Patent # 6,776,837), (Argonne National
Laboratory. 2003):

MgO + Mg(H2PO4 ) 2 ·2H2O + 3H2O → 2MgHPO4 ·3H2O.

Ceramicrete is prepared like ordinary cement, as a watery slurry. It is waterproof, sets in

an hour, and is stronger than ordinary concrete.

37
HYBRID RAFT/STILTED DESIGN

It is sometimes necessary for a houseboat to be beached and be able to function for a

period as a house on dry land, and be refloated later. Unless certain design provisions are
made, beaching can result in serious structural damage to either the raft or the house
superstructure, particularly if the ground underneath is uneven.

A common solution is to create a hybrid structure by incorporating supporting elements,

such as short stilts, into the matrix of the raft. Here we can see a rigid latticework of
timbers, which takes the weight of the house when sitting on dry land, thus taking the load
off the fragile concrete flotation jars, which would have otherwise been crushed. Normally,
when the raft is floating, the jars would still bear the weight of the house, however they do
not crack, since the water distributes the forces evenly and radially over the base of the
jar.

Figure 12: Raft using a combination of oil drums and bamboo bundles for flotation. From:
http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/8947314.jpg (Accessed: 1 October 2009)

38
SUSTAINABLE IMPROVEMENTS TO EXISTING PRACTICES

USE OF LOCAL RESIN FOR WATERPROOFING/PRESERVING TIMBER

In order to extend the life of timber which is in contact with water, it can be coated in
natural tree resin.

A profitable and sustainable resin tapping industry already exists in Cambodia. Resin
produced here is used in the wooden boat-building industry throughout South East Asia.

The resin is obtained mainly from the Dipterocarpus alatus tree, a widespread species in
forested areas, and one of the most common species to be logged. The procedure of
resin extraction, if properly done, does not kill the tree, and the mere presence of resin
tapping trees can help protect the forest from logging and farm clearing, as the trees are
protected by custom (Cambodia: Resin tapping incomes at odds with logging. ,n.d.) The
tapping process involves cutting a wedge shaped hole near the base of the tree (see
Figure ), and lighting a fire inside. The fire is quickly extinguished, and a few days later, the
resin accumulates in the hole, and is then scraped out, and the process can be repeated
indefinitely.

RESIN TAPPING IN CAMBODIA. (N.D.).

Figure 13: Collection of resin from hole in tree. http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-

1.jpg

39
Figure 14: A fire is lit after collection to stimulate further production. http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-
content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-2.jpg

Figure 15: Fire allowed to burn for only 30 seconds before being put out. http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-
content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-3.jpg

Figure 226: Fire must be extinguished at the right time to avoid damage to tree. http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/newmandala/wp-
content/uploads/2009/08/Baird-4.jpg

40
BAMBOO

41
INFRAUSTRUCTURE

ELECTRICAL SUPPLY

Out of the total population in Cambodia 85% lives in the rural areas, there is importance on
the development of local energy resources to increase the living standard of the country’s
population. Renewable energy sources have been recognized as one of the most
significant sources of local energy, not only elevating the living circumstances of rural
villages, but to develop local industries to encourage economic growth. Energy supply in
Cambodia is mostly by isolated systems such as diesel generators. In Cambodia 96% of
the population use wood fuel for households cooking, the wood fuel originates from the
forestry area which provide for 90% of the rural energy. During the evening people rely on
kerosene lantern lighting.

WATER RESOURCES

There are three main water sources rainfall, ground water and irrigation. Most of the
rainfalls happen during the monsoon season. This is when the Tonle Sap Lake increases it
mass by 15,000sq km. Cambodia has ample shallow groundwater reserve existing around
the Tonle Sap Lake. This venue prove great importance to the local farmers by installing
cheap shallow tube wells to water up to 2 hectares of crops. Most crop rely on the
rainwater but the unpredictable weather and rainfall patterns leaves crop sometimes
threaten by drought. This is when irrigation plays an important role in farming and
cultivation by using canals or pumps directly from it source.

TRANSPORT

It’s estimated that four million people live in the tonal sap lake providence and getting from
town to town is essential. There are many different modes of transport, road, waterway,
rails and air; one of the most common is the waterway as dwelling during the monsoonal
seasons is only accessible by boat. Water transport is depended on highly for the tonal
sap community. During the dry season the lake can be as shallow as 0.8-1m deep making
small boats with hauls a popular form of transportation, they are commonly made from
planks of timber with arched roof for shelter, or lightweight hollowed out trees to create a
canoe. There are two main boats that are used in the Lake, rowboats and motorboats due
to the cost and expenses of a motorboat most residents opt for a rowboat. On land the

42
roads are slowly dwindling around the lake making versatile motorbikes a popular land
transportation to journey between districts, some other transportation is motorbikes,
peddle bikes, remoque moto and tuk tuk’s, it is believed that wealthier people can afford to
own a motor bike.

43
INTERIOR OF HOUSING

Due to the exterior appearance one can only make assumptions on what could be inside.
The rear veranda is a common cooking area with wood fuels; the housing in the Tonle Sap
Lake has natural ventilation and good air circulation due to the pitched roofing and the
hopper windows and doors. The interior would have minimal furniture with perhaps a
television and a big communal space acting as different functions though different times of
the day. The front veranda or the rear deck is usually where the cooking and washing the
clothes is done, and washing hung on the veranda. During meal times the residents would
be seated on floor mat creating a meal area, for a wealthier household they might have a
low wooden table. During the nighttime the space would be turned into a shared sleeping
area.

44
CONCULSION

45
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http://www.livelearn.org/resources/reports.asp accessed 06 October 2009.

Maps of World (Maps of World) Cambodia Culture & Flag.

http://www.mapsofworld.com/country-profile/cambodia1.html accessed 08 October 2009.

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W66 (World66) Cambodia Culture.

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APPENDIX

Available Materials and costings

Data from: Materials Costings 20090525.pdf (application/pdf Object), n.d.

Cambodia riel (4000 riels = US$1.00)

Conventional: readymade containers: Sealed plastic Drum Description: sealed at both ends with small
circular opening (maybe 7cm) at one end.

Size Cost (USD)

220L $2

Blue and Black Description: Blue container with black screw on lid quite tough, used to bring in
chemicals/glues

Size Cost (USD)

220L $3

Oil Drums Description: round about 220L, 2nd hand and in poor condition

Size Cost (USD)

220L $10

Stainless Steel Rainwater tanks Description: made Vietnam

Size Cost (USD)

100L $52

Rope Description: A variety of ropes are available in Cambodia

Type Size Cost (riel)

Nylon 0.5cm thickness 300 riels/m

Natural twine 0.5cm thickness 100 riels/m

1cm thickness 200 riels/m

APPENDIX 2

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EWB (Engineers Without Borders Australia) Labour Costings.

http://www.ewb.org.au/ewbchallenge/files/Labour%20Cost.pdf accessed 11 October 2009.

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