Annex 4C.

Comparative Evaluation of Waste Treatment Technologies

This annex presents an example of a comparative analysis of available waste processing / treatment technologies, prepared and updated by ERM. The annex highlights the implementation status of the respective technologies at that time, examples of their application world wide, nature of the technology in terms of required inputs / outputs and likely compatibility with a low income country situation. Although not exhaustive, the annex provides some indication of technology status.

Table 1

Summary of Waste Treatment and Disposal Technologies/Techniques (Source: ERM)

Technology For use with landfill Composting Definition The decomposition of organic wastes under controlled conditions through the use of micro-organisms. Products include water, carbon dioxide, compost and heat. Composting systems include windrow and static pile methods which can use relatively large land areas and vertical tower systems which require less land for the same throughput, although they still need an area for maturation. The recovery of materials from the waste stream for re-use or recycling. This can be carried out at source (ie at the household), at the disposal site (for health and safety reasons this should be discouraged) and at appropriates points in between. The range of materials that can typically be recovered include metals, paper/card, glass, plastics, textiles and wood. This is a variant of composting where the decomposition of organic wastes aided by the introduction of earthworms. The decomposition of waste with other organic materials. Such organic materials might range from forestry and agricultural wastes, and food industry residues. Co-composting with sewage sludge is also possible but has encountered problems in the past.

Informal/semi-formal materials recovery

Vermiculture Co-composting

To enhance landfilling Landfill gas recovery and utilisation Accelerated landfill or energy loaf

Japanese semi-aerobic landfill

Landfill mining

The recovery of methane rich landfill gas produced by the decomposition of organic materials under anaerobic conditions and utilisation for heat or power generation. The rate of decomposition and landfill gas/leachate generation within the landfill is accelerated by making conditions as near to optimum as possible. This is generally accomplished by recirculating the leachate continuously through the deposited waste so that it remains saturated and positively venting the gas which is generated under these anaerobic conditions. The aim is to stabilise the waste in as short a time as possible and utilise the gas. In the energy loaf version of this, the gas is recovered for heat or power generation. When as much gas as is economic has been generated and utilised, the waste can be excavated and replaced with fresh waste for the generation of more gas. Again, the aim of this technology is to stabilise the waste as quickly as possible. This is achieved by maintaining the waste at least partly aerobic. Aerobic decomposition occurs at a much faster rate than anaerobic decomposition. The technique involves introducing air into the leachate circulation system, which is generally constructed above the water table. The aim of landfill mining is to utilise technically good sites to their full potential by excavating the landfilled material once it has stabilised to create more void space for further landfilling. The excavated material, due to its semi-inert nature, is less sensitive for disposal elsewhere. Where the organic content of the incoming waste is sufficiently high, as it is likely to be in low income countries, and decomposition is nearing completion, the waste can be excavated and screened for use as a compost or soil enhancing material.

Technology Other biological treatments Hydrolysis Anaerobic digestion

Definition Chemical/bio-chemical degradation of waste components (esp. cellulose in paper) by acid or enzymic action to yield other materials (esp. glucose from cellulose). The breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in the absence of oxygen, resulting in the production of biogas - a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide with possible traces of hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. This gas is similar to landfill gas but is produced much more rapidly.

Other Landfill techniques Baling

Shredding/pulverisation

Homogenisation/wet pulping

Compresses loose waste into bales of densities between 0.75 - 0.95 tonnes/m3. Bales are typically 1.5m long by 1.0 1.4m wide by 0.8 - 1.0m high, weighing around 1.3 tonnes. Hydraulic compression takes the materials beyond their elastic limit so that bales can be self-sustaining. However, bales are normally tied and can be encased in plastic film to help retain their integrity. The bales are closely stacked in the landfill, typically using fork lift trucks. Reduces the size of the waste constituents and makes the resulting material more homogenous. Pulverisation is typically based on swing hammers rotating at high speed on a horizontal shaft. Material is continuously pummeled until it will pass through grids or wear bars which are sized depending on requirements. Shredding tends to be a more gentle process whereby material is passed through a series of contra-rotating cutters to effect size reduction. Both pulverisation and shredding can be used prior to landfilling, but where waste is being processed for other purposes, shredding typically takes place after initial pulverisation and screening, when the resulting material is likely to be less abrasive. Reduces the size of the waste constituents in a semi-wet process in which waste is moistened in a slowly rotating drum. Self pulverisation is achieved by the tumbling action over time. Screening can be incorporated into the end of the drum so that a number of different size fractions can be produced. Homogenisation is often used as a precursor to biological forms of waste treatment such as composting and anaerobic digestion.

Incineration Waste derived fuel production (WDF)

Mass burn with energy recovery

Typically higher calorific value fractions are separated from a mixed waste source by a range of processes. The waste derived fuel can take a loose form, which typically constitutes anywhere between 40 - 85% of the original feedstock. This loose form, when reduced significantly in size for suspension firing, is known as floc. Both the loose form and floc are referred to generically as coarse WDF (cWDF). Floc can be further processed into a densified form either as pellets or briquettes for use on modified industrial boilers. This is termed densified WDF (dWDF) Allows unsorted, non-bulky domestic and similar commercial and industrial wastes to be fed directly into the furnace and burnt. The grate of the furnace is normally inclined which allows the waste to tumble and move down the grate as it combusts. The ash remaining on the grate, known as bottom ash, eventually tumbles off the end and is quenched in water. The hot gases which are given off by the process can be passed through a boiler system and are then cleaned before release to atmosphere. Modern emission control systems are capable of removing particles, acidic gases and organic micropollutants to meet stringent international emission standards.

Technology Combustion of prepared WDF

Definition This can be considered under the following: fluidised bed combustion; other boiler systems. Fluidised Bed Combustion - The combustion system works by forcing air through a deep bed of sand to an extent whereby the bed starts to react like a fluid. Depending on the configuration of the technology, the bed material may "bubble" or "circulate" within the system. Prepared fuel is introduced above the bed where much of it burns in suspension in the turbulent airstream. Ash is removed from the bottom of the bed in a continuous process. Heat and power can be recovered in the same manner as for mass burn technology described above. Other Boiler Systems - These include shell boilers, stokers, semi-suspension and suspension firing boilers. Shell boilers are fairly commonly used for providing heat and process steam for industrial users. Such boilers can be adapted to burn densified WDF either wholly or as a supplementary fuel. Stokers, especially chain grate stokers, have been used to burn both densified WDF on the grate and floc in semi-suspension. Semi-suspension and suspension fired boilers are those which are designed to accept moderately low ash fuels which are burnt either partially in suspension above the grate with complete combustion taking place on the grate itself or wholly in suspension. Floc can be used as a supplementary fuel in both cases and there are examples where WDF has been the sole fuel. The thermal decomposition of organic materials in the absence of oxygen which can be optimised to produce either liquid or solid products. The partial combustion of organic materials in an atmosphere containing less oxygen than would be required for complete combustion to create gaseous and/or liquid products. The combustion of MSW using plasma arc technology to form a hydrogen rich gas which has potential for use in generating electrical power or process heat, and an inert slag which has potential for use within the construction industry or can be safely landfilled.

Pyrolysis Gasification Plasma Arc Gasification

Table 2

Outline Evaluation of Solid Waste Management Technologies/Techniques (Source: ERM)

TECHNOLOGY Implementation Status Inputs/Outputs Special Requirements Optimum Waste Throughput Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Simple windrow and perhaps static pile would appear to be appropriate for use in low income countries. Windrow would appear to give more flexibility in terms of location of the facility and in the type of plant that can be used. Drum composting would add cost without necessarily adding any value and is considered inappropriate. Vertical tower composting is unproven. For composting to be successful there needs to be a market for the products.

For use with landfill Composting

Windrow/Static Piles well established. Drum composting technology well established but now doubtful economically. Vertical tower composting at pilot/demonstration stage.

Waste Inputs: Source separated organics. Residues/Outputs: Various soil enhancing/mulching products and nonorganic residues.

Wastes need to be high in organics with low plastic and glass contents. Many countries implementing source separation schemes for household organics. Parks, gardens, food preparation/ processing wastes can also be used. Some potential for smell nuisance. Effluents from drainage systems may need treatment prior to discharge.

Can be designed to meet almost any throughput. However, the greater the throughput the greater the area of land required for the more robust and appropriate techniques.

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Informal/Semi-Formal Materials recovery

There are a wide range of materials recovery schemes and initiatives operating world-wide. Those most appropriate to low income countries would include private sector or community based source separation and collection initiatives.

Inputs: Source separated, comingled or mixed wastes. Residues/Outputs: Materials for re-use and recycling together with unusable and/or contaminated materials and other residues for disposal

Vermiculture

Pilot or community scale with localised markets. Research has been undertaken in both the UK and at the Indian Institute of Technology

Waste Inputs: Source separated organics. Residues/Outputs: Aesthetically pleasing soil enhancing medium. Small amount of rejects.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Careful consideration In theory schemes can Simple community needs be given when be designed to remove a based schemes are developing schemes to considerable proportion highly compatible with protect groups within of materials from the the current situation in society who may total waste stream of a many low income become economically city or urban area. In countries. Organised and socially practice, schemes need schemes need to tie in disadvantaged. to be designed so that with and take account of they are manageable in market requirements for terms of the area they the materials recovered. cover, the resources they employ and the amount of material handled. Manageable schemes and initiatives can then be linked to provide coverage of a wide area Worms generally cannot Facilities so far limited Would only be endure significant in size to a few tonnes applicable on a small contamination of source per day due to labour community scale with materials. intensive nature of localised markets for System is generally process. compost products.. labour intensive.

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Co-composting

Co-composting is used on a small scale quite widely. Normally various types of organic wastes are mixed together to complement each other and aid the composting process. For example, sawdust and other bulking agents are used with waste animal slurries to produce compost in many countries. Trials have been carried out on co-composting sewage sludge and other organic wastes but various problems have been encountered.

Waste Inputs: Source separated organics Residues/Outputs: Various soil enhancing/mulching products and nonorganic residues.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements The materials to be coAs with standard Would be appropriate composted need to be composting, cowhere a regular supply compatible in terms of composting can be of organic materials was the composting process designed to meet almost available to co-compost and the end product. any throughput but land with the waste. Would For example, animal requirements can need pilot/ slurries, which are become an issue. demonstration trials to normally very wet could prove security of only be mixed in small feedstock supply and proportion with other markets for product. wastes otherwise it is difficult to maintain the windrows as aerobic.

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput

To enhance landfilling

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput Minimum rate of waste deposition for gas utilisation to be viable depends on the particular type of utilisation scheme and the capital investment required. In theory, for very simple schemes there is no minimum. For electricity generation, which requires extensive investment in equipment, minimum rate of waste deposition for financial viability is likely to be in excess of 100,000t/year. N/A

Landfill gas recovery and utilisation

The technology of landfill gas extraction is widely practiced and has become a standard feature for environmental control at medium to large sized sanitary landfills in high income countries. Utilisation of landfill gas is also a well established technology with over a hundred schemes throughout the world.

Accelerated landfill or energy loaf

Main requirement, in the case of direct use, is an end user for the gas. Depending on the particular application, clean-up of the gas to remove impurities may be required. In the case of electricity generation, gas fired engines, electricity generators and connection to the grid (or local electricity user) required. Whichever type of scheme is used, gas wells and pumping, flaring and monitoring equipment will be required. Laboratory research and Inputs: Crude MSW Careful control over field-scale trials in many (possibly with prewaste countries (mainly USA treatment such as deposition/mixing of and Europe). shredding), selected different waste types, industrial wastes, leachate recirculation sewage sludge and/or requires good collection leachate. and redistribution systems and careful Outputs: More rapid stabilisation of the waste monitoring and control. mass, more rapid evolution of landfill gas.

Input: Landfill gas which is one of the products of the anaerobic waste degradation which occurs within a sanitary landfill. Output: Energy, usually in the form of either heat or electricity depending on the type of utilisation scheme. By products are carbon dioxide and waste heat.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Implementation of such schemes requires good landfill management skills, and should wait until good landfill practice has been demonstrated.

Implementation of such schemes requires good landfill management skills, and should wait until good landfill practice has been demonstrated.

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput N/A

Japanese semi-aerobic landfill

This technique has been used widely in Japan since the 1980s. Similar techniques have been used elsewhere to promote accelerated decomposition of organic matter within landfill

N/A

landfill mining

Currently receiving considerable interest in the USA as a way of utilising ideally located and well engineered landfills to the full.

There is some concern that potentially explosive mixtures of landfill gas and air could accumulate in the leachate system which could result in an explosion and/or a fire starting within the landfill. Care would therefore need to be taken to ensure that this did not occur. Inputs: In low income countries, General wastes. care would need to be In the case of low taken to ensure that no income countries, wastes pre-processing of the high in organics and low wastes took place prior in toxics. to disposal which would Outputs: make the later Semi-inert wastes for separation of organics alternate disposal. In difficult. the case of low income countries, spent organic rich material suitable for further processing as a soil conditioning.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements The technique could have potential for use in low income countries, however implementation requires good landfilling skills, and should wait until good landfill practice has been demonstrated..

The scale of the operation would need to be governed by the market for the resulting material.

There would need to be a market local to the landfill for the processed soil conditioner. The technique might be appropriate for combining in a trial with some form of accelerated landfilling once good practice has been demonstrated.

Other biological treatments Hydrolysis

Development scale, not well suited to MSW.

Waste Inputs: High cellulose content waste. Energy. Residues/Outputs: Ethanol and associated products. Process sludges/residues, liquid effluents.

Reacts with cellulose Unknown, still at fraction of waste to development stage. produce sugars which in turn can be fermented to produce ethanol. Potentially suited to wastes with high paper contents. System tends to be energy intensive.

Appears to have little potential in relation to MSW waste streams in low income countries.

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput Valorga plant in France handled ~100,000 tpa. Generally the biogas yield is ~120 m3/t of MSW.

Anaerobic digestion

Semi-commercially established for MSW using high solids systems, but with no clear consensus on optimal design.

Waste Inputs: Organic fraction of MSW. Source separated organics more efficient, especially wet wastes from food processing industry. Residues/Outputs: Include biogas, a digestate which can be further composted to form a soil enhancer and metals. Potential for fibre board and WDF.

As with composting needs source separated organic feedstock. Need markets for byproducts, particularly biogas, but also for soil improver and metals. Digestate material needs further aerobic processing. Valorga type system has vertical tanks, which have visual implications. Odours can be a problem. Large land area required for tanks and maturation area for digestate. Underground tank systems cause less visual impact, but require larger land take.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Limited applicability to municipal solid waste management in urban areas. May prove appropriate in longer term in more rural areas.

Other Landfill Techniques Baling

Well established, with a number of balefills operating world wide.

Waste Inputs: Accepts non-bulky waste as delivered. Residues/Products: None.

Equipment needs to be installed in a building, typically a transfer station. Baled waste said to attract less vermin, cause less smell and windblown litter at the landfill. Bulky materials unsuitable for baling must be dealt with separately.

A single baler operating on 2 x 8hr shifts can process up to 800 tonnes/day. The technology is flexible based on number of installed process lines.

Appears to offer little if any advantage over existing transfer and landfilling system in low income countries. Long term benefits relating to waste reduction doubtful. Need for daily cover may be reduced.

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Shredding/pulverisation Well established in many processing plants world wide.

Homogenisation/wet pulping

Well established as precursor to waste composting.

Waste Inputs: Accepts non-bulky and many bulky wastes. Can have difficulties with mattresses, tyres, etc unless specifically designed to handle them. Residues/Outputs: Relatively easy to recover ferrous metals. Output can be used for further processing. Waste Inputs: Accepts non-bulky waste as delivered. Residues/Outputs: Materials screened by size for separate disposal or further processing.

Wastes unsuitable for shredding or pulverisation must be removed prior to processing. Equipment needs to be housed in building. In case of pulverisation and high speed shredding, protection against noise and explosion (solvent, gas canister, etc) necessary. May need to add liquid to assist processing, normally water but can be sewage sludge.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Flexible up to 85 tph per Advantages prior to process stream. landfill doubtful in terms of long term waste reduction. Odour, vermin, flies, windborne litter may be reduced. Need for daily cover may be reduced, but net effect on operating costs may be significantly greater.

Optimum Waste Throughput

1 - 10 tph per process stream Larger throughputs more economic.

Advantages prior to landfill doubtful in terms of long term waste reduction. Enhanced degradation once placed in landfill claimed. Odour, vermin, flies and wind- borne litter reduced. Opportunities for separation and recycling.

Materials recovery facilities Simple facilities for adding value to recovered materials

Simple facilities can be found in most countries for adding value to recovered materials.

Waste Inputs: Can range from comingled and partially contaminated materials to materials of a single type for which a specific process is provided Residues/Outputs: Typically materials ready for the next stage of the recycling process and residues from cleaning and processing

The processing, be it the further separation of materials into their individual types or the first stage of the recycling process, must add value to the materials ideally to pay for the processing costs and make the facility economically viable.

Typically would range from a few tonnes per day to approaching 100 tpd, depending on the types of material being processed and the extent of the operation.

The idea of simple value adding facilities situated close to the landfill or source of recovered material could be compatible with materials recovery practices discussed above and worthy of consideration for a simple demonstration project.

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput Typically, 50-100 tpd

Mechanised materials separation

Waste derived fuel production (WDF)

Fully mechanised plants never progressed beyond demonstration stage. Modern systems require materials to be separated at the household. Much recyclable material in low income countries is already removed for recycling prior to collection. Semi-mechanised plants commercially available and used for the separation of co-mingled materials. The technology is well established and systems for the production of both coarse and densified WDF are commercially available.

Waste Inputs: MSW tends to be from co-mingled sources excluding organics. Residues/Outputs: Metals, glass, plastics, paper/card, textiles, etc for recycling. Residues require landfill.

Building required to reduce noise and other potential impacts. Requires markets for recovered materials. Requires a consistent waste stream to design appropriate technology for processing. Manual separation requires a cheap labour source.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Given the existence of a thriving informal and semi-formal materials recovery sector in most low-income countries, centralised and mechanised schemes are likely to prove costly, impractical and prone to failure.

Waste Inputs: Accepts non-bulky waste as delivered. Products: cWDF/dWDF, metals Residues: Non-combustibles, organics, etc, depending on technology.

Require secure market/user for fuel product. Storage of fuel can be problematic.

cWDF systems flexible dependent on number of process streams. dWDF ranged from 5,000 - 100,000 tpa throughput.

High costs are likely to make such schemes nonviable in a low income country context. Would be limited makret for WDF product as only mainstream application would be for use as feedstock for industrial boilers/ cement kilns etc.

Incineration

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Mass burn with energy recovery

Well established and reliable. Installed worldwide in high income countries. Poor track record in low income countries.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Waste Inputs: Maintenance shutdowns Can be designed to meet High capital, operating Accepts non-bulky per unit of 3/4 weeks pa almost any throughput. and maintenance costs waste as delivered. Siting needs to take Likely to be more cost in appropriate for Residues: account of connection to effective at throughputs degree of affordability in Bottom ash requiring power distribution above 200,000 tpa. low income countries. landfill system Needs to operate Costs. Heavy Fly ash and gas cleaning May need water supply continuously, to provide dependency on residues which may for cooling system a constant electrical imported skills and need special treatment Sophisticated gas output. Has some parts. Also typically Liquid effluents will cleaning/scrubbing flexibility to meet inappropriate to high require treatment systems required to reduced or increased moisture content and remove organic demand. low calorific value micropollutants and wastes in low income meet emission countries. standards. Requires high stack to disperse emissions. Perception of public risk restricts technology to relatively few, more isolated locations.

Special Requirements

Optimum Waste Throughput

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Fluidised Bed Combustion

Well established in Japan. Available commercially in Europe and the US.

Waste Inputs: Processed MSW and similar wastes. Residues/Outputs: Ash and metals.

Stoker and Suspension Firing

Appears to be commercially available in the US burning coarse WDF in suspension. Demonstration plant have operated in Europe burning both coarse and pelletised WDF

Waste Inputs: Processed MSW and similar wastes. Residues/Outputs: Ash and metals.

Requires waste to be size reduced and larger non- combustibles removed. Maintenance shutdowns , siting and water requirements similar to mass burn systems. Sophisticated gas cleaning/scrubbing systems required to remove organic micropollutants and meet emission standards. Greater flexibility than mass burn technology for combustion of waste. As with mass burn high stack required. Requires waste to be size reduced and larger non- combustibles removed. Industrial boilers may require conversion to burn WDF and may require higher maintenance. Boiler fouling problematic.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Can be designed to meet High capital, operating almost any throughput; and maintenance costs Japan ~ up to 500 tpd in appropriate for USA ~ 300-1000 tpd degree of affordability in Have considerable low income countries. flexibility regarding Costs. Heavy differences in fuel dependency on quality. imported skills and parts. Also typically inappropriate to high moisture content and low calorific value wastes in low income countries.

Optimum Waste Throughput

Can be designed to meet almost any throughputs: Typically, waste processed ranges from 200-2,000 tpd

Require major industrial heat users willing to invest in new dedicated boiler plant or with suitable boiler plant to convert to co-firing with WDF.

TECHNOLOGY

Implementation Status

Inputs/Outputs

Special Requirements

Pyrolysis & Gasification Not a proven, economically-viable technology. Few variations have reached the pilot project stage and none have been successfully demonstrated on a large commercial scale. There appear few markets for MSW pyrolysis products. Plasma Arc Gasification The technology is not proven. Some pilot work has been carried out in North America and Scandinavia. Resorption Canada Ltd, have been carrying out pilot trials since the late 1980s but the technology appears not to have advanced significantly past the pilot stage.

Waste Inputs: Combustible element of MSW. Residues/Outputs: Some combination of gas containing H2, CH4 and CO, low grade fuel oil and a carbon rich char.

Many technical problems remain unsolved. Requires markets for products. Requires emissions stack and there may be public concern over emissions The Creteil plant claims a 70% efficiency rate in converting refuse to biogas.

Compatibility with Low-Income Country Requirements Throughput potentially Lack of proven track appears flexible, varying record internationally from 1 to 240 tpd. makes it inappropriate The Stardust '80 plant in for development in low Japan produced 7000 income countries. kCal/Nm3 of biogas from 100 tons of MSW.

Optimum Waste Throughput

Waste Inputs: Combustible elements of MSW, some size reduction may be necessary depending on the input waste and particular technology. Residues/Outputs: A hydrogen rich gas; typically 41% hydrogen, 30 carbon monoxide; and an inert glassy slag.

The plasma torch, which Throughputs likely to be is at the heart of the fairly low, 1 to perhaps technology, typically 100 tpd. operates at 350 to 400 volts Direct Current and 400 to 500 amps. Requires fairly complex feed and control systems but is said to be capable of meeting stringent emission control standards without complex cleaning systems.

Lack of proven track record internationally makes it inappropriate for development in low income countries.

Table 3

Recommendations for MSW Treatment and Disposal Technologies/Techniques (Source ERM)

Proven Technology/Good Operating Experience Potential for inclusion in an integrated waste strategy Economically Viable and Appropriate in Low Income Countries Need to prove market Recommended Technology

Technologies/Techniques

For use with landfilling Composting

Windrow, static pile - yes

Yes

Drum - yes Vertical tower - unproven Informal/Semi-Formal Materials Yes Recovery Schemes Vermiculture Co-composting To enhance landfill Landfill gas recovery & utilisation Only proven on small scale Trials and small scale operations only Yes

Yes Not at current state of development Yes

No, will not be economic No Needs to prove logistics

Only at pilot/demonstration scale Not at current state of development

Limited and localised potential market Likely to be limited

Pilot/demonstration or community scheme No No Pilot/demonstration or waste picker scheme Small community scheme No

Yes

Skills intensive. Need to prove market

Accelerated landfill or energy loaf

Commercially available

Yes

Relatively expensive, doubtful benefits

Semi-aerobic landfill

Considerable experience in Japan

Yes

Relatively expensive, potential benefits

Landfill mining

Currently receiving interest in USA

Yes

Sizeable markets would need to be available

Pilot/demonstration at mature stage of landfill skills development Pilot/demonstration at mature stage of landfill skills development Pilot/demonstration at mature stage of landfill skills development Pilot/demonstration at mature stage of landfill skills development No No

Other biological treatments Hydrolysis Anaerobic Digestion Other landfill technologies/techniques

Unproven Commercially available at margin

No Possible in conjunction with other technologies like WDF

No Expensive, not appropriate at current state of development

Technologies/Techniques

Proven Technology/Good Operating Experience Yes Yes Yes Commercially available Yes Yes Commercially available Unproven Unproven

Potential for inclusion in an integrated waste strategy Unlikely to provide benefits Unlikely to provide benefits Unlikely to provide benefits Highly unlikely to be appropriate and affordable Highly unlikely to be appropriate and affordable Highly unlikely to be appropriate and affordable Limited Limited Limited

Baling Shredding/Pulverisation Homogenisation/Wet Pulping Incineration Waste Derived Fuel Mass Burn with Energy Recovery Fluidised Bed combustion Stoker and Suspension Firing Pyrolysis and Gasification Plasma Arc Gasification

Economically Viable and Appropriate in Low Income Countries No, will not be economic No, will not be economic No, will not be economic Expensive, likely to be few potential users Very expensive, not appropriate currently Very expensive, not appropriate currently Limited potential market No No

Recommended Technology No No No No No No No No No