Environmental Science

http://ptuas.loremate.com/evs/node/4 March 7, 2012

Very Short Answer Type Questions Q. 1. Define forest and desert ecosystem. Ans. Forest ecosystem Forests are extensive wild natural self-sustained wooded tracts of land with a biotic community predominated by trees and shrubs with close canopy. Word jungle is used for thick evergreen tropical rain forests. The different components of a forest ecosystem are as follows (i) Abiotic (Non-living) Component. It includes inorganic as well as organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere. Other factors affecting the type of vegetation are latitude (distance from equator of earth), altitude (height from sea level), soil type, rainfall and the local temperature. (ii) Biotic (Living) Component. Each type of forest has its own kind of community of plants and animals. For example, coniferous trees occur in the Himalayas with animals like snow leopard, bear, wild goats and sheep, and many types of peculiar birds. The evergreen rain forests of the Western Ghats and North-east India has the richest diversity of plant and animal species. Desert ecosystem Deserts and semi-arids are located in western india (Thar Desert), Deccan plateau where climate is warm and dry, and high plateaus of Himalayas as Ladakh which are cold and dry. The various biotic components are: (a) Producers. Rajasthan is in the Thar Desert and has sand dunes. These areas are covered with spasse grasses and few shrubs (especially bushes). Some areas receive rain oily once in few years. In the adjoining semi-arid areas, vegetation consists of a few shrubs and trees like Kher and Babul. Stems and branches of shrubs are variously modified. Few succulents like cacti are also present. Lower plants like lichens and xerophytic mosses may also be present. (b) Consumers. A number of highly specialised insects and reptiles occur in desert and semi-arid regions. The rare animals are wolf, desert cat, desert fox, and birds like Great Indian Bustard and the florican. Common birds are partridges (Tittar), quails and the sandgrouse. Other animals are nocturnal rodents and ship of the desert camel. Q. 2. What is ecological succession? Ans. Ecological Succession (Biotic Succession). The organisms interact among themselves. They not only influence their community but also change their physical or abiotic environment. The alteration in the physical environment is such as to continually favour another set of organisms till a stable community is formed. Such a biologically controlled modification in the composition of a community of particular area is called biotic succession or ecological succession. Biolic succession is also known as a successive development of different communities in a particular area till a climax community is formed.

Q. 3. What is ecosystem ? Write the importance of ecosystem also. Ans. Ecosystem. A stable, self-supporting ecological unit resulting from an interaction between biotic community (living organisms) and its abiotic environment is called ecosystem. The term ecosystem was introduced by Tansley (1935). Before him, Mobius (1877) had used the term biocoenosis while Forbes (1887) coined the term microcosm for the community of organisms. Sukachev (1944) employed the term biogeocoenosis ( geobiocoenosis, life and death) as synonym of ecosystem. It is used in Russian and German literature. An ecosystem comprises two main components : (i) biotic including plants, animals and microorganisms : and (ii) abiotic mainly including substratum, water, minerals, carbon dioxide and oxygen. It must also receive a constant supply of energy (light). Importance 1. Ecosystem study gives information about the amount of available solar energy in an area. 2. It gives data about the availability of mineral elements, their utilisation and recycling in the environment. 3. Inter-relationships between various types of organisms as well as between organisms and abiotic environment can be determined. 4. Productivity of producers and consumers is known. 5. The maximum number of producers and consumers of various categories which can be supported in the ecosystem is known. 6. Information can be gathered about ways to increase productivity, shortage of inputs if any, effect of pollution, degree of exploitation alongwith conservation of resources. Q. 4. What are types of ecosystem? Ans. Types of ecosystem: Ecosystem may be as small as a drop of pond water. It may be as large as ocean. Each ecosystem has a distinct community with a distinct environment. Therefore, different ecosystems are identified as follows : fresh water ecosystem (pond, river), marine ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, tropical ecosystem. However, these ecosystems are not isolated. All the ecosystems of the world are inter-related and exchange materials amongst themselves. Ecosystem can be natural or man-made, large or small, permanent or temporary, complete or incomplete. Natural ecosystem. It is an ecosystem developed under natural conditions without any appreciable human interference. Natural ecosystem can be terrestrial (e.g., forest, desert, grassland) or aquatic (e.g., fresh water, lake, pond, river, sea). Oceans constitute the most stable ecosystem.

Man-Made Ecosystem. It is an ecosystem which is created and maintained by human beings, e.g., garden, orchard, crop land, aquarium, darn, village, town, city, apiary, piggery, poultry, etc.

Agroecosystem is the single largest man-made ecosystem which has a large number of variations. Mega-Ecosystem. A very large ecosystem such as marine ecosystem. Macro-Ecosystem. A large ecosystem such as forest. Micro-Ecosystem. A small specific part of a large ecosystem with its own specialisation, e.g., subalpine ecosystem, valley ecosystem. Nano-Ecosystem. A very small ecosystem such as wooden log. Temporary Ecosystem. An ecosystem which persists for only a short duration like rain water, pond. Incomplete Ecosystem. It is an ecosystem which lacks one or the other component, e.g., cave, sea bottom, city (all lack producers), rain water pond with bloom of toxic algae (lack consumers). Short Answer Type Questions Q. 1. Describe Ecosystem. Write short note on forest ecosystem and grassland ecosystem. Ans. Ecosystem. A stable, self-supporting ecological unit resulting from an interaction between biotic community (living organisms) and its abiotic environment is called ecosystem. An ecosystem comprises two main components -: (1) biotic including plants, animals and microorganisms : and (ii) abiotic mainly including substratum, water, minerals, carbon dioxide and oxygen. It must also receive a constant supply of energy (light). Biotic components. Of an ecosystems biotic components, the plants are producers as they introduce food materials and energy into the living world. The animals are consumers because they get food and energy by consuming plants directly thus called primary consumers (herbivores) secondary/tertiary consumers (carnivores) obtain energy and food indirectly from plants; and microorganisms are decomposers for they flourish by breaking dead organic matter to simple substances that are returned to environment for reuse by plants. In an ecosystem, nutrients are used again and again in a cyclic manner, whereas energy trapped from sunlight is lost as heat. Abiotic components. The abiotic ccrnponents of an ecosystem are of two types: (i) Climate including temperature, light, wind, gases, humidity, rain and water (also wave action, water currents); and (ii) edaphic including soil, substratum, topography, background, minerals and pH. Forest ecosystem. Refer to Q. No. 1 VSAQ. Grassland ecosystem. Grasslands develop where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and quality is poor. The low rainfall is unable to support the growth of trees and shrubs but is sufficient to support the growth of grass cover during the monsoon. The grass species and herbs show vigorous growth during favourable conditions. In dry seasons or summer months, above ground part of the plant dies or their seeds lay dormant in the soil. In the next monsoon, the grass cover grows back

from underground parts (rhizomes or root-stock) and herbs grow from the seeds of previous year. Thus, the grasslands have highly seasonal appearance, with periods of increased growth followed by a dormant phase. The various components of a grassland ecosystem are explained in Q. No. 2 ahead. Q. 2. Explain the characteristics and functions of grassland ecosystem. Ans. Grassland ecosystem. Refer to Q.No. 1 SAQ. Components of Grassland ecosystem A. Abiotic component. This includes nutrients present in soil and aerial environment. The essential elements like C, H, 0, N, P. S. K, Mg, Ca, Fe, etc. are supplied by CO2. H20, nitrates, phosphates, suiphates, etc. present in air and soil. Other essential elements are mostly provided by soil. B. Biotic component. (a) Producers. They are mainly grasses, e.g. species of Dichanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium, Digitaria, Dachjloctenium, Brachiaria, Setaria, Sporobolus, etc. Few shrubs and herbs (especially legumes) also contribute to primary production. (b) Consumers. (i) Primary consumers. Important herbivores are grazing animals like cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, goats, rabbit, mouse, etc. Others are insects like Leptocorisa, Oxyrhachis, Dysdercus, Cicincella, Cocci nella,, termites, millipedes that feed on leaves of grasses. (ii) Secondary Consumers. Carnivores include jackals, frogs, lizards, snakes, birds, etc. Sometimes the hawks feed on secondary consumers, thus, completing the food chains as tertiary consumers. C. Decomposers. Important decomposers are fungi like species of Mucor, Aspergillus, Peniciflium, Rhizopus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, etc., and some baceria and actinomycetes. They recycle the minerals and make them available to producers. Q. 3. Explain with neat sketch about the energy and nutrients flow through an ecosystem. Ans. Ecosystem. Refer to Q. No. 1 SAQ Energy and Nutrient flow. . A typical food chain with Energy flow and Cycling of materials. Examples of food chains (i) Grass Cow Man (ii) Grass Deer Lion Man (iii) Algae Zooplankton Fish Man (iv) Seed Rat Cat Dog Hawk (v) Algae Insects Frog Snake Peacock, etc.

Q. 4. What do you know about estuary? Explain the importance and features of ecosystem. Ans. Estuary The part of the wide lower course of a river where its currents net by the tides. Or they are partially enclosed body of water formed where fresh water from rivers and streams flow into the oceans, mixing with the salty sea water. It is a place of transition from fresh to salt water. Features of Estuary ecosystem 1. The composition of biological community including species, numbers, biomass, life history and distribution in space etc, vary 2. The quality and distribution of abiotic materials, such as water, soil, nutrient etc. 3. The range of conditions of existence, such as temperature, light, huniidity and wind etc. Importance of Estuary ecosystem 1. The rate of biological energy flow. 2. The rate of nutrient cycles. 3. Biological/ecological regulation including both regulation of environment by the organisms and regulations of organisms by environment. Q. 5. Explain the significance of geoenvironmental cycle in balance of ecosystem. Ans. Geoenvironmental Cycle! Cycles of Matter/Biogeochemical cycles/Recycling of materials. They are exchanges/ circulation of biogenetic nutrients between living and nonliving components of biosphere. Biogenetic Nutrients/Biogeochemicals. They are essential elements required by organisms for their body building and metabolism which are provided by earth and return to earth after their death and decay. Reservoir Pool. It is the reservoir of biogenetic nutrients from which the latter are slowly transferred to cycling pool, e.g., phosphates. Cycling Pool. Pool of biologenetic nutrients which is being emptied and filled repeatedly by exchange between biotic and abiotic components of biosphere. Gaseous Cycles of Matter. Here the materials involved in circulation between biotic and abiotic components of biosphere are gases or vapours and the reservoir pool is atmosphere or hydrosphere, e.g., Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Water. Sedimentary Cycles of Matter. Materials involved in circu1ation between biotic and abiotic components of biosphere are I3ongseous and the reservoir pool is lithosphere, e.g., Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium.: Suphur has both sedimeptary and gaseous phases. Gaseous cycles are rapid and more perfect as compared to :sedimentary cycles.

Q. 6. Name the fundamental trophic levels and describe the general makeup of each. Ans. The two fundamental trophic levels include the following: 1. Producers (Autotrophic organism). The green plants are the producers in any ecosystem. They also include photosynthetic bacteria. The producers use radiant energy of the sun during photosynthesis whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light energy is converted into chemical energy. This energy is locked up into the energy rich carbon compounds i.e. carbohydrates. The energy contained in the organic compounds is in the chemical form. Only producers are able to change raidant energy into chemital form. They are, therefore, also called converters or transducers. About 99% of the living matter of the earth is made up of producers, the rest being: consumers, parasites, scavengers, etc. The oxygen that is evolved as a by-product in photosynthesis is used in respiration by all living organisms. All other organisms depend upon the producers for getting their food and the energy contained in it. 2. Consumers (Heterotrophic organisms). They are the living members of the ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by the producers. All living animals are thought to be consumers. The consumers may be of the following types: (i) Primary consumers (also called first order consumers) which are purely herbivorous and depend upon green plants i.e. on producers for their food e.g., Cow, Goat, Rabbit, Deer, Grasshopper and other insects. (ii) Secondary consumers (also called second order consumers) which are carnivarous animals and eat flesh of herbivorous animals e.g., Dog, Cat, Frog etc. (iii) Tertiary consumers are the carnivorous animals that eat other carnivores e.g. Snake eats a frog, birds a fish. (iv) Top consumers are carnivores of an ecosystem which are not killed and eaten by other animals e.g. Lions, Vultures etc. 3. Detrivores and Scavengers. Scavengers are animals which feed on dead bodies, e.g., Vulture, Carrion Beetle. l?etrivores feed on organic fragments, e.g., termites, earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, etc. Scavengers and detrivores seem to be essential for quick breakdown of dead bodies of organisms. It was found that in their presence a carrion of baby pig required only 6 days for 90% decomposition while in their absence 70% decomposition occurred in 50 days. 4. Decomposers. They include bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. In their feeding habit, the decomposers are saprotrophs or osmotrophs. They have been named saprophages. Decomposers excrete digestive enzymes in the surrounding decaying organic matter. The enzymes convert the complex organic substances into simple and soluble compounds. A number of minerals and raw materials are released during the process. The phenomenon is called minerailsation. Some of the simple and soluble compounds are absorbed by the decortiposers for their body building and energy liberation. Decomposition often begins before the actual death. A leaf becomes infested with several microorg4nisms before it reaches the ground. Decomposition also occurs in steps, each step requiring different types of organisms. Both detrivores and decomposers are important organisms for the removal of detritus or dead bodies of organisms. They are, therefore, also called reducers. As compared to the term macroconsumers for phagotrophs, the reducers are also termed as microconsumers. The degree of detritus removal depends upon the climate, type of vegetation, pH, number and kind of detritus

feeders. The complete decomposition of organic matter takes two to a few months in tropical region. Q. 7. List the important differences between producers and decomposers. Q. 8. What are Trophic Levels ? Explain a generalised food chain of each category. Ans. Trophic Levels : The various steps through which food energy passes into an ecosystem are called trophic levels. A trophic level is a functional grouping of organisms based on the similar mode of nutrition. All autotrophic plants or producers belong to the first trophic level or T1 herbivores or consumers of the first order constitute the second trophic level or T2. Consumers of the second order or primary carnivores form third trophic level or T3. There may be 2-3 levels of carnivores. All of them are called predators. The ultimate carnivores which are not eaten by others are called top carnivores. They may belong to T4 or T5. Decomposers form the ultimate or detritus trophic level (T6). Various Trophic Levels in an Ecosystem Q. 9. Briefly give an account of oceanic or marine food chain. Ans. Oceanic or Marine Food Chains Oceanic (i)

Phytoplanktan Zooplankton Crustaceans Small FishLarge Fish Sharks. (ii) Phytoplankton ZooPlankton CrustaceansSmall Fish Whale. Detritus Food Chain

It is a food chain based on organic wastes, dead parts (e.g., fallen leaves) and dead bodies. A common terrestrial detritus food chain is: Detritus EarthwormSparrow Falcon. A common aquatic detritus food chain is: Auxiliary Food Chain (Subsidiary or Accessory Food Chain) A common auxiliary food chain is parasitic food chain. It is terminated by parasite. Parasite is an organism that feeds on another living organism called host. Depending upon the trophic level of the host, the chain may be long or short, e.g., Green Plant Sheep Liver Fluke. Q. 10. Explain the meaning of food web and illustrate with a ray diagram. Ans. Food web. In nature the food chains are not strictly linear, but are interrelated and interconnected with one another. Generally, the various food chains in a community are so interlinked as to form as sort of web. With the result, one animal may be a link in more than one food chain. A network of food chains in a community are referred to as a food web. A food web may have all or some of the three types of food chains i.e. Detritus, predator and parasitic. The food webs become more complicated because of variability of taste and preference, availability and compulsion and several other factors at each level. For example, tigers normally do not eat fish or crab, but they are forced to feed on them in the Sunderbans.

Differences between a food chain and a food web.

Food web in an ecosystem. Q. 11. Write a note on Solar Energy and show fate of solar radiation incident on plant canopy. Ans. Solar Energy. Energy from sun is the ultimate source of energy in all the living systems of earth. Enormous energy is released at every moment from the sun and it is spread out in the space. Just 1% total suns energy reach on the earth. It is near about of 12.3 x 1024ca1 each year. But it is also true that all of this quantity does not reach on the earths surface and the reason behind is the components of atmosphere like clouds,

smoke and dust particles which change the nature of solar radiations. Some of the amount of energy of the sun which reach on the earth go back to nature, just a small quantity fall on the plants. Thus it is estimated that only the tenth part of 1% of energy of the sun reaching on the earths surface is used by the plants in photosynthesis and this energy is cal per second. Q. 12. Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of decomposition. Ans. Decomposition 5 defined as the process by which complex organic compounds are broken down into simpler inorganic substances that can be reutilized by the plants for their growth. Decomposition involves the following processes: 1. Fragmentation of detritus by detritivorous invertebrates which are microscopic organisms. This increases the surface area of detritus particles for the microbial action. These detritivores also add certain growth substances which stimulate the microbial growth. Some of these detritivores are coprophagic (kopros = dung) and cause breakdown of faecal pellets of animals. It is estimated that one gram of soil may contain one billion bacteria, 5 million members of Actinomycetes, 500,000 protozoans and 200,000 moulds of different types. 2. Catabolism. In this, decomposers release extracellular enzyme in their surroundings to breakdown detritus into simple organic compounds and inorganic substances. Specific decomposers perform specific chemical actions on specific complex compounds through specific enzymes e.g. Pseudomonas bacteria decompose the proteins into ammonia and simple nitrogen compounds. But the percolating water may carry downward certain soluble substances like sugars from the fragmented detritus, and is called leaching. 3. Humification. It is process by which simplified detritus is changed into dark coloured amorphous substance called humus. It is highly resistant to microbial action so undergoes low decomposition. Humus acts as a reservoir of nutrients. 4. Mineralisation. It involves the release of inorganic substances (e.g. water, CO2 etc.) and other nutrients in the soil. Q. 13. Show the processes involved in decomposition of detritus. Ans. Processes of decomposition.

Processes involved in decomposition of detritus Q. 14. Give an account of factors affecting the rate of decomposition. Ans. Factors affecting decomposition. 1. Upper layer of soil is the main site of decomposition processes in the ecosystem. 2. The rate of decomposition of detritus is affected by climate factors and chemical quality of detritus. 3. Temperature and soil moisture affect the activities of root microbes.

4. The chemical quality of detritus is determined by relative proportion of water soluble substances, polyphenols, lignin and nitrogen. Q.15. What are eo1ogical pyramids ? Sketch pyramid of number and pyramid of biomass. Ans. Ecological pyramid. The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced by C. E. Elton (1927). The trophic structure of an ecosystem can be indicated by means of ecological pyramid. At each step in the food chain a considerable portion of the potential energy is lost as heat. As a result, organisms in each trophic level pass on lesser energy to the next trophic level than they actually receive. This limits the number of steps in any food chain to 4 or 5. Longer the food chain the lesser energy is available for final members. Because of this tapering off of available energy in the food chain a pyramid is formed that is known as ecological pyramid. The higher the steps in the ecological pyramid the lower will be the number of individuals and the larger their size. There are different types of ecological pyramids. In each ecological pyramid, producer level forms the base and successive levels make up the apex. Three types of pyramidal relations may be found among the organisms at different levels in the ecosystem. These are as follows 1. Pyramid of numbers, 2. Pyramid of biomass (biomass is the weight of living organisms), and 3. Pyramid of energy. (1) Pyramid of number.

A Pyramid of numbers in a grass land ecosystem only three tap carnivores are supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants. (2) Pyramid of biomass.

Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels. Data from a bog ecosystem. (3) Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

Inverted pyramid of biomass. Small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large standing crop of zooplankton. (4) Pyramid of energy.

An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight

available to them into NPP. Q. 16. Give a generalised mode of ecosystem nutrient cycling. Ans. Generalised model of ecosystem nutrient cycling.

A generalised model of ecosystem nutrient cycling Nutrients are brought in (input), moved dut (ouput) and cycled internally in the ecosystem. Boxes represent ecosystem components and arrows show the pathways of nutrient transfers. Q. 17. Make a table showing typical climatic conditions in major forest types in India. Ans. Typical climatic conditions in major forest types in India.

Long Answer Type Questions Q. 1. What do you know about ecological succession and explain its types. Ans. Biotic/Ecological Succession. It is the successive development of different biotic communities at the same site till a climax community develops there. Primary Succession (prisere). Biotic or ecological succession on a primary bare area. It takes long time of 1000 years or more. Secondary Succession (Subsere). Biotic succession on a secondarily bare area, e.g., forest fire, deforestation. It takes 50100 years (for grass land) and 100-200 years (for forest). Ferns are generally the first to grow after forest fire because of their underground rhizomes. Secondary succession is not completed if invaded by weeds, e.g., Sphagnum, Eichhornia, Lantana, Eupatoriuin. Pioneer Community. First biotic community on a bare area. Seral Community. Transitional community appearing in an area at the end of biotic succession Climax Community. Stable, selfperpetuating and final community appearing in an area at the end of biotic succession which is in perfect harmony with climate of the area hence climatic climax community. Dominant Species. It is the most numerous and generally the largest of species present in a seral/climax community which exerts the maximum influence. Sere. It is the sequence of developmental stages from pioneer to climax communities, e.g., lithosere (on rock), psammosere (on sand), hydrosere (in water). XerarclHydrarch. Series of developmental stages in arid area/water body. Biotic succession involves changes to long-lived plants, greater species diversity, niche specialisation, increase in biomass, higher soil humus, food webs, stable biotic community and mesic conditions. Causes of succession are : (i) Baring of an area (ii) Changes brought about by pioneer and seral communities not favourable to them but favourable to next ones.

Succession on land/rock 1. Lichens and mosses are the pioneer community. 2. Soil is formed by action of linches. 3. There is deficiency of water. 4. The various stages as crustose lichen stage, foliose lichen stage, moss stage, herb stage, shrub stage and forest stage. Succession in Water 1. Plantation stage is pioneer community. 2. Water bodies are prone to silting due to soil erosion. 3. Water is abundant. 4. The various stages are plankton stage, rooted submerged stage, rooted floating stage, reed swamp stage and woodland stage and forest stage. Q. 2. What are the two main components of an ecosystem? Describe the physical factors which affect the distribution of organisms in different habitats. Ans. Abiotic (physical) and biotic components are the two main components of an ecosystem. Abiotic components or Physical environment 1. Temperature. The physiological and behavioural adaptations of most animals depend upon the changes in the environmental temperature. The rates of photosynthesis and respiration in plants also fluctuate depending upon the change in temperature. 2. Water. The extent to which an organism is dependent on an abundant water supply depends on its requirements and its ability to conserve it in adverse conditions. Organisms living in dry habitats generally have good water conservation such as in cacti, camels. 3. Light. This is essential for all green plants and photosynthetic bacteria, and for all the animals dependent on the plants. It provides solar energy to the ecosystem for heating and photosynthesis. Maximum solar or light energy is available at equator. It decreases towards poles. In a tree, more energy is available to upper leaves than the lower ones. Their rate of photosynthesis is accordingly higher. In a forest, trees have higher productivity than shrubs and herbs growing underneath. Floating hydrophytes have higher photosynthetic rate than the submerged hydrophytes. Besides photosynthesis, light controls morphogenesis (photomorphogenesiS). Photoperiods influence leaf fall, appearance of new leaves and flowering in plants. They control migration and breeding in several animals. 4. Humidity. This is important because it can affect the rate at which water evaporates from the

surface of an organism, which in turn influence its ability to withstand drought. 5. Wind and air currents. This particUlarly applies to plants. Only plants with strong root systems and tough stems can live in exposed places where winds are fierce. Wind is also instrumental in the dispersal of spores and seeds. 6. pH. This influences the distribution of plants in soil and fresh-water ponds. Some plants thrive in acidic conditions others in neutral or alkaline conditions. Most are highly sensitive to changes in pH. 7. Soil. Its texture, pH and fertility determine the type of vegetation and animal communities dependent on it. 8. Topography. Plain, slope, valley, north or south face of a mountain have all different types of organisms due to differences in light, humidity, rain and wind. 9. Background. Animals generally possess texture and colour similar to that of background e.g. sand colour of camel, green colour of Grasshopper, white colour of snow dwellers. 10. Rainfall. Amount and periodicity of rainfall determine the type of terrestrial ecosystem e.g., evergreen forest, deciduous forest, scrub, grasslands desert. Q. 3. Give an account of a pond or lake ecosystem. Ans. Pond and Lake as Ecosystems Pond and lake are fresh water ecosystems in which, like other ecosystems, there are two main components. (A) Abiotic component. (B) Biotic component. (A) Abiotic component. Abiotic component of pond consists of water, dissolved minerals, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Solar radiations are the main source of energy. (B) Biotic component. It includes the following (i) Producers (ii) Consumers (iii) Decomposers and transformers.

A pond ecosystem AAbiotic component; P and P IProducers; C 1Primary consumers (herbivores); C 2 Secondary consumers; C 3 Tertiary consumers; D Decomposers saprophytic bacteria and fungi. (i) Producers. The main producers in pond or lake ecosystem are algae and other aquatic plants,

such as Azolla, Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Pistia, Woiffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Jussiaea, etc. These are either floating or suspended or rooted at the bottom. The green plants convert the radiant energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. The chmical energy stored in the form of food is utilised by all the organisms. Oxygen evolved by producers in photosynthesis is utilised by all the living organisms in respiration. (ii) Consumers. In a pond ecosystem, the primary consumers are tadpole larvae of frogs, fishes and other aquatic animals which consume green plants and algae as their food. These herbivorous aquatic animals are the food of secondary consumers. Frogs, big fishes, water snakes, crabs are secondary consumers. In the pond, besides the secondary consumers, there are consumers of highest order, such as water-birds, turtils, etc. (iii) Decomposers and Transformers. When aquatic plants and animals die, large number of saprotrophic decomposing bacteria and fungi attack their dead bodies and convert the complex organic substances into simpler inorganic compounds and elements. These micro-organisms are called decomposers. The chemical elements liberated by decomposers are again utilized by green plants in their nutrition. Q. 4. Give an account of food chains in an ecosystem. Ans. Food chain in any ecosystem runs directly in which green plants are eaten by herbivores. They in turn are eaten by carnivores and carnivores are eaten by top carnivores. Man forms the terrestrial links of many food chains. Food chains are of three types: 1. Grazing food chain 2. Parasitic food chain 3. Saprophytic or detritus food chain. 1. Grazing food chain. The grazing food chain starts from green plants and goes from herbivores (primary consumers) to primary carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores (tertiary consumers) and so on. The gross production of a green plant in an ecosystem may meet three fates it may be oxidized in respiration, it may die and decay and it may be eaten by herbivorous animals. In herbivores the assimilated food can be stored as carbohydrates proteins and fats, and transformed into much more complex organic molecules. The energy for these transformations is supplied through respiration. Like autotrophs the ultimate disposition of energy in herbivores occurs by three routes respiration, decay of organic matter by microbes and consumption by the carnivores. The primary carnivores or secondary consumers eat hefbivores or primary consumers. Likewise, secondary carnivores or tertiary consumers eat primary carnivores. The total energy assimilated by primary carnivores or gross tertiary production is derived entirely from the herbivores and its disposition into respiration, decay and further consumption by other carnivores is entirely similar to that of herbivores. Thus, it is obvious that much of the energy flow in the grazing food chain can be described in terms of trophic levels as outlined below Autotroph Herbivore Primary carnivore Secondary carnivore etc. Diagrammatic representation of a grazing food chain showing input and losses of energy at each trophic level. Trophic levels are numbered and used as subscripts to letters indicating energy transfer. Aassimilation of food by the organisms at the trophic level; F energy lost in the form of faeces and other excretory products; Cenergy lost through decay;and Renergy lost to respiration. A schematic representation of

detritus food chain showing input and losses of energy has been presented in Fig. 2. Parasitic food chain. It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without outright killing as in the case of predator. 3. Detritus food chain. The dead organic remains including metabolic wastes and exudates derived from grazing food chain are generally termed detritus. The energy contained in detritus is not lost in ecosystem as a whole, rather it serves as a source of energy for a group of organisms called detritivores that are separate from the grazing food chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food chain.

Diagrammatic representation of the detritus food chain showing energy transfers between it and the grazing food chain, as well as energy losses to the detritus food chain. In some ecosystems more energy flows through the detritus food chain than through grazing food chain. In detritus food chain the energy flow remains as a continuous passage rather than as a stepwise flow between discrete entities. The organisms in the detritus food chain are many and include algae, fungi, bacteria, slime moulds, actinomycetes, protozoa, etc. Detritus organisms ingest pieces of partially decomposed organic matter, digest them partially and after extracting some of the chemical energy in the food to run their metabolism, excrete the remainder in the form of simpler organic molecules. The waste from one organism can be immediately utilized by a second one which repeats the process. Gradually, the complex organic molecules present in the organic wastes or dead tissues are broken down to much simpler compounds, sometimes to carbon dioxide and water and all that are left are humus. In a normal environment the humus is quite stable and forms an essential part of the soil. Schematic representation of detritus food chain is given, in Fig. Q. 5. Briefly describe tropical forest biome. Ans. Tropical forests occur near the equator. In India, they are distributed mainly along the Western Ghats and in the north eastern region. Both temperature and humidity in these areas remain high and more or less uniform. The annual rainfall exceeds 200-225 cm and is generally distributed throughout the year. Flora of tropical forests is highly dominated by DipterocarpuS and Hopla. The extremely dense vegetation of trophical forest is vertically stratified, into 4 to 5 strata and show 3040 m tall canopy. These are often covered with vines, creepers and lianas and epiphytic orchids. These forests have highest standing crop biomass among all the biomes. The soils of these areas are highly leached. Nutrients are stored in tall vegetation whereas in soil storage is low. Q. 6. Give major characteristics of desert biome. Ans. The major characteristics of desert biome are 1. Rainfall is extremely low, varying from 5-25 cm a year. So there is scarcity of water. 2. Days are extremely hot (temperature about 50-60C) and nights are cold. So evaporation from soil exceeds rainfall by 7 to 50 times. 3. Dust storms are of common occurrence as soil is generally sandy. Such deserts are called hot deserts (e.g. Thar, Sahara) while Gobi desert is a cold desert.

4. Deserts have very scanty flora and fauna. 5. The organisms in deserts have specialized structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations to withstand extremes of temperature and arid conditions. 6. Desert plants include different types of acacias, cacti, euphorbias, hardy grasses and several types of succulents. The shrubs and small trees are less in number and widely spaced. These include Acacia, Prosopis, Taniarix etc. and. have deep root system. Some plants are shortlived (Ephemerals) and occur only during rainy season e.g. Boerhaavia repens (life span of 10-14 days only) of Sahara desert. Some are with xerophytic adaptations against water loss e.g. hardy grasses, Echinops, etc. Some are succulents and open their stomata only at night e.g. cacti, euphorbias while some have welldeveloped root system and are perennial e.g. Phoenix (data), Acacia, etc. 7. Animals include ants, locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders, lizards like horned lizard, Gila monster, collard lizard; snakes like coral snake, rattle snake; insect eating birds, burrowing owls, Gambels quail, doves, kangaroo rats, rabbits, camel, white-tailed deer, ground squirrel, skunk, badger foxes, jackals and desert cats. Some 9f these animals are beautifully adapted to face deserts extreme conditions e.g. Kangaroo rats feeds on dry seeds and depend upon only metabolic water, while camel can withstand a loss upto 40P/0 of water from its body cells. Q. 7. What are biogeochemical cycles ? Give an outline sketch of water cycle. Ans. Biogeochenhical Cycles. Nearly 30 to 40 elements are required for proper growth and development of living organisms. Most important of these are C, H, 0, P, K, N, S. Ca, Fe, Mg, B, Zn, Cl, Mo, Co, I and F. These materials flow from abiotic to biotic components and back to the nonliving component again in a more or less cyclic manner. This is known as the biogeochemical cycle or inorganic-organic cycle. The flow of these elements through the ecosystem must be cyclic, with matter being consistently reused. Because the flow involves not only the living organisms but also a series of chemical reactions in the abiotic environments, these cycles are called biogeochemical cycles. There are three types of biogeochemical cycles (1) Hydrologic cycle or water cycle, (2) Gaseous cycles and (3) Sedimentary cycles. Hydrologic or Water Cycle

The water cycle, showing the major pathways f water through the ecosystem. Q. 8. Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem. What is reservoir of carbon? Outline salient features of carbon cycling in an ecosystem. Ans. The important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem are:

1. The reservoir pool for a sedimentary cycle is rocks. 2. Their speed is slower than gaseous cycle and hence get completed later. 3. They are generally imperfect in nature as bulk or nutrient remains immobile on the earths crust. The reservoirs of carbon are 1. Carbon dioxide present in air. 2. Carbon dissolved in water. 3. Carbonates in earths crust. 4. Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. 5. Bicarbonates in oceans. Carbon cycle is the simplest of all nutrient cycles. Its salient features are: (1) CO2 utilization. Carbon dioxide is used by green plants for the process of photosynthesis and oxygen is released as a byproduct. The fixed carbon enters the food chain and passed to herbivores, carnivores, decomposers. (2) CO2 production (a) Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by respiration of producers and consumers. Carbon cycle in nature. (b) It is also released by decomposition of organic wastes and dead bodies by decomposers by the action of bacteria and fungi of decay. (c) Burning of wood and fossil fuels also produce CO2. (d) Volcanic eruptions and hot springs also release CO2 into the atmosphere. (e) Weathering of carbonatecontaining rocks by the action of acids also add CO2 to the atmosphere. Q. 9. What is meant by sedimentary cycle? Depict diagrammatically the phosphorus cycle or sulphur cycle. Ans. Sedimentary cycle. There is exchange of materials between the living and non-living world. This is called cycles of matter. The sedimentary cycle involves minerals, such as phosphorus, sulphur and calcium, the reservoir is lithosphere. Phosphorus cycle. It can be graphically shown as in fig.

A generalised phosphorus cycling model or a terrestrial ecosystem. Q. 10. Give the graphic representation of nitrogen cycle. Ans. Nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle in Nature. Q. 11. Describe the ecological succession of a bare land. Ans. Interaction not only affects the community but also changes the physical environment slowly. An example which is used as a sample or model for the development of the community which attacks a bare rock and sets up a colony. As stated earlier small herb cannot grow on a bare rock because there is deficiency of soil. Algae and fungi attack on those areas and set up their colony. They make a community which is called as leading community. These algae and fungi produce certain acid and decay the surface of the rock and help in holding the small particles of rocky soil. Owing to accumulation of dead and decayed organisms and erosion of rocks by species of small plant like mosses attack and form the colony. Large amount of soil is collected by these mosses to make colony. At last by the interaction of biotic and physical factors, environment changes. As a result of it a community like grasses and big root shrubs which requires more nutrients grow up and develop. Q. 12. What do you mean by desertification ? What are its causes ? Ans. It is such a process in which the production capacity of semiarid land comes down to 10% or even less than that. During simple desertification temperature decreases by 10-25%, but in severe conditions, this decrease may reach upto 50% and in this desertification of big ditches and dunes of sand are formed. As a result of desertification, the production of agriculture decreases. Its main characteristics are depletion of vegetation and destruction of vegetation envelop, loss of underground water, salination and dreadful soil erosion. Causes Desertification can be due to change in climate or due to improper use of land. But change in climate is due to the following activities of man (a) Deforestation : The causes of desertification is non-collection of rain water and this situation is

produced when forests are cleared. With the de-forestation, the decomposition of soil takes place, soil erosion increases and soil fertility and water holding capacity of soil decreases. (b) Over grazing : According to the principle of ecological system, due to over grazing the consumption level of plant increases and the production level decreases. As a result of increase in number of animals and over grazing soil become naked. When the soil becomes naked its micro climate changes and its form does not remain the same for the seeds to germinate. The possibilities of soil erosion increase in dry barren land The top layer of the soil is destroyed and plants cannot grow in it. (c) Mining: Owing to these activities, 900 lakh hectare of soil has become desert during the last 50 years. Because of these activities, the vegetation, envelop and large area of soil is destroyed. It results in deserts because its factors become active. In Indiaabout 62% deserts are found in Rajasthan, 19% in Gujarat, 9% in Punjab and Haryana and 10% in Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka. The Thar desert of Rajasthan was green before but due to slow changes in natural environment like deforestation, over grazing and flood etc., this area changed into dunes of sand. It is still increasing.