CHAPTER I- ORIGINS OF LIFE ON EARTH

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE 1) CREATIONISM- A BELIEF THAT A DIVINE BEING CREATED EACH TYPE OF ORGANISM SEPARATELY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD. MICHAELANGELO- THIS CREATIONISM WAS HIS AND REMAINED UNCHALLENGED NOT UNTIL 18TH CENTURY.

2) SPONTANEOUS GENERATION- ARISTOTLE BELIEVED THAT LIFE COULD COME INTO BEING BY ITSELF FROM NONLIVING MATERIALS. JEAN BAPTISTE VON HELMONT - WHEAT KERNELS + DIRTY SHIRT + 21 DAYS= MICE - APPEARANCE OF MAGGOTS IN MEAT - APPEARANCE OF BEETLES AND WASP IN COW DUNG - MICE ARISE FROM THE MUD OF THE NILE ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK- DISCOVERED ANIMALCULES OR LITLE ANIMALS WHILE USING LENSES. JOHN NEEDHAM - BOILED MEAT BROTH = TRANSFERRED CONTAINER = INCUBATE = CLOUDY BROTH - BOTH GAVE RISE TO ANIMALCULES. 3) BIOEGENESIS- EXPLAINED THAT LIFE COULD COME ONLY FROM PREEXISTING LIFE. FRANCESCO REDI- NO MAGGOTS GREW ON THE CLOSED CONTAINER. LAZARO SPALLENZANI- REPEATED NEEDHAMS EXPERIMENT WITH DIFFERENCE: CONTAINER WAS SEALED AND BROTH WAS NOT TRANSFFERED. LOUIS PASTEUR- TESTED YEAST SOUP IN A VARIETY OF CONTAINERS.

HETEROTROPH- AN ORGANISM THAT IS UNABLE TO MAKE ITS OWN FOOD. AUTOTROPHS- ARE ORGANISMS THAT ARE CAPABLE OF PRODUCING THEIR OWN FOOD.

CHAPTER II- MANIFESTATIONS OF LIFE

MANIFESTATIONS OF LIFE 1) CELLULAR ORGANIZATION CELL- BASIC STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE IN NEARLY ALL TYPES OF ORGANISMS. CELL THEORY - ALL ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS - CELL IS ALSO A UNIT OF FUNCTION OF ALL ORGANISMS - CELLS ARISE FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS - CELL CONTAINTS CONTAINS HEREDITARY MATERIAL(NUCLEIC ACID) THROUGH WHICH SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS ARE PASSED FROM PARENT TO DAUGHTER CELL 2) METABOLISM- SUM TOTAL OF ALL CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROCESSES WITHIN THE BODY. ANABOLISM- BUILDING PROCESSES LIKE PHOTOSYNTHESIS. CATABOLISM- BREAKDOWN PROCESSES LIKE CELLULAR RESPIRATION. AUTOTROPHIC- ORGANISMS THAT CAN CAPTURE INORGANIC ENERGY. 3) REPRODUCTION- A PROCESS IN WHICH ONE OR TWO PARENT ORGANISMS FORM A NEW ORGANISM. ASEXUAL- AN ORGANISM FORMED BY ONE PARENT. SEXUAL- TAKES PLACE WHEN NUCLEI OF AN EGG AND SPERM FUSE TO FORM A NEW INDIVIDUAL. GAMETES/SEXCELLS- WHEN TWO CELLS FUSE THROUGH COPULATION. 4) GROWTH- OCCURS IN CELL DIVISION. 5) RESPONSIVENESS- STIMULI, THE LIVING PROTOPLAST IS CAPABLE OF RESPONDING TO EXTERNAL CONDITIONS. 6) EVOLUTION- THE ABILITY OF THE ORGANISM TO EVOLVE.

CHAPTER III- CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

COMPOSITION OF MATTER MATTER- ANYTHING THAT HAS MASS AND OCCUPIES SPACE. MASS- QUANTITY OF MATTER AN OBJECT HAS. JOHN DALTON- INTRODUCED THE ATOMIC THEORY. ELEMENTS- SUBSTANCES THAT CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN INTO SIMPLER KINDS OF MATTER. THERE ARE 100 ELEMENTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AND 93 OF THEM OCCUR IN NATURE. ISOTOPES- ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT OR THE SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS THAT DIFFER IN THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS. RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE- AN ISOTOPE WITH AN UNSTABLE NUCLEUS. COMPOUNDS- ATOMS OF 2 OR MORE ELEMENTS THAT JOINED TOGETHER BY CHEMICAL BONDS. CHEMICAL BONDS

COVALENT- ELECTRON SHARED, STRUCTURED MOLECULES, PROTEIN. HYDROGEN- BETWEEN HYDROGEN AND ATOMS SUCH NITROGEN AND OXYGEN, NUCLEOTIDE MOLECULES, STRONG WHEN BUNDLED. IONIC- ELECTRON TRANSFER, NERVE CONDUCTION.

ELECTROSTATIC- NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE CHARGED ATOMS. MOLECULE- IS A GROUP OF ATOMS HELD TOGETHER BY COVALENT BONDS: COMPOSED MOSTLY OF C, H, O, N, S, AND P.

ENERGY

ENERGY- ABILITY TO DO WORK. WORK- DEFINED AS THE MOVEMENT OF MASS. POTENTIAL ENERGY- ENERGY STORED OR INACTIVE. KINETIC ENERGY- ENERGY OF MOTION.

FORMS OF ENERGY

CHEMICAL ENERGY- FUELS SUCH AS COAL, OIL AND GASOLINE ARE COMPOSED OF COMPOUNDS. ELECTRICAL ENERGY- ASSOCIATED WITH CHARGED PARTICLES. MECHANICAL ENERGY- MOVEMENT OF MATTER AND BODY PARTS. RADIANT ENERGY- DERIVED FROM THE SUN AND OTHER SOURCES OF WAVE-PROPAGATED ENERGY. HEAT ENERGY- RAPID INTERNAL MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES OF LIQUIDS AND GASES.

NUCLEAR ENERGY- RADIOACTIVE ATOMS SUCH AS RADIUM AND URANIUM. A) NUCLEAR FISSION- NUCLEI SPLIT. B) NUCLEAR FUSION- WHEN PROTONS AND NEUTRONS JOIN TOGETHER TO FORM A NEW NUCLEUS. ACTIVATION ENERGY- AMOUNT OF ENERGY REQUIRED FOR THE REACTIONS TO BEGIN.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS- NET ABSORPTION OF ENERGY LIKE PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

EXOTHERMIC REACTOINS- NET RELEASE OF ENERGY LIKE CELLULAR RESPIRATION. ENTROPY- MEASURE OF THE DISORDER OF A SYSTEM. EQUILIBRIUM- REACHED WHEN ENTROPY IS MAXIMUM.

INORGANIC MOLECULES, IONS AND NUTRIENTS WATER- A WEAK POLAR, ALLOWS IT TO BECOME A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT.

ADHESION- WATER MOLECULES AND THE MOLECULES OF SOLID SURFACES ARE ATTRACTED TO EACH OTHER. THIS GIVES RISE TO CAPILLARITY.

CAPILLARITY- ABILITY TO SPREAD THROUGH FINE PORES OR TO MOVE UPWARDS THROUGH NAROW TUBES AGAINST THE FORCE OF GRAVITY. IONS- ATOMS WHICH HAVE LOST OR GAINED ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS.

SODIUM + AND POTASSIUM +- IMPORTANT IN NERVE IMPULSE TRANSMISSIONS. INORGRANIC ELEMENTS- FORM A NECCESARY PART OF MANY ORGANIC MOLECULES LIKE HEMOGLOBIN AND MAGNESIUM IN CHLOROPHYLL.

ACIDS, BASES AND BUFFERS ACID- ANY MOLECULE CAPABLE OF RELEASING A HYDROGEN ION.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID- FOUND IN MANS STOMACH WHICH ARE STRONG ACIDS BECAUSE THEY LOSE PROTONS EASILY. BASE- ANY MOLECULE CAPABLE OF ACCEPTING A HYDROGEN ION. BUFFERS- ORGANISMS PROTECT THEMSELVES FROM PH FLUCTUATIONS WITH THESE. CHEMICALS THAT COUPLE WITH FREE HYDROGEN AND HYDROXIDE IONS.

BIOMOLECULES CARBOHYDRATES- ORGANIC COMPOUNDS COMPOSED OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN IN A RATIO OF 2 H ATOMS TO 1 O ATOM.

MONOSACCHARIDE/SIMPLE SUGAR- CONTAINS CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN. EX: GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, GALACTOSE, RIBOSE, AND DEOXYRIBOSE. A) GLUCOSE- A SIX CARBON COMPOUND IS FORMED DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS, MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR BOTH PLANTS AND ANIMALS. B) FRUCTOSE- SWEETEST AND FOUND IN FRUITS. C) GALACTOSE- FOUND IN MILK. D) ISOMERS- GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE SINCE THEY ALL HAVE AN IDENTICAL FORMULA C6H12O6. E) DEOXYRIBOSE AND RIBOSE- 5 CARBON COMPOUNDS FOUND IN NUCLEIC ACIDS.

DISACCHARIDES/DOUBLE SUGARS- COMBINATION OF 2 SIMPLE SUGARS. A) MALTOSE- 2 GLUCOSE B) SUCROSE- GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE C) LACTOSE- GLUCOSE AND GALACTOSE

POLYSACCHARIDE- COMPLEX MOLECULE COMPOUND OF 3 OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES. A) GLYCOGEN- ANIMAL STARCH B) STARCH C) CELLULOSE- GIVES STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY TO THE PLANT CELL WALL. LIPIDS- COMPOUND MADE OF CARBON, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. IT HAS A LARGER NUMBER OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN ATOMS AND A SMALLER NUMBER OF OXYGEN.

GLYCEROL- BUILDS UP LIPIDS SATURATED- CARBON CHAINS CARRY ALL THE HYDROGEN POSSIBLE, TEND TO SOLIDIFY AT ROOM TEMPERATURE AND IT IS HEALTHIER: BUTTER, GREASE ETC. UNSATURATED- COMBINE WITH FEWER H ATOMS AND JOINED BY DOUBLE BONDS AND IT IS UNHEALTHIER.

WAXES- MOLECULES WITH VERY LONG AND SATURATED FATTY ACID CHAINS WITH LONG CHAINED CARBON RINGS. PROTEINS- MOST ABUNDANT ORGANIC MOLECULES IN THE CELLS, MADE UP OF PRIMARILY OF C, H, O AND N.

AMINO ACIDS- THERE ARE 20 KINDS AND BUILDING BLOCKS OF PROTEIN. A) PEPTIDE BONDS- LINK THE AMINO ACIDS. POLYPEPTIDES- CHAINS OF AMINO ACIDS THAT CONSTITUTE PROTEIN. ENZYMES- PROTEINS THAT SPEED UP CHEMICAL REACTIONS BY LOWERING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY. USUALLY NAMED BY ADDING SUFFIX(ASE) EX: MALTASE, LIPASE ETC. SPECIFIC ENZYME CATALYZES ONLY A SPECIFIC REACTION EX: MALTASE= STARCH TO MALTOSE NOT TO SPLIT SUCROSE OR LACTOSE.

SUBSTRATE- A REACTANT IN A CHEMICAL REACTION THAT IS CATALYZED BY THE ENZYME. NUCLEIC ACIDS- COMPLEX ORGANIC MOLECULES THAT STORE IMPORTANT INFORMATION IN THE CELL.

DEOXYRIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID(DNA)-CONSISTS OF 2 LONG POLYNUCLEOTIDE STANDS COILED TO FORM A DOUBLE HELIX.

A) NUCLEOTIDE
1) 5 CARBON SUGAR GROUP 2) ORGANIC PHOSPHATE GROUP 3) RING SHAPED NITROGEN CONTAINING BASE

B) NITROGEN BASES
1) PURINES A) ADENINE- (THYMINE) B) GUANINE- (CYTOSINE) 2) PYRIMIDINES A) CYTOSINE- REPLACED BY URACIL IN RNA B) THYMINE

RIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID(RNA)- SINGE STRAND

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS DNA REPLICATION- THE DNA REPLICATES ITSELF BY DIVIDING TWO BASES AND PAIRING WITH THEIR ANOTHER HALF. TRANSCRIPTION- WHEN A DNA UNZIPS ITSELF, THE RNA COPIES THE CODE FROM THE DNA AND BECOMES THE MESSENGER RNA AND THE DNA ZIPS ITSELF BACK TOGETHER. THE MRNA LEAVES THE NUCLEUS AND MOVES INTO THE CYTOPLASM. TRANSCRIPTION IS THE FIRST STEP OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS. TRANSLATION- PROCESS OF ASSEMBLING PROTEIN MOLECULES FROM INFORMATION CODED IN MRNA. AMINO ACIDS ARE TRANSPORTED TO THE RIBOSOMES BY TRANSFER RNA. THE AMINO ACIDS ARE ATTACHED TO A SPECIFIC RIBOSOME. THE PRODUCT IS A POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN.

RRNA- MAJOR CONSTITUENT OF RIBOSOMES.

CHAPTER IV- CELLULAR ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

METABOLIC PATHWAYS- METABOLISM OF ALL CELLS IS CARRIED OUT BY MANY SERIES OF INTERCONNECTED CHEMICAL REACTIONS. PHOTOSYNTHESIS- IS A PROCESS BY WHICH PLANTS AND OTHER AUTOTROPHS PRODUCE HIGH ENERGY COMPLEX FOOD MOLECULES FROM SIMPLER COMPONENTS IN THE PRESENCE OF LIGHT ENERGY. CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER- TO BE USED IN THE CYCLE. GLUCOSE, OXYGEN, WATER- PRODUCTS ENDERGONIC REACTION- UPHILL PRCESS IN WHICH LOW ENERGY MOLECULES SUCH AS CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER INTERACT TO FORM HIGH ENERGY CARBOHYDRATES(GLUCOSE) AND EVENTUALLY PROTEINS. CELLULAR RESPIRATION- BREAKDOWN OF MOLECULES LIKE GLUCOSE IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN RESULTING IN THE RELEASE OF ENERGY IN THE FORM OF ATP GLUCOSE AND OXYGEN- TO BE USED CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER, ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE- PRODUCTS

CHAPTER V- CELLULAR BIOLOGY

HISTORY OF THE CELL ANTON VAN LEEUWNEHOEK- USED THE MICROSCOPE AND DETECTED SMALL ORGANISMS. ROBERT HOOKE- SAW CELLS IN CORK. DUJARDIN- FOUND A MATERIAL CALLED SARCODE AND LATER TERMED PROTOPLASM. MATHIAS SCHLEIDEN- PLANTS, MADE OF CELLS. THEODORE SCHWAN- ANIMALS, MADE OF CELLS. RUDOLPH VIRCHOW- CELL COMES FROM CELLS. CELL MORPHOLOGY PROKARYOTE- LACKS A TRUE NUCLEUS AND HAS NO NUCLEAR MEMBRANE AND LACKS MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES. EX: BACTERIA, BLUE GREEN ALGAE. EUKARYOTE- HAS A TRUE NUCLEUS SURROUNDED BY NUCLEAR MEMBRANE. CYTOPLASM- LIES INSIDE THE CELL MEMBRANE, CONTAINS WATER AND SALTS AND SURROUNDS THE ORGANELLES. ORGANELLES- STRUCTURES WITHIN THE CELL. CYTOSOL- LIQUID SUBSTANCE OF THE PROTOPLASM.

PARTS OF CELL

CELL MEMBRANE- CALLED THE PLASMA MEMBRANE. SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY.

DIFFUSION- NET MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM AN AREA OF GREATER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LESSER CONCENTRATION W/O THE EXPENDITURE OF ENERGY.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT- MOVE ACROSS THE CEL WITH THE USE OF ATP. CELL WALL- RIGID OUTER STRUCTURE PROTECTING CELLS OF PLANTS, FUNGI AND BACTERIA. IT IS COMPOSED OF LONG CHAIN CARBOHYDRATE CALLED CELLULOSE.

PECTIN AND LIGNIN- ADD HARDNESS AND RIGIDITY. MIDDLE LAMELLA- FOUND BETWEEN ADJACENT CELL WALLS.

GLYCOCALYX- ANIMAL CELLS CONTAIN AN OUTER LAYER OF A SHORT CARBOHYDRATE CHAIN. NUCLEUS- CENTER OF HEREDITARY PROCESSES IN CELL.

GENES- SEGMENTS OF DNA LOCATED AT A PARTICULAR PLACE AT A SPECIFIC CHROMOSOME. CHROMOSOME- DNA WITH HISTONE PROTEIN. NUCLEOLUS- RNA ORIGINATES FROM THE DARKLY STAINED STRUCTURE.

RIBOSOMES- MOST NUMEROUS CELL STRUCTURES THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.

POLYSOMES- GROUPS OF RIBOSOMES JOINED TOGETHER BY A STRAND OF MRNA. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- SERIES OF MEMBRANE-LINED CHANNELS WHICH FACILITATE TRANSPORT WITHIN THE CELL.

ROUGH ER- WITH RIBOSOMES, FOUND IN CELLS THAT PRODUCE PROTEINS.

SMOOTH ER- WITHOUT RIBOSOMES, FOUND IN CELLS THAT PRODUCE LIPIDS. GOLGI COMPLEX/DICTYOSOME- CLUSTER OF FLATTENED, PARALLEL SACS AND APPEARTS TO BE INVOLVED IN THE TRANSPORT, PACKAGING AND SECRETION OF MATERIALS.

ORGANELLE- SITE OF THE PRODUCTION OF NEW MEMBRANES FOR ER. MITOCHONDIA- ROUNDED, CIGAR SHAPED OR ELONGATED ORGANELLES WHICH ARE SPECIALIZED FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION CALLED CELLULAR RESPIRATION. PLASTIDS- FOOD AND PGIMENTS ARE STORED IN PLANT CELL ORGANELLES.

CHLOROPLAST- CONTAINS THE GREEN PIGMENT CHLOROPHYLL. THYLAKOID- WHERE CHLOROPHYLL IS FOUND IN THE CHLOROPLAST. CHROMOPLASTS- STORE PIGMENTS CAROTENES (ORANGE), XANTHOPHYLL(YELLOW) AND LYCOPENE(RED).

LEUCOPLASTS- COLORLESS FOUND IN STARCH, PROTEINS AND LIPIDS. VACUOLES/CELL SAP- FOUND IN PLANT AND SOME ANIMAL CELLS. STORES IONS, WASTE PRODUCTS, MOLECULES. STORAGE OF MATERIALS. LYSOSOMES- HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES WHICH ACT IN DIGESTION OF PROTEINS. MICROTUBULES AND MICROFILAMENTS- CYSTOSKELETON OR FRAMEWORK IS DUE TO THE LONG, SLENDER PROTEIN TUBES AND FINE PROTEIN THREADS CALLED MFILAMENTS. CILIA AND FLAGELLA- HAIR LIKE EXTENSIONS THAT PROJECT FROM THE SURFACES OF CERTAIN CELLS. CENTRIOLES- ONLY IN ANIMALS. MICROBODIES- HELP CONVERT FATS AND OILS TO THE SUGARS NECESSARY FOR RAPID, GROWTH OF PLANTS.

PEROXISOMES- PRESENT IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS. GLYOXISOMES- OCCUR IN LIPID-RICH PLANT CELLS.

CHAPTER VI- ORGANISMIC BIOLOGY

PLANT TISSUES

MERISTEMATIC TISSUES- COMPOSED OF IMMATURE, UNDIFFERENTIATED CELLS THAT ARE CAPABLE OF CELL DIVISION.

APICAL MERISTEM- RESPONSIBLE FOR THE GROWTH IN LENGTH AND HEIGHT OF PLANTS INCLUDES THE ROOT TIP AND SHOOT TIP.

LATERAL MERISTEM- INCREASE IN THE DIAMETER IN THE STEMS AND ROOTS. PROTECTIVE TISSUE- EPIDERMIS OF LEAVES, WHICH SECRETES A WAXY WATERPROFF MATERIALS KNOWN AS CUTIN.

CUTIN- WAXY, WATERPROOF MATERIAL THAT FORMS A LAYER CALLED CUTICLE.

SUBERIN- CORK CELLS ARE CLOSELY PACKED AND THEIR CELL WALLS CONTAIN ANOTHER WATERPROOF MATERIAL. FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES- MAKE UP THE MOST PARTS OF THE PLANT BODY.

PARENCHYMA- UNSPECIALIZED THIN-WALLED CELLS WITH LARGE VACUOLES, MOST ARE MERISTEMATIC AND STORAGE OF NUTRIENTS AND WATER. ABUNDANT IN THE CORTEX AND PITH OF PLANTS. COLLENCHYMA- CELLS THAT MAKE UP THIS TISSUE HAVE IRREGULARLY THICKENED WALLS. LOCATED AT THE PERIPHERY OF STEMS AND LEAVES.

SCLERENCHYMA- EVENLY THICK WALLS ENABLING THE PLANT TO WITHSTAND CONSIDERABLE BENDING AND STRETCHING. XYLEM AND PHLOEM OR SCLEREIDS AS IN THE NUT SHELLS AND SEED COATS. VASCULAR TISSUES- CONDUCTING TISSUES WHICH ARE USUALLY TUBE LIKE AND ELONGATED IN THE DIRECTION IN WHICH THE CONDUCTION OCCURS.

XYLEM- VESSELS AND TRACHEIDS WHICH BOTH CONDUCT WATER AND MINERALS. UPWARDS. PHLOEM- SIEVE TUBES AND COMPANION CELLS WHICH ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DOWNWARD AND LATERAL MOVEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS SUCH AS GLUCOSE AND PROTEINS.

ANIMAL TISSUES

EPITHELIAL TISSUES- SURFACE AND LINING TISSUES OF THE ANIMAL BODY. THESE TISSUES CAN BE FOUND IN THE LINING OF THE MOUTH AND ESOPHAGUS (SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM), LINING OF THE KIDNEY TUBULES (CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM) AND THE LINING OF THE DIGESTIVE AND RESPIRATORY TRACTS (COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM).

CILIA- SMALL HAIR LIKE PROJECTIONS IN RESPIRATORY TRACTS REMOVE DUST AND OTHER PARTICLES OF FOREIGN MATERIALS IN THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. CONNECTIVE TISSUES- COMPOSED OF ISOLATED CELLS EMBEDDED WITHINA NONLIVING MATRIX.

BONE- HARD, RELATIVELY LARGE MATERIALS. THEY SERVE AS FRAME WORK FOR MOVEMENT. CARTILAGE- MORE ELASTIC THAN BONE AND CAN BE CONSIDERED AS BONE WIHTOUT CALCIUM DEPOSITS IN THE MATRIX. CAN BE FOUND IN THE NOSE, EARS, LARYNX AND TRACHEA. TENDON- A DENSE TISSUE WITH TOUGH FIBERS AND CAN BE FOUND THROUGHOUT THE BODY. IT CONNECTS MUSCLES TO PARTS OF THE SKELETON. LIGAMENT- BOTH TOUGH AND ELASTIC FIBERS. CAN BE FOUND THROUGHOUT THE BODY. IT CONNECTS BONES. BLOOD- COMPOSED OF LIVING CELLS SURROUNDED BY A NONLIVING MATRIX CALLED THE BLOOD PLASMA. A) ERYTHROCYTES- WHICH CARRY OXYGEN, RED BLOOD CELLS. B) LEUCOCYTES- WHICH AID IN FIGHTING INFECTION, WHITE BLOOD CELLS. C) THROMBOCYTES- WHICH ARE IMPORTANT IN BLOOD CLOTTING, PLATELETS.

LYMPH- BODY FLUID OUTSIDE THE BLOOD CIRCULATION THAT FUNCTIONS IN THE CONTROL OF DISEASES AND MAINTENANCE OF OSMOTIC BALANCE. A) LYMPHOCYTES- CELLS FOUND IN LYMPH. MUSCULAR TISSUES- HIGHLY SPECIALIZED FOR PRODUCING MOVEMENT OF THE BODY OR OF ITS PARTS. NERVOUS TISSUE- MADE UP OF CELLS CALLED NEURONS THAT HAVE THE PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTION AND IRRITABILITY. REPRODUCTIVE TISSUES- SPERM CELLS/SPERMATOZOA AND EGG CELLS/OVA.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DIGESTION- PROCESS OF BREAKING DOWN LARGE COMPLEX FOOD SUBSTANCES INTO SIMPLE MOLECULES THAT CAN BE USED BY EACH CELL.

CARBOHYDRATES, FATS AND PROTEINS- MOST OF THE FOOD OF ORGANISMS CONSIST OF THESE. DIGESTION IN PLANTS

PLANTS- DO NOT HAVE SPECIALIZED DIGESTIVE ORGANS. INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS- VENUS FLY TRAP AND PITCHER HAVE THE ABILITY TO CAPTURE INSECTS AND DIGEST THEM IN SPECIAL CAVITIES.

EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION- A DIGESTION WHICH TAKES PLACE OUTSIDE THE CELLS.

FUNGI- BREAD MOLDS AND MUSHROOM, ABSORPTIVE. DIGESTION IN LOWER FORMS OF ANIMALS AMOEBA AND PARAMECIUM- LARGE MOLECULES AND THE SOLID PARTICLES ARE TAKEN IN BY CELLS AND DIGESTED BY ENZYMES. INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION- A DIGESTION WHICH TAKES PLACE INSIDE THE CELLS. HYDRA- A COELENTERATE, SECRETES ENZYMES INTO THE BODY CAVITY WHERE THE FOOD IS DIGESTED.

ANIMALS- HAVE SPECIALIZED ORGANS CALLED DIGESTIVE GLANDS THAT SECRETE ENZYMES TO THE DIGESTIVE CAVITY. HUMAN DIGESTION- OCCURS IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OR GUT.

MECHANICAL DIGESTION- PRESENCE OF SALIVA. A) SALIVA- A FLUID RICH IN IONS AND AN ENZYME CALLED AMYLASE. B) PHARYNX- MUSCULAR CHAMBER NEXT TO THE MOUTH, CARRIES THE FOOD TO A FOOT LONG TUBE CALLED THE ESOPHAGUS. 1) PERISTALSIS- RIPPLING MUSCULAR ACTION WHEN FOOD IS CARRIED IN THE ESOPHAGUS. 2) CARDIAC SPHINCTER- CIRCULAR MUSCLE, LOCATED BETWEEN ESOPHAGUS AND THE STOMACH, CLOSES WHEN THE FOOD IS IN THE STOMACH WHICH PREVENTS THE FOOD FROM REGURGITATING BACK TO THE ESOPHAGUS. C) STOMACH- MECHANICALLY SQUEEZES AND GRINDS THE FOOD BY MECHANICAL ACTION. 1) PROTEASE (PEPSIN) AND HCL- COMPONENTS OF GASTRIC ACID. 2) POLYPEPTIDES- PROTEINS ARE CONVERTED INTO THESE WITH THE PRESENCE OF PROTEASE ENZYMES AND HCL.. 3) PYLORIC SPHINCTER- CIRCULAR MUSCLE BETWEEN THE STOMACH AND THE SMALL INTESTINE. D) DUODENUM- A VERY LITTLE ABSORPTION BUT MOST DIGESTION OCCURS. E) JEJUNUM- CONNECTS THE DUODENUM TO A LONG, COILED TUBE CALLED THE ILEUM. F) LIVER- PRODUCES BILE. 1) BILE- A FLUID CONTANING COMPLEX SALTS, PIGMENTS AND SOME STEROID. STORED IN THE GALL BLADDER AND ENTERS THE JEJUNUM OF THE SMALL INTESTINE WHEN CHYME IS PRESENT. 2) PANCREAS- LIES BEHIND THE STOMACH AGAINST THE BACK WALL OF THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. SECRETES PANCREATIC JUICE WHICH CONTAINS ENZYMES WHICH AID IN THE CHEMICAL BREAKDOWN OF CARBOHYDRATES ETC. G) COLON- APPROXIMATELY FIVE TO SIX FEET LONG AND ABOUT EIGHT CENTIMETERS IN DIAMTER.

H) PANCREAS- SECRETION OF PANCREATIC JUICE TO THE SMALL INTESTINE. I) SMALL INTESTINE- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION. J) LARGE INTESTINE- RESORPTION OF WATER, COLLECTION OF UNDIGESTED FOOD. K) ANUS- WASTE EXIT. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- ALSO KNOWN AS TRANSPORT SYSTEM. CIRCULATION- THE FLOW OF NUTRITIVE FLUIDS, WATER AND WASTE MATERIALS IN LIVING ORGANISMS. CIRCULATION IN PLANTS

XYLEM- WATER AND MINERALS ARE ABSORBED BY THE ROOTS AND ARE TRANSPORTED TO THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PLANT THROUGH THESE. A) TRANSPIRATION- COHESION.

PHLOEM- FOOD MANUFACTURED IN THE LEAVES DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS TRANSPORTED FROM THE LEAF TO OTHER PARTS OF THE PLANT THROUGH THESE. A) TRANSLOCATION- TRANSPORT OF THE SOLUBLE PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS. B) ACTIVE TRANSPORT- OSMOSIS. CIRCULATION IN LOWER ANIMAL FORMS- OPEN TYPE. HUMAN CIRCULATION- CLOSED TYPE COMPOSED OF THE ARTERY, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES.

ARTERIES- THICK MUSCULAR WALLS WITH ELASTIC COVERINGS. CARRIES OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM THE HEART TO THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY. VEINS- CARRY DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FROM TISSUES TO THE HEART.

CAPILLARIES- TINY BLOOD VESSELS THAT INTERCONNECT THE ARTERIES WITH THE VEINS. MATERIALS ARE EXCHANGED BETWEEN THE FLUID INSIDE THE CAPILLARIES AND THE FLUID SURROUNDING THE TISSUE CELLS THROUGH THE TINY CAPILLARY WALLS. THE HEART

HEART- LOCATED IN THE FRONT PART OF THE CHEST AND CONSTANTLY BEATS DAY AND NIGHT. BLOOD VESSELS- WHERE THE BLOOD TRAVELS TO ALL PARTS OF THE BODY WITH EACH BEAT OF THE HEART. 90 TIMES/MIN- HEARTBEAT OF A BOY OR A GIRL. 140 TIMES/MIN- A BABYS HEARTBEAT. 70-80 TIMES/MIN- A GROWN PERSONS HEARBEAT. PACEMAKER- SPECIALIZED MUSCLE TISSUES LOCATED AT THE RIGHT ATRIUM. AURICLE/ATRIUM- UPPER PART OR CHAMBER. VENTRICLE- LOWER PART OR CHAMBER.

SUPERIOR VENA CAVA AND INFERIOR VENA CAVA- BRING BLOOD BACK FROM THE BODY TO THE ATRIUM. TRICUSPID VALVE- THE BLOOD IS SENT HERE AND THEN TO THE RIGHT VENTRICLE. RIGHT VENTRICLE- PUMPS THE WASTE-FILLED BLOOD THROUGH THE PULMONARY ARTERY. A) DEOXYGENATED- WASTE FILLED BLOOD. PULMONARY ARTERIES- ARE THE ONLY ARTERIE IN THE BODY THAT ARE DEOXYGENATED OR BLOOD FILLED WITH WASTE SUCH AS CARBON DIOXIDE. LUNGS- WHERE BLOOD GOES IN AND THEIR WASTES ARE RELASED AND OXYGEN IS TAKEN IN THE BLOOD. PULMONARY VEINS- BRING FRESH BLOOD(OXYGENATED) BACK FROM BOTH LUNGS TO THE LEFT ATRIUM. THEY ARE THE ONLY VEINS THAT CARRY OXYGENATED BLOOD. BICUSPID/MITRAL VALVE- FROM THE LEFT ATRIUM THE OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD IS PUMPED THROUGH THIS INTO THE LEFT VENTRICLE. LEFT VENTRICLE- PUMPS THE OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD TO THE REST OF THE BODY THROUGH MAIN ARTERY CALLED THE AORTA. AORTA- BRANCHES OFF INTO MANY SMALLER ARTERIES THAT EXTEND THROUGHOUT ALL THE BODY. PULMONARY CIRCULATION- CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD FROM THE RIGHT ATRIUM TO THE LEFT VENTRICLE OF THE HEART. SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION- OCCURS FROM THE TIME BLOOD LEAVES THE HEART VIA THE AORTA TO THE TIME THE BLOOD ENTERS THE HEART VIA THE VENA CAVAE VEINS. BLOOD- A TISSUE CONSISTING OF A CELLULAR PORTION COMPOSED OF RBC, WBC, PLATELETS AND PLASMA. A) RED BLOOD CELLS(ERYTHROCYTES)- MADE IN THE BONE MARROW OF THE LONG BONES, ARE HIGHLY SPECIALIZED TO CARRY THE OXYGEN TO THE BODY CELLS AND TO REMOVE CARBON DIOXIDE FROM THE BODY CELLS TO THE LUNGS. 1) HEMOGLOBIN- A RED, IRON-CONTAINING PROTEIN PIGMENT IN THE ERYTHROCYTES WHICH MAKES THIS PROCESS POSSIBLE. 2) NOTE: RBC DOESNT CONTAIN ANY NUCLEUS. 3) 4 MILLION TO 6 MILLION CELLS/M3- NORMAL RED BLOOD CELL COUNT. B) WHITE BLOOD CELLS(LEUKOCYTES)- LARGER THAN RBC, THEY HELP THE BODY FIGHT INFECTION. 1) BONE MARROW- WHERE SOME WBC ARE MADE. 2) PUS OF A SORE OR BOIL- WHERE SOME WBC CAN BE FOUND. 3) NOTE: WBC CONTAINS NUCLEUS. 4) 4,500 TO 11,000 CELLS/M3- NORMAL WHITE BLOOD CELL COUNT.

COMPONENTS OF THE BLOOD

C) PLATELETS/THROMBOCYTES- PRODUCED IN THE BONE MARROW, LACK A NUCLEUS AND CANNOT REPRODUCE THEMSELVES. 1) 10 DAYS- LIFE SPAN OF PLATELETS IN VASCULAR SYSTEM, 2) BLOOD CLOTTING PROCESS- PLATELETS ASSIST IN THIS. A) PLATELETS- DISINTEGRATE WHEN BLOOD LEAVES A VESSEL. B) THROMBOPLASTIN- RELEASED BY PLATELETS. C) PROTHROMBIN + Ca++- RESULTS TO THROMBIN. D) FIBRINOGEN- BLOOD PROTEIN. E) FIBRIN- FORMS A NETWORK AND TRAPS BLOOD CELLS FORMING A CLOT. 3) 250,000 PLATELETS- NUMBER OF PLATELETS. D) PLASMA- LIQUID PART OF THE BLOOD, 91.5 PERCENT WATER, 7 PERCENT PROTEINS AND 1.5 PERCENT (SALTS, GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, VITAMINS, HORMONES, AND ALL THE WASTE PRODUCTS OF CELLULAR METABOLISM.) 1) ALBUMIN- MAJOR PLASMA PROTEIN WHOSE OSMOTIC EFFECT HELPS RETAIN WATER WITHIN THE VESSELS AND WHICH ALSO SERVES AS A NONSPECIFIC CARRIER PROTEIN BY BINDING WITH CERTAIN OTHER SMALL MOLECULES IN THE PLASMA. 2) EDEMA- A SWELLING, UNDER CRITICALLY LOW ALBUMIN, WATER MOVES FROM THE CAPILLARIES TO THE BODY TISSUES. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LYMPH- THE FLUID PART, IS COLLECTED BY THE CAPILLARIES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND DRAINS PROGRESSIVELY INTO LARGER VESSELS CALLED THE LYMPHATIC DUCTS. LYMPHATIC DUCTS- EMPTY INTO LARGE VEINS AND RE-ENTER THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM. LYMPH NODES- CONCENTRATED IN THE NECK, ARMPIT, INNER ELBOW AND GROIN. SECONDARY SITES FOR PRODUCTION OF LYMPHOCYTES THAT PRODUCE ANTIBODIES. HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM

PATHOGEN- DISEASE-CAUSING ORGANISMS THAT ARE HIGHLY SPECIFIC IN THEIR ACTION MAKE UP THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. LYMPH VESSELS, LYMPH NODES, WBC AND THYMUS GLAND- AREAS WHERE DEFENSE SYSTEM IS ACTIVE. LYMPHOCYTES- IMMUNE IS MEDIATED BY THESE. 1) T AND B CELLS- BOTH DERIVED FROM THE LYMPHOCYTIC CELLS IN THE BONE MARROW. 2) T CELLS- PROCESSED OR DIFFERENTIATED IN THE THYMUS. 3) B CELLS- DIFFERENTIATED IN THE BONE MARROW. ANTIGEN- ANY SUBSTANCE(LARGE POLYSACCHARIDES/LARGE LIPOPROTEINS) THAT CAUSES A SPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSE.

ANTIBODIES- IMMUNE SUBSTANCES FOUND IN THE INVADING ORGANISM. B CELLS ARE INVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF THESE. IMMUNOGLOBULIN- A SPECIFIC ANTIBODY EXISTS IN THE BODY FOR ALMOST EVERY ANTIGEN. HUMORAL RESPONSE(ANTIBODY-MEDIATED SYSTEM)- IS THE ASPECT OF IMMUNITY THAT IS MEDIATED BY MACROMOLECULES FOUND IN EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS SUCH AS SECRETED ANTIBODIES, COMPLEMENT PROTEINS AND CERTAIN ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDES. CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE- THE T CELLS INTIATE THE ATTACK ON FORGEIN BODIES BY VARIOUS CELL TYPES. T CELLS ATTACK THE EUKARYOTIC CELLS RATHER THAN THE ANTIBODIES WHETHER THEY BE THE CELLS OF ATTACKERS OR CELLS OF THE HOST BODY. SUPPRESSOR CELLS (MODIFIED T CELLS)- AFTER THE PATHOGEN HAS DISAPPEARED FROM THE BLOOD, STOP B CELLS FORM PRODUCING ANTIBODIES. MEMORY B CELLS AND MEMORY T CELLS- REMAIN IN CIRCULATION AS WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER THE SAME PATHOGEN IN THE FUTURE THEY PROLIFERATE QUICKLY AND FIGHT THE INFECTION BEFORE IT AFFECTS THE ENTIRE SYSTEM.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM RESPIRATION- WHOLE PROCESS OF OXYGEN USE, ENERGY RELEASE AND CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION BY CELLS. RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

LEAF- CHIEF ORGAN FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS. PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION- EXCHANGE OF GASES WITH THE ATMOSPHERE IS MADE BY POSSIBLE BY THESE.

GLUCOSE- PRINCIPAL FUEL FROM WHICH ENERGY IS RELEASED BY OXIDATION. THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION- BREATHING DRAWS OXYGEN-CONTAINING AIR ITO CLOSE CONTACT WITH THE DAMP EPITHELIUM OF THE LUNG WHERE RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE OCCURS. INTERNAL RESPIRATION- OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE ARE TRANSPORTED TO AND FROM THE RESPIRING CELLS. EXTERNAL NARES/NOSTRILS- AIR PASSES THROUGH THIS AND ENTERS THE NASAL CAVITIES. MOISTENING- MUCUS SECRETION. FILTERING- TINY HAIRS. WARMING- FOLDS OF THE NOSE. PHARYNX- THROAT. GLOTTIS- AIR LEAVES THE PHARYNX AND GOES TO THE LARYNX VIA THIS OPENING. 1) EPIGLOTTIS- PROTECTS THE GLOTTIS.

LARYNX- ADAMS APPLE, WHERE THE VOCAL CHORDS ARE FOUND. TRACHEA/WINDPIPE- SUPPORTED BY HORSESHOE-SHAPED RINGS OF CARTILAGE FOR FREE PASSAGE OF AIR. 1) CILIA- LINE THE TRACHEA WHICH CARRY DUST OR DIRT UPWARD TOWARD THE MOUTH. AIR SAC- SERIES OF CHAMBER LIKE STRUCTURES IN ITS WALLS CALLED THE ALVEOLI. ALVEOLI- ITS WALLS ARE VERY THIN AND ELASTIC. BREATHING- DRAWING OF AIR INTO AND OUT OF THE LUNGS, INVOLVES MUSCULAR CONTRACTIONS OF THE RIB CAGE AND DIAPHRAGM.

SKELETAL SYSTEM SKELETON- GIVES SHAPE AND SUPPORT TO THE BODY AND GIVES PROTECTION THE UNDERLYING ORGANS. VERTEBRATE SKELETON

AXIAL SKELETON- INCLUDES THE SKULL, BACKBONE, RIBS AND BREASTBONE (STERNUM). APPENDICULAR SKELETON- INCLUDES THE BONES OF THE PAIRED APPENDAGES AND PELVIC GIRDLES. SKULL- MADE UP OF FUSED BONES, THE CRANIUM OR THE BODY CASE. BACKBONE- MADE UP OF 33 SEPARATE VERTEBRAE. RIBS- SERIES OF FLAT BONES WHICH SUPPORT THE CHEST ALL AND KEEP IT FROM COLLAPSING AS THE DIAPHRAGM CONTRACTS. THERE ARE 12 PAIRS. 206 BONES- NUMBER OF BONES IN THE HUMAN BODY.

JOINT- POINT OF JUNCTION BETWEEN 2 BONES. A) IMMOVABLE JOINTS- SKULL B) HINGE JOINTS- KNEE C) PIVOT JOINTS- WRISTS AND ANKLES - CARTILAGE- REDUCES FRICTION BETWEEN 2 BONES. - TENDONS- ATTACH THE MUSCLES TO THE BONE. - LIGAMENT- CONNCT BONES. BONE- BUILDING MATERIAL OF THE SKELETON. 25 PERCENT WATER AND 45 PERCENT MINERAL DEPOSITS (CALCIUM COMBINE WITH EITHER PHOSPHATE OR CARBONATE. PARATHYROID HORMONE- HORMONES WHICH CONTROLS BONE FORMATION. PERIOSTEUM- OUTER TOUGH COVERING. COMPACT BONE- UNDER THE PERIOSTEUM CONTAINS THE DEPOSITS OF MINERAL MATTER AND PROTEIN FIBERS. HAVERSIAN CANALS/CHANNELS- PENETRATE THE BONY LAYER. OSTEOCYTES- BONE CELLS WHICH ARE NOURISHED BY CANAS.

SPONGY BONE- INTERIOR TO THE COMPACT BONE WHICH IS COMPOSED OF A NETWORK OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE MAKING IT POROUS. MARROW- SOME BONES HAVE HOLLOW INTERIORS AND CONTAIN A SOFT TISSUE. RICHLY SUPPLIED WITH BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES. ARTHRITIES- INFLAMED TISSUES AROUND A JOINT. HYPERTROPHIED BONES- TOES THAT ARE LARGER THAN NORMAL BONES. RICKETS- LACK OF VITAMIN D MAKES THE BONE WEAK AND DEFORMAED A BONE DEFECT.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM MUSCLE FIBERS- ABILITY TO MOVE DEPENDS UPON A GROUP OF SPECIALIZED CONTRACTILE CELLS. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLE ACTIVITY - SIMPLE TWITCH- A MUSCULAR RESPONSE. 1) LATENT PERIOD- IN A SINGLE ADEQUATE STIMULUS IN A MUSCLE, THERE IS A BRIEF INTERVAL DURING WHICH NO CONTRACTION OCCURS. 2) CONTRACTION 3) RELAXATION - 80 PERCENT OF MUSCLE- WATER. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM SKIN- LARGEST ORGAN IN THE HUMAN BODY. - EPIDERMIS- OUTER LAYER, COMPOSED OF 20 LAYERS OF DEAD CELLS WHICH ARE CONSTANTLY BEING SHED AND REPLACED BY NEW CELLS. - KERATIN- ROUGH, LEATHERY AND WATER-PROOF FEATURES OF SKIN IS DUE TO A PROTEIN CALLED THIS. - HORNY LAYER- FLATTENED, DEAD AND SCALELIKE CELLS. - GERMINATIVE LAYER- MORE ACTIVE AND LARGER INNER PART. - HAIR AND NAILS- MADE UP PRIMARILY OF KERATIN. - DERMIS- INNER LAYER OF THE SKIN. COMPOSED OF LIVING CELS AND IT CONTAINS BLOOD AND LYMPH VESSELS, NERVES, SWEAT GLANDS AND OIL GLANDS. - EXOCRINE GLANDS- RELEASE SECRETIONS THROUGH DUCTS, NACL AND UREA. 1) SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS/SWEAT GLANDS 2) OIL GLANDS - SEBUM- OIL SECRETES THIS WHICH MAKES THE SKIN SOFTER AND WATERPROOF. THIS PREVENTS THE HAIR SHAFT OF THE SKIN FROM DRYING AND BREAKING OFF. - MELANIN- SKIN PIGMENT PRODUCED IN THE LOWER LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS, HELPS DETERMINE THE SKIN COLOR AND ABSORBS HARMFUL UV LIGHT.

CHAPTER VII- HOMEOSTASIS

DIFFUSION CELLULAR HOMEOSTASIS- DEPENDENT ON THE CELL MEMBRANE WHEREIN NEEDED SUBSTANCES CAN BE MOVED IN AND OTHER SUBSTANCES CAN BE MOVED OUT. DIFFUSION- PROCES BY WHICH MOLECULES MOVE FROM AN AREA OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LOWER CONCENTRATION. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT- DIFFERENCE IN CONCENTRATION OF A SUBSTANCE ACROSS SPACE. SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE- CELL MEMBRANES ARE THESE, THEY REGULATE WHAT GETS INTO AND OUT OF A CELL SINCE ONLY SOME SUBSTANCES ARE ALLOWED TO PASS THROUGH. OSMOSIS- WATER MOLECULES DIFFUSE THROUGH A MEMBRANE FROM AN AREA OF GREATER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LESSER CONCENTRATION. WATER- MAIN SOLVENT IN THE CELL. TONICITY- MEASURE OSMOTIC PRESSURE GRADIENT. - HYPOTONIC- LOWER CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTES OUTSIDE THE CELL THAN INSIDE THE CELL. MORE WATER GOES IN THE CELL ENLARGES. - HYPERTONIC- HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTES OUTSIDE THE CELL THAN INSIDE THE CELL. MORE WATER GOES OUT THE CELL COLLAPSES. - ISOTONIC- WHEN THE SOLUTE MOLECULES OUTSIDE AND INSIDE ARE EQUAL. TURGOR PRESSURE- IN PLANT CELLS, AS WATER DIFFUSES INTO A CELL BY OSMOSIS IT BUILDS UP A PRESSURE. WALL PRESSURE- CELL WALL EXERTS AN EQUAL PRESSURE WHEN THERE IS TURGOR PRESSURE. PLASMOLYSIS- ABSENCE OF TURGOR PRESSURE MAY CAUSE SHRINKING. PASSIVE TRANSPORT- DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS, REFERS TO MOVEMENT OF ANY SUBSTANCE ACROSS A MEMBRANE WITHOUT THE USE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY. ACTIVE TRANSPORT- SUBSTANCE MOVES ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE FROM AN LOWER CONCENTRATION TO HIGHER CONCENTRATION WITH THE USE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY. ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS- PART OF THE CELLS MAINTENANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS. ENDOCYTOSIS- PROCESS BY WHICH CELLS ENGULF OR TAKE IN SUBSTANCES THAT ARE MUCH TOO LARGE TO ENTER THE CELL MEMBRANE. EXOCYTOSIS- LARGE MOLECULES PASS OUT OF THE CELL. REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID- MUST REMAIN CONSTANT AROUND CELLS OF THE BODY AND IT OCCURS AS TISSUE FLUIDS BETWEEN CELLS AND AS PLASMA IN THE BLOOD. - CEREBROSPINAL FLUID- FLUID IN THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CHORD. - 2 IMPORTANT WAYS IN WHICH COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS IS REGULATED 1) OSMOREGULATION (WATER BALANCE) 2) REMOVAL OF NITROGENOUS WASTES. OSMOREGULATION- REFERS TO CONTROL OF WATER AND SALT BALANCE IN THE BODY.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM EXCRETION- THE PROCESS BY WHICH SUCH WASTE PRODUCTS ARE REMOVED FROM AN ORGANISMS BODY. EXRETION IN PLANTS - CARBON DIOXIDE- IS A WASTE PRODUCT WHICH LEAVES THE PLANT VIA THE STOMATES AND LENTICELS. - TRANSPIRATION- WATER IS LOST THROUGH THIS AND THROUGH THE STOMATES OF THE LEAVES. - GUTTATION- WATER IS FORCED OUT OF THE PLANT THROUGH SPECIAL PORES IN THE LEAVES CALLED HYDATHODES. OCCURS WHEN THERE IS LITTLE OR NO TRANSPIRATION TAKING PLACE WHICH IS USUALLY DURING THE NIGHT. HUMAN EXCRETION - KIDNEY- BEAN SHAPED ORGANS LOCATED ON BOTH SIDES OF THE SPINAL COLUMN AND EXTENDING SLIGHTLY ABOVE THE WAIST. - ONE MILLION NEPHRONS- NUMBER OF NEPHRONS THAT A KIDNEY CONTAINS. - NEPHRON- IS FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE KIDNEY IN WHICH BLOOD IS FILTERED AND URINE IS FORMED. 1) GLOMERULUS- SERVES AS THE PRESSURE FILTER FOR THE BLOOD. 2) RENAL TUBULE- THROUGH WHICH THE FLUID THAT HAS BEEN FILTERED OUT PASSES. 3) BOWMANS CAPSULE- SURROUNDS THE GLOMERULUS. A) PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE B) LOOP OF HENLE C) DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE- CONNECTED TO A COLLECTING TUBULE WHICH CONDUCTS A NEWLY-FORMED URINE TO THE PELVIS. - URINE- CONDUCTED THROUGH IT BY PERISTALTIC CONTRACTION OF THE MUSCULAR WALL. - URINARY BLADDER- COLLECTS AND STORES THE URINE. - FUNCTIONS OF A KIDNEY 1) FILTRATION 2) REABSORPTION

3) SECRETION TUBULAR SECRETION- PROCESS BY WHICH SUBSTANCES SUCH AS HYDROGEN AND POTASSIUM IONS AND VARIOUS FOREIGN SUBSTANCES SUCH AS PENICILLIN ARE ACTIVELY SECRETED INTO THE TUBULE. ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE- REGULATES THE PERMEABILITY OF THE COLLECTING DUCT WHICH INCREASES PERMEABILITY, RETAINING WATER IN THE BODY. URINE- 96% WATER, 1.5% SALTS AND 2.5% ORGANIC WASTES, MAINLY UREA. UROCHROME- RESPONSIBLE FOR THE YELLOW COLOR OF URINE, A BREAKDOWN PRODUCT OF HEMOGLOBIN. NEPHRITIS- A BACTERIAL INFECTION OF THE KIDNEY CELLS. UREMIA- WHICH MAY POISON THE BLOOD. DIABETES MELLITUS- EXCESS OF GLUCOSE IN THE BLOOD WHICH MAY RESULT IN TURN IN THE PASSAGE OF SOME GLUCOSE TO THE OUTSIDE OF THE BODY VIA THE EURINE.

THE REGULATORY SYSTEM PITUITARY - SECRETES: 1) GROWTH HORMONES 2) GONADOTROPIC 3) ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC 4) THYROTROPIC 5) VASOPRESIN/ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE 6) OXYTOCIN 7) FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE 8) LUTEINIZING HORMONE - FUNCTIONS 1) PROMOTE GROWTH 2) REGULATES GONAD SECRETION 3) REGULATES ADRENAL SECRETION 4) REGULATES THYROID SECRETION 5) INCREASES THE ABSORPTION OF WATER FROM KIDNEY TUBULES 6) PROMOTES CONTRACTION OF UTERUS DURING CHILDBIRTH 7) STIMULATES FOLLICLE GROWTH AND SECRETION OF GAMETES PARATHYROIDS - SECRETES: PARATHORMONE - FUNCTION: REGULATES Ca AND Ph CONCENTRATION IN THE BLOOD THYROID - SECRETES: 1) THYROXINE 2) CALCITONIN - FUNCTIONS:

1) REGULATE BODY METABOLISM 2) INHIBITS RELEASE OF CALCIUM FROM BONES ISLETS OF LANGERHANS IN THE PANCREAS (ALPHA AND BETA CELLS) - SECRETES: 1) GLUCAGON 2) INSULIN - FUNCTIONS: 1) INCREASES BLOOD SUGAR CONCENTRATION 2) DECREASES BLOOD SUGAR CONCENTRATION 3) UNDERSECRETION CAUSES DIABETES ADRENAL - SECRETES: 1) CORTEXMINERALCORTICOIDS- REGULATE Na AND K METABOLISM GLUCOCORTICOIDS- REGULATE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM ANDROGENS- AFFECT THE SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT 2) MEDULLA ADRENALINE/EPINEPHRINE- THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONE OR EMERGENCY HORMONE INCREASES BLOOD SUGAR GONADS - SECRETES: 1) TESTESA) TESTOSTERONE- DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY MALE SEX CHARACTERISTICS 2) OVARIES A) ESTROGEN/PROGESTERONE THYMUS - SECRETES: 1) THYMOSIN- INVOLVED IN MATURATION OF CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM. PINEAL - SECRETES: 1) MELATONIN- REGULATES BIOLOGICAL CLOCK; MAY REGULATE ONSET OF PUBERTY.

HOMEOTHERMY (ENDOTHERMY)- CAPACITY OF CERTAIN GROUPS OF ANIMALS LIKE MAN TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT BODY TEMPERATURE.

NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURON/NERVE CELL- BASIC STRUCTURAL UNIT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM. - DENDRITES- CARRY NERVE IMPULSES OR SIGNALS TOWARD THE CELL BODY. - AXONS- CARRY SIGNALS AWAY FROM THE CELL BODY.

A) MYELIN- FATTY NON-CELLULAR SUBSTANCE WHICH GIVES WHITE APPEARANCE TO NEURONS THAT HAVE IT. B) NEURILEMMA- THIN OUTER LATER WHICH PLAY SOME ROLE IN THE REGENERATION OF A CUT NEAURON SINCE CELLS CAN BE FOUND IN IT. PERIKARYON- CELL BODY WHICH CONTAINS THE NUCLEUS. SYNAPSE- NEURONS ARE ARRANGED SO THAT THE DENDRITES OF ONE LIE CLOSE TO THE AXON OF ANOTHER, THE POINT WHERE NEURONS COME CLOSE TOGETHER. SENSORY NEURONS- COMMUNICATE INFORMATION ABOUT THE EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS FROM SENSORY RECEPTORS TO THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. MOTOR NEURONS- CONVEY IMPULSES FROM THE CENTRAL NERVOUUS SYSTEM TO THE EFFECTOR CELLS. INTERNEURONS- INTEGRATE THE SENSORY INPUT AND MOTOR OUTPUT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. CEREBRUM- MOST IMPORTANT REGION OF THE BRAIN COMPOSED BILLION NEURONS WHICH CONTROLS MOST VOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES. CEREBELLUM- COORDINATES IMPULSES SENT FROM THE CEREBRUM TO VARIOUS MUSCLES TO HELP MOTION. THALAMUS- RELAY CENTER FOR INCOMING SENSORY IMPULSES. HYPOTHALAMUS- CONTAINS CELLS ESPECIALLY SENSITIVE TO CHANGES IN BODY TEMPERATURE. MEDULLA OBLONGATA- CONTAINS NERVE CENTERS THAT CONTROL INVOLUNTARY PROCESSES SUCH BREATHING, HEART RATE, DILATION OF BLOOD VESSELS AND VOMITING. PONS- CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN THE RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERES. CRANIUM- BONE OF THE HEAD MENINGES- COMPOSED OF THE DURA MATER(OUTER), ARACHNOID MATER(MIDDLE) AND PIA MATER(INNER) MEMBRANES. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID- FOUND BETWEEN THE MENINGES SERVES AS CUSHION AND SHOCK ABSORBER OF THE BRAIN IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS. SPINAL CORD- TRANSMITS IMPULSES TO AND FROM THE BRAIN AND TO ACT AS A REFLEX CENTER. REFLEX ARC- SIMPLE NEURAL PATHWAY LINKING A SENSORY AND MOTOR NEURON. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM- INNERVATES THE HEART, LUNGS AND DIGESTIVE TRACT AND OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS. A) SYMPATHETIC NERVES- INCREASES B) PARASYMPATHETIC NERVES- DECREASES.