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Contents
1. Introduction to Vector Algebra 2. Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates 3. Surface Geometry 4. General Curvilinear Coordinates 5. Tensor Calculus 6. Symmetric Tensors 7. Tensor Derivatives 8. Tensor form of Gradient 9. Cartesian Tensors 10. Calculus of Cartesian Tensors 11. Integral Theorems in Tensors 1 7 24 32 45 65 81 106 119 147 157
2 13. Every vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the base vectors as a = a1 e 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 (1.1)
where a1 , a2 and a3 (real numbers referred to as the components of a ) represent the projection of a on the coordinates axes. A short notation, using summation convention for any repeated index, for (1.1) is a = ai e i 14. A typical ith component of a vector a is denoted by [ a]i , that is [ a]i = ai 15. In component form, the scalar multiple can be written as a = (a1 ) e i 1 + (a2 ) e 2 + (a3 ) e 3 = ( ai ) e Therefore [ a ]i = ai = [ a]i (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.2)
1.2
Parallelogram law
If x and y are any two vectors, then x +y is dened by the parallelogram law shown in the Fig. 1.1.
1.3
Scalar product
a b = |a | | b| cos (1.6)
where is the angle between the direction of the vectors a and b. Remark : We have a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = ai bi , a e i = ai = [ a] i ai = |a| cos i where i is the angle made by the vector a with the xi -axis. Further, cos i for i = 1, 2, 3 are the direction cosines of a and ai for i = 1, 2, 3 are the direction ratios of a . For unit vectors, the components are the direction cosines.
1.4
Vector product
a b = |a | | b| sin n (1.7)
The cross product or vector product of any two vectors a and b is given by
where is the angle between the directions of the vectors a and b, n is the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b. The direction of n is that direction obtained by right handed screw rotation from a to b. Some properties of the cross product to be noted are: 1. a b= 0 means a and b are collinear 2. |a b| is the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a and b. 3. a b = (a2 b3 a3 b2 ) e 1 + (a3 b1 a1 b2 ) e 2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 ) e 3 in component form. 4. a b= e 1 e 2 e 3 a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 in determinant form.
5. a a = 0 and a b= b a 6. Since, for the base vectors, we have e i e j = ijk e k where is dened by 1 ijk = 1 0 if i, j and k are in cyclic order if i, j and k are in acyclic order if any two of i, j and k are equal, (1.9) (1.8)
4 therefore, the vector product also can be written as a b = (ai e i ) (bj e i e j ) = ai b j ( e j ) = ai bj (ijk e k) = ijk ai bj e i = ijk aj bk e i k = jki aj bk e th ijk aj bk is the i component of a b 7. Since a a = 0, we have ijk aj ak = 0 (1.10) (1.11)
1.5
The scalar triple product of three vectors a , b and c is given by a ( bc ) = = (b2 c3 b3 c2 ) a1 + (b3 c1 c1 c2 ) a2 + (b1 c2 b2 c1 ) a3 (1.12)
Some properties of scalar triple product are 1. a ( b c ) = 0 means a , b and c are coplanar, that is, there exists two scalars and such that a =b+ c . 2. Since a b = ijk aj bk , ( a b) c = ijk aj bk ci = ijk ai bi ck
1.6
1.7
let A = [aij ], B = [bij ] and C = [cij ] be three square matrices of order 3 such that C = A B then, we have 3 cij = aik bkj [aij ] [bij ] = aik bkj (1.15)
i=1
Some properties of matrix product 1. [aij ] [aij ] = aik akj 2. [aij ] [bij ]T = aik bjk 3. [aij ]T [bij ] = aki bkj
1.8
1.8.1
Given (with usual notation for aij , bij and ij ) aij = ij bkk + bij then, express bij in terms of aij . Solution : From the given relation, for i = j , we have aij = bij . 1 That is, when i = j , we have bij = aij . For i = j , we have aii = 3(b11 + b22 + b33 ) + bii = (3 + )bpp . Therefore, when i = j , we have bpp = 31 a (Note that ii = 3) + pp Putting the above two statements together, we have bij 1 1 (aij ij bpp ) = = ( ij app aij 3 + )
1.8.2
Problem
1jk ajk
= 132 a32 + 123 a23 , since all the other terms are zero = a23 a32 Similarly, we have 2jk ajk = a31 a13 and 3jk ajk = a12 a21 . Using these three relations, it is easy to prove the given statement.
3 j =1
1.8.3
Problem
a i1 a i2 a i3 aj 1 aj 2 aj 3 ak1 ak2 ak3
1.8.4
Problem
det(aij ) = pqr a1p a2q a3r = pqr ap1 aq2 ar3
Show that
1.9
1.
2. ijk pqr = 3.
ip iq ir jp jq jr kp kq kr
ijk pqr = ip jq iq jp 4. ijk pjk = 2 ip 5. ijk ijk = 6 6. det(aij ) = 7. det(aij ) = 8. det(aij ) = 9. ijk det(aij ) = pqr aip ajq akr = pqr api aqj ark 1 ijk pqr aip + ajq + akr 6 1 ijk pqr api + aqj + ark 6
For any physical space, a coordinate system, for example as shown in Fig 2.1, is necessary for dening the problem, locating the objects, evaluating the properties, providing a reference for discussion etc. Generally three coordinates are essential to dene the location of a particle in any 3D space. Similarly, two coordinates are sucient to locate a particle either moving or stationary in a plane.
2.2
Curvilinear Coordinates
Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be the rectangular coordinates of any point, say, P in a rectangular coordinate system (xi ), i = 1, 2, 3. 7
or conversely expressing the curvilinear coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 in terms of the rectangular coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 gives u1 = u1 ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) u2 = u2 ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) u3 = u3 ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) (2.2)
Functions (2.1) and (2.2) are assumed to be single valued and have continuous partial derivatives so that the relation between x1 , x2 , x3 and u1 , u2 , u3 is unique. Thus, given a point P (x1 , x2 , x3 ), the corresponding unique set of coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) can be obtained using (2.2) or the other way using (2.1). The coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P .
2.2.1
Enormous simplications can be achieved by using dierent coordinate systems in many mathematical problems as in a Boundary value problems for Partial Dierential Equations with boundary conditions specied at the coordinate surfaces. One of them is the orthogonal system, wherein, at any point of the space, the vectors aligned with the three coordinate directions are mutually perpendicular. The variation of a single coordinate, in general, will generate a curve in space, rather than a straight line; hence the term curvilinear. The surfaces, shown in Fig 2.2, u1 = c 1 , u2 = c2 , u3 = c 3 (2.3)
where c1 , c2 and c3 are constants, are called coordinate surfaces. These are the surfaces generated by holding one coordinate constant and varying the other two. The intersection of any two of these surfaces generates a coordinate curve or line. If they intersect at right angles, then such a coordinate system is called orthogonal coordinate system. In what follows, we present some important results from the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems.
2.3
Let
Unit Vectors
r = x1 i + x2 j + x3 k (2.4)
Figure 2.2: Coordinate surfaces be the position vector of the point P . Using (2.1) in (2.4) gives r = r (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (2.5)
r is a tangent vector to the u1 curve at the point P . Then the corresponding unit and u 1 tangent vector e 1 in the direction of u1 is
e 1 = or
1
r | u | 1
r u1
(2.6)
(2.7)
The unit vectors e 1, e 2 and e 3 are in the directions of increasing u1 , u2 and u3 , respectively. The quantities h1 , h2 and h3 are called the scale factors.
10
Figure 2.3: Tangent and normal unit vectors at a point P ui is a vector normal to the coordinate surface ui = ci for i = 1, 2, 3 at P and we denote i = ui , i = 1, 2, 3 E (2.8) |ui |
as the unit normal vectors to the surfaces ui = ci , i = 1, 2, 3 at P . Therefore, at every point P of a curvilinear system, there exists two sets of unit vectors (e 1, e 2, e 3 ) which are tangent 1 , E 2 , E 3 ) which are normal to the coordinate surfaces as to the coordinate curves and (E shown in Fig. 2.3. Note : In any orthogonal coordinate system (e 1, e 2, e 3 ) and (E1 , E2 , E3 ) are identical. of the rectangular coordinate system These two sets of vectors are analogous to the i, j, k but they may change from point to point unlike the latter.
2.3.1
Example :
r , r , r ) and (u1 , u2 , u3 ) constitute a reciprocal system of vectors, that Show that ( u 1 u2 u3 is { r 1, i = j (2.9) u j = 0, i = j ui
where i and j take any values of 1, 2, and 3. Proof : We have, from (2.5) dr = r r r du1 + du2 + du3 u1 u2 u3 (2.10)
2.4
Representation
can be represented in terms of the unit base vectors (e Any vector A 1, e 2, e 3 ) or (E1 , E2 , E3 ) as = a1 e A 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 3 = A1 E1 + A2 E2 + A3 E (2.11) (2.12)
in each system. Also, in terms where a1 , a2 , a3 , A1 , A2 , A3 are the respective components of A of the base vectors, A2 r A3 r = A1 r A + + h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 r r r + C2 + C3 = C1 u1 u2 u3 3 Ai r = Ci i , Ci = , i = , h u i i i=1 = A
hi =
r ui
(2.13)
or
(2.14)
and c1 , c2 and c3 are the covariant C1 , C2 and C3 are called the contravariant components of A . components of A
2.5
Arc length
The key to deriving expressions for curvilinear coordinates is to consider the arc length along a curve. From (2.5), we have dr = r r r du1 + du2 + du3 u1 u2 u3 = h1 du1 e 1 + h2 du2 e 2 + h3 du3 e 3
(2.15)
12
Figure 2.4: Volume in curvilinear coordinates Then the dierential of arc length ds is determined from ds2 = dr .dr . For orthogonal systems 2 2 2 2 ds = h1 du1 + h2 du2 + h3 du3 since e i .e j = Therefore, we have ds = (
3 i=1 2 h2 i (dui )
1, i = j 0, i = j )1/2
(2.16)
(2.17)
The fact that a space curve has an independent geometric signicance indicates that the quantity in brackets, in (2.17), must be invariant to the choice of the coordinate system. We will consider non-orthogonal systems or arc length in more general curvilinear systems later.
2.6
Volume element
Since u2 and u3 are constant along the u1 = const curve, we have dr = h1 du1 e 1, and similarly dr = h2 du2 e 2, dr = h3 du3 e 3, along u2 curve along u3 curve along u1 curve (2.18)
13 For a given orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, the dierential volume element corresponds to the volume of a parallelepiped with adjacent sides h1 du1 , h2 du2 and h3 du3 is shown in the Fig 2.4. The volume is given by the scalar triple product, therefore dv = |(h1 du1 e 1 ) . (h2 du2 e 2 ) (h3 du3 e 3 )| = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 since we have |e1 .e2 e3 | = 1.
(2.19)
2.7
Surface element
Expressions for dierential surface elements are obtained by using the geometric representation of the cross product. If dsi refers to a surface on which the coordinate ui is held constant, we obtain ds1 = h2 du2 e 2 h3 du3 e 3 = h2 h3 du2 du3 ds2 = h3 du3 e 3 h1 du1 e 1 = h1 h3 du1 du3 ds3 = h1 du1 e 1 h2 du2 e 2 = h1 h2 du1 du2 (2.20) (2.21) (2.22)
2.8
The gradient
An expression for the gradient in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates is obtained by examining the dierential change in a scalar function associated with a dierential change in position. If d = f1 e (2.23) 1 + f2 e 2 + f3 e 3 then, our aim is to compute f1 , f2 and f3 . Letting = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), we have d = Also d = dr . = dui u i i ) ( .
j
(2.24)
hi e i dui
fj e j
hi fi dui
(2.25)
This is the general expression for the gradient operator, valid for any orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system.
e i , h u i i i
(2.27)
14
2.9
Divergence of a vector
= (A1 , A2 , A3 ) in orthogonal curvilinear coordiExpression for the divergence of a vector A nates: From the derivation of the gradient operator, we have e e e e e 1 u1 2 u2 3 u3 1 u1 1 u1 = + + = = (2.28) h1 u1 h2 u1 h3 u1 h1 u1 h1 Similarly, we have e 1 = h 1 u 1 e 2 = h 2 u2 e 3 = h 3 u3 or or or
1 h 1 = |u1 | 1 h 2 = |u2 | 1 h 3 = |u3 |
(2.29)
(2.30) (2.31)
u2 u3 = So that
e e 2 e 3 1 = h2 h3 h2 h3
and
A1 e 1 = A 1 h 2 h 3 ( u2 u3 )
e 1 = h 2 h 3 ( u2 u3 ) ; e 2 = h 3 h 1 ( u3 u1 ) ; e 2 = h 1 h 2 ( u1 u2 ) ;
(2.32) (2.33)
. (A1 e 1 ) = . (A1 h2 h3 (u2 u3 )) = (A1 h2 h3 ) . (u2 u3 ) + A1 h2 h3 ( . u2 u3 ) e e 3 2 = ( A1 h 2 h 3 ) . h2 h3 after using (2.29), (2.30) and the fact that the div curl of a vector is zero ) e e e e e 2 3 2 3 1 + + ( A1 h 2 h 3 ) . . (A1 e 1) = h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 h2 h3 1 = ( A1 h 2 h 3 ) h1 h2 h3 u1 Similarly, we also have 1 . ( A2 e ( A2 h 3 h 1 ) 2) = h1 h2 h3 u2 1 ( A3 h 1 h 2 ) . ( A3 e 3) = h1 h2 h3 u3 Putting all the three terms together gives ( ) 1 .A = (A1 h2 h3 ) + (A2 h3 h1 ) + (A3 h1 h2 ) h1 h2 h3 u1 u2 u3 (
(2.34)
which is the general formula for the divergence in the curvilinear coordinates.
15
2.10
Curl of a vector
The curl of a vector in curvilinear coordinates is expressed as follows: We have, from (2.29) A 1 e 1 = A 1 h 1 u 1 = ((A1 h1 )) u1 + a1 h1 u1 e 1 = ((A1 h1 )) h1 ( ) e e e e 1 2 3 1 = + + ( A1 h 1 ) h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3 h1
A1 e1 = Similarly A2 e2 A3 e3
( (
e 2 h3 h1
(A1 h1 ) u3
e 3 h2 h1
(A1 h1 ) u2 (2.35)
When all the components are put together, the curl is written as a determinant form given by = A 1 h1 h2 h3 h1 e 1
u1
h2 e 2
u2
h3 e 3
u3
(2.36)
A1 h1 A2 h2 A3 h3
2.11
(2.37) This completes the results for orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. The remainder of this section is devoted to the useful special cases.
16
( , !, z)
2.12
2.12.1
Circular cylindrical coordinates, denoted as (, , z ), are shown in the Fig 2.5. The cylindrical coordinates are related to the rectangular coordinates (using (x, y, z ) instead of (x1 , x2 , x3 )) as x = cos , y = sin , z=z (2.38)
z=z
(2.39)
Note that for the points on the z axis, that is when (x = 0, y = 0), is indeterminant. Such points are called singular points of the transformation. The coordinate surfaces are = C1 ; = C2 ; z = C3 ; The coordinate curves are intersection of r = C1 intersection of r = C1 intersection of = C2 and and and = C2 ; = C3 ; = C3 ; is a circle or point is a semi-circle forc1 = 0 is a line (2.43) (2.44) (2.45) coaxial cylinders with z axis as the axis planes passing through the z axis planes perpendicular to the z axis (2.40) (2.41) (2.42)
17 The position vector of any point P is expressed as r = x i + y j + zk = cos i + sin j + zk Using (2.7), we have r = cos i + sin j r = sin i + cos j r = 1 z Therefore, the scale factors are h1 = h2 = h2 = Since, we have e i =
1 r h1 ui
(2.46)
for i = 1, 2, 3, the base vectors for the cylindrical coordinates are e 2 = sin i + cos j, e 3 = k (2.53)
e 1 = cos i + sin j,
Inverting the (2.53), the base vectors in the rectangular coordinate system, in terms of the base vectors of the cylindrical coordinate system are i = cos e 1 sin e 2, j = sin e 1 + cos e 2, =e k 3 (2.54)
The gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian operators in cylindrical coordinate system are as follows: Gradient of a scalar function f e i f , h u i i i ui f e f 2 f + +e 3 z
f =
hi =
= e 1
(2.55)
18
Figure 2.6: Volume and surface elements in cylindrical coordinate system = (A1 , A2 , A3 ) Curl of a vector function A
= A
1 h1 h2 h3
h1 e 1
u1
h2 e 2
u2
h3 e 3
u3
A1 h 1 A2 h 2 A3 h 3
1 =
e 1
e 2
e 3
z
(2.56)
A1 A2 A 3
( ( ) ( ) ( )) 1 h2 h3 h3 h1 h1 h1 = . = + + h1 h2 h3 u1 h1 u1 u2 h2 u2 u3 h3 u3 ( ) 2 2 1 1 (2.57) + 2 2+ 2 = z The dierential volume and surface elements are evaluated as dv = d d dz ds = d dz ; ds = d dz ; (2.58) (2.59)
dsz = d d
2.12.2
Some problems
19 Example : in cylindrical polar coordinates. = z Represent the vector A i 2x j + yk Example : Express the velocity and acceleration cylindrical polar coordinates. Example : Find the arc length in cylindrical polar coordinates.
2.12.3
Spherical polar coordinates, denoted as (r, , ), are shown in the Fig 2.7. These coordinates are related to the rectangular coordinates (using (x, y, z ) instead of (x1 , x2 , x3 )) as x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos (2.60) where 0 0, 0 2 and 0 . This gives
y , x
= tan
x2 + y 2 z2
(2.61)
spheres having the center at the origin planes passing through the z axis cones having the vertex at the origin, lines if C3 = 0 or , xy plane if C3 = /2
20 The coordinate curves are intersection of = C1 intersection of = C1 intersection of = C2 and and and = C2 ; z = C3 ; z = C3 ; is a straight line (z curve) is a circle ( curve) is a straight line ( curve) (2.65) (2.66) (2.67)
The position vector of any point P is expressed as r = x i + y j + zk = r sin cos i + r sin sin j + r cos k Using (2.7), we have r = sin cos i + sin sin j + cos k r r = r sin sin i + r sin cos j r = r cos cos i + r cos sin j r sin k Therefore, the scale factors are h1 = hr = 1 ; Since, we have e i =
1 r h1 ui
(2.68)
h2 = h = r ;
h = r sin
(2.72)
for i = 1, 2, 3, the base vectors for the spherical coordinates are e r = sin cos i + sin sin j + cos k e = cos cos i + cos sin j sin k e = sin i + cos k (2.73) (2.74) (2.75)
Inverting the (2.73), the base vectors in the rectangular coordinate system, in terms of the base vectors of the spherical coordinate system are i = sin cos e r + cos cos e sin e j = sin sin e r + cos sin e + cos e = cos e k r sin e The line elements are dx2 dy 2 dz 2 ds2 = = = = sin cos dr + r cos cos d r sin sin d sin sin dr + r cos sin d + r sin cos d cos dr r sin d dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d2 (2.79) (2.80) (2.81) (2.82) (2.76) (2.77) (2.78)
The gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian operators in spherical coordinate system are as follows:
f =
hi =
= e r
(2.83)
= .A
(2.84)
= A
1 h1 h2 h3
h2 e 2
u2
h3 e 3
u3
A1 h1 A2 h2 A3 h3
1 = 2 r sin
e r
r
re
r sin e
(2.85)
A1 rA2 r sin A3
Laplacian of a scalar function ( ( ) ( ) ( )) 1 h2 h3 h3 h1 h1 h1 = . = + + h1 h2 h3 u1 h1 u1 u2 h2 u2 u3 h3 u3 ( ) ( ) 2 1 1 1 (2.86) r2 + 2 sin + 2 2 = 2 r r r r sin r sin 2 The dierential volume and surface elements are evaluated as dv = r2 sin dr d d dsr = r2 sin d d; ds = r sin dr d; ds = r dr d (2.87) (2.88)
2.12.4
The parabolic cylindrical coordinates are denoted by (u, v, z ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as 1 x = (u2 v 2 ), y = uv, z = z 2 where < u < , v > 0 and < z < . Therefore, the scale factors are h u = h v = u2 + v 2 , hz = 1 (2.89)
(2.90)
The traces of the coordinate surfaces on the xy plane are shown in the Fig. 2.9. These are confocal parabolas with common axis.
22
x = (u uv v)/2, y = u v, z = 0
1 0.5 0 0.5
y
1 0.5
x
0.5
23
2.12.5
Parabolic coordinates
The parabolic coordinates are denoted by (u, v, ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as x = uv cos , y = uv sin , 1 z = ( u2 v 2 ) 2 (2.91)
(2.92)
2.12.6
The elliptic cylindric coordinates are denoted by (u, v, z ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as x = a cosh u cos v, y = a sinh u sin v, z=z (2.93)
where u 0, 0 v < 2 and < z < . Therefore, the scale factors are hu = hv = a sinh2 u + sin2 v, hz = 1
(2.94)
2.12.7
The prolate spherical coordinates are denoted by (, , ). These are related to the rectangular Cartesian coordinates as x = a sinh sin cos , y = a sinh sin sin , z = a cosh cos (2.95)
where 0, 0 < and 0 < 2 . Therefore, the scale factors are h = h = a sinh2 + sin2 , hz = a sinh sin
(2.96)