CEP September 2012 www.aiche.

org/cep 19
Back to Basics
W
hen specifying a shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
the frst steps are selecting a shell design (1) and
determining the most effective baffe arrangement
(2). After the shellside confguration has been established,
the focus shifts to tubeside heat transfer.
Tube inserts are useful tools that improve tubeside
performance in heat exchangers. Inserts are used for applica-
tions in which tubeside heat transfer is thermally limiting
and an increase in pressure drop is allowed. The best insert
type and design for a particular application depends on fow
conditions and fuid properties.
This article describes the most common types of inserts
and their principles of operation. Each insert type has one
or more means of fow modifcation, as well as specifc
advantages and disadvantages. Often, but not always, the
beneft of an insert in two-phase fow is quite different than
the beneft obtained by the same insert in single-phase fow.
Understanding these concepts tremendously simplifes the
evaluation and selection of the proper insert for a given
application.
Tubeside ow patterns
Consider fuid fowing inside of a tube with a uniform
inlet velocity and temperature profle. At the beginning of
the fow, a lower-velocity boundary layer is initiated at the
tube wall by the no-slip boundary condition, while a higher-
velocity, inviscid fow region remains in the core near the
center of the tube (Figure 1). Similarly, a thermal boundary
layer forms that spans the distance from the wall to the posi-
tion of the undisturbed inlet temperature (Figure 2). Eventu-
ally, both the velocity and thermal boundary layers grow and
fully displace the inviscid, isothermal core region.
A tube insert modies ow stream characteristics to
enhance heat transfer. Heres how to choose the
optimal insert to meet process requirements.
Richard L. Shilling, P.E.
Heat Transfer Research, Inc.
Selecting Tube Inserts
for Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchangers
p Figure 1. At the start of uid ow, a lower-velocity hydrodynamic
boundary layer forms at the tube wall.
p Figure 2. Likewise, a thermal boundary layer also develops at the
tube wall.
Fully Developed
Hydrodynamic Flow
Developing
Velocity Profile
Uniform Laminar
Velocity Profile
Fully Developed
Hagen Poissuille
Laminar Velocity Profile
Hydrodynamic
Entry Length
r
x
Hydrodynamic
Boundary Layer
Thermally Fully
Developed Flow
Developing
Temperature Profile
Uniform
Temperature
Profile
Fully Developed
Laminar Temperature Profile
Fully Developed
Laminar
Velocity Profile
Thermal
Entry Length
r
x
Adiabatic
Starting
Length
Thermal
Boundary Layer
Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
20 www.aiche.org/cep September 2012 CEP
Back to Basics
In laminar fow, where mixing is minimal, the growth of
the thermal boundary layer is limited by the fuids thermal
conductivity. Fluids with high thermal conductivities (such
as liquid metals) have short thermal entry lengths, and
fuids with low thermal conductivities (such as oils) have
long thermal entry lengths. Once the fow is fully thermally
developed, laminar heat transfer depends only on thermal
conductivity.
Single-phase heat transfer inserts
Inserts that augment single-phase heat transfer use one or
more of four distinct mechanisms to compensate for bound-
ary layer effects: static mixing, boundary layer interruption,
swirl fow, and displaced fow.
Static mixing
All inserts produce some mixing when the fow stream
possesses enough kinetic energy to induce mixing due to
radial displacement in the vicinity of the insert. Static mix-
ing, however, is the physical interchange of fuid particles to
different locations in the fow stream by mechanical (rather
than kinetic) means.
The purpose of the static mixer (Figure 3) is to transport,
by its mechanical construction, the fuid at the tube wall to
the center of the tube, to transport the fuid at the center of
the tube toward the tube wall, and to fold these transported
regions of fuid into each other. This dramat ically improves
heat transfer, because it increases the local temperature dif-
ference between portions of the bulk (tubeside) fuid and the
tube wall. A common application for static mixing augmen-
tation is in the cooling of highly viscous polymers where no
other method will produce acceptable results.
The effect of a static mixer is most pronounced and valu-
able when it is deployed in a fow that is laminarized (i.e.,
fully developed laminar fow). A fow becomes laminarized
when the thickness of the laminar boundary layer becomes
equal to the dimension of the fow channel and there is
no free fow stream beyond the boundary layer. In this
fow regime, static mixers are the only insert type that will
enhance heat transfer.
A useful dimensionless number for estimating the onset
of this regime is the Graetz number:
1 Gz Re Pr
L
Dh
# # =
`
^
j
h
where Re is the Reynolds number, Pr is the Prandtl number,
D
h
is the tubes hydraulic diameter (m), and L is the fuid
fow length from the tubes entrance to the frst boundary
layer interruption (m).
Laminarization occurs for viscous liquid fow (where
natural convection can be neglected) at Graetz numbers less
than about 20200, depending on the shape of the fow chan-
nel. Below the Graetz number threshold, there is insuffcient
energy in the fow for augmentation by any other mecha-
nism. Heat transfer is limited by the thermal conductivity of
the liquid.
Because design calculations are based on an overall
mean temperature difference along the entire tube length, the
augmentation provided by static mixing is typically reported
in terms of an enhanced tubeside heat-transfer coeffcient
instead of an increase in the local temperature difference. In
reality, the coeffcient in the laminarized fow regime is con-
stant, and all augmentation is due to temperature difference
enhancement. In some applications, a static mixing insert
can provide a sixfold improvement in heat transfer over that
in a tube without an insert.
For laminar fow in the thermal entry region, static mixer
heat-transfer equations are given in a form similar to the
Sieder-Tate equation for laminar fow (3):
1.75 (2) Nu Re Pr
L
D
0.33
0.14
h
w
#
n
n
=
`
c
j
m
where Nu is the Nusselt number, is the fuid viscosity
(N-s/m
2
), and
w
is the fuid viscosity at the inside tube
walls temperature (N-s/m
2
). For static mixers, Eq. 2 can be
simplifed to:
3 Nu A Re Pr
0.14
B
w
#
n
n
= ^ c ^ h m h
where A is a correlation constant that includes the mixing
effciency as a virtual boundary-layer interruption and B is
a constant that is normally equal or very close to 0.33. With
p Figure 3. Static mixers augment tubeside heat transfer by mechanically
moving uid elements to different locations in the ow stream.
Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
CEP September 2012 www.aiche.org/cep 21
B set to 0.33, one measured heat-transfer data point for a
specifc static mixer can be used to determine a value for A
and thus an equation that will closely predict heat transfer
performance for that mixer at other laminar fowrates.
Boundary-layer interruption
At higher Graetz numbers (often at Reynolds numbers
between 1 and 1,000), the thickness of the laminar boundary
layer can easily be reduced by boundary-layer interruption
inserts. These inserts come in a variety of shapes and sizes
(Figure 4). The key to their operation is that the interrupt-
ing portion of the insert must protrude out of the laminar
boundary layer at the tube wall. An interrupter trips the
boundary layer, causing it to thin to its minimum thickness,
which enhances heat transfer. After interruption, the bound-
ary layer begins to thicken until the fow encounters the next
interruption.
Interruption inserts are commonly used for the augmen-
tation of oil fows (such as lube oil) inside tubes when the
fow regime is laminar.
Some of these inserts can increase the heat transfer in
laminar fows by as much as fve times, depending on the
fuids thermal conductivity. Typically, a threefold increase
can be expected for most hydrocarbon streams.
The magnitude of the heat transfer increase is inversely
proportional to the hydraulic diameter and interrupted fow
length. Equation 4 is useful for evaluating the effectiveness
of a boundary-layer interrupter relative to a bare tube and
for comparing the effectiveness of two different interrupter
inserts:
4
h
h
D L
D L
2
1
1
2
1
2
h
h
1
3
=
`
^
j
h
where h is the heat-transfer coeffcient (W/m
2
-K), D
h
is the
tube inside hydraulic diameter (m), L is the interrupted fow
length (m), and the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the two inserts
or the bare tube and an insert.
A boundary-layer interrupter relies on a combination of
the interruption height and the spacing between interrup-
tions. If the height/spacing combination permits the bound-
ary layer to grow thicker than the interruption height, there
will be no heat-transfer augmentation, because the fuid in
the boundary layer will simply ooze around the protuberance
and continue on its path unaffected. In addition, interrupters
that are circumferentially symmetrical are more effective
than asymmetrical interrupters.
The simplest boundary-layer interruption device is a
corrugated metal strip whose width matches the tubes inside
diameter. Another common design is a coiled wire with an
outside diameter matching the tubes inside diameter; the
wire diameter and the pitch of the coil act as the interrup-
tion height and interruption spacing, respectively. Other
interruption inserts consist of a series of small, nested wire
loops; although the wires are small, these devices effectively
balance height and spacing.
Remember that most boundary-layer interruption inserts
p Figure 4. Flow interrupters protrude out of the laminar boundary layer at
the tube wall, causing the boundary layer to thin.
Nomenclature
A = correlation constant for static mixer heat-transfer
equation (Eq. 3)
B = exponent for static mixer heat-transfer equation
(Eq. 3)
C
p
= specifc heat, J/kg-K
D = inside tube diameter, m
D
e
= equivalent inside tube diameter for turbulent fow
heat transfer, m
D
h
= inside hydraulic tube diameter, m
D
h1
= inside hydraulic tube diameter with Insert 1, m
D
h2
= inside hydraulic tube diameter with Insert 2, m
G = mass velocity of fuid, kg/s-m
2
Gz = Graetz number (Eq. 1)
h
core
= heat-transfer coeffcient with core insert, W/m
2
-K
h
tube
= heat-transfer coeffcient without insert, W/m
2
-K
h
1
= heat-transfer coeffcient with Insert 1, W/m
2
-K
h
2
= heat-transfer coeffcient with Insert 2, W/m
2
-K
k = thermal conductivity, W/m-K
L = fuid fow length inside tube from entrance to frst
boundary layer interruption, m
L
1
= interrupted fow length with Insert 1, m
L
2
= interrupted fow length with Insert 2, m
Nfa = net free area inside tube with or without insert, m
2
Nu = Nusselt number (Eqs. 2 and 3)
Pr = Prandtl number = C
p
/k
Re = Reynolds number = vD
h
/
v = velocity of the fluid, m/s
Greek Letters
= fuid viscosity, N-s/m
2

w
= fluid viscosity at the inside tube wall temperature,
N-s/m
2
= fluid density, kg/m
3
Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
22 www.aiche.org/cep September 2012 CEP
Back to Basics
are not considered static mixers because their only means of
redirecting fow relies on the kinetic energy of the fowing
fuid (rather than the mechanical movement imparted by
the static mixing element). At Graetz numbers below 20,
interrupters are ineffective. In addition, if the boundary layer
grows too fast for the interruption height and spacing, either
due to poor insert design or a change in fuid conditions, the
device will not augment heat transfer it will only increase
pressure drop. Any tube insert for which there exists a lower
threshold fowrate where mixing does not occur is not a
static mixer.
Swirl ow
Swirl-fow augmentation techniques are effective with
upper-laminar fows through the transition regime that
is, Reynolds numbers between 200 and 10,000. The most
common swirl-fow insert is the twisted tape (Figure 5). It
enhances heat transfer up to fve times that of an empty tube,
depending on the fow regime in the empty tube. References
4 and 5 provide correlations for modeling twisted-tape heat
transfer under laminar fow and turbulent fow conditions,
respectively.
Contrary to popular belief, swirl fow is not a bound-
ary-layer interruption technique. Rotational fow has two
effects. It imparts a helical fow path along the inside wall
of the tube, thereby producing a high velocity along the
tube wall that is a function of the helical fow angle. It
also imparts a combination of fow rotation and centripetal
force away from the center of the tube that, in single-phase
fow, increases mixing and turbulence at the tube wall. This
creates turbulent fows at Reynolds numbers that would be
characteristic of laminar or transition fows in tubes without
inserts. Inducing turbulence at a lower Reynolds number
enhances heat transfer.
Displaced ow
Displaced-fow inserts increase heat transfer by block-
ing the fow area farthest from the tube wall, which creates
higher velocities along the tube wall heat-transfer surface.
The simplest type of displaced-fow insert is a round cylin-
der (or core) that is supported in the center of the tube and
extends the entire length of the tube (Figure 6).
Displaced-fow inserts can effectively increase heat-
transfer coeffcients by increasing already turbulent tubeside
fows. A very simple way to model their heat-transfer effect
in single-phase turbulent fow is to calculate a heat-transfer
equivalent diameter, D
e
:
4
5 D
D
Nfa
e
r
= ^ h
where Nfa is the net free area inside of the tube with or with-
out an insert (m
2
). D
e
will be smaller than the empty tube
diameter by an amount that depends on the diameter of the
core; the ratio of D/D
e
is typically between 1.5 and 3.
In turbulent fow, the heat-transfer improvement due to
the core can be approximated by multiplying the plain tube
heat-transfer coeffcient by D/D
e
:
6 h h
D
D
core tube
e
=
`
^
j
h
where h
core
is the heat-transfer coeffcient inside a tube with
a core insert (W/m
2
-K) and h
tube
is the heat-transfer coeff-
cient inside a tube without an insert (W/m
2
-K).
For fuids such as water, heat transfer can be increased
by more than 2.5 times, depending on the available pressure
drop.
Although displaced-fow inserts can also enhance some
laminar fows, they are typically not as effective as the other
methods. In addition, care must be taken to avoid reducing
the hydraulic diameter to the point that the fow becomes
laminarized, which can lead to very poor heat-transfer
performance.
p Figure 6. A long, cylindrical rod, or core, is the simplest type of
displaced-ow insert.
p Figure 5. Twisted tapes are the most common type of swirl-ow insert.
Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
CEP September 2012 www.aiche.org/cep 23
Flow regime overlap and compound enhancements
Flow regime overlap. Usually more than one type of
insert can be used to improve heat transfer. (The exception is
static mixers operating in the laminarized fow regime.) This
fow regime overlap among the various insert types is useful,
and can be extended through custom design.
For example, static mixers can be designed to augment
heat transfer in the entire laminar fow regime and beyond.
Flow interrupters can easily augment fows at Reynolds
numbers above 2,000. Swirl-fow inserts can augment fows
at Reynolds numbers below 20. However, for a given set of
fuid conditions, there is a preferred range over which each
mechanism is most effcient for heat transfer enhancement.
Compound enhancements. Every insert type enhances
heat transfer not only by the primary mechanism for which
it was designed, but also, to a lesser extent, by some of the
other mechanisms discussed earlier.
For example, although a twisted-tape insert is designed
for swirl-fow augmentation, it also provides a slight
enhancement due to displaced-fow augmentation because
the tape occupies space inside of the tube. Static mixers
are able to improve heat transfer outside of the laminarized
region because their construction provides interruption aug-
mentation if there is suffcient kinetic energy in the fow.
Some inserts are specifcally designed to take advan-
tage of more than one kind of augmentation technique. For
instance, a wire-wrapped core insert combines displaced-
fow and swirl-fow augmentation. The wire-wrapped core
(Figure 7) consists of a cylindrical rod or tube around which
a smaller-diameter wire has been spirally wrapped. The core
and wire diameters are sized to increase the linear velocity
to the desired value based on the fuid fow characteristics.
The wire wrap angle is adjusted to further augment the heat
transfer by swirl fow. Under the right circumstances, it is
not uncommon to achieve a tenfold augmentation of heat
transfer over that in an empty tube.
Two-phase ow inserts
The static mixing, boundary-layer interruption, and dis-
placed-fow mechanisms enhance two-phase fow primarily
by increased turbulence or enhanced mixing. In two-phase
fow, nonhomogeneous, poorly mixed fow is common. In
most cases, nonequilibrium two-phase fow produces lower
heat transfer than an equivalent fow whose phases are well
mixed.
Static mixers and interrupted-fow devices increase this
two-phase mixing and can improve heat transfer by a full
order of magnitude. However, without proper design, adding
these devices can result in an unacceptably high pressure
drop. Displaced-fow inserts will enhance two-phase fow
only as much as the resulting increased velocity will beneft
heat transfer.
In two-phase fow, the effects of swirl fow inside a tube
are different than the effects generated in single-phase fow.
Two-phase fow is usually very turbulent, and the relative
densities of the liquid and vapor phases often exceed 100:1.
Therefore, swirl fow acts as a centrifuge to concentrate the
denser liquid phase at the tube wall and the lighter vapor
phase near the tube center.
In tubeside boiling applications, the accumulation
of vapor at the wall of a tube without inserts reduces the
normally high convective boiling coeffcient. Swirl fow
concentrates the liquid phase to be boiled at the tube wall,
which improves heat transfer over the entire vapor qual-
ity range. For some boiling conditions (such as horizontal
tubeside fow), swirl fow is the only means to achieve 100%
vapor quality exiting a tube. Because swirl fow is typically a
turbulent enhancement device, the pressure drop increase is
minimal for most new applications.
Practical considerations when using tube inserts
Pressure drop. In the design of new heat exchang-
ers, where the fow length is adjusted based on the duty
achieved, most inserts (operating in their optimum regime)
can be designed to produce the same tubeside pressure drop
that would be experienced by a much longer plain tube. If an
insert is added to an existing heat exchanger, pressure drop
may signifcantly increase if the system was designed for
plain-tube conditions. In these cases, for the same fows, the
pressure drop can be two to six times the plain-tube pressure
drop, which sometimes makes a retroft impractical.
Upset conditions. The system design must take into
account upset conditions that can change the tubeside
operating characteristics. Many inserts are attached to the
faces of the tubesheets to permit removal and/or replacement
during maintenance. The insert attachment can be designed
to withstand a substantial upset pressure drop if the sup-
plier knows what upset conditions might be experienced.
An attachment design based on the steady-state pressure
drop with a small margin for condition changes may not be
able to withstand a substantially higher load (as produced
in an upset). For example, inserts have been found embed-
ded in a downstream pump when upset conditions were not
accounted for.
Transient operation. Be certain to advise the designer if
p Figure 7. A wire-wrapped core insert combines swirl-ow and
displaced-ow augmentation.
Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
24 www.aiche.org/cep September 2012 CEP
Back to Basics
transient operation is anticipated. Inserts can tremendously
augment heat transfer in laminar fows, but if the fuid fow
stops and is allowed to cool to ambient, the start-up pressure
drop with the inserts can approach 100 times the pressure
drop at normal operating conditions. In these cases, to pre-
vent problems at start-up, it is important to heat the tube-
side fuid to the approximate operating temperature before
attempting to reach the design fowrate.
Materials compatibility. Make sure that the insert mate-
rial is compatible with the tube material and the fuid. For
example, carbon steel inserts in a water service tend to
weld themselves to the tube wall over a few months of
operation, sometimes requiring scrapping of the entire tube
bundle to replace them. The use of stainless steel and other
corrosion-resistant metallurgies is often the best way to
avoid this problem.
Fluid condition. Be aware of the conditions of the tube-
side fuid. For example, when augmenting a laminar fow,
the fuid should be relatively free of particulates to prevent
tube plugging. In laminar fow, an interrupter can act as a
particulate dam, and a swirl-fow device may not produce
enough turbulence to carry the particles up and around each
helical rotation, so these designs should not be used in lami-
nar fow containing particulates.
Anticipated fouling. It is important to evaluate the extent
and types of fouling expected and determine whether it will
be possible to remove the insert for maintenance. If hard,
crusty fouling (such as from polymerization) is expected
inside the tube, the fouling layer may fuse the insert to the
tube wall. Some inserts are strong enough that they can be
removed without damage (and draw a great deal of fouling
out of the tubes upon removal as well). If the insert is not
robust enough to be withdrawn from the tube without break-
ing, the fouling layer will need to be chemically dissolved to
allow withdrawal of the insert.
Typical application
A process stream is preheated using waste heat recovered
during the cooling of a light polymer. The polymer stream
requires Type 316 stainless steel, whereas carbon steel with
a 3-mm corrosion allowance is suffcient for the process
stream.
Maximum energy recovery involves a temperature cross
(i.e., the outlet temperature of the cold stream is higher than
the inlet temperature of the hot stream). The required tubular
heat exchanger must be either a single counterfow heat
exchanger or multiple shells in series. For the same reason,
the normal practice of increasing the number of tube passes
RICHARD L. SHILLING, P.E., is Senior Engineering Consultant at Heat
Transfer Research, Inc. (HTRI; www.htri.net), where he provides
technical expertise and research, software, and engineering services
for various projects. Previously, he worked for more than 25 years for
Koch Heat Transfer Co. (formerly Brown Fin Tube Corp.) in Houston,
TX, where as Vice President of Engineering, he directed and managed
engineering research projects and oversaw engineering software
development. He has developed new heat exchanger enhancement
devices and techniques for equipment designs, and is experienced in
troubleshooting exchanger problems in a renery. Shilling holds a BS
in mathematics from Grove City College in Pennsylvania and a BEng in
mechanical engineering from Youngstown State Univ. in Ohio. He chairs
the HTRI Exchanger Design Margin Task Force (EDMTF) and is the editor
of the heat transfer equipment section of Perrys Chemical Engineers
Handbook. A member of ASME, he is a licensed professional engineer
in Texas.
Table 1. Tube inserts augment heat transfer, and require a shorter tube length than a system that uses no inserts.
Design
No.
Description*
No. of Tube
Passes
h-shellside

,
W/m
2
K
h-tubeside

,
W/m
2
K
dP-tubeside
#
,
kPa
Area

,
m
2
MTD**, K
1 (1)-12420 AFU, No Inserts 2 452.7 90.52 1.03 79.9 24.4
2 (1)-12228 AFU, Twisted-Tape Inserts 2 451.3 188.5 2.34 43.8 24.4
3 (1)-12144 AFU, Wire-Wrapped Cores 2 450.0 395.1 12.5 27.9 24.4
4 (1)-08240 AFU, Wire-Wrapped Cores 2 620.4 564.1 72.7 19.1 24.4
5 (2)-12180 AEU, No Inserts 8 332.8 202.3 61.0 52.5 21.2
*The number in parentheses is the number of shells. The rst two digits after the dash indicate the shell inside diameter in inches,
and the nal three digits represent the straight tube length in inches. The letters used in the heat exchanger descriptions are based
on the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) nomenclature standards; A designates a removable front channel with
cover, F a shell with an axial bafe in the center that creates two shell passes, E a one-pass shell, and U a U-tube bundle.

h-shellside is the heat-transfer coefcient of the uid owing on the outside surface of the tubes.

h-tubeside is the heat-transfer coefcient of the uid owing on the inside surface of the tubes.
#
dP-tubeside is the total pressure drop, from inlet to outlet, of the uid owing inside the tubes.

Area is the total surface area of all the tubes in the bundle calculated based on the tube outside diameter.
**MTD is the mean temperature difference between the uids owing outside and inside the tubes.
Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
CEP September 2012 www.aiche.org/cep 25
to augment the tubeside heat-transfer coeffcient requires
multiple shells in series.
Table 1 summarizes key parameters for fve alternative
designs. Adding twisted-tape (Design 2) or wire-wrapped
core inserts (Design 3) to the tubes reduces the required
fow length while increasing the tubeside heat transfer.
This allows for a more compact design than the plain
tube exchanger (Design 1). Reducing the shell diameter
(Design 4) increases heat transfer, but with a signifcant
pressure drop penalty. Changing from a single two-pass shell
to two single-pass shells and increasing the number of tube
passes from two to eight, without adding inserts (Design 5),
increases tubeside heat transfer, but noticeably reduces
shellside heat transfer and increases pressure drop.
Closing thoughts
Of the four inserts types, the best design for a particular
application will depend mainly on the specifc space and
pressure drop limits. The decisions on the use of tube inserts
must be balanced with the proper selection of shell type
and baffe type in order to design the most effcient heat
exchanger for the required conditions.
Literature Cited
1. Lestina, T. G., Selecting a Heat Exchanger Shell, Chem. Eng.
Progress, 107 (6), pp. 3438 (June 2011).
2. Bouhairie, S., Selecting Baffes for Shell-and-Tube Heat
Exchangers, Chem. Eng. Progress, 108 (2), pp. 2733
(Feb. 2012).
3. Sieder, E. N., and G. E. Tate, Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
of Liquids in Tubes, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 28,
pp. 14291435 (1936).
4. Manglik, R. M., and A. E. Bergles, Heat Transfer and Pressure
Drop Correlations for Twisted-Tape Inserts in Isothermal Tubes:
Part I Laminar Flow, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer,
115 (4), pp. 881889 (1993).
5. Manglik, R. M., and A. E. Bergles, Heat Transfer and Pressure
Drop Correlations for Twisted-Tape Inserts in Isothermal Tubes:
Part II Transition and Turbulent Flows, ASME Journal of
Heat Transfer, 115 (4), pp. 890896 (1993).
Additional Reading
Sununu, J. H., Heat Transfer with Static Mixer Systems, Kenics
Corp., Danvers, MA (1970).
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Copyright 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)