Revised Capstone A

48016- Capstone Project A
UTS
Vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh 11075761
ABSTRACT Construction of pipelines dates back to earlier civilizations. Its progress reflects the steady evolution of cultures around the world, the need of developing agricultures, the growth of cities, the industrial revolution and the use of steam power, the discovery and use of oil, the improvements in steel making and welding technology, the discovery and use of plastics, the fast growth of the chemical and power industries, and the increasing need for reliable water, oil and gas pipelines[1]. The infrastructure of many nations has become a very complex inter-connection of supply chain distribution systems, oil and natural gas production facilities. In addition, [2] each of these systems is intertwined and heavily dependent on each other. The challenge is to model these interdependencies, identify vulnerabilities, and determine specific recovery strategies. At the beginning of the 20th century, there has been an unprecedented growth and improvements in welding, in materials and in pumping technologies. At the same time, standardization of materials and designs became a financial and safety necessity, and industries came to rely more on codes and standards [2], while national engineering societies and industry institutes became an important source of innovation and improvements. Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil products or natural gas over land, under soil or sub- Sea. Pipelines are also most commonly used for the transportation of water from reservoirs to end users. Distribution of water in dry cities of the world is becoming an increasing challenge for the Governments [3]. For example, Las Vegas is a city constructed in the desert, in the United States. The city of Las Vegas requires pumping 300 billion litres of water a year out of this landscape and transports it 300 miles, approximately 483 Km south to the thirsty metropolis of casinos and golf courses. It is projected that its natural reservo ir will go dry in 20 years time according to Pat Mulroy [4] the manager of the southern Nevada Water Authority (AWA) therefore the need for the water pipeline arises to keep the supply. Similarly [5] , in the great dry land, Australians will be looking more to pipelines to deliver one of the countrys most valuable resources, water. Water pipeline projects are becoming an increasingly important part of Australian infrastructure development in order to ensure water supply to the nations growing populatio n [5]. With many areas of Australia facing severe drought, water pipeline planning and construction has again thrived over the last year [6]. This paper discusses construction and manufacturing of pipelines and their usage. In addition to that, this paper addresses several issues that cause the vibration such as pipeline leakage, speed, pressure and density of the fluid. Furthermore a thorough research has been conducted on current issues with pipelines, maintenance problems and technical issues. Keywords PIPELINES, LEAKING, VIBRATION, SPEED, PRESSURE (INTERNAL- EXTERNAL), DENSITY, MATERIALS 1.0 INTRODUCTION Pipelines are now being constructed in various diameters, lengths and working pressure. To achieve a safe design and fit for the purpose, it is imperative that engineers must take into consideration all aspects of the design such as what material is going to flow through the pipeline, is it for sub-sea, over the ground or underground transportation of the material etc. Engineers have for years resorted to semi-empirical design formulae. Much work has recently been done in an effort to rationalize and standardize the design of pipelines [7]. There are different types of pipelines used for different purposes for example Gathering pipelines are small groups of interconnected pipeline , forming a complex networks with the purpose of bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing facility. These pipelines have small diameters with only a few hundred meters long. Similar pipelines are also used in sub-sea to collect products from deep water. The other type of pipeline is the Transportation pipelines which are mainly long and have larger diameters, these types are used between cities, countries and even continents. These pipelines include several compressor stations in gas lines and pump stations for crude and multi products pipelines. However, the pipelines that are used to carry the product to the end consumer are called the Distribution pipelines. These pipelines have smaller diameters; feeder lines are deployed to distribute gas to homes and businesses downstream. A feeder line is a peripheral route or branch in a network, which connects smaller or more remote nodes with a route or branch carrying heavier traffic [8]. Below is a chart of materials adopted from George A. Antakis [1] book for Piping and Pipeline Engineering. This chart indicates that not only pipelines can be manufactured from a single alloy, but from a mixture of two or three different alloys depending on their usage and required strength.
48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761
Figure 1 Pipe and Fitting Materials [1]
In addition to materials, there are also a number of other factors such as Internal Pressure, External Pressure, layout and Supports, flexibility and fatigue that needs to be taken into consideration while designing a pipe. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This section of the report discusses various structural design and analysis of pipes. As it is mentioned earlier that pipes are made of different alloys for different purposes therefore a thorough structural design analysis is required. Design must be based on required lifetime performance and on limits of performance, sometimes referred to as failure. This report covers pipe mechanics, design limitations, internal and external pressures, layout and supports, flexibility and fatigue. An understanding of the principles of design is essential before applying the individual concepts.
3.0 INTERNAL PRESSURE (THIN WALL APPROXIMATION) To analyse the internal pressure in the pipe, we consider a straight section of pipe filled with a pressurized liquid or gas. The internal pressure generates three principle stresses in the pipe wall: A hoop stress h, it is also referred to as circumferential or tangential stress. A longitudinal stress 1 also referred to as axial stress and a Radial stress r. When the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness, D/t is greater than 20, the pipe may be considered to be thin wall [cooper, BS 8010]. In this case, the hoop stress nearly constant throughout the wall thickness and equal to h = PD /2t. Where P is the design pressure in [Mpa], D is the outside pipe diameter in [mm] and t is the pipe wall thickness in [mm]. The longitudinal stress is also constant through the wall and equal to half the hoop stress. 1 = PD/4t. The radial stress varies through the wall, from P at the inner surface of the pipe to zero on the outer surface [1].
Figure 2 Adopted from George A. Antaki, piping and pipeline engineering Hoop (h), Longitudinal (L) and Radial (r) stress directions
3.1 PIPELINE DESIGN EQUATION

For oil and gas a pipeline, the thickness of the pipe wall is obtained by writing that the hoop stress, which is the largest stress in the pipe. It must be limited to a certain allowable stress S. Using the thin wall approximation, this condition corresponds to PD / 2t < S, where S is the allowable stress in Mpa. Pipelines that carry hazardous liquids, according to the George Antaki [1], the allowable stress is set at S=0.72 Sy E. The value 0.72 is based on experiments and is the design factor value. E is the longitudinal weld joint factor. (The weld quality or joint efficiency factor E is a factor introduced to account for the quality of the longitudinal or spiral seam in a pipe) and Sy is the specified minimum yield strength in Mpa. However for the gas pipelines we consider two more factors which is the F = design factor and T = temperature derating factor. The values for yield and factors for weld quality etc are based on experiments with the various methods of pipe fabrication at the time. It was first assumed that as the pipe deforms under pressure, the material maintains a constant volume. This corresponds to a material Poisson ratio of 0.5, in which case, the Saint Venant, Tresca and Von Mises equivalent stress can be written in a similar form [1]. Maximum strain energy (Saint Venant): =
Maximum shear stress (Tresca):
= t r =
Maximum energy (Von Mises):
= (t r) =
All three stress expressions can be written in the form:
3.2 PRESSURE RATING

Before shipping the pipe to the consumer, all pipes are pressure tested. There are different methods of pressure testing to determine the strength of the particular section of the pipe. The hoop stress distribution in pressurized fittings and components, such as tees, reducers, elbows, nozzles, etc., cannot be expressed by a simple equation such as PD /(2t) for the hoop stress in a straight pipe. To eliminate the need for complex design calculations to size fittings, the pressure design for fittings and components relies on a simple approach: first [9], fittings and components must meet standard dimensions specified in the standards of the country where the pipe is going to be used, and secondly, fittings and components must be pressure rated by means of proof tests. For example to determine the strength of a tee pipe; the burst test is carried out. The specimen will be pressurized with water; the pressure is then increased until assembly bursts. If the burst occurs in the tee, then the pressure at burst is B and the design pressure or rated pressure is established as a fraction of B. If the burst occurs in the pipe extensions, then the tee is stronger than the pipe and is assigned the pressure rating of the matching pipe [9].
Figure 3 Assembly for Burst Test of an ASME Tee
The pressure ratings of wrought steel butt-welding fittings will be the same as the straight seamless pipe of equivalent material.
3.3 PIPE ELBOW AND BENDS

If an elbow or bend is pressurized, the hoop stress will vary around the circumference, as shown in figure 4 below.
It is seen from experiments that the largest hoop stress is developed at the internal of the bend where the wall of the pipe is thick on the other hand; small hoop stress arises at the external of the pipe where the wall of the pipe is thinner. In a similar manner the pressure test can be carried out on Branch Connections, Nozzles and End Fillets.
Figure 4 Distribution of Hoop Stress in a Pressurized Elbow
As we have seen so far, the minimum design wall thickness is proportional to the design pressure [1]. The design pressure is the pressure that, taken with the concurrent temperature, results in the thickest pipe wall. It is the highest pressure at which the piping system should operate at. In the absence of a relief valve set pressure or rupture disc burst pressure, the design pressure is the highest pressure that the pipe should operate. While designing a pipe, it is vital to bear in mind the environment at which this pipe will be operating. A system engineer familiar with the system function must develop the normal and abnormal operating scenarios. In addition to a design pressure, the pipeline codes also define a maximum operating pressure (MOP) as the highest pressure at which a pipeline is normally operated. The maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) is the maximum pressure at which a pipeline may be operated in accordance with the code [1].
3.4 OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION

Designing a pressure protection for the pipeline system is different to that of a pressure vessel. In other words, if the pipe, fittings and components are sufficiently thick to contain all credible pressure transients, the system does not need a safety or relief device. A pressure relief valve gradually lifts and then recloses as the overpressure dissipates. It works the same way as a liquid service where the safety valve pops open suddenly [9], remains open and recloses when the overpressure subsides. The main idea behind a pressure relief valve is so that the existing pressure does not exceed the design pressure. The decision whether the system requires a safety valve depends on the operation of the system and the environment. Experience has shown that systems which are operated for many years have been the target of overpressure.
3.5 PIPE SPECIFICATION

A pipe specification is a document which indicates the right material for the project at hand. This document plays an important role not only at the initial stages of the design but also at later stages if the pipes require replacement or repair. It contains vital information such as what kind of pipe is installed and its function at the design stage, it is pressure ratings etc. Of the five fundamental aspects of piping engineering (material, design, fabrication, examination and testing) a piping specification only addresses materials and one aspect of design (pressure design) [2]. It is essential to understand this limitation: a plant piping specification is not a code, but a series of additional requirement apply beyond material selection and pressure sizing.
4.0 EXTERNAL PRESSURE 4.1 BUCKLING PRESSURE

The behaviour of piping and tubing subject to external pressure has been well understood since the early 1900s [32]. Consider a long, perfectly circular cylinder subject to uniform external pressure. By long cylinder, we mean a cylinder longer than a critical length given by Lc = 1.11D where D is the diameter in [mm] and t is the wall thickness in [mm]. If the external
pressure is steadily increased, there will come a point where the cylinder will suddenly buckle. If the cylinder is long and thin, this buckling will occur while the cylinder wall is still elastic. The external pressure at which elastic buckling occurs is called the critical elastic pressure and is given by (Den Hartog). PCE = / R3 (n2 1) [32]
Where: PCE = Critical elastic external pressure at buckling, Mpa V= Poisson ratio of material E= Modulus of elasticity, Mpa I= Cross section moment of inertia of cylinder wall per unit length (t3 /12), mm4 t= cylinder wall thickness, mm R = radius of cylinder, mm n= integer equal to 2,3, ... A Pipe failing under external pressure is different from a pipe failing under internal pressure; there are different design methods to overcome this failure. In internal pressure as discussed earlier, stresses exceed the pipes design pressure thus the pip e fails, however during external pressure the pipe cannot support its shape and irreversibly takes on a new lower volume shape. A pipe under external pressure (or vacuum internally) is subject to a potential stability problem and can undergo a form of unstable collapse if the pressure is sufficiently high, through buckling of the pipe wall. These conditions apply when a pipe is surrounded by water or concrete, or when vacuum is applied to a tube. Buried pipes receive support from the soil greatly increasing their collapse pressure. However they can be subjected to higher external pressure from the overburden, and design check for stability should be carried out [1]. Grouting is one such method which prevents the pipe from buckling, nonetheless the process of applying grout needs careful consideration since grouting pressures must not exceed safe limits. If this cannot be assured, internal support may be used to temporarily stiffen the pipe during the grouting process. For example, pressure equalisation using internal water pressure or inflated air tubes may be applied [1].
4.2 VACUUM CONDITIONS

A vacuum condition inside a pipe is identical in effect to external pressure [1]. Designing a vacuum for large pipe diameters is not common, but some large pipes have exhaust system with fan at the outlet end. According to George A. Antaki, [1] the more usual examples are cases where surge produces negative pressure in a low-pressure water line on shutdown of flow. If the negative surge exceeds the static head in the line the net pressure will go negative. This will commonly occur in a long flat line with little positive head, e.g. Low-head irrigation lines and sewer pumping mains. Generally design and operation should avoid such dynamic vacuum conditions arising, since possible column separation and rejoinder shock pressure can produce damage to pipes and ancillary equipment. The siphon effect is one such case where the pipeline passes over a hill and hydraulic gradient intersects the elevation of the line. Gravity lines rarely operate in this mode because of the problems starting the siphon [35]. Pumping mains are designed sometimes to operate thus, in order to save the cost of a break tank, and usually have problems. A negative pressure generated in this way under steady state conditions must be assessed on the basis of the long term buckling performance of the pipe, which is substantially less than that applicable to short term transients.
4.3 TEMPERATURE SELECTION

Selection of the temperature depends on the material of the pipe and where it will be used. The calculation must be the average over a long period of time due to the uncertainty of the weather conditions. For pipes encased with concrete, the rise in temperature is significant because the curing of cement compound is an exothermic reaction. Both factors and low thermal conductivity of concrete result in a large rise in temperature in the interior of concrete mass [1]. Keeping the above variables in mind a conventional figure is then recommended for concrete encasement applications. The above situation refers to the period of concrete before it hardens and that is when it applies an external pressure on the pipe. After the concrete hardens, further evolution and temperature rise will be irrelevant to the buckling of the pipe. It is however strongly suggested that in case of the concrete encasement pipes, during the time that concrete is being hardened, the pipe must be filled with water. The internal pressure will counter balance the external pressure to some extend and the water will help keep the temperature down and it further helps if the water keeps circulating [1].
5.0 LAYOUT AND SUPPORTS 5.1 SPACING OF PIPE SUPPORTS

The weight of piping and components must be supported to achieve five objectives (1) minimise stresses in the piping (2) maintain the intended layout and slope (3) avoid excessive sag, (4) minimise reactions on equipment nozzles and (5) optimise the type, size and location of pipe supports [8]. To achieve the above goals at the designing stage weight supports are placed at regular intervals. The distance between each weight differs for pipes made of different material. Tables are given in different design books which specifies the support intervals based on the diameter of the pipe and the material which is intended to flow inside it.
5.2 SUSTAINED STRESS

Under the effect of its own weight, including contents, insulation and in-line components, such as valves or strainers, the pipe will tend to bend downwards, causing forces Fx, Fy and Fz and moments Mx, My and Mz at each point along its length.
These weight loads (The axial force Fx, shear Fy and Fz, bending My and Mz and torsion Mx) together with the operating pressure are sustained loads causing sustained stresses. In practice, the objective of minimizing deadweight stress is accomplished by limiting the sustained stress to a fraction of the allowable stress S at normal operating temperature. A limit on weight bending stress of about 25% of the allowable stress would be a good guideline for steel pipe [8].
Figure 5 Force and Moment Directions
5.3 SELECTION OF PIPE SUPPORTS

Pipe supports are assemblies which supports the weight of the pipes. It restricts pipes movement in lateral or axial direction. Sway braces are used in fire sprinklers systems which prevent the pipe to move in lateral direction or sway. There are numerous pipe supports used for different purposes such as variable spring hanger supports a hung pipe from above. The constant load hanger supports a hung pipe from above, the difference is that the support is placed below the pipe and supports the pipe from underneath. Like the variable spring the constant load hanger supports the pipes deadweight while allowing vertical movement due to expansion or contraction. The other type of support is rigid frames; rigid frames are custom designed structures that hold the pipe rigid usually for heavier pipes. Figure 7 illustrates the types of rigid frames.
Figure 6 Variable Spring Hanger
Figure 7 Example of custom made rigid frames
Rod hangers are smooth or threaded rods used to support the weight of hung pipes. They usually have turn buckles to permit vertical adjustment. Rod hangers are standard catalogue components sized to act as tension members and can buckle in compression. Pipe rolls are used where a pipe undergoes large longitudinal movement and little vertical or lateral movement for example on long straight steam lines which will be permitted to expand axially with low friction of the rolls [8]. Rigid struts act in tension and compression along their axial. They can be sized to re-act cyclic and dynamic loads in which case they are often referred to as restraints. Vibration Dampers are standard devices that absorb and dampen pipe vibration.
It is preferable to eliminate the source of vibration rather than dampen its effects, but where this is not feasible; a vibration damper can be used to reduce vibration amplitude. This should be done with care since residual vibration may, in time, fail the damper itself or its attachments by fatigue.
Figure 8 Rigid Strut Tandem
Snubbers are shock absorbers that act somewhat like a seat belt: they extend or retract to accommodate a slow movement of the pipe (due to thermal expansion or contraction) but locks under shock (seismic or water hammer load). They are either hydraulic or mechanical devices, rated based on dynamic load and rage of static motion
Figure 9 Snubber Installed Horizontally
Saddles and piers are weight supports and if sufficiently deep, also act as lateral restraints. U-bolts or straps can be added to provide upward and lateral restrain.
5.4 DESIGN OF STANDARD SUPPORT

Standard supports are designed in accordance with vendor catalogues, given the load applied by the pipe and the movement of the pipe. In all cases the vendor catalogue will provide detailed dimensions and installation guidelines. Constant load hangers are listed by travel and load carrying capacity. Variable spring supports are listed by spring deflection (travel range) and load range. Rigid hangers are listed by maximum recommended load. Vibration dampers are listed by stiffness and spring travel. Rigid struts are listed by load rating. U-bolts, clevis hangers, saddles, clamps, upper attachment brackets, turnbuckles, couplings and pipe rolls are listed by maximum recommended load [9].
6.0 FLEXIBILITY AND FATIGUE 6.1 FLEXIBILITY

Changes in fluid or ambient temperature can have five effects on a piping system (1) a global or flexibility effect in the form of movements and stresses as the pipe expands and contracts, (2) a local effect in the form of local temperature gradients in the pipe wall as the temperature changes locally for example when injecting cold water in a hot line, (3) at sufficiently high temperature, creep will take place accompanied by metallurgical changes, (4) changes in mechanical properties with a loss of toughness at low temperature and a softening at high temperatures, and (5) changes in corrosion mechanisms or corrosion rate [1]. In designing a stable pipeline system, different computer software are used to model the pipe. Depending on the material and usage of the pipeline, effects such as temperature variation in pipe, supports where the pipe might buckle, restraints, guides and anchors are added to get a good picture of the strength of the pipeline. Supports and anchors must be arranged to restrict all six degrees of freedom rather than a few to just support the pipe. In this process it may be necessary to add expansion loops, expansion joints or changes in direction to increase the system flexibility. This is an iterative process, until an optimum configuration is achieved.
6.2 FATIGUE
The allowable stress in the flexibility design equation is intended to avoid fatigue failure of the piping system as it undergoes cold to hot cycles through its service life. To understand the fatigue limit, we review the process of fatigue and fatigue failure in five stages [35]. Stage 1, slip bands: when metal components are subject to alternating stresses, microscopic slip bands occur at the surface of the metal. The slip bands occur along the planes of maximum shear stress, at 45 degrees from the applied tensile load. Stage 2, Micro cracks: under continuing alternating stresses, microscopic cracks, in the order of microns in length, form along a slip plane at grain boundaries. The duration of stages 1 and 2, the crack initiation phase, can be short if (a) the component contains initial cracks (for example the weld joints) and (b) the local stress is large (stress riser at the discontinuity such as a nozzle or fillet weld).
Stage 3, small cracks: if the applied stress range is sufficiently large, the micro-cracks will grow into small cracks, now visible with dye penetrant. At this point the fatigue crack starts to extend through the grain (Trans granular) along the plane of maximum tensile stress (perpendicular to the applied tensile load) and, viewed under a microscope, exhibits the typical fatigue surfaces (beach marks) Stage 4: visible cracks: the crack professes and is now visible without the help of dye penetrant. If fatigue is due to cyclic bending the crack will progress from the outer pipe diameter (maximum tensile stress) towards the inner diameter and progressively around the circumference. The component will spring a leak when the crack has progressed through the wall and if the leak can be detected in time, the system may be shut down before reaching the fracture stage. Stage 3 and 4 constitute the crack propagation stages. Stage 5, fracture: as the visible cracks progresses around the circumference, the remaining ligament of metal becomes too small to resist the applied tensile load and will fracture, as indicated by stage 5. The fracture surface in phase 5 has a distinctly coarse look when compared to the crack propagation striations of phase 4.
Figure 10 The five stages of Fatigue Crack Formation and Propagation
6.3 CORROSION FATIGUE

If the formation and propagation of a fatigue crack takes place in the presence of a corrosive fluid [37], then existing crack which has been exposed to the corrosive fluid is corroded while the plane of metal just exposed during the last stress cycle is bare. The corroded region, with its passive oxide film, acts as the cathodic pole, while the recently exposed bare steel is anodic and corrodes.
6.4 SHAKEDOWN
Fatigue cracks tend to originate at sharp structural discontinuities or at existing crack flaws, where the local peak stress is large. This concentrated stress is often well above the material yield stress, creating a local plastic zone in the component. Fatigue can also occur due to cold spring, creep damage and expansion joints [8]. A normal practice in industry is to drill a hole on the path of a crack, this prevents the crack to stop growing and the stress due to the drill of the hole spreads the area of stress. An example of this would be a crack on the wing of an aircraft, since replacing the whole plate of the wing is not practical therefore engineers then drill a hole on the path of the crack and then use a plate of the same material to patch the crack. It is common in aviation industry, but requires constant monitoring to check if the crack has stop growing.
7.0 PIPELINES FOR NATURAL GAS TRANSPORT

The efficient and effective movement of natural gas from producing regions to consumption regions requires an extensive and elaborate transportation system [10]. It is not uncommon to transport natural gas to great distances where it will either be stored or used. The network system designed to carry out this task is very complex and requires constant monitoring and evaluation. Natural gas transported from wells may not be required immediately therefore there are storage facilities to store the gas and supply when needed. There are three major types of pipelines along the transportation route: the gathering system, the interstate pipeline system, and the distribution system. The gathering system consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw natural gas from the wellhead to the processing plant. Should natural gas from a particular well have high sulphur and carbon dioxide contents (sour gas), a specialized sour gas gathering pipe must be installed. Sour gas is corrosive, thus its transportation from the wellhead to the sweetening plant must be done carefully [11]. Pipelines can be characterized as interstate or intrastate. Interstate pipelines are similar to in the interstate highway system: they carry natural gas across state boundaries and in some cases across the country. Intrastate pipelines, on the other hand, transport natural gas within a particular state. This section will cover only the fundamentals of interstate natural gas pipelines; however the technical and operational details discussed are essentially the same for intrastate pipelines [11].
7.1 INTERSTATE NATURAL GAS PIPELINES

Natural gas that is transported through interstate pipelines travels at high pressure in the pipeline, at pressures anywhere from 200 to 1500 pounds per square inch (psi) or 1.4 to 10.4 (MPa). This reduces the volume of the natural gas being transported (by up to 600 times), as well as propelling natural gas through the pipeline [12].
7.2 PIPELINE COMPONENTS

Interstate pipelines consist of a number of components that ensure the efficiency and reliability of a system that delivers such an important energy source year-round, twenty four hours a day, and includes a number of different components.
7.3 TRANSMISSION PIPES

Transmission pipes are used in transporting natural gas from facilities near the well to it is destination; they are also sometimes called mainline transmission pipes. The diameter of transmission pipes varies between (152 to 1220 mm) depending on their function. Gathering /distribution pipelines are then connected to transmission pipes to provide the gas to consumers. Most major interstate pipelines are between 24 and 36 inches in diameter (~610 to ~915 mm). The actual pipeline itself, commonly called 'line pipe', consists of a strong carbon steel material. In contrast, some distribution pipe is made of highly advanced plastic, because of the need for flexibility, versatility and the ease of replacement [11]. Natural gas pipelines are produced in steel mills; there are two different production techniques, one for small diameter pipes and one for large diameter pipes. For large diameter pipes, from 20 to 42 inches in diameter (508 to 1067 mm), the pipes are produced from sheets of metal which are folded into a tube shape, with the ends welded together to form a pipe section. Small diameter pipe, on the other hand, can be produced seamlessly [11]. This involves heating a metal bar to very high temperatures, then punching a hole through the middle of the bar to produce a hollow tube. In either case, the pipe is tested before being shipped from the steel mill, to ensure that it can meet the pressure and strength standards for transporting natural gas. Gas pipelines can be both underground and over ground, therefore the pipes are coated to ensure that it does not corrode. The coating protects the pipes from moisture which the main cause of corrosion and rusting. There are a number of different coating techniques. In the past, pipelines were coated with specialized coal tar enamel. Today, pipes are often protected with what is known as a fusion bond epoxy, which gives the pipe a noticeable light blue colour. In addition, cathodic protection is often used; which is a technique of running an electric current through the pipe to ward off corrosion and rusting [12].
7.4 COMPRESSOR STATIONS

Natural gas is pressurized as it travels through states. To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline remains pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required periodically along the pipe. This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 65 to 160 Km intervals along the pipeline. The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it is compressed by a turbine, motor, or engine [12]. Turbine compressors gain their energy by using up a small proportion of the natural gas that they compress. The turbine itself serves to operate a centrifugal compressor, which contains a type of fan that compresses and pumps the natural gas through the pipeline. Some compressor stations are operated by using an electric motor to turn the same type of centrifugal compressor. This type of compression does not require the use of any of the natural gas from the pipe; however it does require a reliable source of electricity nearby. Reciprocating natural gas engines are also used to power some compressor stations. These engines resemble a very large automobile engine, and are powered by natural gas from the pipeline. The combustion of the natural gas powers pistons on the outside of the engine, which serves to compress the natural gas [12]. In addition to compressing natural gas, compressor stations also usually contain some type of liquid separator, much like the ones used to dehydrate natural gas during its processing. Usually, these separators consist of scrubbers and filters that capture any liquids or other unwanted particles from the natural gas in the pipeline. Although natural gas in pipelines is considered 'dry' gas, it is not uncommon for a certain amount of water and hydrocarbons to condense out of the gas stream while in transit. The liquid separators at compressor stations ensure that the natural gas in the pipeline is as pure as possible, and usually filter the gas prior to compression [13].
7.5 METERING STATIONS

In addition to compressing natural gas to reduce its volume and push it through the pipe, metering stations are placed periodically along interstate natural gas pipelines. These stations allow pipeline companies to monitor the natural gas in their pipes. Essentially, these metering stations measure the flow of gas along the pipeline, and allow pipeline companies to 'track' natural gas as it flows along the pipeline. These metering stations employ specialized meters to measure the natural gas as it flows through the pipeline, without impeding its movement.
7.6 VALVES
Interstate pipelines include a great number of valves along their entire length. These valves work like gateways; they are usually open and allow natural gas to flow freely, or they can be used to stop gas flow along a certain section of pipe. There are many reasons why a pipeline may need to restrict gas flow in certain areas. For example, if a section of pipe requires replacement or
maintenance, valves on either end of that section of pipe can be closed to allow engineers and work crews safe access. These large valves can be placed every 9 to 32 Km along the pipeline, and are subject to regulation by safety codes.
Figure 11 A ground valve
7.7 PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

As the demand for natural gas increases so is the need to construct reliable and safe pipelines. Pipelines are normally manufactured in lengths of between 12 to 25 meters. Once the pipelines are shipped to the required area, they are then lowered into trenches typically 1.5 to 1.8 meters deep. The depth of the trenches differs for example if the pipeline is to cross the road or near domestic areas it is then dug even deeper. The pipelines are welded, bent, coated and inspected before it is lowered into the trenches. Then the pipelines are hydrostatically tested [10]. This consists of running water, at pressures higher than will be needed for natural gas transportation, through the entire length of the pipe. This serves as a test to ensure that the pipeline is strong enough, and absent of any leaks of fissures, before natural gas is pumped through the pipeline. Laying pipe across streams or rivers can be accomplished in one of two ways. Open cut crossing involves the digging of trenches on the floor of the river to house the pipe. When this is done, the pipe itself is usually fitted with a concrete casing, which both ensures that the pipe stays on the bottom of the river and adds an extra protective coating to prevent any natural gas leaks into the water [11]. Alternatively, a form of directional drilling may be employed, in which a 'tunnel' is drilled under the river through which the pipe may be passed. The same techniques are used for road crossings - either an open trench is excavated across the road and replaced once the pipe is installed, or a tunnel may be drilled underneath the road.
7.8 PIPELINE INSPECTION AND SAFETY

In order to ensure the efficient and safe operation of the extensive network of natural gas pipelines, pipeline companies routinely inspect their pipelines for corrosion and defects. This is done through the use of sophisticated pieces of equipment known as smart pigs. Smart pigs are intelligent robotic devices that are propelled down pipelines to evaluate the interior of the pipe. Smart pigs can test pipe thickness, and roundness, check for signs of corrosion, detect minute leaks, and any other defect along the interior of the pipeline that may either impede the flow of gas, or pose a potential safety risk to the operation of the pipeline. Sending a smart pig down a pipeline is fittingly known as 'pigging' the pipeline [13]. In addition to inspection with smart pigs, there are a number of safety precautions and procedures in place to minimize the risk of accidents. In fact, the transportation of natural gas is one of the safest ways of transporting energy, mostly due to the fact that the infrastructure is fixed, and buried underground.
7.9 VIBRATION IN GAS PIPELINES

The motion of gas does not have significant impact on vibrations; however structural vibrations of significant magnitude can occur in the pipelines (loading lines) under various operating conditions, including normal design operation. If these high amplitude vibrations are sustained, they often lead to problems such as misalignment, equipment malfunction, and structural failures which are very costly in terms of down-time and component replacement. As such, structural vibrations of natural gas compressor installations are highly undesirable and have a significant influence on the operational reliability, maintenance and safety of these installations. In the extreme, vibration induced failures of compressor components have been catastrophic in a few cases [38].
7.10 LIMITATIONS OF PULSATION DAMPERS

Because of the oscillatory piston action of reciprocating compressors, pressure pulses are superimposed on the flow of gas from the compressor into the loading lines [41]. Since the piston motion is not strictly a sinusoidal motion, these pressure pulses contain a band of frequencies. Additional frequencies within the gas result from pressure wave reflections at valves, pipe bends and other impedance discontinuities in the flow [41]. As the loading lines oscillates due to the gas flow generation, the pressure oscillation coincides with resonance frequencies in the pipeline system thus resonant builds up and results in vibration. These further worsens when the resonant amplitude of the pipe are even higher when driven by resonances within the gas. To control or minimise the amplitude of pulsation-induced pipe
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vibrations, pulsation dampers are inserted in the loading lines. These dampers act essentially like acoustic filters which remove a specific narrow band of frequencies from the troublesome gas pressure pulses, thus decreasing the amplitudes of the pressure pulses and the attendant pipe vibrations [12]. The design of the pulsation dampers plays a vital role in minimising this effect. It must match the pressure pulse characteristics, operating speeds, and gas pressures and temperatures. Vibration of this kind is discussed further in the vibration section of this report.
7.11 MODIFICATION AND ADDITION OF PIPING SUPPORTS

In some instances the pulsation-induced loading line vibrations are significant despite the presence of pulsation dampers therefore to minimise the vibration pipeline supports are added to achieve the desired reduction in vibration. Supports for pipelines are discussed thoroughly in section 5.0 of this report. Modelling the pipeline already in operation for supports can only be of limited help because of the uncertain characteristics of the compressor and on the field evaluation to obtain an exact value for the placement of the supports is not possible therefore it is then necessary to make the best estimate derivable on the basis of whatever data can be obtained under the existing operational conditions - an approach that is less than desirable if the first solution to be implemented must be adequate [9].
8.0 PIPELINES FOR OIL TRANSPORT

Pipelines are the most efficient method to transport crude oil and refined products as well. Pipelines are used to move crude oil from the wellhead to gathering and processing facilities and from there to refineries and tanker loading facilities [14]. Product pipelines ship gasoline, jet fuel, and diesel fuel from the refinery to local distribution facilities. Crude oil is collected from field gathering systems consisting of pipelines that move oil from the wellhead to storage tanks and treatment facilities where the oil is measured and tested. From the gathering system the crude oil is sent to a pump station where the oil delivered to the pipeline. The pipeline may have many collection and delivery points along route. Booster pumps are located along the pipeline to maintain the pressure and keeps the oil flowing. The delivery points may be refineries, oil is processed into products, or shipping terminals, then oil is loaded onto tankers. A pipeline may handle several types of crude oil. The pipeline will schedule its operation to ensure that the right crude oil is sent to the correct destination. Crude oil may also move over more than one pipeline system as it journeys from the oil field to the refinery or shipping port. Storage is located along the pipeline to ensure smooth continuous pipeline operation. After crude oil is converted into refined products such as gasoline, pipelines are used to transport the products to terminals for movement to gasoline stations. In addition to gasoline, product pipelines are used to ship diesel fuel, home heating fuel, kerosene, and jet fuel. Because product pipelines are used to move many different products, the different types of products are shipped in batches. Batching is used to move two or more different liquids through the same pipeline. The liquid are transported in a series of batches. The adjoining batches mix where they come into contact. This mixed stream may be sent to refinery for re-refining, sold as a lower valued product such as a mixture of premium unleaded gasoline with regular unleaded gasoline, or sold as mixture. Many product pipelines have standard product specifications. Considerations in regards to designing the pipeline for oil is similar to that of the gas mentioned earlier [15], however there are a few points that need to be mentioned. The most important of all is the volume of the oil that needs to be transported. There is often some uncertainty in volume estimates, and making the best projection of volume to be handled throughout the life of the pipeline is the key to a profitable project. With projected volumes and the origin and destination of the pipeline known, pipeline design typically follows these general steps:
8.1 PRESSURE DROP

Bernoullis theorem describes the flow of fluids in a pipe. The general equation for the flow of liquid in a pipe is Darcys formula. To determine pressure drop, for instance, the equation is used in this form: [16] p = Where p = pressure drop over length, L in Mpa P= density of fluid in kg/m3 f= friction factor, dimensionless L= length of pipe, m V= velocity of flow m/s D= inside diameter of pipe in m G= acceleration of gravity 9.8 m/s2
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In this equation, L can be either the entire length of the pipeline or another specified length. If the length of the entire pipeline is uses, is total pressure drop in the line. Since the velocity is a function of flow volume [17], velocity can determined using the desired flow volume and an assumed pipe size. Then that assumed pipe size and calculated velocity are used in the equation to determine pressure drop [18].
8.2 VALVE AND FITTINGS

In addition to the pressure loss due to friction of the flowing fluid with the walls of the pipeline, valve and fittings also contribute to overall system pressure loss. The pressure loss due to a single valve in several thousand meters of straight piping will be relatively insignificant. But in a pumping station, for example, where many valves exist and many changes in flow direction occurs, pressure loss in valves and fittings is important. The type of crude must be considered in pipeline design because of viscosity and other physical properties affect throughout and pumping calculations. For most crude, no special equipment is required in the pipeline system for different types of crudes [19]. But there are some crude such as oil with very high pour points or high with contents that require pipelines of special design. Pour point can indicate the amount of different types of hydrocarbons in the crude.
9.0 PIPELINES FOR WATER TRANSPORT 9.1 FLOW IN PIPES

Fluid flow is classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a channel. Internal and external flows exhibit very different characteristics [20]. The internal flow, where the channel is completely filled with the fluid and flow is driven primarily by a pressure difference. This is different to open-channel flow where the duct is partially filled by the fluid and thus the flow is partially bounded by solid surfaces, as in an irrigation ditch, and flow is driven by gravity alone [21]. The flow through most pipes is turbulent. Analysing the flow using classical analytical techniques is challenging. Available techniques are based on experimental data and empirical formulae. The working equations are often derived from dimensional analysis using dimensionless forms [22]. It is often desirable to determine the head loss, hL so that the energy equation can be used. Pipe systems come with valves, bends, pipe diameter changes, elbows which also contribute to the energy (head) loss. The overall head loss is divided into two parts major loss hLmajor, and minor loss hLminor. The major loss comes from viscosity (in straight pipe) while the minor loss is due to energy loss in the components [22]. The major loss can actually be smaller than the minor loss for a pipe system containing short pipes and many bends and valves. Designing pipelines for water is no different to gas or oil pipelines mentioned above. Like the methods for oil and gas pipelines, many factors need to be considered in designing pipes to carry water. For water pumping mains the flow velocity at the optimum diameter varies from 0.7 m/s to 2 m/s, depending on flow and working pressure. It is about 1 m/s for low pressure heads and a flow of 100 L/s increasing to 2 m/s for a flow of 1000 L/s and pressure heads at about 400m of water, and may be even higher for higher pressures. The capacity factor and power cost structures also influence the optimum flow velocity or conversely the diameter for any particular flow. In planning a pipeline system it should be borne in mind that the scale of operation of a pipeline has considerable effect on the unit costs. By doubling the diameter of the pipe, other factors such as head remaining constant, the capacity increases six fold. On the other hand the cost approximately doubles so that the cost per unit delivered decreases to 1/3 of the original. It is this scale effect which justifies multi- product lines. Whether it is in fact economical to install a large diameter main at the outset depends on the following factors as well [23]: Rate of growth in demand (it may be uneconomical to operate at low capacity factors during initial years). (Capacity factor is the ratio of actual average discharge to design capacity). Operating factor (the ratio of average throughput at any time to maximum throughput during the same period), which will depend on the rate of draw-off and can be improved by installing storage at the consumer's end. Reduced power costs due to low friction losses while the pipeline is not operating at full capacity. Certainty of future demands. Varying costs with time (both capital and operating). Rates of interest and capital availability. Physical difficulties in the construction of a second pipeline if required.
Pipelines are designed to last 10 to 30 years [24]. Longer planning stages are normally justified for small bores and low pressures. For high pressure pipelines it is recommended to reduce the diameter and wall thickness. Systems analysis techniques such as linear programming and dynamic programming are ideally suited for such studies. Booster pump stations may be installed along lines instead of pumping to a high pressure head at the input end and maintaining a high pressure along the entire line. By providing for intermediate booster pumps at the design stage instead of pumping to a high head at the input end, the pressure heads and consequently the pipe wall thicknesses may be minimized. There may be a saving in overall cost, even though additional pumping stations are required [25]. The booster stations may not be required for some time. The capacity of the pipeline may often be increased by installing booster pumps at a later stage although it should be realised that this is not always economical. The friction losses along a pipeline increase approximately with the square of the flow, consequently power losses increased considerably for higher flows.
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The three most important equations in fluid mechanics are the continuity equation [26], the momentum equation and the energy equation. For steady, incompressible, one-dimensional flow the continuity equation is simply obtained by equating the flow rate at any section to the flow rate at another section along the stream tube. By 'steady flow' is meant that there is no variation in velocity at any point with time. 'One-dimensional' flow implies that the flow is along a stream tube and there is no lateral flow across the boundaries of stream tubes. It also implies that the flow is irrotional. The momentum equation stems from Newton's basic law of motion and states that the change in momentum flux between two sections equals the sum of the forces on the fluid causing the change. For steady, one-dimensional flow this is: AFx = PQAVx Where F is the force, p is the fluid mass density, Q is the volumetric flow rate [26], V is velocity and subscript x refers to the ' x ' direction. The basic energy equation is derived by equating the work done on an element of fluid by gravitational and pressure forces to the change in energy. Mechanical and heat energy transfer are excluded from the equation. In most systems there is energy loss due to friction and turbulence and a term is included in the equation to account for this. The resulting equation for steady flow of incompressible fluids is termed the Bernoulli equation and is conveniently written as:
p/y = pressure head (units of length)
= u n it weight of fluid
Z = elevation above an arbitrary datum he = head loss due to friction or turbulence between sections 1 and 2 The sum of the velocity head plus pressure head plus elevation is termed the total head. Strictly the velocity head should be multiplied by a coefficient to account for the variation in velocity across the section of the conduit. The average value of the coefficient for turbulent flow is 1.06 and for laminar flow it is 2.0. flow through a conduit is termed either uniform or nonuniform depending on whether or not there is a variation in the cross-sectional velocity distribution along the conduit. For the Bernoulli equation to apply the flow should be steady, i.e. there should be no change in velocity at any point with time. The flow is assumed to be one-dimensional and irrotational. The fluid should be incompressible, although the equation may be applied to gases with reservations. (Albertson et all., 1960).
9.2 PIPELINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The flows through a system of interlinked pipes or networks are controlled by the difference between the pressure heads at the input points and the residual pressure heads at the draw off points. A steady state flow pattern will be established in a network such that the following two criteria are satisfied [27]. 1. 2. The net flow towards any junction or node is zero i.e., inflow must equal outflow, and The net head loss around any closed loop is zero i.e., only one head can exist at any point at any time.
The line head losses are usually the only significant head losses and most methods of analysis are based on this assumption. N m Head loss relationships for pipes are usually assumed to be of the form h= kLQ /D where h is the head loss, L is the pipe length, Q the flow and D the internal diameter of the pipe. The calculations are simplified if the friction factor K can be assumed the same for all pipes in a network.
9.3 WATER HAMMER AND SURGE

Water hammer occurs whenever the fluid velocity in pipe systems suddenly changes direction [28]. For example at pump stop, pump start up or valve opening and closure. It is important to design pump systems to prevent water hammer in order to avoid potentially devastating consequences, such as damage to components and equipment and risks to personnel. Determining how to prevent water hammer requires a fundamental understanding of fluid properties, governing equations and the design and operation of pipe systems, valves, pumps and pump stations. This section of the report focuses on water hammer, application
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equations, risk potential as well as methods of evaluating water hammer and/ or eliminating the consequences of these types of transient events.
9.3.1 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENT ANALYSIS: PREVENTING WATER HAMMER

Water hammer is a type of hydraulic transient that refers to rapid changes of pressure in a pipe system that can have devastating consequences, such as collapsing pipes and ruptured valves [29]. It is therefore important to understand the phenomena that contribute to transient formation and be able to accurately calculate and analyse changes as well as maximum and minimum pressures occurring in a pipe system [30].
9.3.2 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF WATER HAMMER

Rapid pressure changes are a result of rapid changes in flow, which generally occur in a pipe system after pump shut-off, although it may also occur at pump start or at valve opening or closing. Because of the compressibility of water and the elasticity of pipes, pressure waves will then propagate in the pipe until they are attenuated at a velocity, which is dependent upon pipe material and wall thickness [31]. The effects of the water hammer vary, ranging from slight changes in pressure and velocity to sufficiently high pressure or vacuum through to failure of fittings, burst pipes and pump damage. Pump stop can create hard-to-handle water hammer conditions; the most severe conditions result from a sudden power failure that causes all pumps to stop simultaneously.
9.3.3 CALCULATING MAXIMUM PRESSURE INCREASE

Joukowskys formula, which originates from Newtons laws of motion, describes the pressure change that results from a rapid change in velocity. By analysing the formula, it is clear that the larger the magnitude of the velocity change and the larger the magnitude of the wave speed, the greater the change in pressure will be [26].
Joukowskys formula is expressed as:
H= H = Change in pressure a = Velocity of pressure wave Q = Change in flow g = Acceleration due to gravity A = Pipe area
9.3.4 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CONSEQUENCES OF WATER HAMMER

To perform water hammer calculations several factors needs to be taken into consideration. To determine when this calculation is necessary is mostly based on experience and experiments. Design books however suggest some points to as when this calculation should be performed. The length of the pipe has a significant influence on the inertia of water inside the pipe, thus the longer the pipe, the longer the reflection time [32]. This means that the time it takes for wave to reflect at the outlet and return to the starting point. Conversely, the length of pipe has a greater effect because, the larger the mass of water that will affect the moment of inertia of the water column. It is strongly advised that if the length of the pipe exceeds 300 m, the sub pressures exist and water hammer calculations should be conducted. Moment of inertia: A pumps moment of inertia plays a critical role in water hammer events. The higher the moment of inertia, the longer the pump will continue to rotate after shut-off. A higher moment of inertia minimises pressure drops before the reflecting wave raises the pressure again. Pipe material and dimensions: Joukowskys equation states that the magnitude of water hammer is directly proportional to the velocity of the wave propagation. Wave propagation velocity depends on the elasticity of the pipe walls and the compressibility of the liquid. Filling around the pipeline: the type of filling and packing method used around the pipeline has a direct impact on the external pressure on the pipelines. Due to the pressure changes created by water hammer, there will be oscillations of the pipe in the ground; therefore the filling around the pipe will have a great effect on the wear of the pipe. Sharp stones, for example, will tear the pipe exterior. For submerged pipes, consideration must also be given to the depth of the pipe because the pipe wall is subject to the difference in pressure between the pressure inside the pipe and the external pressure from the surrounding water. If the pressure from the surrounding water is greater than the pressure inside the pipe, there is a risk of collapse or buckling [32].
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Figure 12 examples of different kinds of filling around a pipe
9.3.5 CONSEQUENCES OF WATER HAMMER

Water hammer can have devastating effects on the pump system. These include instant pipe failure, weakening of pipe sections, fatigue and external wear. 9.3.5.1INSTANT PIPELINE FAILURE Pipelines are mostly subject to low-pressure and over-pressure and may collapse due to either, but mostly because of overpressure. Separations of columns or joints at particular locations of the pipe are due to vapour pressure of the pumped liquid which causes vacuum conditions. Cavitation usually occurs at high points in the pipeline but may also occur in flat areas of the pipe system. The collapse of the vapour pockets can cause dramatic high-pressure transients if the water columns re-join too rapidly. This, in turn, may cause the pipeline to rupture [33]. Vaporous cavitation may also result in pipe flexure, which can damage pipe linings. The pipes ability to withstand sub pressure depends on the material properties of the pipe, wall thickness, how the pipes are laid, type of filling used as well as how the filling is packed. Only soft earth of good quality that does not contain stones, boulders, root or vegetation should be used as filling to prevent the pipes from assuming a shape that is more oval than round. Pipes with an oval shape do not tolerate pressure variations as well as pipes with a circular shape. Manufacturers of pipes supply a data sheet which includes the minimum and maximum pressures that a pipe can withstand. Pipeline design books also contain tables and graphs based on experiments which help decide if the pipe is suitable for the situation. When determining the risk of collapse for submerged pipes [34], it is critical to take the surrounding water pressure into account because the pipe wall will be exposed to the differences in pressure. 9.3.5.2 WEAKENED PIPELINE SECTION Pipe failure can also occur after a period of time due to a weakened pipeline section. The cause of the weakened section may be corrosion, erosion due to flow or cavitation implosion. Regardless of cause, the weakened section is sensitive to water hammer, which can lead to upsurge, down surge, cracking or rupture. 9.3.5.3 FATIGUE AND EXTERNAL WEAR Pipe fatigue and external wear are also common occurrences. Axial pipe movement due to water hammer causes wear on the pipe, especially in a pump system with frequent starts and stops. Most pipeline materials are more sensitive to fatigue due to sub pressure rather than overpressure, and pipe fatigue is more pronounced when using plastic pipes. Dimensioning of sub pressure depends largely on the pipe material and wall thickness and therefore this should be obtained from the pipe manufacturer. 9.3.5.3 SLAMMING VALVES Slamming valves are often misunderstood to be caused by water hammer, but this is generally not the case. Instead slamming valves are typically the cause of very high water column occurring at pump stop. When the pump is stopped, the water accelerates and reverses direction. A fast water column retardation is often generated in systems where we do not have problems with water hammer. Typically slamming valves can be seen in a system with a short pipe length and a relatively high static head while water hammer typically appears in systems with long pipe length and small static head. A high head and a short pipe length will cause a high water column deceleration. Calculations to predict the possibility of a slamming valve can be done manually; however, to be more precise, the use of water hammer calculation software is recommended [35].
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Figure 13 Different effects of a weakened section of the pipe.
10.0 SELECTING APPROPRIATE PROTECTION

When selecting the appropriate method of protection for a pipe system, it is important to consider various factors, such as the number of pumps in operation, conditions during normal stop and power failure as well as the risk of buckling, fatigue and clogging. It is critical that the protection method used is based on thorough understanding of the effect that the method will have on the system and that the protection method is dimensioned accordingly on a case-by-case basis. Protection equipment can be divided in two groups: active protection and passive protection [35].
10.1 ACTIVE PROTECTION

Devices used to actively protect the pump station against the effects of water hammer are dependent upon power supply. Therefore these methods only protect the pipeline during normal pump stops [36]. Examples of active protection include variable frequency drives, soft starters and slow-closing valves.
10.2 PASSIVE PROTECTION

Passive protection equipment operates without the need for additional power supply and can therefore be used to protect the pipe system in the event of a power failure. Air chambers, surge towers and air inlet/release valves are methods used to provide passive protection.
11.0 AIR IN PIPELINES

It is recognised that air is present in many water pipelines [28]. The air may be absorbed at free surfaces, or entrained in turbulent flow at the entrance to the line. The air may thus be in solution or in free form in bubbles or pockets. An air pocket implies a relatively large volume of air, likely to accumulate on top of the pipe cross section. The pockets may travel along the line to peaks. There they will either remain in equilibrium, be entrained by the flowing water or be released through air valves. Air in solution is not likely to present many engineering problems. It is only when the pressure reduces sufficiently to permit dissolved air to form bubbles that problems arise. The water bulks and head losses increase. The bubbles may merge and rise to the top of the pipe to form large pockets. Flow conditions then become similar to those in partly full drain pipes, except that in a pipeline it is likely that system, including the free air, will be pressurised. EXTERNAL LOADS: Low pressure pipes, especially sewers, gravity mains or even large diameter pumping mains should be designed for external loads as well as internal loads. The vertical soil load acting in combination with vacuum pressure inside the pipe could cause the pipe to collapse unless the pipe is adequately supported or stiffened. Internal and external load and pressures are discussed in section 3.0 and 4.0. SOIL LOADS: The load transmitted to a pipe from the external surroundings depends on a number of factors. RIGIDITY OF PIPE: The more rigid relative to the trench side fill the more loads it will take. The side fill tends to settle, this causing a large part of the backfill to rest on the pipe. This occurs with flexible pipe too to some extent, as a pipe is supported laterally by the fill and will not yield as much as a free standing pipe.
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TYPE OF TRENCH FILL: the load transmitted to the pipe varies with the width and depth of trench since friction on the sides of the trench affects the resultant load [35]. Embankment fills may also transmit different loads to a pipe, depending on the relative settlement of side fill and top fill. Figure 12 illustrates various installation methods. There are several issues to consider such as trench condition, embankment condition etc.
Figure 14 illustrates various possible installation conditions of pipes
12.0 CONCRETE PIPES 12.1 THE EFFECT OF BEDDING

Non- pressure sewer or drain pipes are designed to withstand external loads, not internal pressures. Various standards specify the design load per unit run of pipes for different classes and the pipes are reinforced accordingly. The main stresses due to vertical external loads are compressive stress at the haunches and the bending stresses at the crown, the bottom and the haunches. The main stresses are caused by live loads, vertical and horizontal soil loads, self-weight and weight of water (internal water pressure and transient pressures are neglected for non-pressure pipes.) concrete pipes and the other rigid non pressure pipes are normally designed to withstand a vertical line load while supported on a flat rigid bed [37]. The load per unit length required to fracture the pipe loaded this is called the laboratory strength. Although the laboratory strength could be calculated theoretically, a number of practical factors influence the theoretical load and experimental determination of the load is more reliable. (The tensile strength of concrete is very uncertain and the effect of lateral constraint of the supports may be appreciable)
12.2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PIPES

Prestressed concrete is becoming a popular medium for large-bore pressure pipes. Pre-stressed concrete competes economically with steel for long pipelines over approximately 800 mm diameter. It has the advantage that the pre-stressing steel can be stressed to higher stresses than the plain-walled pipes [37]. The wall thickness of plain walled steel pipes must be reasonably thick to prevent buckling, collapse and distortion even if the thickness is not required to resist internal pressures. Consequently the use of high-tensile steels is restricted when manufacturing plain-walled steel pipes, but this is not the case with pre-stressed concrete pipes which are more rigid than steel pipes.
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13.0 BURIED FLEXIBLE STEEL PIPE

When designing steel pipe, the designer must consider issues beyond the thickness of the steel cylinder. These considerations include the type of coating and linings to be applied and the type of joint configuration consistent with the application. Certain coatings and linings are appropriate for some installation conditions and inappropriate for others [9]. The same holds true for the various joint configurations. As with any design, the designer should always be aware of the nature of the input data and the impact the results of a calculation have on the economics of a project. Rules of thumb do not have to be considered as absolute values. The designer should use discretion when evaluating requirements for project design. Performance limits are not synonymous with failures. Both performance limits and failure mechanisms must be recognised. Pipes are an efficient and economical means of transporting anything that can flow-fluid, slurry, gas, wire conduits, pedestrians, traffic, and so on. Pipes even provide storage. The first step for transportation of fluids in pipe is to determine [9]: 1. 2. 3. What is to be transported? What is the rate (quantity) of flow? What are the pressure and pressure variations?
Structural design of welded steel pipe is based on the principles of pipe performance and the conditions for performance limit. A performance limit may be a leak or excessive deformation-either ring deformation or longitudinal deformation. Deformation is based on pipe mechanics, soil mechanics, and pipe soil interactions. Soil is part of the conduit structural system- not simply a load on the pipe. Typically, design of pipe proceeds as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Internal pressure-steel cylinder (wall) thickness Handling and installation-ring stiffness External pressure-ring compression Ring deflection (deformation) Longitudinal stress analysis Joints, linings and coatings Miscellaneous, special design cases
Internal pressure design- already discussed refer to section 3.0 Minimum wall thickness for the steel cylinder of the pipe is often governed by what can be safety handled and installed in the field. Designers commonly use D/ts ratios up to 240. With special design, manufacturing, shipping, and installation considerations, increased D/ts ratios of 288 and higher have been successfully installed. Irrigation and hydroelectric systems are two examples that use these higher D/ts values. Ring stiffness Stiffness is resistance to deflection. Pipe stiffness is defined as the ratio of the concentrated load F to a cylinder over the resulting deflection D or F/D. Ring stiffness is defined as EI/r3 per unit length of pipe, the dimensions of the ring stiffness are force per unit area, commonly Mpa. Because L=t3/12 per mm length of pipe EI / r3 = 2E / 3(D/t)3 . Ring compression If the pipe ring is held in the circular shape when external pressure is applied, stress in the pipe wall is ring compression stress,
s= P (D0) /2ts
[55]. Performance limit for common pipe diameters and thicknesses is wall crushing or wall buckling at yield stress y. External pressure is caused by the soil embedment and the pipe does not fail at yield stress, but any additional pressure must be supported by the embedment. Nevertheless, for design, yield stress is set as the performance limit. Other factors that need to be considered while designing the flexible steel buried pipes are the ring deflection, yield stress.
13.1 SOIL MECHANICS AN INTRODUCTION

Structural behaviour of buried pipe is not elastic, especially at performance limits. Design and analysis is based on pipe-soil interaction using correct properties of both pipe and soil. At performance limit (beyond elastic limit), steel pipes are ductile. Soil varies from particulate (granular) to viscous (mud). Basic principles of soil mechanics are required for rational design and analysis of buried pipe. Soil mechanics is not discussed in this report. Buried pipe design analysis, following three basic procedures. The first step in buried pipe design is to determine the wall thickness required because of internal pressure. The step assumes that pipe diameter, flow, pressure, and routing have been determined. The second step is to check for minimum steel wall thickness for handling. The final step the pipe-soil embedment system is analysed for external loading during construction, which involves earth loads, live loads and water table conditions and can also include negative pressure in the pipeline.
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14.0 ABOVE GROUND SYSTEM DESIGN- SUPPORTS, ANCHORS AND GUIDES 14.1 Piping support design
Above ground piping systems may be designed as restrained or unrestrained. Selection of the design method is dependent on variables such as operating temperature, flow rates, pressures and piping layout. System designs combing the two methods often lead to the most structurally efficient and economical piping layout [21].
14.2 Unrestrained system design

The unrestrained system is often referred to as a simple supported design. It makes use of the inherent flexibility of fiber glass pipe to safely absorb deflections and bending stresses. Simple pipe hangers or steel beams are used to provide vertical support to the pipe. These simple supports allow the piping system to expand the contract freely resulting in small axial stresses in the piping system. Long straight runs often employ changes-in-direction to safely absorb movement due to thermal expansion and contractions, flow rate changes, and internal pressure.
14.3 Restrained system design

The restrained system is often referred to as an anchored and guided design. The low modulus of elasticity for fiberglass piping translates to significantly smaller thermal forces when compared to steel. Anchors are employed to restrain axial movement and provide vertical support in horizontal pipelines. Anchors used to restrain thermal expansion create compressive forces in the pipeline [21]. These must be controlled by the use of pipe guides to prevent the pipe from buckling. In cases where axial loads created by anchoring a pipe run are excessively high, the use of expansion loops or expansion joints must be employed. When using anchors, the effect of system contraction should be considered. Supports for pipes are discussed in section 5.0.
14.4 System design

The properly designed piping system provides safe and efficient long-term performance under varying thermal environments. The system design dictates how a piping system will react to changes in operating temperatures. The unrestrained piping system undergoes expansion and contraction in proportion to changes in the pipe wall mean temperature. Fiberglass piping system that operate at or near the installation temperature are normally unrestrained designs, where the most important design consideration is the basic support span spacing. Since few piping systems operate under these conditions, some provisions must be made for thermal expansion and contraction. The simplest unrestrained piping system use directional changes to provide flexibility to compensate for thermal movements. When directional changes are available or provide insufficient flexibility, the use of expansion loops or expansion joints should be designed into the system to prevent overstressing the piping system. These systems are considered unrestrained even though partial anchoring and guiding of the pipe is required for proper expansion joint, expansion loop performance and system stability. The fully restrained anchored piping system eliminates axial thermal movement. Pipe and fittings generally benefit from reduced bending stresses at directional changes. Restrained systems develop internal loads required to maintain equilibrium at the anchors due to temperature changes. When the pipe is in compression, these internal loads require guided supports to keep the pipe straight preventing Euler buckling. Thus, the commonly referred to name of restrained systems is anchored and guided. Anchored and guided systems have anchors at the ends of straight runs that protect fittings from thermal movement and stresses [21]. Anchors at directional changes (elbow and tees) transmit loads to the support substructure. Special attention should be given to these loads by the piping engineer to ensure an adequate substructure design. When multiple anchors are used to break up long straight runs, the loads between them and the substructure are generally small. The axial restraining loads are simply balanced between the two opposing sides of the pipeline at the anchor.
15.0 VIBRATION Every machine vibrates as it operates [38]. No matter how rigidly a machine is mounted, the machine and all attached structures will experience some undesirable motion caused by various forces. These forces are usually related to the movement of various parts within the machine [39]. If this vibration-related movement becomes too great, damage to the machine will result. Vibration can be caused by a variety of conditions including bent shafts, unbalance in rotating parts, worn or bent gears, damaged bearings, misaligned couplings or bearings, electromagnetic forces, etc. [40]. Pipeline vibrations are caused by many reasons. It depends on the flow, the equipment to which it is connected, supports, selection of piping with respect to flow and pressure and types of valves and pipe fitting in the route. Piping vibration can be an annoying problem which can consume unnecessary maintenance activity and can affect pumping system performance and endurance [40]. The system includes the pipe, all piping supports, hangers, snubber, pipe to pipe interfaces, and machinery or devices attached to the pipe. All these items can influence the pipe vibration patterns. Sudden closure and opening of valves
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creates "water hammer" effects in the piping and causes tremendous vibration. In-sufficient Net Positive Suction Head NPSH in the pump also causes vibration. The Net Positive Suction Head Available must be greater than the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSH Available > NPSH Required) [41]. A pipe will not vibrate if it is prevented from moving. However, this does not necessarily help the piping system design from the standpoint of its ability to absorb differential thermal expansion. Therefore, when addressing a vibration problem, the flexibility design of the piping system must also be considered. Restraints that are added to reduce vibration must not increase the pipe thermal expansion stresses or end-point reaction loads to an acceptable levels [42]. It may sometimes be necessary to use hydraulic snubber to stop vibration rather than fixed restraints. Such snubbers permit pipe thermal movement while still dampening vibration. In reciprocating machineries, the flow through the pipeline is pulsating. If the pulsating is not dampened it will cause vibration in the pipeline. Dynamic imbalance in centrifugal fan can cause heavy vibration and transmits it to piping which can be cured by balancing the fan with shaft on balancing machine or "in-situ" balancing. Generally, the pipe supports should be a nodal point with little or no motion. Excessive motion at these locations indicates that the support is faulty or improperly installed [43]. 16.0TYPES OF VIBRATIONS 16.1Free vibration: occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely. Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then letting go or hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will then vibrate at one or more of its "natural frequency" and damp down to zero. 16.2 Forced vibration: is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a mechanical system. Examples of this type of vibration include a shaking washing machine due to an imbalance, transportation vibration (caused by truck engine, springs, road, etc.), or the vibration of a building during an earthquake. In forced vibration the frequency of the vibration is the frequency of the force or motion applied, with order of magnitude being dependent on the actual mechanical system. 17.0 WHAT TYPES OF VIBRATION ARE CAUSED IN PIPELINES For the purposes of piping design and monitoring, vibration is typically divided into two types: steady-state and dynamic transient vibrations. Each type has its own potential causes and effects that necessitate individualized treatment for prediction, analysis, control, and monitoring [44]. 17.1 Steady-State Vibration Steady state vibration in pipelines can be defined as a repetitive vibration that occurs for a relatively long period of time. This type of vibration is caused by different forces acting on the pipeline for example force due to rotating or reciprocating equipment such as a pump or by the fluid pressure pulses. Cavitation or flashing are also a major cause of vibration that results from pressure reducing valves, control valves and flash tanks. Flow-induced vibrations such as vortex shedding can cause steady-state vibrations in piping [45], and wind loadings can cause significant vibrations for exposed piping similar to that typically found at outdoor boilers. Steady-state vibrations exist in a range from periodic to random. Material fatigue is also a major cause of steady-state vibration. This type of vibration occurs in the piping itself, most likely at areas with stress risers such as branch connections, elbows, threaded connections, or valves. However, this failure can also occur in various piping system components and supports. Fatigue damage to wall penetrations can occur because of vibration in the attached piping, snubbers, and supports; premature failures of machine bearings are another potential consequence [46]. 17.2 Dynamic-Transient Vibration Dynamic-transient vibration on the other hand is a more intense type of vibration. It is generated by much larger forces than the steady state vibration and lasts for a relatively short period of time. In piping, the primary cause of dynamic transients is a highor low-pressure pulse traveling through the fluid [47]. Such a pulse can result in large forces acting in the axial direction of the piping, the magnitude of which is normally proportional to the length of pipe leg that is, the longer the pipe leg, the larger the dynamic transient force the piping will experience ( pipe leg is defined as the run of straight pipe between bends) [47]. The common examples of this type vibration are rapid pump starts and trips, and also the quick closing or opening of valves such as turbine-stop valves and various types of control valves. Dynamic transients also occur as a result of rapid safety/relief valve (SRV) opening or as a result of unexpected events, such as water accumulating at a low point in steam piping during a plant outage [48]. When the steam is returned to the line, a slug of water will be pushed through the piping, resulting in large axial loads at each elbow. Effects of transient vibrations are usually obvious; large pipe deflections usually occur that damage the support system and insulation as well as cause possible yielding of the piping. Dynamic-transient vibrations are most often evaluated on the basis of pipe deflections and reactions. Fatigue is a less important concern because of an expected low number of dynamic transient events; however, fatigue must be considered if the number of stress cycles becomes significant [49]. High stresses and damage to the support due dynamic vibrations are because of the large pipe deflections. This type damages cause catastrophic failure in piping system. If pipelines are properly restrained the effect of dynamic-transient vibration can be controlled. In addition to the above, piping code clearly define the stress limits. Therefore the capabilities of a pipeline to withstand dynamic transient vibrations lies in its supports [50].
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18.0 PUMP-INDUCED PRESSURE PULSATIONS AND FLOW TURBULENCE Pipelines with flow through them will vibrate to some extent. Pump-induced pressure pulsations and flow turbulence are two potential sources of steady-state vibration. Pump-induced pressure pulsations occur at different frequencies, which are multiples of the pump speed. Pulsations originate at the pump and travel throughout the entire discharge piping. In some instances, especially with reciprocating pumps, pulsations may also be induced in suction piping. The effects of pressure pulsations can be more severe when they coincide with an acoustical and/or structural frequency of the piping [51]. To overcome the pulsations, the pump must be modified or the acoustical frequency of the pump must be changed. To change the acoustical properties of the piping system a pulsation damper or suction stabilizer must be added. Unbalanced forces in the pipe legs are because of the pump-induced pressure pulsations. In the absence of pressure pulsations, the pressure acting on each elbow produces opposite and equal forces equal to the pressure ( P) times the piping cross-sectional area (A). These pressure loadings cause longitudinal pressure (and hoop) stress in the piping but do not result in unbalanced pressure loads [51]. But in the presence of pressure pulsations, the pressure on one elbow may not be equal to the pressure on the other elbow of the piping leg, thus results in unbalanced forces in the pipe leg. Therefore the pressure acts on the cross-sectional area of the elbow, results in a loading on the elbow to the load. These forces act at each elbow and the resultant loading on a particular pipe segment or straight length of piping is equal to the vector addition of these loadings. The resultant unbalanced loading on a straight leg of piping can be considered to act along the axial direction of the piping. Pumps may induce pressure pulsations over a wide range of possible frequencies. Pump-induced pressure pulsations may be produced at multiples of the pumpoperating speed and multiples of the number of pump plungers, blades, volutes, or diffuse vanes [51].
19.0 FLOW TURBULENCE Flow turbulence will generally have a broadband of frequencies ranging from 0 to 30 Hz [52], and the turbulence magnitude will generally increase as the flow rate is increased. Significant structural frequencies of most piping systems also range from 0 to 30 Hz. Turbulence will therefore cause all piping to vibrate to some degree; however, piping vibration problems usually do not result unless a structural frequency is excited. Vibration resulting from flow turbulence will also
affect piping components and equipment; for example, snubbers have proven susceptible to wear and failure when exposed to continuous steady-state vibration. Mostly the turbulence-excited vibration can be fixed by adding a rigid support in the pipe which experiences excessive vibration. Although doing so will increase the thermal expansion, but experiments have shown that thermal expansions due to addition of supports are acceptable. As discussed earlier in the support section of this report that support can be flexible as well to compensate for the thermal expansion but rigid to control vibration. By adding extra support to the pipe, the inspection becomes necessary to ensure that other structural frequencies are not affected [53]. 20.0 CAVITATION AND FLASHING Cavitation and flashing can also trigger the pipes structural frequency. Sudden excessive drop in pressure i n the control valve or flow orifice, the flow restrictions increases the fluid velocity thus results a decrease in pressure [52]. Cavitation and flashing result when the fluids static pressure reaches its vapour pressure and the fluid vaporizes. Cavitatio n occurs when the downstream pressure is greater than vapour pressure and the vapour bubbles implode [52], causing noise, vibration and high pressure micro jets of water that can impinge on, pit and erode the inner walls of pipe and components. Flashing occurs when the downstream pressure is less than vapour pressure and the vapour (steam) does not collapse and two-phase flow develops in the downstream piping. This results in high velocity downstream flow, due
Figure 15 Cavitation at a control valve to the volumetric expansion of the fluid, and possible slug or plug flows.
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Cavitation and flashing causes component pitting, erosion and wear in piping system and also excessive vibration of downstream piping. Even though cavitation and flashing are acceptable to some degree, but if becomes severe can result in failure of the pipeline systems. Addition of supports as discussed above is ineffective to control or prevent cavitation and flashing. Other measures can be implemented such as installation of a downstream flow orifice or anti-cavitation valve trim to reduce cavitation. Cavitation or flashing commonly result from over throttling of control valves as illustrated in Fig. 1. 21.0 VORTEX SHEDDING Pressure pulsations resulting from vortex shedding occur at distinct frequency bands. Pulsation frequency is proportional to flow velocity; therefore, the frequency will vary with the system flow. Vortex shedding becomes significant when the pulsation frequency coincides with the piping acoustical and/or structural frequency [54]. Eliminating or reducing vortex shedding pulsations is accomplished by modifying the flow restriction or changing the piping acoustical frequency. According to Blevins vortex-induced vibration and provides the following description of vortex formation. As a fluid particle flows toward the leading edge of a bluff cylinder, the pressure in the fluid particle rises from the free-stream pressure to the stagnation pressure. The high fluid pressure near the leading edge impels the developing boundary layers about both sides of the cylinder; however, the pressure forces are not sufficient to force the boundary layers around the backside of bluff cylinders at high Reynolds numbers. Near the widest section of the cylinder, the boundary layers separate from each cylinder surface side and form two free shear layers that trail behind the flow. These two free-shear layers bind the wake. Since the innermost portion of these layers moves much more slowly than the outermost portion of the layers that are in contact with the free stream, the free-shear layers tend to form into discrete, swirling vortices. A regular pattern of vortices is formed in the wake that interacts with the cylinder motion and is a source of effects known as vortex-induced vibration [54]. 22.0 EXCESSIVE VIBRATION It has been established that when the vibration exceeds its acceptable level, it causes catastrophic failure to machinery and pipeline systems. As mentioned earlier that excessive vibration occurs when natural frequency of system in this case a pipeline system is excited by pulsation or other mechanical sources such as a pump. This section of the report presents preventive measures to control and reduce such vibrations. The methods are based on experimental analysis of various systems under vibration and addresses simplified pipeline layout. Frequency factors for calculating the mechanical natural frequencies for the classical piping configurations (uniform straight beams) and various piping bend configurations are presented. Factors are presented to compensate the natural frequency calculations for concentrated and distributed weight effects. The relationships between piping vibration displacement, velocity and stress are presented and criteria for judging the severity of piping vibration in terms of endurance stress limit are shown. The mechanisms that can excite piping vibrations will be discussed as well as methods for controlling their severity [55]. Vibration problems areas of typical piping systems include the excitation of the following Piping span natural frequencies Piping shell wall circumferential and axial natural frequencies Piping appurtenances (vent and drain lines, gage, and test connections) Valves and valve components Reciprocating compressor cylinder and manifold bottle natural frequencies The principals involved in understanding the behaviour of piping vibrations and the components listed above. Calculation of piping natural frequencies
To ensure that piping systems are free from excessive vibrations, it is essential that individual piping spans not be mechanically resonant to system excitation frequencies generated by compressors, pumps, flow excitation mechanisms, etc. To accomplish this, the frequencies of the excitation forces and the mechanical natural frequencies of the piping must be calculated. With experience, simplified design procedures can be used to evaluate the piping system with a minimum of detailed computer analyses. For complex systems, stress analysis computer programs should be used to evaluate piping system reliability. 23.0 STRAIGHT PIPING SPANS Actual piping span natural frequencies deviate from the theoretical beam natural frequencies, since the configurations that exist in typical plant piping have boundary conditions that differ from ideal values. Nevertheless, ideal beam theory gives a valuable starting point for understanding piping vibration behaviour: The natural frequency of any piping span can be calculated if the frequency factor, the span length, the diameter, wall thickness and the weight per length are known. For a straight uniform piping span, the natural frequency can be calculated using the following relationship: [56]
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f0 =
Where
F0= span natural frequency, Hz g= Gravitation constant 9.8 m/s E= Modulus of elasticity, Mpa I= moment of inertia, mm4 L= span length in, mm = frequency factor, dimensionless = weight per unit length of beam (including fluid and insulation). Kg/mm = Density, kg/mm3 (assumed of water) A= Pipe cross- sectional area, mm2 Note that this equation does not include the weight of the fluid and the insulation. The frequency factors () for calculatin g the first two natural frequencies for ideal straight piping spans are given in terms of the overall span length. 23.1 PIPING BENDS The natural frequency of selected pipe configuration with piping elbow (L-bends, U-bends, Z-bends and three dimensional bends) can be analysed by any finite element program such as (ANSYS or SolidWorks) to generate frequency factors for the first two modes [56].
23.2 EFFECT OF CONCENTRATED MASSES Applying energy methods, it can be shown that the first natural frequency of a beam with concentrated load can be calculated by:
Fp = Pipe span natural frequency with concentrated weight, Hz F0 = Pipe span natural frequency without concentrated weight, Hz P= concentrated weight, Kg W= weight of beam span, Kg B= weight correction factor, dimensionless Weight correction factors to be used in calculating the natural frequencies of ideal piping spans for weights at the maximum deflection locations tables from design books can be used. If two weights are located in one span, the following equation can be used to calculate the effect of the second weight. The frequency for one weight P1 is [57]:
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24.0 VIBRATION-INDUCED STRESS LEVELS In order to determine if piping vibration amplitudes are acceptable, the resultant dynamic stresses caused by the vibrations must be compared to the allowable endurance stress limit. To accomplish this, the maximum stress in a piping span vibrating at resonance must be expressed as a function of the dynamic deflection or velocity measured at the maximum vibration point within the span. There have been attempts to develop criteria for acceptable piping vibration levels as a function of frequency. Probably, the most widely used are the vibration amplitude vs. frequency charts. They were developed based on experience in the petrochemical industry. This amplitude versus frequency charts are used as screening criteria in the evaluation of piping systems experiencing high vibration levels [57]. 24.1 VIBRATION EXCITATION SOURCES Piping vibrations are most often excited by pulsation forces inside the piping or, secondarily, by mechanical excitation from machinery unbalanced forces and moments at one and two times the running speed. Potential excitation sources are included in the following list [57]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Mechanical energy from machinery unbalanced forces and moments Pulsations generated by reciprocating compressors and pumps Pulsations generated by centrifugal compressors and pumps Pulsations generated by flow through or across objects Pulsations generated by pressure drop at restrictions Pulsations generated by cavitation and flashing Pulsations generated by water hammer and surge pulsation generating mechanisms
25.0 EVALUATING OF THE SEVERITY OF PIPING VIBRATION The first step in vibration analysis is to find out the severity of the vibration. After the severity is determined, methods to find the solution can be implemented. A survey of the system in this case the pipeline layout and route should be performed and common symptoms for vibration must be observed such as fatigue cracks in the piping, leaks at flanges, broken or loose pipe clamps or hangers, cracked concrete piers, rubbed weight supports (bright metal), damaged pressure gages, noise related to the pipe hitting its restraint, or high shell wall vibrations [56]. After detection of one more of the symptoms mentioned above, vibration measurement should be deployed to evaluate the affected section. Depending how severe the affected area of the pipeline maybe the calculation should be done accordingly. If measurements are not possible due to the layout or route of the pipelines, computer modelling software must be used. The acceptability is judged by performing the calculations necessary to obtain the dynamic stresses using the simplified techniques presented earlier. This model could be forced to have the measured vibrations and the resultant stresses calculated. The acceptability of the vibrations could be judged by comparison of the calculated stresses to the material endurance limit [57]. Strain gages can be installed at the suspected high stress locations to measure the dynamic strains which can be compared to the other experiments or study cases.
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26.0 SOLUTION TO PIPING VIBRATION PROBLEMS Solution to most piping vibration problems involve reducing the excitation forces, elminating the coupling mechansims, or emliminating the mechanical or pulsation resonances since the amplification factors for mechanical resonances are typically 1030. Amplification factors for pulsation resonances can be as high as 50, although the range of 10-30 is more typical [57]. 26.1 MODIFICATIONS TO SOLVE MECHANICAL RESONANCES Since the span natural frequency is an inverse function of the square of the span length, the most effective way to solve a mechanical resonance is to add pipe restraints, such as piers, supports or clamps to shorten the vibration span. Many times, temporary bracing with hydraulic jacks, wooden beams and wedges can be used to confirm that support at a particular location will reduce the vibrations. Some of the general guidelines which can be used in selecting modifications to detune the mechanical resonances are outlined below [57]: Pipe supports and clamps should be installed on one side of each bend, at all heavy weights, and at all piping discontinuities. The support and clamp stiffness should be adequate to restrain the shaking forces in the piping to the desired amplitudes and should be greater than twice the basic span stiffness in order to effectively enforce a node at the support location. Vents, drains, bypass and instrument piping should be braced to the main pipe to eliminate relative vibrations between the small-bore piping and the main pipe. Restraints, supports, or gussets should not be directly welded to the pressure vessels or the piping unless they are subjected to the appropriate heat treatment. It is more desirable to add a saddle-type clamp around the pipe and weld the braces to the clamp. Pipe guides with clearance are used as thermal expansion control devices and are generally ineffective in controlling piping vibrations. To resist vibration, the piping clamps should have contact with the pipe over 180 degrees of the circumference. Rubber or gasket-type material can be used between the clamp and the pipe to improve the contact. The piping span natural frequency should not be coincident with the excitation frequencies. In piping that has high shell wall vibrations, reduction of the vibrations and the noise can be accomplished by adding constrained-layer damping, if proper design procedures are used. In system with pressure reducing valves, the wall thickness of the piping should be one-half inch or greater if there is a possibility of sonic flow downstream of the valve. Full saddle reinforcement tees or welding tees should be used downstream of sonically choked valves or where there is a possibility of sonic flow occurring at the branch pipe intersection.
27.0 SOLUTION TO PULSATION RESONANCES One way to reduce the amplitude of pulsation is make acoustic changes to the pipeline system. By implementing an orifice plate which is an acoustical resistance element, and placing it at a pressure pulsation node will reduce the resonance. Design books suggest that if addition information regarding the node cannot be obtained then a 0.5 mm diameter orifice plate is sufficient to drop the pressure. If orifice plates are ineffective or impractical due to the pressure drop [57], it may be necessary to install pulsation filters to reduce the amplitudes of the pulsations. These could be volume bottles, Helmholtz-type filters, gas/bladder type accumulators, etc. It is however strongly suggested to acoustically model the piping system using computer modelling software to determine the level of changes that will be required to detune the system and solve the problem. A combination of mechanical and pulsation changes may be needed to reduce the severity of the problem to the point where the vibrations are acceptable [57]. 28.0 TYPES OF PUMPS The two main types of pumping devices used in water systems, classified according to their primary pumping element, are positive displacement and centrifugal pumps. A brief statement about the subclasses of these two major types follows [58]: 28.1 Positive displacement pumps: This type is designed to increase the pressure head by forcing the fluid out of the pump against a higher pressure under the motion of a solid body displacing the fluid. Two major sub classifications are in this category: 28. 2 Reciprocating pumps: contain a piston which moves in alternating directions within a close fitting cylinder. Moving in one direction the piston creates a partial vacuum into which water flows through an intake port. As the direction of the piston motion is reversed the water is forced out through an outlet port. The flow tends to be pulsating. 28.3 Rotary type pumps: consists of a casing containing gears, cams, screws, vanes, plungers or similar elements actuated by the rotation of the drive shaft. Water is trapped in the spaces between the rotating elements and the casing and forced through the pump to the discharge side. Flow through this type of pump is continuous rather than pulsating as in a reciprocating pump.
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28.4 Centrifugal pumps: This type of pump develops head by a rotating impeller or propeller within a confined circular casing [59]. The impeller or propeller is composed of a number of vanes which force the water to the outside of the casing by centrifugal action or normal plane of the blades by a propeller-type action. Some pumps combine both such actions. A single pump has only one impeller, a multistage has two or more impellers in a single casing. The three general classes of centrifugal pumps are radial flow, missed flow and axial flow. Description of each follows 28.5 Radial flow pumps: develops the pressure principally by rotating an impeller with an intake at the centre and discharging the water by centrifugal force into the casing surrounding the impeller. The pressure head developed by the pump is entirely the result of the velocity imparted to the water by the rotating impeller and is not due to any impact or displacement. A centrifugal pump which admits water on only one side of the impeller is called a single suction pump; a double suction pump admits water on both sides. This latter type of pump is widely used in the design of water supply systems for large volume, high head conditions. Radial flow centrifugal pumps may be further sub divided into two subclasses (a) volute pumps and (b) diffuser or turbine pumps. In the former the impeller is surrounded by a spiral case. The outer boundary of which may be a curve called a volute. In the latter the impeller is surrounded by diffuser vanes which provide gradually enlarging passages to effect a gradual reduction in velocity. 28.6 Mixed flow pumps: develop the pressure head partly by centrifugal force and partly by the lift of the vanes on the liquid and have a single inlet impeller with the flow entering axially and discharging both axially and radially. This type is often in installation requiring high volume low head service [59]. 28.7 Axial flow pumps: develop the pressure head principally by the propelling or lifting action for the vanes on the liquid. They have a single inlet impeller with flow entering axially and discharging nearly axial flow pump to reduce the swirling action produced by the rotating propeller [59]. The principal advantages of the centrifugal pumps for installation in water systems are smooth and even flow, a decrease in pressure head increase the capacity and the power consumption, and an increase in the head reduces the capacity and the power consumption. The effect of closing the valve on the pump discharge is to increase the pressure head approximately 15 to 30% and reduce power 50 % to 60% from those values at the most efficient operation point. These characteristics make a centrifugal pump a very easy load for any driver. The torque required to start the pump is very small, while the operating load is smooth and free from shock. 29.0 TYPES OF COMPRESSOR Compressors are the workhorses that pressurise gas, enabling it to be liquefied, transported and distributed via pipeline. Compressor technology is dynamic and evolving due to ongoing improvements in performance, efficiency, reliability and control, which are absolutely critical if gas reserves are to be developed and exploited on a practical and economic basis. This is true not just for new units, but also with respect to upgrades of existing units in the field [60]. Applying better materials, component designs, fabrication techniques and other advances to existing machines gives compressors powerful new capabilities, usually in the very same footprint and often with no need to alter supporting utilities and infrastructure. While many different types of industrial compressors exist, the most frequently employed compressors for pipeline use are centrifugal design. Axial compressors are generally used for air service and in mixed refrigerant trains of LNG [60]. 29.1 Centrifugal compressors Centrifugal compressors make use of the principle of centrifugal force. When gas enters the housing, a rotating impeller forces it outward to the impeller rim, thereby increasing the gas velocity and, in general, the energy content of the gas. From there a diffuser, with or without stationary vanes, converts the increased velocity to higher pressure. In general, gas pumping is performed by centrifugal compressors driven by gas turbines [61], steam turbines or electric motors. They can be capable in flow from 1,000 cubic metres per hour up to 400,000 cubic metres per hour. 29.2 Axial-flow compressors. Axial-flow compressors are high-efficiency units used where there is a requirement for high flow rates but low pressure. They employ rows of air foils to progressively accelerate and compress gas flowing through the unit. Multiple air foil stages are placed along a rotor [61], matching up with corresponding stages of stationary air foils in the compressor housing. Axial-flow compressors are used in applications such as catalytic cracking plants, air service, air separation, and LNG, nitric acid and gas-to-liquid applications.
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48016- Capstone Project A

Vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh 11075761

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

Figure 1 Pipe and Fitting Materials [1]

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

3.1 PIPELINE DESIGN EQUATION

Maximum shear stress (Tresca):

Maximum energy (Von Mises):

All three stress expressions can be written in the form:

3.2 PRESSURE RATING

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

Figure 3 Assembly for Burst Test of an ASME Tee

3.3 PIPE ELBOW AND BENDS

3.4 OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION

3.5 PIPE SPECIFICATION

4.0 EXTERNAL PRESSURE 4.1 BUCKLING PRESSURE

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

4.2 VACUUM CONDITIONS

4.3 TEMPERATURE SELECTION

5.0 LAYOUT AND SUPPORTS 5.1 SPACING OF PIPE SUPPORTS

5.2 SUSTAINED STRESS

Figure 5 Force and Moment Directions

5.3 SELECTION OF PIPE SUPPORTS

Figure 6 Variable Spring Hanger

Figure 7 Example of custom made rigid frames

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

Figure 8 Rigid Strut Tandem

Figure 9 Snubber Installed Horizontally

5.4 DESIGN OF STANDARD SUPPORT

6.0 FLEXIBILITY AND FATIGUE 6.1 FLEXIBILITY

Figure 10 The five stages of Fatigue Crack Formation and Propagation

6.3 CORROSION FATIGUE

7.0 PIPELINES FOR NATURAL GAS TRANSPORT

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

7.1 INTERSTATE NATURAL GAS PIPELINES

7.2 PIPELINE COMPONENTS

7.3 TRANSMISSION PIPES

7.4 COMPRESSOR STATIONS

7.5 METERING STATIONS

Figure 11 A ground valve

7.7 PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

7.8 PIPELINE INSPECTION AND SAFETY

7.9 VIBRATION IN GAS PIPELINES

7.10 LIMITATIONS OF PULSATION DAMPERS

7.11 MODIFICATION AND ADDITION OF PIPING SUPPORTS

8.0 PIPELINES FOR OIL TRANSPORT

8.1 PRESSURE DROP

8.2 VALVE AND FITTINGS

9.0 PIPELINES FOR WATER TRANSPORT 9.1 FLOW IN PIPES

p/y = pressure head (units of length)

9.2 PIPELINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

9.3 WATER HAMMER AND SURGE

9.3.1 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENT ANALYSIS: PREVENTING WATER HAMMER

9.3.2 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF WATER HAMMER

9.3.3 CALCULATING MAXIMUM PRESSURE INCREASE

9.3.4 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CONSEQUENCES OF WATER HAMMER

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

Figure 12 examples of different kinds of filling around a pipe

9.3.5 CONSEQUENCES OF WATER HAMMER

48016- Capstone Project Part A- vibration in pipelines Omer Tokh -11075761

Figure 13 Different effects of a weakened section of the pipe.

10.0 SELECTING APPROPRIATE PROTECTION

10.1 ACTIVE PROTECTION