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Anthropology for Teachers Concept of Anthropology A.

Definition of Anthropology Comes from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study). Concerns explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world and it traces human evolution and cultural development from millions of years ago to present ( m!er" #$$%). &t looks into the attri!utes of a particular human population. '. (wo )a*or Disciplines of Anthropology '.# +hysical Anthropology ,concerns with human evolution and human variation (+aleontology or paleoanthropology) '.- Cultural Anthropology . deals with the study of culture consists/ of three areas as follows0 #. 1inguistics. focuses on historical and descriptive or structural linguistics. &t looks into the emergence of language and variations of language over time. -. Archaeology.deals with cultural history %. thnology (cultural anthropology).studies cultural variation A. 2chools of (hought in Cultural Antropology arly volutionism ( dward '. (aylor and 1ewis 3enry )organ) . states that most societies were !elieved to pass through the same series of stages" to arrive ultimately at a common end 3istorical +articularism . 4ran5 'oas. the proponent" !elieved that it was premature to formulate universal law since there is a need to study the context of society in which they appeared. Diffusionism ('ritish" German and Austrian Anthropologists) spread the idea that most aspects of civili5ation had emerged in culture centers and later diffused outward. 4unctionalism ('ronislaw )alinowski). &t holds that all culture traits serve the needs of individuals in a society; the function of culture traits is the a!ility to satisfy some !asic or derived need. 2tructural.functionalist approach (Arthur 6eginald 6adcliffe.'rown) assumes that the various aspects of social !ehavior maintain a society7s social structure. its total network of social relationships . rather than satisfying individual needs. &t works in the following assumption0 sta!ility" harmony" e8uili!rium and evolution. +sychological Approaches ( dward 2apir" 6uth 'enedict and )argaret )ead) seek to understand how psychological factors and processes may help us explain cultural practices. 1ater volutionism (1eslie 9hite) states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work increased. 2tructuralism. Claude 1evi.2trauss sees culture as it is expressed in art" ritual" and the patterns of daily life" as a surface representation of the underlying patterns of the human mind. thno science (ethnography) explains culture from the way people used to descri!e their activities. Cultural cology seeks to understand the relationship !etween culture and social environments +olitical economy centers on the impact of external political and economic processes" particularly as connected to colonialism and imperialism" on local events and cultures in the underdeveloped countries. 2ocio!iology involves the application of !iological evolutionary principles to the social !ehavior of animals" including humans. &nterpretive approaches consider cultures as texts to !e analy5ed for their meanings. 4eminist Anthropology includes women7s issues in the study of culture and society. Conflict (heory.advocates of this theory ask this 8uestion0 ,9ho controls the scarce resources of a given society,: &t assumes that society can !e explained !ased on the following assumptions0 economic determinism" dialectism and social action.

'. (ypes of 6esearch in Cultural Anthropology #. thnography -. ;on.historical 6esearch %. 3istorical 6esearch <. Cross.Cultural 6esearch &&. 3uman volution A. 'eliefs a!out human !eings Divine theory 2ystema ;aturae !y Cart 1inneaus =ean 'aptiste 1amarck. species could evolve rasmus Darwin . inheritance of ac8uired characteristics Charles 1yeli.+rinciples of Geology '. (heory of ;atural 2election proposed !y Charles Darwin and Alfred 9allace - (he theory of natural selection proposes that those organisms !est adapted to a particular environment produce the most offspring overtime. C. Gregor )endel7s experiments - )endel7s research in genetics and D;A and 6;A led us to understand the mechanisms !y which traits may !e passed from one generation to the next.

D. 2ources of 'iological >ariation #. Genetic recom!ination. random assortment" segregation and crossing.over -. )utation . change in D;A se8uence . 4actors in 3uman >ariation #. Genetic Drift -. Gene 4low %. &nfluence of +hysical nvironment <. &nfluence of social and cultural environment 4. 3umans are a product of the interaction of !iological and cultural evolution. G. +hysical >ariation among 3umans genetic variation !ody !uild facial construction skin color height lactase deficiency 3. +ro!lems a!out 3uman >ariation #. 6acism -. Gender Discrimination &. Diagram on 3uman volution0 'iological and Cultural TIME (YEARS GEOLOGIC OSSIL RECOR! AGO) EPOCH ??@@ (%?@@ '.C.) #@"@@@(A.@@@ '.C.) ARCHEOLOGIC AL PERIO!S 'ron5e Age ;eolithic MA"OR C#LT#RAL !E$ELOPME%TS Cities and 2tates; 2ocial &ne8uality; 4ull. time Craft specialist Domestication of plants and animals; permanent villages 'road spectrum food collecting; increasing sedimentary communities; many kinds of microliths Cave paintings; female figurines; many kinds of !lades tools

)esolithic

#<"@@@ (#-"@@@ '.C.)

+leistocene

arliest humans in ;ew 9orld Bpper +aleolithic

<@"@@@ -@@"@@@

)odem humans 3omo sapiens ;eanderthal 3omo sapiens arliest 3omo sapiens (:) 3omo rectus

)iddle +aleolithic

6eligious !eliefs(:) !urials; )oustenan tools

%@@"@@@ C@@"@@@ #"?@@"@@@ #.A@@"@@@ +liocene -"@@@"@@@

arliest hominids Australopithe.cus

3omo 3a!ilis 1ower +aleolithic

3untingDscavenging; seasonal campsites; Eldowan tools

?"@@@"@@@ --"?@@"@@@ -$"@@@"@@@ %-"@@@.@@@

)iocene

Diversification of Apes 2ivapithecus Dryopithecus +roconsu arliest apes (:) +ropliopithe.cus e.g. Aegyptopithe.cus arliest anthropoids +arapithecids e.g. Apldium Ampipithecus tetonius arliest +rimates +urgaforius

arliest stone tools

Eligocene

%A"@@@"@@@

ocene

?@"@@@"@@@ ?%"?@@"@@@ C@"@@@.@@@ Ember: 1996 -

+aleocene 1ate Cretaceous

3omo erectus !egun to evolve into 3omo sapiens after a!out ?@@"@@@ years ago. +ro.modem 3omo sapiens have !een found in Africa" Asia and urope. (he oldest fossil remains of a modem looking human have !een found in 2outh Africa. (wo theories a!out the origins of modem humans0 #. 2ingle.origin theory. modem humans emerged in *ust one part of the Eld 9orld (the near east and recently 2outh Africa. -. Continuous volution (heory.modem humans emerged gradually in various parts of the Eld 9orld

=. 'road spectrum collection ()esolithic +eriod) was associated with the development of sedentary life F. Domestication of +lants and Animals (;eolithic 6evolution) 1. +opulation generally &ncreased after plant and animal domestication. ). Growth of Cities and 2tates - (he key criterion for state is the presence of hierarchical and centrali5ed decision.making affecting a su!stantial population. - )ost states have duties with pu!lic !uildings" full time craft and religious specialists" an official art style and a hierarchical social structure. arliest states0 2outhern &ra8 (2umer) in the ;ear ast" in )esopotamia" the valley of - Eaxaca and later in (eotehuaca &&&. (he 2tudy of Culture A. Definition Culture is personality writ large (6uth 'enedict). &t is a sort of group personality that forms an overall cultural orientation within which there is a considera!le variation. Anything shared !y human !eings. Cultural configurations. the &dea that cultures possess internal coherence and consistency. Culture is not *ust the sum of individuals who adhere to them" !ecause it also includes developed and ela!orated traits with greater intensity and richness. (his is our cultural heritage. Cultural 6elativism is the attitude that a society7s customs and ideas should !e descri!ed o!*ectively and understood in the context of that society7s pro!lems and opportunities. thnocentrism is the tendency to regard ones culture as superior '. (he A!ility of 3uman 'eings to +roduce and Ac8uire Culture Can !e attri!uted to the 4ollowing 'iological Characteristics0 1arge !rain 'ipedal Epposa!le thum! 9ell developed vocal chords 1ong period of dependency 6eproduction is not seasonal; human !eings can reproduce during fertile period C. (heories A!out the Development of +ersonality #. (heory of 2igmund 4reud. Erigin of 2ociety 3ypothesis. Eedipal Complex (incest and exogamy) -. )alinowski G )atrilineal 4amily %. 'enedict and )ead emphasi5ed the ways culture develops individual personality. <. Fardiner . illustrated the presence of various personality types in a culture. +ersonalities differ !ecause of the variations in cultural institutions. ?. ). 9hiting and 1. Child suggest that childrearing practices develop certain personality types. D. ;ational character . modal characteristics of a people. . E!*ections to ;ational Character 2tudies #. A!normal personality 4. (wo ways !y which culture can !e internali5ed0 #. 3a!ituation.human !eings learn certain techni8ues -. ducation . skills are taught; directed 2eaming process G. 1anguage and Culture #. Communication is a function of language -. 4orms of communication ver!al nonver!al %. 2tructural linguistics try to discover the rules of phonology (the patterning of sounds); morphology (the patterning of sound se8uences and words)" and

syntax (the patterning of phrases and sentences) that predicts how most speakers of language talk. <. 3istorical linguists study the origin of languages. ?. 2ociolinguistics concerns a!out the ethnography of speaking. that is" with cultural and su! cultural patterns of speaking in different social contexts social status and speech sex differences in speech 3. 2ex and Culture 2ex and Gender Differences Gender 6oles in productive and domestic activities; political leadership and warfare 2tatus of )en and 9omen &>. conomic 2ystems A. 2u!sistence conomy 4ood Collection . hunting" fishing and gathering Agricultural economy +astoralism '. +atterns of 2u!sistence in the +hilippines C. (he use of technology D. Access to natural resources . Ergani5ation of la!or 4. )arket or commercial exchange economy

>. 2ocial 2tratification A. Definition 2ocial 2tratification pertains to division in society due to access or right to certain advantages. (he advantages may !e in the form of economic resources" power and prestige '. (ype of 2ocieties #. galitarian societies are societies in which many positions of prestige in any given age.sex grade could !e filled !y those who are capa!le. -. 6ank societies are characteri5ed !y social groups having une8ual access to prestige or status !ut not significantly une8ual access to economic resources or power %. Class societies are characteri5ed !y having une8ual access to economic resources and power. Class society ranges from open class system to close class system. >&. )arriage and 4amily A. Definition of )arriage )arriage means a socially approved sexual and economic union !etween a woman and a man. '. (ypes of )arriages 'y ;um!er )onogamy +olygamy. polyandry and polygyny and group marriage 9hom should one marry: ndogenous marriage and exogenous marriage Cousin marriages 1evirate and 2ororate C. (ypes of 4amily 'y composition; ;uclear" xtended 'y 6esidence0 +atrilocal" )atrilocal" 'ilocal ;eolocal" Avunculocal 'y Erientation0 +atrilineal" )atrilineal" 'ilateral Bnilineal Descent patrilineages" matrilineages" patricians" matridans Finship (erminology0 consanguineal kin" affinal kin 'y power0 +atriarchal" )atriarchal" galitarian D. conomic Consideration in )arriage 'ride price Dowry . &ncest (a!oo . is the prohi!ition of sexual intercourse or marriage !etween mother and son" father and daughter" and !rother and sister" &ncest ta!oo is universal" however" the &ncan and 3awaiian royal families allow incest. 4. (heories on the universality of incest ta!oo #. Childhood.4amiliarity (heory.Children raised together are not sexually attracted to each other when they grow up. -. 4reud7s +sychoanalytic theory.suggest that the son may !e attracted to the mother !ut the father might retaliate against the son. 3ence such feelings must !e renounce or repressed" %. 4amily disruption theory ()alinowski) sexual competition among family mem!ers may create so much tension and rivalry thus may result to disruption of the functions of the family. <. Cooperation (heory. incest ta!oo promotes cooperation among family mem!ers. ?. &n!reeding theory.emphasi5es tie damaging conse8uences of in!reeding >&&. 2ocial Ergani5ation A. (ypes of 2ocial Ergani5ation

#. 2imple social organi5ation is one characteri5ed !y relatively few and homogenous social units and less ela!orate cultural forms. (he family or the household serves as the !asic social unit around which all activities revolved. -. Complex 2ocial Ergani5ation is one characteri5ed !y greater internal heterogeneity of social units and more ela!orate cultural forms. Differentiation in the structure of social relations is clear.cut and it revolves around speciali5ed institutions. '. 2ome xamples of Associations Me&'ersh(p Cr(ter(a $ol)ntary Bniversally Ascri!ed >aria!ly Ascri!ed Achieved thnic Associations 6egional Associations Eccupational Associations +olitical +arties. 2pecial &nterest Groups Recr)(t&ent %on*+ol)ntary Age.2ets )ost unisex associations Conscripted army

C. +olitical Ergani5ations0 !and" tri!e" chiefdom and state D. 6esolution of conflict0 community action" informal ad*udication without power" ritual reconciliation .apology" oaths and ordeals" codified laws and courts" feuding" raiding" large . scale confrontation . 4ilipino &ndigenous ethnic communities may !e grouped into five general types (=ocano" #$$A)0 #. +isan (campsite) . Agta term for small exogamous local groups consisting mostly of kinsmen -. +uro (settlement) . 2ulod term for semi.sedentary" amorphous aggregate of persons who live in a particular and named settlement (2widden or Faingin) %. &li (village) . 'ontoc in origin which corresponds to village type organi5ation <. )agani (district) . Agusan )ano!o" 2odat organi5ation of dry crop farmers whose social organi5ation corresponds rank organi5ation ?. 'anwa (domain) . )anuvu term for self.contained villages >&&&. 6eligion and )agic A. Definition of 6eligion 6eligion is any set of attitudes" !eliefs" and practices pertaining to supernatural power '. 6eligion is universal for the following .reasons0 ;eed for intellectual understanding Decrease guilt" anxiety or uncertainty ;eed for community C. >ariations in religious !eliefs #. xistence of impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. mana and ta!oo) -. 2upernatural !eings of nonhuman origins (gods and spirits) %. 2upernatural !eings of human origin (ghosts and ancestor spirits) D. 9ays of Communicating with the supernatural include prayer" doing things to the !ody and the mind" simulation" feast and sacrifices . )agic is the !elief that actions can compel the supernatural to act in a particular and intended way. 2orcery and witchcraft are attempts to make the spirits work harm against people. 4. 6eligiousD)agical practitioners include shamans" sorcerers or witches" mediums and priests G. 6eligion and +olitical )ovements &H. (he Arts I " A. 'ody Decoration and Adornment0 paint or o!*ects such as feathers" *ewelry" skins and clothing. 'ody decorations may !e used to delineate social position" rank" sex" occupation" local and ethnic identity '. >isual Art Artistic Differences in galitarian and 2tratified 2ocieties Egal(tar(an Soc(ety Strat(f(e, Soc(ety 6epetition of simple elements )uch empty or &ntegration of unlike elements 1ittle empty ,irrelevant, space 2ymmetrical design space Asymmetrical design nclosed figures Bnenclosed figures C. )usic D. 4olklore H. Culture Changes A. Discovery and &nvention '. Diffusion C. Acculturation D. 6evolution . (ypes of Culture Change Commerciali5ation

6eligious Change conomic Change Soc(al Ph(losophy PART I- CO%TE%T #P!ATE Ph(losophy - 4rom two Greek words0 Philein which means ,to love," and Sophia which means ,wisdom,. According to )anuel >elas8ue5" philosophy is ,the pursuit of wisdom a!out what it means to !e a human !eing" what the fundamental nature of God and reality is. what the sources and limits of our knowledge are" and what is good and right &n our lives and in our societies" - (raditionally defined as the sciences of all things studied from the viewpoint of their ultimate causes under the light of human reason alone. (According to 'ertramD 6ussel" philosophy is the no man7s land !etween theology and science.) Three Tra,(t(onal !(+(s(ons#. pistemology . literally means ,the study of knowledge,. &t deals with 8uestions of knowledge (including the structure" relia!ility" extent" and kinds of knowledge); truth" validity" and logic; and a variety of linguistic concerns" (e.g. the 8uestion of whether truth is relative) -. )etaphysics J addresses 8uestions of reality (including the meaning and nature of !eing); the nature of mind" self" and human freedom; and some topics that overlap with religion" such as the existence of God" the destiny of the universe" and the immortality of the soul. ( .g. 8uestion of whether human !ehavior is free or determined) %. thics . study of values and moral principles and how they relate to human conduct to our social and political institutions" (e.g. 8uestion of whether human !eings have the moral o!ligation to love and serve others" or o!ligation only to themselves) * social philosophy falls under this division" Soc(al Ph(losophy G is the study of society and its processes and activities with particular emphasis on the !asic principles underlying social structures and functions. &t is the study of the rightness or wrongness of societal orders" institutions" structures" systems" functions" and processes. ((homas 3o!!es first used the term ,social philosophy,. 3e is also widely considered as the father of social philosophy.) +rere8uisite to an understanding of social philosophy are the following six !asic factors or concerns0 4irst0 An understanding of nature of associative life (the person existing in correlation with society). 2econd0 Associative life re8uiring a set of values towards which all social processes and activities are directed. (hird0 (he means to the set of values essential in the associative life 4ourth0 (he law. 4ifth0 (he o!ligation of the individuals to the state and the state to the individuals. 2ixth0 (he ideal of social and individual *ustice. (o sum up" the study of social philosophy revolves around these six lectors0 associations" values" power" rights" o!ligations and *ustice. SOCIAL PHILSOPHIES A. Class(cal Real(s& Real(s& is the philosophy that regards the universe as composed of !eings existing independently !ut related and forming a hierarchical structure called cosmos or totality. Class(cal Real(s& distinguishes a person from other living su!stances as endowed with two natures0 animal and rational. Animal nature with its various appetites and sensual desires is perfected !y the practice of the ha!its of the ,golden mean, !etween the two extremes of excess and deficiency. (hese ha!its ena!le a person to develop the moral virtues of temperance and courage. (hese moral virtues" in turn" ena!le a person to perfect the rational nature !y achieving the intellectual virtues of wisdom" prudence" and art. 3owever" full human nature is not only achieved !y the development of virtues atone. 4ull human nature ena!les a person to achieve the ultimate goal of happiness !y transcending self.reali5ation with the acceptance that one is not self.sufficient when isolated from others. Aristotle emphasi5ed that a person is a part in relation to the whole which is society" and that anyone who is not a!le to live in society or who does not need it is either a !east or a god" !ut not a human !eing. 2ociety" therefore" is the external support of a person7s self.reali5ation. &t follows" therefore" that the state" which is a form of organi5ed society" has the moral purpose of maintaining proper order and exercising *ustice for the good of the whole or the common good. /. Pos(t(+(s& Pos(t(+(s& as a philosophy is !ased primarily on science and scientific discoveries. Auguste Comte came up with the term when he developed his philosophical idea regarding the laws of societal growth. 3e maintains that there are three ascending levels of explanation of natural phenomena0 (heological level . explains natural phenomena !y involving spiritual or anthromorphic !eings. )etaphysical level. depersonali5es these !eings into forces and essences +ositive level . relies mainly on sciences and scientific descriptions.

Comte contends that as the new society develops in the positive level (or positivist society); performing one7s duties to society and of serving the interests of humanity will prevail over the concept of society as existing to serve the interests of individuals. &n other words" he maintains that the development of industrial society !ased on sciences and industry" when properly organi5ed" will !e accompanied !y a moral regeneration involving the su!stitution of concern with the welfare of humanity for concern with the individual7s private interests. Intellect)al Phase Mater(al Phase Type of Soc(al #n(t Type of Or,er Pre+a(l(ng Sent(&ent (heological )ilitary 4amily Domestic Attachment )etaphysical 1egalistic 2tate Collective >eneration (Awe or respect) +ositive &ndustrial 6ace (3umanity) Bniversal 'enevolence * Comte framed the term sociology. C. Prag&at(s& Prag&at(s& is the acknowledged contri!ution of America to philosophy. (hree American thinkers figured prominently in the development of pragmatism0 - Charles 2anders +eirce (pronounced as ,purse,) - 9illiam =ames - =ohn Dewey !e0ey defined pragmatism as the ,theory that the processes and the materials of knowledge are determined !y practical or purposive consideration,. According to +eirce the pragmatists7 view is supported !y the practices of experimental sciences specifically the la!oratory method in which the hypotheses are ideas or proposed solutions to felt pro!lems. (hese are tested and either re*ected or confirmed. (ruth" therefore" is that which works and is successful in solving pro!lems. (he pragmatists7 focus on conse8uences and how they are controlled through intelligence is the foundation of their concepts of person and society. A person is a social animal !ecause association rather than isolation is the 1aw that governs everything that exists. Almost every other kind of achieva!le value is ac8uired !ecause of social process in which each value individual valuer is when he is normally fitted to his sphere. &n essence" for pragmatism society is not *ust a conglomeration of individuals !ut an organic process upon which individuals depend and !y which they live. As the soil is to plants and trees" so society is to the individual which nurtures human life in its individual forms and makes possi!le of all the flowerings of personality. (he pragmatists also claim that human society is much more commonly the context in which concepts are formed. (he ends of associative life such as survival" ha!its of action and thought" and" choice of conse8uences are served !y numerous social groups (o the pragmatists" society is pluralistic" not an entity in itself" !ut a collection of interacting primary groups. (hese smaller groups however produce conse8uences on persons other than those who directly participate in these primary groups. +ragmatism views a person as a pro!lem solver &n an environment of pluralism of groups" interests" and conse8uences. !. %at)ral(s& %at)ral(s& is a philosophy that denies anything as having supernaturality. &t contends" especially its earlier versions" that the common context in which concepts are formed is the physical universe (unlike pragmatism which maintains that the human society is the common context where ideas are formed). A human !eing is a transitory product of physical processes. (hus" human !eings and society are dependent on the natural order. 2ociety therefore is received as less organic. &t is an aspect or portion of nature" not so much an organism that has rhythms and patterns. (he individual is therefore considered as nature7s offspring" not a child of society or a segment whose very !eing depends upon the social organism. Although dependent upon nature" he stands on his own feet" more or less" as far as his relations to society are concerned. (here are what might !e called certain necessities which make it expedient for him to relate himself somewhat effectively socially; !ut these are not necessities arising from the operation of society as an organism" so much as they are accidents or exigencies to !e avoided !y working out some kind of social organi5ation to correct them. Tho&as Ho''es viewed the individual and his native state as at war with himself. 3e is competitive" he grasps for honor and dignity" he is trou!lesome" and he is hungry for power. 3uman !eings left to them selves without some kind of control will kill themselves in the chaos and anarchy of selfish struggle. (he only way that man can !e saved from himself sociologically is for individual man to surrender his freedom to some superior social power or organi5ation to which he must give a!solute o!edience as to a moral god. "ean*"ac1)es Ro)ssea)2s naturalism rooted man in nature rather than in society. 3e contends that the individual is a child of nature so much so that he proposed in his , mile, to keep mile away from society until adolescence. (hrough his 2ocial Contract" he reveals how the pro!lem of social organi5ation is complicated !y the importance of maintaining the human !eing7s freedom. (he individual" he maintains" is not a human !eing unless he is free" if he is in !ondage" then he is a human !eing. 3owever" unrestricted freedom is neither in harmony with his welfare nor with the welfare of the society. Apparently some social organi5ation is re8uired" one that preserves the freedom of the individual. &t seems that for naturalism social values are synthetic values" which result from agreements in which human !eings !ind themselves together. 2uch are inferior goods" not so much preferred as individual goods" which result indirectly as a conse8uence of the desire to avoid the greater evils which accompany anarchy. (hey are not organic values which are determined in part !y the very nature of society and which would never !e possessed !y humans separately" even if they did not need to !e saved from conflict and chaos !y some kind of social groupings.

E. L('eral(s& L('eral(s& is a philosophy or movement that has as its aim the development of individual freedom and adheres to the idea that the society is one in which individuals are left free to pursue their own interests and fulfillment as each chooses. As )ill argued" the only restraints to which adult individuals should !e su!*ected are those necessary to keep an individual from harming others. 3owever" !ecause the concepts of li!erty or freedom change in different historical periods its specific programs also change. (he final aim of li!eralism" though" remains fixed" as does its characteristic !elief not only in essential human goodness !ut also in human rationality. 1i!eralism assumes that people" having a rational intellect" have the a!ility to recogni5e pro!lems and solve them and thus can achieve systematic improvement in the human condition. Eften opposed to li!eralism is the doctrine of conservatism" which simply states" supports the maintenance of the status 8uo. 1i!eralism" which seeks what it considers to !e improvement or progress" necessarily desires to change the existing order. &t is in the works of =ohn 1ocke that the soul of philosophical li!eralism is found. 1ocke claims that freedom and e8uality of all human !eings are governed !y a (aw of nature that necessitates everyone to respect the freedom of self.determination in others and to treat others as e8uals. 6eason defines the rights and duties that constitute and sustain everyone7s freedom. 3owever" people find it necessary to give up their natural freedom in order to form a society. (hey enter into a societal contract where they give up their power of self preservation in exchange for the collective and stronger action of society and government. (hrough this social compact people agree to live in the !onds of civil society. (he contract creates one !ody that acts !y the consent of the ma*ority" and !y agreeing to the contract" individuals place themselves under the o!ligation to su!mit to the determinations of the ma*ority. (hus" the existence of society and the authority of government arise out of people7s freely given consent as emphasi5ed !y 1ocke" and not out of people7s needs as asserted !y 3o!!es. Conte&porary L('eral(s& has retained the fundamental commitment to individual li!erty !ut has added to it an awareness of the extent to which economic relations can indirectly limit an individual7s li!erty. (he choice of a poor person is very much restricted compared to a rich man. Contemporary li!eralism has tended to incorporate the view that individuals can !e constrained to provide economic support for the poor through welfare programs. &t has also tended to incorporate the view that individuals should !e given some protection against the economic power of the wealthy through laws that protect the worker. Ene of the representatives of contemporary li!eralism is =ohn 6awls. 6awls also acknowledges that social relationships have a deep and profound effect on the individual7s sense of fulfillment. A society7s institutions are what primarily determine what we can do and what our lives as individuals will !e like" 6awls claims that the most important 8uestion a!out society is whether it is *ust or not. According to 6awls" the laws and institutions of a society must em!ody *ustice and !e !ased on these two principles of *ustice0 first" that everyone in society must have political rights and duties" and second" that the only *ustifia!le economic ine8ualities are those re8uired to make everyone !etter off !y serving as incentives. &f this will not !e the case" then it must !e reformed. . I,eal(s& I,eal(s& grew out as a reaction to naturalism. According to naturalism" truth or reality exists in &deas or in the spirit or in the mind. )aterial o!*ects are merely representations of the idea. 9hile idealism emphasi5es that the will governs one7s conduct" naturalism says that impulse" instincts" and experience govern one7s conduct. 9hile idealism *udges !ehavior in terms of motives" naturalism *udges !ehavior on the !asis of results. ;aturalism would say that the end *ustifies the means. &dealism would say that the knowledge is o!tained !y speculation and reasoning" naturalism regards scientific o!servation. ;aturalism regards scientific knowledge as final. (he idealist notion of society is not an aggregation or collection of individuals; it is an organism in which individuals participate. &ndividual selfhood is not something which can grow in isolation; it is given !irth through the social process and comes into actual self.reali5ation only in relation with society as its medium of nature and development. (his is not to say that the individual is su!ordinate to society. 9ith the society providing the matrix for the development of the individual" the individual progresses and slowly proceed in the process of self.reali5ation and at the same time" society develops in a process of reali5ing the ultimately good society. G. Co&&)n(s& 3arl Mar4 !elieved that the human !eing" apart from some o!vious !iological factors" has no essential human nature K that is" something that it is true of every human !eing at all times everywhere. 3owever" he !elieves that human !eings are social !eings" that to speak of human nature is really to speak a!out the totality of social relations. Accordingly" whatever any of us does is a social act. which presupposes the existence of other people standing in certain relations to us. &n short" everything is socially (earned. 3e further claims that it is not the consciousness of individuals that defines their !eings" !ut it is their social !eing that determines their consciousness. )arx also claimed that the history of the world should !e viewed as a history of class struggles. 3e !elieved that the universal laws operating in history are economic in nature. )oreover" he saw a causal connection !etween the economic structure and everything in society such that the mode of production of material life determines the general character of the social" political and spiritual processes of life. )arx claims that eventually" capitalism will !ecome increasing unsta!le economically. (he class struggle !etween the !ourgeoisie (ownership class) and proletariat (working class) will increase. (he poor will !e poorer" and increasing in num!er. (he upshot will !e a social revolution. (he workers will initiate the new communist phase of history. H. Co&&)n(tar(ans& Co&&)n(tar(an(s& (s the view that the actual community in which we live should !e at the center of our analysis of society and government. Communitarians emphasi5e the social nature of human !eings. (hey argue that our very identity

. who we are J depends on our relationships to others in our communities. 9e are em!edded in our community and its cultural practices. (hus" we cannot understand our selves apart from our community and its cultural practices. According to communitarians" the state is natural. &t is" like the family and the tri!e" the natural outgrowth of the human !eings7 natural tendency to live together. (hey also !elieve that the human !eing can only fully develop within the state. (hus" it is o!vious that communitarians do not claim that the state is an artificial construct. (hey also do not claim that the individual is prior to the development of the state. 'ut they do claim that the state and its cultural practices are the source of the identity of all human !eings. (hat is" it is in the state that human !eings ac8uire the cultures and traditions that they use to define themselves. I. asc(s& (he term fascism was first used !y &talian dictator 'enito )ussolini in #$#$. (he term comes from the &talian word fascio" which means ,union,. 4ascism is a totalitarian philosophy of government that seeks to regenerate the social" economic" and cultural life of a country !y !asing it on a heightened sense of national !elonging or ethnic identity" &t re*ects li!eral ideas such as freedom and individual rights" and often presses for the destruction of elections" legislatures" and other elements of democracy. 4ascism is characteri5ed !y the following0 mphasis on the glorification of the state and the total su!ordination for the individual to it. (he state is defined as an organic into whom individuals must !e a!sor!ed for them and the state7s !enefit. (he 7total state, is a!solute in its methods and unlimited !y (aw in its control and direction of its citi5ens. 2ocial Darwinism . (he doctrine of survival of the fittest and the necessity of the struggle for life is applied !y fascists to the life of a nation.state. +eaceful" complacent nations are seen as doomed to fail !efore more dynamic ones" making struggle and aggressive militarism a leading" characteristic of the fascist state. &mperialism is the logical outcome of this dogma. litism . salvation from rule !y the mo! and the destruction of the existing social order can !e affected only !y an authoritarian leader who em!odies the highest ideals of the nation. (his concept of leader as hero or superman is closely linked with fascism7s re*ection of reason and intelligence and its emphasis on vision" creativeness" and the will ". Sto(c(s& Sto(c(s& is a philosophy that flourished in Greek and 6oman anti8uity. (he goal of all in8uiry is to provide man with a mode of conduct characteri5ed !y tran8uility of mind and certainty of moral growth. (hey also !elieved that some matters were within a person7s power to control and others were not. 9ithin a person7s power to control is the will to act or not to act" to do or to avoid. ;ot within a person7s power is the nature of things and the laws that govern them. +eople should therefore o!ey the rules of nature and respect the natural order of things. 2toicism also preached the e8uality of all people since all of them are rational !eings. (he stoics developed the idea of cosmopolitanism" the idea that all persons are citi5ens of the same human community. 3uman relations for them have the greatest significance" for human !eings shared a common element. (hat is" since Logos (God) is in everything" then the 1ogos (reason). &s also the same saying the reason is common to !oth God and person 3. E4(stent(al(s& E4(stent(al(s& is a philosophical doctrine that focuses on the existing individual person. &t is concerned with the authentic concerns of concrete existing individuals as they face choices and decisions in daily life. &t emphasi5es the freedom of all persons to make choices in a universe where there are no a!solute values outside man himself. 2oren Fierkegaard" who argued that human existence was marked off from all other kinds ofn man7s power to choose" founded it. (he decision that man makes will make him the kind of person that he will and will make him distinct totally from every other person. (hus" every value is always dependent upon the free choices of every man. I. #t(l(tar(an(s& Btilitarianism . theory of what is good and a theory of what is right 5. Theory of 0hat (s r(ght Btilitarianism7s theory of what is right is known as conse8uentalism. &t claims that what is a morally right option on any circumstance is that option" which !rings a!out the most good" or the !est conse8uences" 2. Theory of what is good Btilitarian agree that what is good is utility . human well.!eing or welfare. 3owever" they disagree as to how well. !eing or welfare is defined. EASTER% SOCIAL PHILOSOPHIES A. /),,h(s& . 'uddhism originates from the experience of the misery of life. 1ife" for the 'uddhist" is caught in a la!yrinth of changes so much so that there is no peace to !e found in this world. (here is an endless cycle of change" of !irth and death and therefore" the only way for man to attain peace is the state of ,nirvana", or the fading out of suffering. (hus 'uddhism has a morality that is characteri5ed as egocentric and &ndividualistic and gives very little positive value to society. 'uddhism teaches the ightfold 9ay ((he right view" the right aspiration" the right speech" the right action" the right livelihoodDthe right effort" the right concentration" the right contemplation) and also the 4our ;o!le (ruths. (he four no!le truths are the following0 (he universal fact of pain (he origin of suffering (he cessation of suffering (he path" which leads to the cessation of suffering

/. Conf)c(an(s& Confucianism aims for the restoration of political order and social harmony and such will !e possi!le if only people would o!serve the following formula0 Chun.chun" chen.chen; fu.fu" i5u7i5u 6uler ruler" minister minister; 4ather father" son son.

(his advocates how0 A ruler should !ehave as a ruler should !ehave A minister should !ehave as a minister should !ehave A father should !ehave as a father should A son should !ehave as a son should Also" according to this philosophy the way to attain virtues is through natural means0 (a) !eing true to one7s nature" and (-) applying those principles in relationship. (he o!*ective is central harmony. Confucianism is founded on the experience of the all.em!racing harmony !etween man and nature and is highly conservative. Confucius teaches that man is the ruler since ft constitutes a social morality. Confucianism outlawed speculation and emphasi5ed practical ethics. )an7s o!ligation is to preserve right human relationships. 4ounded !y Fung 4u (5u" which means the Grand )aster" also called ,Ch7iu, (hill)" Confucianism strongly emphasi5es the individual7s place in society. &t is interested in reforming social life to rid government of its repressive tendencies. Confucius propagated the idea of democracy. According to him" rulers must serve the people7s interests. 3e contends that the rulers and officials should make the people affluent and then educate them. 3e also provides primarily moral reasons for caring for the masses. (he ma*ority of the masses is simple and thus will !e loyal as long as they are treated with authoritative humanity and live in material prosperity. (hat is" as long as the government works to promote their interests" the masses will !e peaceful and do their work. C. Tao(s& Tao(s& is a philosophical system strongly emphasi5ing man7s place in nature. &n contrast to Confucianism" it is not concerned with society" except as something to move away from. Lao T6) taught that the (ao is most fully revealed in tran8uility neither through action nor religious living. >irtue is attained !y 8uiet su!mission to the power of the (ao. (he (ao cannot !e defined. (aoism stresses man7s passive role in nature. 4ounded on the experience of the dynamic force immanent in the universe" which gives order and life and meaning to the totality of reality it adhered to the vision of the human !eing7s harmony with nature. 3owever" it viewed man as essentially passive called upon to harmoni5e himself with the natural rhythms of things. According to Chuang (5u" humankind is composed of two types0 one is the ordinary mass of people; and the other" the +erfect )an. (he masses are the concrete manifestation of humanity. (he +erfect )an is its ideal form. (he social man is a microcosm" a miniaturi5ed version of the universe that contains all the elements necessary to make up 3eaven and arth. (he !ody is made up of all the physical elements. (he mind is composed of human nature" the spirit" and virtue. &ts environment and the classes of people around itself limit the human. )an7s anguish is caused !y unfulfilled desires. (herefore" desire causes man7s sinfulness. ach person thinks" acts" and !ehaves as if his own mind were the standard. (3 reality of human and social existence is characteri5ed !y limitations given !y the environment" dependency on external o!*ects and events and anguish. (here are four limits of human existence0 )an7s insignificant si5e 'ondage Death Delusion !. Isla& (he word &slam means su!mission or surrender K to the will of God" and the word )uslim means ,given to God., &slam is a community" a way of life" a culture and a civili5ation. Central to its teaching is the !elief that there is only one all. powerful" all.knowing God (Allah)" and this God created the universe. &slam also emphasi5es that all )uslims are e8ual !efore God thus providing a !asis for a collective sense of loyalty to God that transcends class" race" nationality" and even differences in religious practice. Also" unlike most Christian sects" &slam clings to the idea of faith plus good works. &slam is centered on the 4ive +illars of (ruth0 profession of faith (shahada)" prayer (salat)" alms giving (5akat)" fasting (sawm)" and pilgrimage (ha**). &slam gives importance to social life. &t considers it a duty to attend to social pro!lems and to struggle for the !enefit for all human !eings. 'eing indifferent to such pro!lem is considered in &slam to !e a grave sin &slam !elieves that no society can survive without rules and social regulations. &t also !elieves that the goal of law &s not only to !ring a!out social order and discipline" !ut to maintain social *ustice !ecause without *ustice the order would not !e dura!le and the masses of the people would not tolerate in*ustice and oppression for ever" and in a society not governed

!y *ustice most people would not have the opportunity for desired growth and development and hence" the goal of man7s creation and social life would not !e reali5ed. Also" from the &slamic viewpoint" social laws should !e such as to prepare the ground and context for the spiritual growth and eternal felicity of the people. At the very least they should not !e inconsistent with spiritual development" for" in the view of &slam" the life of this world is !ut a passing phase of the entire human life" which despite its short duration" has a fundamental role in human destiny. E. H(n,)(s& (he word Hind was derived from the 2anskrit word sindhu (,river,)" the +ersians called the 3indus !y that name" identifying them as the people of the land of the &ndus. (he 3indus define their community as ,those who !elieve in the >edas, or ,those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages of life (ashramas)L. (he fundamental principles of 3induism0 A. text0 >edas '. philosophy0 (ime is degenerative. going from the golden age through two intermediate periods of decreasing goodness" to the present ageMJ and then another cycle again 3uman life is cyclic0 after death" the soul leaves the !ody and is re!orn in the !ody of another person" animal" vegeta!le" or mineral (hree classes of society Nashramas)0 'rahman (priest)" Fshatriya (warrior)" >aisya (general populace). 1ater" a fourth class was added" the 2hudras after the &ndo.Aryans settled into the +un*a! and !egan to move to down into the Ganges >alley. (hree stages of life (ashramas)0 !rahmachari (chaste student)" grthastha (the householder)" vanaprastha (forest. dweller). 1ater" a fourth ashrama was added .I the saanyasi (renouncer) (hree de!ts0 study of the >eads" a son. and a sacrifice (hree goals of the human !eings (purusharthas)0 artha (material success). dharma (righteous social !ehavior)" kama (sensual pleasures). 1ater" when a fourth ashrama was added" a counterpart goal was also added G moksha (released from the entire process of samsara) PHILOSOPHY PART I- CO%TE%T #P!ATE ;ature of +hilosophy %o&(nal &ean(ng- love of wisdom. (&t was derived from the Greek terms +hilo" which means love" and 2ophia" which means wisdom.) Real &ean(ng- (he science and art of all things naturally knowa!le to man7s unaided powers in so far as these things are studied in their deepest causes and reasons (he human !eing7s attempt to think speculatively" reflectively" and systematically a!out the universe and the human relationship to the universe. &t is the human !eing7s search for the ultimate explanations of the realities of life. Ma7or 'ranches of Ph(losophy )etaphysics . deals with the nature of !eing and reality 4undamental concepts0 2u!stance" ssence" (ruth" 2pace" (ime" Causation" ;ature of God" Erigin O purpose of the universe" ;ature and purpose of )an7s existence" 'ody. )ind relation and the +ro!lem of 4reedom. pistemology. pisteme (knowledge) 1ogos (science) .deals with human knowledge and the Criteria for truth. 4undamental concepts0 9hat is Fnowledge: 9here does it come from: 3ow do we Ac8uire knowledge of right and wrong:" 9hat is truth: Can man7s knowledge !e true: Axiology. the area of +hilosophy that specifically deals with the pro!lem of human values 4undamental concepts0 9hat are >alues: 9hat are the important values to !e desired in living: Are these values rooted in reality: 3ow can these values !e reali5ed in our daily experience: 1ogic.systematic treatment of relationship of ideas 4undamental concepts0 (erms. +ropositions" 2yllogisms" 4allacies" >alidity of Arguments" 2oundness of arguments and correct thinking" &nductive and deductive thinking Other 'ranches of Ph(losophy Cosmology. theories of the nature and origin of the universe 4undamental concepts; volutionism" Creationism" 2pace" time" motion and causality +hilosophy of )anD+hilosophy of human person. deals with the nature and purpose of man. 4undamental concepts0 'ody.2oul relation" 4reedom and Determinism" intellect and will 2ocial and +olitical +hilosophy . deals with the nature of society and sociali5ation process. 4undamental Concepts0 2ociety" 2tate" Governance" 1aws and Culture" 2ocial =ustice

(heodicy. the study of the nature" essence and existence of God using human reason 4undamental concepts0 Deism" Agnosticism" (heism" Attri!utes of God Aesthetics. the study of the nature and appreciation of !eauty 4undamental concept0 Erder" (ruth" Designs" 4unctionality" +roportion thics the study of the morality of 3uman Acts 4undamental concepts0 >oluntariness. Good life" 4reedom of the will" Concupiscence" )oral responsi!ility" thical standards Ep(ste&ology Criteria of truth #. ;ative realism (=ames )e Cosh" (homas 6eid) . !elieves that reality is precisely what as it appear to !e. Adheres to the !elief that ,seeing is !elieving, -. 4eelings . the !elief that what one feels is the truth" that the !est criterion of truth is a hunch. %" Custom and tradition . this is used !y many as a criterion of truth in matters pertaining to morals" politics" dress etc. <. (ime . is regarded as an excellent test if not the final test of truth. ?. &ntuition . ,truth that comes from one knows not where,. &t is not a test of truth !ut a source of truth P. 6evelation G Q(ruth which comes from God,. A source of truth and not a test of it C. &nstinct . 9hat is instinctive must !y virtue of that fact !e true since nature deem it so. 'ut most knowledge is !eyond the !ounds of instinct. &t is not therefore a test of truth A. )a*ority" +lurality" Consensus Gentium . (he num!er of people who !elieves in the truth determines its truthfulness" !ut truth is not necessarily dependent on how many !elieves it to !e true $. Authority . certain individuals who have mastered a field of study may !e a criterion of truth !ut authority gives only opinions which could !e true or which could !e false #@. Correspondence . a !elief that when an idea agrees with its o!*ect" it is proof of its truth. 3owever" it is a definition of truth not a criterion ##. +ragmatism . &f an idea works then it is true" !ut not all truths works. &t cannot !e the ultimate criterion of truth #-. Consistency . means the a!sence of contradiction #%. Coherence. a systematic consistent explanation of all the facts of experience. &ts technical name is reason" this is !elieve to !e the ultimate criterion of truth Ph(losoph(es8 Theor(es an, Mo+e&ent (n the Soc(al Sc(ences E,)cat(on R (he present +hilosophy of social sciences education is an admixture of idealist and realist +hilosophy. &t has elements of essentialism" perennialism" social traditionalism" social experimentalism" progressivism" logical positivism and existentialism. R &t focuses on the social function of education" on individual7s development and his relationship to the social structure. R &t is concerned fundamentally with social change" the progressive structuring of the social order" with insight into the traditions" arousing interest in and sympathy toward social service" and developing efficiency in adapting the individual to society. 5. I,eal(s& #.# ;ature - &dealism is a philosophy that proclaims the spiritual nature of men and the universe" its !asic viewpoint stresses the human spirit" soul" or mind as the most important element in life. &t holds that the good" true and !eautiful are permanently part of the structure of the related coherent" orderly" and unchanging universe. All of reality is reduci!le to one fundamental su!stance . 2pirit. )atter is not real" only the mind is real

#.- Aim of &dealist ducation - (he aim of idealistic education is to contri!ute to the development of mind and self. (he school should emphasi5e intellectual a!ilities" moral *udgments" aesthetics" self.reali5ation" individual freedom" individual responsi!ility and self.control. #.% Curriculum (he curriculum of &dealism is a !ody of intellectual su!*ect.matter" which is ideational and conceptual on su!*ects" which are essential for the reali5ation of mental and moral development 2u!*ect matter should !e made constant for all. )athematics" 3istory and 1iterature rank high in relevance since they are not only cognitive !ut value.laden

#.< )ethodology - &dealists encourage accumulation of knowledge and thinking and must apply criteria for moral evaluation. 2uggested methods are 8uestioning and discussion" lecture and the pro*ect" whether done singly or in group. Although learning is a product of the learner7s own activity" the teaming process is made more efficient !y the stimulation" which comes from the teacher and school environment. (he learner is immature and is seeking the perspective into his own personality. #.? 6ole of (eacher

(he idealist teacher should !e conversant with a variety of methods and should use the particular method that is most effective in securing the desired results. (eachers are revered persons central to the educational process. (hey must !e excellent mentally and morally in personal conduct and convictions. (hey must exercise creative skills in providing opportunities for pupils . mind to analy5e" discover" synthesi5e and create. (hey should see his role in assisting the learner to reali5e the fullness of his own personality.

#.P &mplication to 2ocial 2ciences ducation - &dealism is often considered a conservative philosophy of education !ecause much of its thrust is to preserve cultural traditions. (his is !ecause of the concern for perennial and ultimate truths and the notion that education is largely a matter of passing on to the young the nation7s cultural heritage. (here is great concern for morality and character development &dealistic education emphasi5es the cognitive side" intellectualism or elitist" to the detriment of the physical and affective side of development. Character development in idealistic philosophy was pictured as0 o (he first rule to !e learned !y all students is order. o 2tudents must conform to rules and regulations and repress everything that interferes with the function of the school. +upils must have their lessons ready on time" rise and sit at a given signal" learn ha!its of silence and cleanliness.

Real(s& -.# ;ature - 6ealism may !e defined as any philosophical position that asserts the o!*ective existence of the world and !eings in it and relations !etween these !eings independent of human knowledge and desires. (he knowa!ility of these o!*ects as they are in themselves and the need for conformity to the o!*ective reality in man7s conduct. - 6ealism holds that reality" knowledge and value exist independent of the human mind. 4or the realist" matter is real. - (he most important part of realism is the thesis of independence. 2ticks" stones" trees exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them. - 6ealists refer to those universal elements of man that are unchanging regardless of time" place and circumstance. - 6ealists generally maintain a materialistic concept of human nature !iased toward social control and social order. - (hey tend to see the universe in terms of an independent reality with its internal and systematic order; therefore" human !eings must adopt and ad*ust to this reality" and dreams and desires have to !e su!sumed under its demand. -.- Aim - (he aim of a realist education is to provide the students with the essential knowledge that he will need to survive in the natural world. -.% Curriculum - (he curriculum is called the su!*ect.matter approach" which is composed of two !asic components" the !ody of knowledge" and the appropriate pedagogy to fit the readiness of the learner. (he li!eral arts curriculum and the math science disciplines consist of a num!er of related concepts that constitute the structure of the discipline. -.< )ethodology - (he teacher is expected to !e skilled in !oth the su!*ect matter that he teaches and the method of teaching it to students. - 4ormal schooling means" transmission of knowledge from experts to the young and immature. - (he school7s task is primarily an intellectual one - (he administrator7s role is to see to it that the teachers are not distracted !y recreational and social functions from performing their intellectual task of cultivating and stimulating the teaming of students. - &n the elementary level" emphasis is on the development of skills for reading" writing" arithmetic" and study ha!its. - &n the secondary and collegiate level" the !ody of knowledge regarded as containing the wisdom of the human race with have to !e transmitted in an authoritarian manner. - 2tudents will !e re8uired to recall" explain" compare" interpret" and make inferences. valuation is essential" making use of o!*ective measures. - )otivation will !e in the form of rewards to reinforce what has !een learned. -.? 6ole of (eachers (he teacher is a person who possesses a !ody of knowledge and who is capa!le of transmitting it to students. (eaching should not !e indoctrinating. 1earning should !e interactive. (he teacher utili5es pupil interest !y relating su!*ect matter to student experiences. (he teacher maintains discipline !y reward and controls the pupil !y activity.

-.P &mplication to 2ocial 2ciences ducation

(he universal elements in man make up the elements in the education of man. ducation implies teaching" teaching implies knowledge" knowledge is truth" and truth is the same everywhere. (hus education should !e the same everywhere - 6ealists are concerned with the necessity of student measuring up to the standard curriculum or external criteria of excellence. - (hey !elieve that the, superior, students should !e given the arts and sciences while the ,slower, students should !e given a narrow technical. vocational training - 6ealism favors a fact.!ased approach to knowledge. (his had led to the tradition and pro!lem of ,testing, including the &S as passport to a college education. (he (eachers7 !oard as a minimum re8uirement for entry into the profession. (he realist !elieved that hard work and discipline are considered ,good, and the student/s heads should !e filled with ,factual truth, so that they do not come to a ,!ad endL 9. Essent(al(s& %.# ;ature ssentialism" a conservative educational theory rooted in idealism and realism" arose in response to progressive education. (he essentialists were concerned with a revival of efforts in the direction of teaching the fundamental tools of learning as the most indispensa!le type of education. %.- Aims - (he essentialist have as their ultimate aim , to fit the man to perform *ustly" skillfully and magnanimously all the offices" !oth private and pu!lic" of peace and war,7 - (he indispensa!le cultural o!*ectives of humanity" the essentials" are goals that must !e achieve .sometimes incidentally. !ut more often !y direct instruction. &nformal learning helps" !ut this should only !e supplementary and secondary. - (he essentialist !elieved that the essential skills" knowledge and attitude needed !y the individual in making has ad*ustment to the realities of life should !e systematically planned so that these recogni5ed essentials will !e recogni5ed. - (he essentialists emphasi5e the need for a curriculum that transmits significant race experiences and the need to present this racial experience through organi5ed su!*ect matter courses. - (hus" reading" writing" arithmetic" grammar" history" geography" hygiene" elementary science" drawing" language" art .manual training" and domestic arts . all traditional su!*ects of the elementary school. are given a new *ustification and emphasis as !asic essential in the training of children. - Among the common themes found in the essentialist point of view are0 #. (he elementary school curriculum should aim to cultivate !asic tool skills that contri!ute to literacy and mastery of arithmetical computation. -. (he secondary curriculum should cultivate competencies in 3istory" )athematics" 2cience" nglish" and foreign languages. )astering all these su!*ects and skills prepare the student to function as a mem!er of a civili5ed society %. 2chooling re8uires discipline and a respect for legitimate authority; and <. 1earning re8uires hard work and disciplined attention %.< )ethodology (he essentialist method emphasi5es ha!ituation more than experience" guidance more than incidentalism" discipline more than freedom" effort more than interest" and self.examination more than expression. ssentialists do not !elieve &n !uilding up generali5ation !y the slow method of induction" !ut rather in properly guiding pupils in a few hours or days in the ac8uisition of general laws and principles then using them in the solution of immediate and pressing pro!lems. (he essentialists are concerned with the most effective method of forming ha!its and developing skills; thus" drill has a definite place in the classroom. (he essentialists emphasi5e the necessity of teaching pupils how to think systematically and effectively. (hey !elieve that effective thinking cannot take place !y looking at the world en masse" or !y picking up knowledge piecemeal. )ethods of systematic analysis and systematic synthesis must !e used; the essential elements of knowledge must !e separated from the worthless chaff" and these essentials must !e organi5ed into meaningful wholes" with close attention to the interrelationships of each of these entities. (he essentialists recogni5e that interest is a strong motivating force of learning. 1earning however" that is not immediately appealing and interesting to the child should not !e totally eliminated from the child7s education. (he more valua!le and more permanent interests may grow out of efforts that are at first disagreea!le and monotonous.

%.? 6ole of (eachers - &t is the duty of the teacher to help the learner grow into these higher interests rather than limit all school activities to those ephemeral things that appeal only to natural and childish interest. During the immature years of childhood and youth there is a need for competent" sympathetic and firm teachers to help them see the truth and to help them ad*ust themselves to inexora!le facts. - &n this view" teachers should !e restored to instructional authority. - (hey must !e well prepared and held accounta!le for the children7s failure to learn. &nstruction should !e geared to organi5ed learning. - (he method of instruction should center on regular assignments" homework" recitation" and fre8uent testing and evaluation. %.P &mplication to 2ocial 2ciences ducation

ssentialists are particularly concerned with the fundamentals of education" the skill and knowledge without which person cannot !e either individually or socially efficient. - (hey emphasi5e the authority of the teacher and the value of a su!*ect curriculum . - (he essentialist prescri!ed the following ru!rics for their educational program0 #. A fixed curriculum; -. Certain minimum ,essentials, literature" mathematics" history" etc; %. +reconceived educational values ; <. ducation as &ndividual adoption to an a!solute knowledge which exist independently of individual. - (he essentialists !elieve that the intellectual disciplines are the necessary foundation of modem life - (he school has the responsi!ility to Channel the accumulated experiences of humankind into organi5ed coherent and differentiated disciplines. - )astering these !asic disciplines will ena!le the students to use them in solving personal" social and civic pro!lems Perenn(al(s& <.# ;ature - +erennialism is an educational theory that &s greatly influenced !y the principles of realism. &t has a conservativeD traditional view of human nature and education. - +erenniaiists contend that truth is universal and unchanging" and. therefore" a good education is also universal and constant. <.- Aim - (he perennialists have for their aim the education of the rational person. (he central aim of education should !e to develop the power of thought. - (hey view the universal aim of education as the search for and dissemination of truth. (hey look up to the school as an institution designed to develop human intelligence. <.% Curriculum - (he perennialist view education as a recurring process !ased on eternal truths; thus" the school7s curriculum should emphasi5e the recurrent themes of human life - &t should contain cognitive su!*ects that cultivate rationality and the study of moral" aesthetics" and religious principles to develop the attitudinal dimension. - (he perrenialist prefers a su!*ect matter curriculum" which includes history" language" mathematics" logic" literature" the humanities" and science. <.< )ethodology - As for the methods of teaching" the curriculum of a perenniallst education would !e su!*ect.centered" drawing heavily upon the disciplines of literature" mathematics" language" history" and the humanities. - (he perenniaiists suggest that the !est means to attaining this enduring knowledge is through the study of great !ooks of 9estern Civili5ation - (he method of study would !e the reading and discussion of these great works which" in turn" discipline the mind. <.? 6ole of (eachers - (he teacher" accordingly" must !e one who has mastered discipline" who is a master teacher in terms of guiding truth" and whose character is !eyond reproach. - (he teacher is to !e viewed as authority and his expertise not to !e 8uestioned. - (he role of the school !ecomes one of training intellectual elite who will one day take charge of passing this on to a new generation of learners. <.P &mplication to 2ocial 2ciences ducation - +erennialism represents a conservative theoretical view centered in the authority of tradition and the classics. Among its ma*or educational principles are0 #. (ruth is universal and does not depend on the Circumstances of place" time or person; -. A good education involves a search for and an understanding of the truth; %. (ruth can !e found in the great work of civili5ation; and <. ducation is the li!eral exercise that develops the intellect. :. Soc(olog(cal Mo+e&ent 2ociological movement focused on the contri!ution of education to the preservation and progress of society; this is called the social function of education. 2ocial educationists were concerned with the individual7s development and his relationship to the social structure. :.5 Soc(al tra,(t(onal(s&. Aim - (his aimed at giving all pupils an insight into their traditions" arousing interest in and sympathy toward social service" and developing efficiency in adapting the individual to society. - (radition is a record of man7s accomplishment and the accumulation of human experience. ach generation ac8uires and transmits traditions to preserve its continuity. - (he school is seen as the agency that prepares an individual for all phases of social life. - Ene of the purposes of education is the formation of common - 3a!its of social life and the education of the child away from crime" drugs" unemployment" diseases and other social ills. (ypes - 2ocial education" in its !roadest sense" covered all types of education that would prepare the individual for ad*ustment to society.

&n its narrowest sense" social education referred to the development of social communication skills" eti8uette" and harmonious human relationships. (he latter included training in the physical" vocational" civic" domestic" vocational" moral" and religious" all essential in the development of social efficiency.

Content - (he school curriculum was supposed to teach for real social living. - 2chool activities were drawn from varied activities in life. - (he lower school level was expected to teach the essentials of social living and the rudiments of eti8uette. - Drills in arithmetic calculation" oral and written language" hygiene" good manners" and art appreciation were important. - (he high schools had to give experience in science and math" language and history !ut emphasis should !e on health" moral conduct" home and leisure and the vocations. - &n college" work travel and study replaced the traditional academic su!*ects. - (he results of social education !rought a!out extra.curricular activities in the school program. xtra.curricular activities" when properly controlled and directed" were of value in providing experience in various phases in life. - Athletics" dramatics" pu!lic speaking activities" musical activities" and assem!lies were all sources of training for the various aspects of social life. )ethod - 2ocial communication" social cooperation" and social science were the methods used in teaching the child to ad*ust to life. - (he teacher worked with the social interests of the child in mind to develop social consciousness. - 2tudent7s participations in school activities and school government were effective methods of teaching leadership and responsi!ility. - 2tudents were taught cooperation rather than competition; to face the class rather than the teacher" and to deal with small groups for cooperative effort. :.; Soc(al E4per(&ental(s& Aim - (he social experimentalists !elieve that the school prepares for a progressive structuring of the social order since social tradition was not concerned with social change. - (he school should direct the pupil in learning to meet the needs of a changing society" not only for immediate needs" !ut also for future needs under changing social conditions - (he experimentalists emphasi5ed the training for intelligence in all phases of human activity. 2tudents should learn sources of facts and realities of social conditions and pro!lems and learn to verify" weigh alternatives" and take sides on controversial issues. 2tudents7 emotions had to !e trained to intelligence for !eneficial social results. Content - (he social sciences came to the foreground among the experimentalists !ecause of the emphasis put on the teaching of controversial issues; the social" economic and political activities of the local community were used as materials for teaching. xtra .curricular activities and field trips were dominant strategies of teaching since they were pupil.planned" pupil dominated and centered. (heir purpose was to prepare students for social planning. <. Progress(+(s&. - (he educational theory of progressivism is in contrast to the traditional views of essentialism and perennialism. - (his movement is !ased largely in the philosophy of pragmatism or as Dewey puts it instrumentalism. - &t stressed the view that all learning should center on the child7s interests and needs. - +rogressive education is !ased on a philosophy !ased on experience" the interaction of the person with his environment. - (he end product of education was growth. an on.going experience which led to the direction and control of su!se8uent experience. - +rogressive education must use the past experiences to direct future experiences. Aim (he aim of progressive education is to meet the need of a growing child. (he school should !e a pleasant place for learning. &t o!*ects to extreme reliance on !ookish methods of instruction" memori5ation of factual data" the use of fear as a form of discipline and the four .walled philosophy of education that isolated the school from the realities of life .

Content - +rogressive education was not interested in a prepared" prescri!ed curriculum to transmit knowledge to students - Curriculum must come from the child so that learning would !e active" exciting" and varied. - (he contents of the su!*ect are done !y the teacher and the students as a group pro*ect or a cooperative effort. (he teacher served as facilitator. - +rogressive education is characteri5ed !y the following contri!utions to education0 #. mphasis on the child as the learner" rather than the su!*ect matter -. 2tress on activities and experiences" rather than on text!ook reliance and memori5ation %. Cooperative learning" rather than competitive lesson learning <. A!sence of fear and punishment for disciplinary purposes =. Reconstr)ct(on(s&.

Aim -

6econstructionism is more concerned with social change rather than the individuality of the child. &t !elieves that schools should originate policies and progress" which would !ring a!out reform of the social order. (eachers should use their power to lead the young in the program of social reform. ducational philosophies must !e culturally !ased and man can re.shape his culture so that it promotes optimum possi!ilities for development. 2ociety has to reconstruct its values" and education has a ma*or role to play in !ridging the gap !etween the values of culture and technology. &t is the task of the school to encourage the critical examination of the cultural heritage and find the elements that are to !e discarded and those that have to !e modified. (he aim of 6econstructionism is to awaken the student7s consciousness a!out social pro!lems and to actively engage them in pro!lem solving. (eachers and schools should initiate a critical examination of their own culture and should identify controversies and inconsistencies and try to solve real life pro!lems. (he Curriculum should include learning to live in a glo!al milieu. 6econstructionism proposes educational policies related to national and international pro!lems as a means of reducing world conflict. (he school !ecomes the center of discussions of controversies

)ethod - (he methodology employed is pro!lem oriented. - 2tudents and teachers participate in discussion of issues and in a definite program of social" educational" political" and economic change as a means to total cultural renewal so that they will learn to live in a glo!al village. #. +hilosophical Analysis. - +hilosophical analysis is a method of examining the language used in making statements a!out knowledge" education and schooling and of seeking to classify it !y esta!lishing its meaning with the formulation of educational goals and policies. - (he aim is to reduce statements a!out education to empirical terms. (he function of philosophy is to formulate the rules that are the !ases of language. 4or education should !e attuned to the logical complexities of language. - (he analysts prefer to look at what we mean !y education in the first place and what advantages may accrue from the clarified concepts of education. ;. E4(stent(al(s& xistentialism is a way of viewing and thinking a!out life in the world so that priority is given to individualism and su!*ectivity. (he existentialists !elieve that the human !eing is the creator of his own essence; he creates his own values through freedom of choice or individual preference. (he most important kind of knowledge is a!out the realities of human life and the choices that each person has to make. ducation is the process of developing awareness a!out the freedom of choice and the meaning and responsi!ility for one7s choice.

E&erg(ng The&es of Conte&porary E,)cat(onal Ph(losophy Contemporary philosophical themes have direct !earing not only to the social sciences education !ut to education as a whole. (hese are the following0 #. Man as e&'o,(e, sp(r(t . (his concept re*ects the definition of man as a rational animal or a composite of !ody and soul. (he pro!lem with this definition is that it is dualistic and separates the single reality that is man into two realities; matter and spirit. 6ationality is emphasi5ed to the detriment of animality. Tet it is animality that defines man. +henomenologist sees man as an em!odied su!*ectivity . uni8ue core or center" source" depth" wellspring of initiative and meaning. &t involves the rational" the affective" and the emotional . (he total man. 2ince education is the process of developing man.the em!odied su!*ectivity" Development must !e seen now as the total development of man. ducation is not anymore seen as a conglomeration of disciplines with their own individual tasks of cultivating a specific part of man. ducation should not look down upon material development as merely a steppingstone to rational or spiritual development !ut an essential part of it. -. Man as a 'e(ng (n the 0orl, . ach em!odied spirit is in his own world" which form a network of meanings" in and on and around which man organi5es his life it is different from environment for this is only proper to animals. 9hen we speak of man we speak of his world not environment for it is only man that gives meaning to an environment through intentionality of consciousness. 2ocial 2ciences ducation likes to dwell on cumulative *ustice or in*ustice yet contemporary man is more aware of a complex world of social *ustice or in*ustice and of un*ust structures. 9e should therefore address in the social sciences an awareness of un*ust structures" of internal change that need to !e situated" of the need to humani5e the world we live in !y our work. %. Man as /e(ng * 0(th- the (nterh)&an an, the soc()s. (he worid of man is not *ust a world of things !ut also the worid of fellowmen. (rue education if it is to !e different from propaganda is such an unfolding to !ring out in the other" the student" a certain disposition of him to see for himself the true" the good and the !eautiful. 2ociety is not something that one enters into !y contract to achieve some common end" as 6ousseau and other social contract theorists put it (he social is within each man0 man does not live in society" society lives in man. &t is !orne out of the historicity of man. )an carves a meaning from his past in view of some pro*ect in the future thus man is a cultural !eing. (hus social consciousness must have a !earing in the philosophy of education for education cannot *ust !e !ased simply on ultimate ends" on a!solute" eternal truths as the perreniatists put it. ;either can we !e simply content with a general formulation of

educational o!*ective as preparing the student to !ecome good citi5en in a democracy" since the universal truth exists in the particular. (hus any +hilosophy of education must !e predicated on a clearly formulated conception of a way of life in a definite society as &saac 'erkson says. >. Man as a person an, h(s cro0n(ng act(+(ty (s lo+e8 0h(ch pres)pposes 7)st(ce . (he final aim of education" formal or informal is !ecoming a person. (he individuality of man is one that he has !ecome freely and consciously in time" in the worid. (his task consists in integration" in !ecoming whole and in the fundamental option to love. (hus we can no longer conceive of educational o!*ectives in terms of personal development or self.reali5ation with no end !eyond itself. ducation must include social aims for self.reali5ation is no longer possi!le apart from sociali5ation. Eur educational policies must aim at specific personal and social values0 of *ustice" love" and honesty. (otal development is not *ust the education of the mind !ut also the heart and we can educate the heart only !y !eing exemplars of what we teach. (he !earer of moral values is the person himself. Other the&es of Conte&porary Ph(losophy The tas? of &an (s &an h(&self . All other tasks" responsi!ilities and o!ligations are simply to support man !ecome the person he has the potential to !ecome. )an is an em!odied spirit and thus he is o!ligated to develop the total man. 3is having a !ody makes him an individual with material needs and desires. 3e is a self who relates with other selves in order to satisfy these material needs" in the 8uest for things that will satisfy his needs" he develops social relationships for he lives through.the.other and he is not only a self !ut a self Gin communityKa person who transcends materiality. (hus he develops interhuman relationships" the &.thou or the relationship of a neigh!or. (his relationship is not limited to the sharing of material things !ut the sharing of persons &n a genuine dialogue. /e(ng as oppose, to see&(ng. (rue interhuman relationship must transcend seemingness. &t must go !eyond the mask that we create to make us accepta!le to others. 9e must !e true to our !eing !y relating to others with outmost sincerity and genuine presentation of who really we are. Eur relationship must !e characteri5ed !y openness and genuine acceptance of our nature and must !e devoid of pretensions. &t is only when we are true to each other that we are a!le to accept each other in an interhuman realm. Person &a?(ng8 present. A man must !e open and willing to freely give himself in an interhuman relation. 3e must !U ,there, to the other. (he ,thereness, may not !e physical. &t may !e empathy or sympathy with the other" or simply the willingness to !e one with the other . a commitment of unity and mutual support. #nfol,(ng as oppose, to (&pos(t(on. Eur relationship with our fellowmen must !e characteri5ed !y mutual unfolding of oneself. A free personal relation of one7s true !eing. A mutual actuali5ation of one7s true potentials. (he interhuman relations should never and cannot !e imposed !ecause imposition is a mark of &ndividuality and selfishness. 9e should not force the other to reveal himself to us or to !ecome what we want them to !ecome for they are the end in themselves and not the means. (hey are persons not things. (he decision to reveal oneself must come from the person and not !e imposed !y others for interhuman relations are free interactions !etween and among persons who voluntarily choose to !e with the other. 9hat we could do is to provide the necessary climate for his unfolding. Gen)(ne !(alog)e. (his is the turning to the partner that takes place in all truth that is turning of !eing. Genuine dialogue is the mutual sharing !etween persons. (his happens when one person !eyond the world of seeming centers into communication with the other !eing. S)&&ary of Spec(f(c Po(nts of the !(fferent The&es Presente, # A h)&an 'e(ng (s a soc(al 'e(ng an, an (nter*h)&an 'e(ng . 3e cannot live !y himself for he depends on others for the things he needs in order to survive. 3e is not self sufficient thus he relates with the material world and with his fellowmen in his pursuit of the material things that will satisfy the needs of his !ody. -. /)t a h)&an 'e(ng (s not only a 'o,y . 3e &s an em!odied spirit and therefore his relationship is not limited only to the physical" !odily or social realm !ut also to the realm of the inter.human. %. or a h)&an 'e(ng (s pr(&ar(ly a person 0ho 'eco&es act)ate, thro)gh relat(ons . (ogetherness is a value that involves the existence .of a human !eing not *ust a !eing.through.others !ut more so as a !eing.for.others. <. A h)&an 'e(ng e4(sts thro)gh the other !y using the products that are fruit of the la!ors of others. 3owever" he also works for others as manifested in the service oriented work like the teaching profession. ?. (hus" h)&an 'e(ngs relate to each one not only for &ater(al th(ngs ')t for the shar(ng of persons that )lt(&ately act)al(6es h(s potent(als . (he interhuman relationship is achieved !y transcending seemingness and entering into a genuine dialogue with the other through an &.thou relationship. (his relationship is founded on the true nature of person" the willingness to make himself present and the unfolding of the true self in the mutual sharing of persons. &t is through this relationship that he fulfills his nature and helps others fulfill theirs in a community of persons *ourneying towards their actuali5ation. P. Togetherness as a focal po(nt of +al)es 0 human existence has a historical character" we need others to enter into the human world of meaning and to make it our own" !eing together is a fundamental value which gives authentic fulfillment in our life. C. O)r e4(stence (s an e4(stence for one another . 9e exist for others" we strive to !e significant to others" and our existence is meaningful only &f others accept it as meaningful" A. The fa&(ly syste& (s the loc)s of (nteract(on 'et0een the (n,(+(,)al an, the soc(ety . &f development is to !e a human development st must foster the integration of the family. +articipative decision making process and a feed!ack mechanism is imperative. $. According to 3a!ermas" econo&(c ,e+elop&ent cannot 'e ,(+orce, fro& &oral ,e+elop&ent

#@. Soc(al for&at(on or transfor&at(on cannot 'e 'ro)ght a'o)t 'y class confl(cts ')t 'y '(*,(&ens(onal lean(ng process. conomic li!eration is only a step to total li!eration ##. Peace an, or,er s(t)at(on (s ')(lt on free,o& not on constra(nt ; it is !uilt on human values which" is essential to moral 8uests and to politics. (ruth" love" freedom and its practice. #-. (hus" there (s a nee, for e1)al an, e1)(ta'le ,(str(')t(on of 0ealth*Soc(al ")st(ce . #% Soc(al ")st(ce 0as tra,(t(onally e1)ate, 0(th legal 7)st(ce . !ut what is legal may not necessarily !e *ust" then *ustice was e8uated with the reasona!le and understood now in the context of passion. #< Soc(al ")st(ce as a +(rt)e &eans the ha'(t 0here'y a &an ren,ers to each one h(s ,)e 'y a constant an, perpet)al 0(ll #? As a +al)e8 Soc(al ")st(ce (s properly the o'7ect of &an2s (ntent(onal@ feel(ng an, (s l(n?e, (nt(&ately 0(th other +al)es of tr)th8 lo+e an, the ,(gn(ty of person . #P. Soc(al ")st(ce (s legal 7)st(ce g)(,e, 'y the sp(r(t of lo+e an, the search for tr)th an, sho)l, 'e s(,e 'y s(,e 0(th the +al)e of a person. #C. Soc(al ")st(ce &)st 'eco&e &ore (&portant than co&&)tat(+e 7)st(ce E&erg(ng Soc(al $al)es Rele+ant to E,)cat(on #. +ersonali5ation. (he primacy of the human person. )an is a person and his crowning activity is love" which presupposes *ustice. (he stress is towards the personalistic character of education. -. 2ociali5ation . )an exists through the other and for others. (he task of man is man himself and he !ecomes actuated through the others. +ersonali5ation and sociali5ation are !ut two sides of a single process in education" and in life. %. xistential Dialogue G presupposes an encounter" an invitation to authentic !eing existential presence" and existential union to create a community of persons. <. Authentic 'eing. 'eing as opposed to seeming" ah unfolding as opposed to imposition. ducation must !ring a!out the true !eing of an individual person. ?. (he 3uman 9orld. (he world of man is a world of meaning. )an is a !eing in the world. ducation must help man gives meaning to his world and the world of others" ft must !e in context of the students7 world P. Convergence of worlds and synergy.man is a su!*ectivity incarnating itself in a converging world that defines his essence. (he phenomenology of the we.experience &s a reality that education must stress. C. Community. as a union of persons living an authentic existence with love" truth and *ustice. 2chools must !ecome communities where total human development is possi!le. A. >igilance.critical" moral" political vigilance I&pl(cat(ons to E,)cat(on of the The&es Presente, #. ducation must !e !ased on the supremacy of the human person" thus its aims must !e the total development of man in the context of his world. -. ducation must !e a ,we experience, where existential dialogues of authentic !eing" convergence of worlds and synergy are possi!le. %. ducation should not only !e viewed as an investment of human capital or consumption !ut a meaningful !ecoming !orne out of reasona!le and responsi!le exercise of freedom. <. ducation is for personali5ation and sociali5ation not only for life !ut for a meaningful life. ?. (he teaching profession must really !e promoted in the context of the em!odied spirit. (he flight of teachers in terms of economic" political" social and academic aspects must !e addressed. )ake teachers motivated motivators. ; P. (he affective and the emotional aspects must !e developed together with the rational aspect of man. (he student must !e viewed as a totality and su!*ect fields are simply part of this totality. Aorl, H(story PART I- CO%TE%T #P!ATE I. %AT#RE8 CHARACTERISTICS A%! $AL#E O HISTORY A. 3istory is the story of man through the ages" his failures as well as his achievements '. ;ature of 3istory A. &t attempts to assess" interpret and give recognition to the achievements of people '. &t is constant controversy !ecause historians view events from different perspectives C. 3istorical interpretations vary !ecause events are considered in terms of its occurrence in time and place. C. Characteristics of 3istory as a Discipline Content.oriented +rocess oriented >alue oriented D. >alue of 3istory 'est expressed in this saying ,Fnowing the past makes it easier to understand the present and less difficult to visuali5e the future,. . lements of 3istory +lace (Geography) . location" topography" etc. affect economic development" scientific advancement" political and social systems are !elief system evolved !y men (ime . people7s achievement and failures are *udged in the context of the period in which they live in. )an . the dynamic factor in 3istory. (he chief cause of the human actions is due to the nature of human !eing itself. II. PRE*HISTORIC PERIO!Pr(&(t(+e T(&es. A. +aleolithic Age '. ;eolithic Age C. )etal Age

III. HISTORIC PERIO!(races the development of civili5ation. Anc(ent Per(o, ASIA an, A RICA B cra,les of c(+(l(6at(on #. arly civili5ations developed in the river valleys A. )esopotamian civili5ation (or 4ertile Crescent) . along the !anks of the (igris and uphrates rivers '. gyptian civili5ation . along the !anks of the ;ile 6iver in Africa C. &ndian civili5ation . in the valleys along the &ndus 6iver D. Chinese civili5ation . along the yellow river (or 3uang 3o 6iver) arly religions originated in Asia A. 3induism.&ndia '. Voroastrianism . &ran (formerly +ersia) C. =udaism . &srael (formerly +alestine) D. Christianity . &srael (formerly +alestine) . &slamism . 2audi Ara!ia 4. 'uddhism . &ndia .

%. &mportant achievements or contri!utions of Ancient world to civili5ation a. Or(entalCEastern 0orl, #) )esopotamia or 4ertile Crescent .. comprised of different groups 2umerians . invention of wheels; irrigation system; cuneiform writing 'a!ylonians . unification of city states in the 4ertile Crescent under 3ammura!i and formulation of the Code of 3ammura!i Assyrians . organi5ed or highly centrali5ed government Chaldeans . under ;e!uchadne55ar" re!uilt the City of 'a!ylon; !uilt the 3anging Gardens; made 3e!rew captive in what was known as the 'a!ylonian Captivity 3e!rews . settlers in +alestine (presently &srael) from the tri!e of A!raham who spread the monotheistic idea (worship of one God Tahweh); )oses" a descendant of A!raham was given the )osaic 1aw ((en Commandments) !y God +hoenicians . settlers of +hoenicia (presently 1e!anon) who were known as ancient world7s great maritime traders who gave us the alpha!et of -- letters (known as +honetic alpha!et) +ersians . esta!lished the first world empire whose territory is presently known as &ran; adopted the teaching of Voroaster -) gypt 'uilt the great pyramids; invented a form of writing known as hieroglyphics; known for mummification; devised a calendar of %P? days %) &ndia arliest inha!itants were Dravidians who had an organi5ed system of settlements in 3arappa and )ohen*o.Daro. Aryan invasion and their settlement along the &ndus 6iver valley later gave them identity as 3indus. 3induism evolved from the merging of Dravidian and Aryan manner of worship" main features of which are reincarnation and a rigid social class known as Caste System. <) China ;ame derived from Chin dynasty founded !y 2hih 3uang (i who was also responsi!le for the construction of the Great 9alls. China is also credited for the invention of printing press; for re8uiring civil service exams for government officials; invented gun powder; produced silk and was known for its great philosophers" Confucius (golden rule); 1ao (5u ((aoism) and )encius. '. Aestern Aorl, #) Greece A. 3ellas . early name and its civili5ation was termed 3ellenic '. Athens and 2parta . famous city states (polis) C. 3omer . famous author of (&liad and Edyssey) D. 2olon" Cleisthenes and +ericles . famous Athenian reformers who laid the foundation of a democratic system of government . 4amous D 2ignificant events0 - +ersian war . Athens led the Greeks in repulsing +ersia - +etoponnesian 9ar, was fought !etween rival Greek states Athens and 2parta. 2parta prevailed - )acedonian invasion . invasion of ,!ar!aric, )acedonians led !y +hilip && who eventually !ecame )aster of Greece. 3is son Alexander the Great succeeded him. 4. Golden Age of Greece . ?th to <th Century 'C) . attained !y Athens after the +ersian 9ar. 4amous personalities0 +ericles" statesman" Demosthenes" orator" 2ocrates" +lato and Aristotle" philosophers; Aeschylus" 2ophocles" Aristophanes (dramatists); 3erodotus (4ather of 3istory)" (hycydides and Henophon . historians; Colonium" architect of the famous +arthenon G. Alexander the Great . 2uccessor of +hilip of )acedonia" tutored !y Aristotle and extended Greek empire to the ast. 3e was responsi!le in !lending 3ellenic culture with the ast and such com!ination was referred to

as 3ellenistic culture. After his death" the empire !roke up into the 6omans con8uered Greece.

gypt" 2yria and )acedonia and !y #?@ 'C

-) 6ome A. 6omulus . legendary founder of 6ome in C?% 'C '. truscans . esta!lished a strong monarchy in the Pth century !ut their autocratic rule led to their downfall when the 6omans overthrew them C. 6omany esta!lished a 6epu!lic D. (wo classes of people0 +atricians and +le!eians . 2enate . the ruling !ody in the 6epu!lic !ut dominated !y +atricians (upper class) 4. (welve (a!les .a legislation which gave +le!eians (lower class) e8ual participation in government G. +unic 9ars.fought !y 6ome against Carthage and resulted in 6ome7s ac8uisition of 2pain a group of continued the 3. 4irst (riumvirate (=ulius Caesar" +ompey" Cassius) military leaders responsi!le for the expansion of 6ome &. 2econd (riumvirate (Anthony" 1epidus" Ectavius) work started !y the 4irst (riumvirate =. Ectavius (later known as Augustus Caesar) . was responsi!le for further expansion of 6ome; !estowed the title ,+rince:, (4irst citi5en); crowned the first emperor of the 6oman mpire under whose reign. +AH 6E)A;A prevailed F. 9eak successors later split the empire into two0 9estern 6oman mpire and astern 6oman mpire (later known as 'y5antine mpire. 1. 4all of 6ome (<CP A.D.) was due to the attack of (eutonic Germanic tri!es. Enly the 9estern mpire fell. astern 6oman mpire gained strength and later on flourished as the 'y5antine mpire. Me,(e+al Per(o, #. Dark Ages . ushered in the )iddle Ages. 'ar!arians from Germany dominated the 9estern 6oman fall thus the grandeur of 6ome was lost. mpire after &ts

-. 4ranks . !ar!aric tri!e that settled in Gaul (presently 4rance). (heir conversion to Christianity inspired them to restore urope into a civili5ed world again. Charles )artel defended urope from !eing dominated !y the )oslems" Bnder Charlemagne; 4rance expanded its territory at the same time spreading the Christian faith. &n recognition of his work for the Church" he was crowned !y the +ope and was given the title mperor of the 3oly 6oman mpire. %. 2upremacy of the Christian Church a. +ope" the head of the Church was looked up to !y rulers of kingdoms !. c. Church was responsi!le in reviving education !ecause monasteries had kept literary works and works of arts (he Church through its officials received material favors from monarchs and no!lemen such that the Church !ecame wealthy.

<. 4eudalism social" economic and political system characteri5ed !y strong lord and vassal relationship where the lord gave protection to the vassal and the vassal rendered services to the lord (act of fealty) Chivalry . in reference to the trait expected of a Fnight where he had to manifest refinement in manners and courage and commitment in the defense of his lord. )anorial system . where economic activities revolve around agriculture to generate income for the lord. ? Crusades A series of military expeditions !y the Christians of 9estern urope during the ##th and #%th century to take !ack the 3oly 1and (=erusalem) from the )uslims. P. Guild 2ystem Mo,e& Per(o, #. 6enaissance . this movement to revive the study of Graeco.6oman classics ushered in the modern times. 3umanism of the Greeks and 6omans was revived such that li!eralism characteri5ed this period. -. Age of 6evolutions a. &ntellectual 6evolution R started with the age of enlightenment or age of reason !. 2cientific 6evolution R where discovery and inventions took place (his ushered in the Age of Discovery and exploration of territories. c. &ndustrial 6evolution R marked !y change in economic life. 3ard la!or was replaced !y machineries. &ndustrial 6evolution started in ngland and it is still in progress today. Commercial 6evolution was an offshoot of &ndustrial 6evolution. d. +olitical 6evolution R (his revolution is aimed at changing government. (his was an offshoot of the spread of li!eral ideas. (wo 4amous revolutions; 4rench 6evolution (#CA$.#C$$); American 6evolution (#CC?.#CA%). e. 6eligious 6evolution R 6eformation . a move started !y 9ycliffe and 3us and pursued !y )artin 1uther aimed at reforming some practices of the Christian Church. R Counter.reformation . a movement undertaken !y the Catholic Church to reform its own ranks. GLO/AL AARS

Aorl, Aar I . immediate cause was the assassination of Archduke 4rances 4erdinand of Austria on =une -A" #$#<. 9arring groups0 (riple ntete (Allied +owers) composed of ngland" 4rance and 6ussia; (riple Alliance (Central +owers) composed of Germany" Austria and (urkey. Bnited 2tates declared neutrality !ut *oined the Allied +owers when Germany torpedoed the 'ritish ship ,1usitanian, where several Americans were on !oard. Aorl, Aar II (#$%$.#$<?) . war of ideology (Democracy vs. (otalitarianism). &mmediate cause was invasion of +oland !y 3itler on 2eptem!er #" #$%$. 9arring groups were0 Allied +owers ( ngland" 4rance and 6ussia) and Axis +owers (Germany" &taly and =apan). Axis powers advocated (otalitarianism (3itler7s ;a5ism; )ussolini7s 4ascism and 3irohito7s (otalitarianism). Bnited 2tates entered the war in #$<# when =apan !om!ed its !iggest military !ase in the +acific on Decem!er A" #$<#. B2 entry turned the tide of the war in favor of the Allied +owers to where B2 sided. Germany and &taly readily surrendered in early #$<?. 9ar finally ended after B2 decided to drop atomic !om!s at 3iroshima and ;agasaki in August #$<? when =apan refused to peacefully surrender. Post0ar Per(o, . characteri5ed !y cold war !etween B2 (democracy) and B226 (communism). Cold 9ar is a state of diplomatic tension or war of nerves without resulting to actual fighting. 2truggles for supremacy !etween B2 and B226 were manifested in Forean 9ar (;orth and 2outh Forea). 'enin Crisis ( ast and 9est Germany); >ietnam 9ar (;orth and 2outh >ietnam); 2pace race; Arms 6ace. &n 5D>D Ma(nlan, Ch(na came under communist rule when )ao (se(ung successfully entrenched himself in power" +resident Chang Fai.2hek was forced to go in exile in (aiwan (4ormosa) and continued to administer the nationalist government there. (his conflict !etween )ainland China and (aiwan raised the issue of ,Ene China or (wo China policy,. Leag)e of %at(on 0as replace, 'y #n(te, %at(ons in Ecto!er -<" #$<?. 5DD5 saw the disintegration of B226 when )ikhail Gor!achev advocated the ,glasnost and ,perestroika,. ast and 9est Germany also united. As the world moved towards the -#st century" glo!ali5ation was pursued. (he five areas emphasi5ed are0 #. Glo!ali5ation of markets -. Glo!ali5ation of communication %. Glo!ali5ation of culture <. Glo!ali5ation of ideology ?. +olitical glo!ali5ation Septe&'er 558 ;EE5 . the world was shaken when the 9orld (rade Center in ;ew Tork City B2 was destroyed where thousand of people died. 2uspected !rain of such terrorist attack was Esama 'in 1aden who to this day is still !eing hunted. As(an St),(es PART I- CO%TE%T #P!ATE &. Asia0 Geographical features and its development Geograph(cal eat)res 9orld7s largest continent (#C"#%$"@@@ s8. miles G nearly#D% or the earth/s land). Geographically it is compact and unified 'oundaries0 Bral mountains from urope; 6ed 2ea and 2ue5 Canal from Africa &t is a continent of physical contrast )t. verest" world7s highest mountain (-$"@-A ft); Dead 2ea (#"-$- ft. !elow sea level) as the lowest (erm Asia was derived from an early Aegean term A2 6 which meant ,sunrise,. A2&A was first used !y +indar" a Greek poet. Reg(onal !(+(s(ons of As(a 2outh Asia . centered on the &ndian su!continent. &t includes &ndia" +akistan. Ceylon" Afghanistan" 3imalayan kingdoms of ;epal" 'hutan and &ndian protectorate" 2ikkim 2outheast Asia .. a relatively recent term that came into usage during 9orld 9ar &&. &t covers 'urma ()yanmar)" (hailand. 1aos" Cam!odia" >ietnam" )alaysia" 2ingapore" &ndonesia" 'runei and +hilippines ast Asia . China and (aiwan (4ormosa)" Forea" =apan. (his region is more often referred to as 4ar ast !y the 9esterners !ecause it is the part of Asia 2outhwest Asia . known to 9esterners as the ;ear ast for these are countries nearest to urope. )ore recently" 9esterners refer to this region as )iddle ast for it is midway !etween 9estern urope and ast Asia. (hese include &ran" &ra8" (urkey" 2yria" 1e!anon" =ordan" &srael" 2audi Ara!ia" and Temen. +eople7s 6epu!lic of 2outh Temen" Fuwait and the (racial 2tates. '. Asia in 9orld 3istory Asia is the !iggest continent &t has very important economic potentials (varied resources) &t also has demographic potentials . more than half of the world7s population is in Asia where there is low death rate. high !irth rate and longer life expectancy Asia was the seat of the world7s civili5ation Asia7s nationalism is a powerful force which is shaping the future of Asia and the world Asia is the home of religions C. +re.historic Asia #. arliest man

Asia is said to !e the place which has yielded the greatest num!er of fossils of simian species. 6amapithecus fossils were discovered in +akistan and in the Tunnan +rovince in China. 6amapithecus fossils is said to !e the closest to man. arliest man7s capacity for production was 2hown through the development of tools. (echnology divides the evolutionary period of culture into0 2tone Age 'ron5e Age &ron Age - Activities engaged in during 2tone Age0 food gathering" hunting. )astery of fire was a great step in man7s emancipation from the environment -. +eopling of the +acific was the greatest feat of coloni5ation. )igration took place in 2outheast Asia" Australia and its island neigh!ors in the great Eceans ()elanesia" +olynesia" )icronesia) D. 'irth of Civili5ation 'ron5e Age (%"@@@ 'C . #A@@ 'C) saw the !irth of civili5ation arly civili5ation started in the river valleys (igris. uphrates . )esopotamia ;ile . gypt &ndus . &ndia Tellow 6iver . China Characteristics D &ndicators of Civili5ation existence of political system division of la!or D occupation !ecame speciali5ed system of writing organi5ed trade existence of class structure monumental architecture representational art Development of religions a. 3induism . &ndia !. 'uddhism . &ndia c. Christianity . &srael d. &slamism . 2audi Ara!ia e. =udaism . &srael f. Voroastrianism . +ersia (presently &ran) g. 2hintoism . =apan . 9arrior Groups 6esponsi!le for the Bnification of the +eoples of Asia #. 3B;2 (from ;eolithic +eriod to a!out #-@@ A.D.) also known as 3siung ;us . 3orse riding people" semi.nomadic who attempted to move towards the fertile lands of China. (hey were !ased in )ongolia then extended to )anchuria" Central Asia and even reached as far as the 2lavic territories to Germany and 2pain in the ?th century. Greatest leader was Attila who upon reaching 6ome was persuaded !y +ope 1eo the Great to give up his plans to take 6ome. -. )E;GE12 'ased in Central Asia (near 1ake 'aal)" they lived in small groups of few families. 'asic social and political units were patriarchal dans0 spiritual life was focused on loyalty to cian. +olygamy necessitated the ac8uisition of wives outside of the clan and in most cases" wives were o!tained through sei5ure. Genghis Fhan (or Chinggis Fhan) was formerly known as (emu*en. 3e ac8uired the name Genghis or Chinggis (meaning ,universal ruler,) after successful con8uest were made !y him. 3is empire extended as far as )iddle ast and urope. (hey were noted for espionage and psychological warfare %. E((E)A; (B6F2 G ##(3 Century Eriginal home near Go!i dessert" 2i!eria and (urkestan. ,Ettoman, was derived from the third caliph Esman. (hey moved westward into urope. Great leader was 2ulaiman. Contri!ution of the 9arrior Groups0 #. Advanced the knowledge of metallurgy -. volved different political systems %. 4ostered international trading 4. Development of mpires #. +ersian mpire (9est Asia) 6ecogni5ed as the first !iggest empire" especially during the time of Cyrus" Captivity of 'a!ylon" the capital of the Chaldean empire in ?%$ 'C signified the ascendancy of this Aryan race over the older cultures. (he empire included the &ranian +lateau" the 4ertile Crescent" Anatolia" 2ogdania" gypt (con8uered !y Cam!yses). Darius moved westward through the 'alkans only to !e repulsed !y the Greeks in the famous 'attle of )arathon. astward" +ersian reached as far as +un*a! in &ndia. - +ersian empire was known for its organi5ed political system where the empire was divided into political units known as satrapes ruled !y satraps. (his satrapes could !e the e8uivalent of present day provinces.

Voroastrianism was advocated most especially during the time of Darius" when he declared that sovereignty was granted to him !y Ahura )a5da !ecause he advocated this god7s teaching which was to act righteously and *ustly to all men. 1engua franca was Aramaic" serving as language of official communication +ersia developed a system of communication !y providing road network where messengers of the Great Fing rode !ack and forth from satrapes

-. &ndian mpire (2outh Asia) - &ndus valley civili5ation (3arappa and )o*endro Daro) was disintegrating in #?@@ 'C when Aryans entered north. west of &ndia. Aryans or &ndo. Aryans were descendants of &ndo. uropeans (from ;orth &ranian plateau) mpire !uilding was credited to the )auryan Dynasty (%-#.#A% '.C.)" although to some historians" the ;anda dynasty laid the foundation of empire !uilding !ut this was cut short !y Chandragupta )aurya who usurped the throne and in him the imperial idea materiali5ed. - +olitical system was similar to that of +ersia where the empire was divided into provinces for administrative purposes. - 3induism evolved . which was a religion that !lended the a!origines (Dravidians) manner of worship and the Aryans religious !eliefs and practices. - 'rahmannical theories influenced the characteri5ation of Fingship - Caste system was institutionali5ed where &ndian society was divided into 'rahman" Fshatriya" >aishya and 2udra. - &n Pth century 'C" opposition to the rigidity of the Caste system led to the development of 'uddhism and =ainism. 'uddhist propagated a new concept of Dharma which emphasi5ed tolerance and non.violence. - During the reign of Asoka (%rd century 'C) 'uddhism was accepted !ecause he himself had !ecome a 5ealous follower. 3e used the 'uddhist religious principles for secular purposes such that his reforms were focused on humanity in internal administration and the a!andonment of aggressive war. 3e termed his territorial expansion as con8uest of 6ighteousness. G. Development of (rade - Commerce !etween urope and Asia !egan as early as the first century A.D. - (rade D Commerce was conducted through land routes and sea routes - (rade centers !etween -@@ AD to #?@@ AD were0 #. )editerranean . 9est Asian (rade Complex -. Central Asia (rade Complex %. 2trait of )alacca . &ndo China (rade Complex <. &ndian Ecean (rade Complex ffects of the expansion of (rade #. 2pread of sericulture or silk culture ((he Chinese were called ,2eres, or ,2erices, !y the 6omans. (hese two terms may have originated from the Chinese word for silk) 'y the %rd century A.D. Forea and =apan ac8uired the knowledge of sericulture and !y the Pth century 'y5antium teamed the secret of sericulture -. 'uddhism spread to China and to the rest of 2outheast Asia and 4ar ast %. Christianity and &slamism found their way to China and other parts of Asia <. 'y Cth century centers of power were0 (ang Dynasty . China &slam . 9est Asia 'y5antine ((urkey) . 9est Asia ?. (rade played an important role in defining Asia and Asian civili5ation to the 9estern word0 arliest reference to Asia was made !y 3erodotus who wrote a!out the ,nomad synethians who dwelt in Asia, 9estern world perceived Asia as the source of silk" spices and various exotic products Asia and urope were linked. Goods were exchanged and migration of people took place Asian religions were spread to different parts of the world Culture was enriched &&. Asia7s (ransition A. Age of xploration and Discovery in urope #. uropean countries set out to explore lands for economic and military reasons. -. (erritories greatly affected were the Americas" Africa and Asia. '. &mperialism in Asia )ost countries in Asia came under colonial rule particularly those in 2outheast Asia" except (hailand China was under ,sphere of influence., Forea (hermit Fingdom) and =apan went out into isolation to avoid the influences of western countries !ut eventually were opened to allow 9estern countries to trade with them. C. Asia7s involvement with the 9est dragged her into - glo!al wars. &n 9orld 9ar && =apan actively led the war in the +acific on the side of the Axis +owers. =apan occupied most of the territories in 2outheast Asia. D. After 9orld 9ar ft" colonies occupied !y =apan came again under 9estern rule !ut were eventually given independence. Forea was divided; so with >ietnam due to ideology (Democracy advocated !y B2A and Communism !y B226) . xperiences from colonial rule changed the outlook of most people in Asia. &&&. Great Contri!ution of Asia to Civili5ation A. Architecture and ngineering0 - Great 9alls . China (initial construction !y 2hin 3uang (i)

'.

C. D. .

- (a* )ahal . &ndia (constructed !y 2hah =ahan) - 3anging Garden . 'a!ylon (!y ;e!uchadne55ar) - +yramid . gypt (in Ancient (imes" gypt was considered part of the Erient) 4orm of 9riting0 - 3ieroglyphics. gypt - Cuneiform.)esopotamia - 2anskrit . &ndia 6eligions . all ma*or religions and many other minor religions of the world originated in Asia mpire !uilding Great +hilosophers0 Confucius" 1ao (5u" )encuis

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