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PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
March 2014
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3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
32 Exploring Arc Welding for Additive Manufacturing of Titanium
The gas tungsten arc process might be the answer for free-form
manufacturing of parts, the size of which are not constrained by
vacuum chamber dimensions
N. Kapustka and I. D. Harris
36 Improving Welder Safety
To get a better grasp of what is needed to keep welders safe, it is
wise to open a dialogue among management, protective equipment
manufacturers, and welders
D. Thornton
40 Taking the Next Step in Additive Manufacturing
To gain momentum as a viable manufacturing process, growth must
come in making large, high-value parts
R. Martukanitz and J. Hollingsworth
46 Theres More to See and Do at FABTECH Canada
The latest technologies in welding, cutting, forming, stamping, and
finishing move north of the border for a timely exhibition
H. M. Woodward
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
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Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
International Update ..............8
News of the Industry ............10
Business Briefs ..................14
Stainless Q&A ....................20
RWMA Q&A ......................22
Product & Print Spotlight ......26
Conferences ......................54
Coming Events....................56
Certification Schedule ..........60
Society News ....................63
Tech Topics ......................64
Erratum D9.1M/D9.1 ........64
U.S./European Welding
Standards Conf. ..............65
Guide to AWS Services ........80
Personnel ........................82
American Welder
Fact Sheet......................101
Learning Track ................102
Classifieds ......................110
Advertiser Index ................112
69-s Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal
Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition
The influences of solute content and heat input on weld microstructure
were studied
P. Schempp et al.
78-s Improvement of Weldability of 1 GPa Grade Twin-Induced
Plasticity Steel
Improvements in spot welding twin-induced plasticity steel in the
automotive industry were sought
J. Yu et al.
85-s Quality Level Assessment for Imperfections in GMAW
By processing the images from a vision system through a neural network,
an attempt was made to evaluate the quality of gas metal arc welds
G. Senthil et al.
98-s Effect of Welding Parameters on the Heat-Affected Zone
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Tendency of a Blast-Resistant
Steel
An implant test was used to evaluate BA-160 blast-resistant steels
susceptibility to hydrogen-induced cracking
X. Yue et al.
Features
The American Welder
Welding Research Supplement
36
32
40
March 2014 Volume 93 Number 3
AWS website www.aws.org
On the cover: An example of the capabilities of additive manufacturing. (Photo
courtesy of Sciaky, Inc., Chicago, Ill.)
86 The Art of Upcycling: Welding Trash into Treasure
Welding skill and imagination combine to create works of art out
of the trashcan
M. Gomez
90 5, 4, 3, 2, 1...Getting the New Years Eve Ball Done!
The next time you see the falling ball count down a new year,
admire it as a finely welded structure
K. Campbell
96 Army Offers Uncommon Career Path
Combining the Army and welding with being a woman is a rarity, but
dont tell this Chief Warrant Officer it cant happen
EDITORIAL
The incoming officers of
the AWS Technical Activities
Committee (TAC) started
their three-year terms on
January 1. As the new TAC
chair, I am pleased to be
joined by Vice Chair Walter
Sperko, 2nd Vice Chair
David Fink, and Annette
Alonso, who is the AWS staff
secretary for this committee.
The committee, which was
joined by some of the other
technical committee chairs
and members-at-large, had
its first meeting for the year in Miami January 29 and 30 (see photo).
While TAC is charged with many duties, I would like to take this opportunity to focus
on only one. That task is to promote the technical advancement of welding through any
other means as may appear proper to the Standards Council to ensure the best interest
of the art and science of materials joining. In keeping with that charge, our agenda
included four new areas of interest concerning materials joining and usage in our tech-
nical standards. These new areas are as follows:
Harmonization of our technical standards with respect to the requirements of wave-
form-controlled power supplies
The use of non-USA/ASTM materials
The use of phased array ultrasonic testing
Permission to prepare a standard for additive manufacturing.
Of these four, additive manufacturing may be the most challenging with regard to
developing a standard. This developing joining method is defined as a process for mak-
ing a three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital model. It is
termed an additive process because successive layers of material are laid down in differ-
ent shapes. For metal, the joining processes used for additive manufacturing include
electron beam welding, laser beam welding, ultrasonics, and fused deposition for poly-
mers (3D printing). You can read more about additive manfaucturing in this issue of the
Welding Journal in the articles found on pages 32 and 40.
Because of the rapid advancements currently taking place in additive manufacturing,
AWS volunteers are taking on the challenge of developing a standard for the industry to
address general process requirements, procedure qualification, operator qualification,
inspection, and expected material properties. Like many of our other technical stan-
dards, this will provide a known, harmonized set of requirements for companies who
choose to either specify or use this set of processes to fabricate additive manufactured
products.
We live in an ever-changing, global manufacturing environment when it comes to our
areas of technical standards and materials joining. The American Welding Society,
through the Technical Activities Committee and supporting technical committees and
their volunteer committee members, is dedicated to
ensuring the best interest of the art and science of
materials joining. This basic principle, in my personal
opinion, has and continues to make AWS a recognized
leader throughout the world for developing technical
standards that are used not only in the United States
but in many other countries.
MARCH 2014 4
Officers
President Dean R. Wilson
Welldean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), University of Tennessee
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Wright Welding Technologies
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
New Technologies Present
New Challenges for Standards
Allen W. Sindel
Chair, AWS Technical Activities Committee
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PRESS TIME
NEWS
Colfax Corp. Buys Victor Technologies for $947 Million
Irving Place Capital, New York, N.Y., a private equity firm, and Victor Technolo-
gies, St. Louis, Mo., a designer and manufacturer of metal cutting, gas control, and
specialty welding products, recently announced they have entered into a definitive
agreement to sell Victor Technologies to Colfax Corp. The global manufacturer of
gas- and fluid-handling along with fabrication technology products also owns ESAB,
Florence, S.C.
The all cash transaction values Victor whose brands include Victor, Tweco,
Cigweld, and Stoody at approximately $947 million, including the assump-
tion of debt, and is subject to customary closing conditions.
We are pleased with the progress that we have made in partnership with Irving
Place Capital over the past several years as we have built Victor into a stronger com-
pany with a greater presence in key global markets and an improved offering for
our customers, said Martin Quinn, CEO of Victor.
IPC acquired Victor, which was previously named Thermadyne Holdings Corp.,
in a take-private transaction in December 2010. We are proud of the revitalization
of this 100-year-old company that has taken place as a result of our partnership with
Victors management team, said Douglas Korn, a senior managing director of IPC.
Sulzer Sells Metco Division to Oerlikon
Sulzer, Winterthur, Switzerland, a machinery and equipment manufacturer with
more than 150 locations worldwide, has signed an agreement with Oerlikon for di-
vesting its Sulzer Metco division, a surface systems provider that includes thermal
spray.
The transaction is based on an enterprise value of about $1.114 billion. Closing
is expected in the third quarter of 2014.
We are pleased that we have found a new owner for the Sulzer Metco division
that will leverage the strengths of the business in the best possible way, said Sulzer
CEO Klaus Stahlmann.
After the divestment, almost 80% of Sulzers sales will be in the three key mar-
kets oil and gas, power, and water. The company intends to use the funds generated
from the sale for acquisitions and investments to promote growth in these areas.
Monica Pfarr Receives Women in Manufacturing
STEP Award
The Manufacturing Institute has recognized
Monica Pfarr, corporate director of workforce devel-
opment at the American Welding Society (AWS), with
the Women in Manufacturing STEP (Science, Tech-
nology, Engineering, and Production) Award.
Presented February 6 in Washington, D.C., the
award honors women who have demonstrated excel-
lence in leadership in their careers and represents all
levels of the manufacturing industry, from factory
floor to upper management.
Pfarr, who joined AWS in 2008, spearheads the
Societys efforts to address the critical need for re-
cruitment and retention of welders in the industry.
She is an industry veteran with wide-ranging expert-
ise in manufacturing systems development and oper-
ations management.
Manufacturing is an exciting career field for any-
one with a passion to make things better, faster, cheaper, or safer, said Pfarr. Its
an honor to be recognized by The Manufacturing Institute for simply sharing my
everyday passion with the next generation coming into the workforce.
MARCH 2014 6
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Welldean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2014 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
Monica Pfarr
INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Community College Refurbishes Welding Shop
The New Brunswick Community College (NBCC), Canada,
recently opened a refurbished welding shop at its Edmundston
campus. The welding shop, built more than 30 years ago, has been
used for programs such as welding, motor vehicle body repair and
painting, and automotive services. Students in the welding program
have used the workship since 2009.
The investment of more than $290,000, including installation of
ventilation and soundproofing systems, is an example of the imple-
mentation of New Brunwicks Labor Force and Skills Development
Strategy, which aims to meet the current and future needs of the
provinces labor force. Our welding program meets a pressing
need of the industry, said Liane Roy, NBCC president and CEO.
With the arrival of several mega-construction projects across the
country, there is an increased demand for this specialized trade.
The funding we received enables us to offer our students an envi-
ronment where they can acquire all the skills they need to excel in
the labor market.
Welding is one of the most popular programs at the institution.
For the current academic year, more than 210 applications were
received for admission into the program, which has only 69 spaces.
Granta Reveals Advances from
Additive Manufacturing Projects
Granta Design Ltd.,
Cambridge, UK, recently
announced details of its
advances in simulation and
materials information
management to help
additive manufacturers
improve research, design,
testing, and simulation.
These are the result of the
companys involvement in
two European Framework
Seven projects.
In Nanomicros four-year
project, ten partners have been developing a layer manufacturing
approach using focalized powder/heat fluxes for ceramic-metallic
composites. Grantas collaboration with the University of
Cambridge developed simulation work that helped choose build
parameters in the additive manufacturing process, leading to a
shorter production development time and fewer part failures.
Additionally, Granta is a partner in the ongoing project, Additive
Manufacturing Aiming Towards Zero Waste & Efficient
Production of High-Tech Metal Products. Led by the European
Space Agency, this 30-partner project seeks to rapidly produce
large, defect-free, additively manufactured metallic components up
to 2 m in size for use in aeronautics, space, nuclear fusion, auto-
motive, and tooling. The company is helping project partners man-
age the materials, processing, and test information for analysis and
simulation, tailored for additive manufacturing.
WRI and Leibniz University to Develop
Power Source Evaluation Center
The Welding Research Institute (WRI) of Bharat Heavy
Electricals Ltd. (BHEL), Tiruchirappalli, India, recently entered
into an agreement to work jointly with Leibniz University of
Hannover, Germany, on a power source evaluation facility.
A Protocol of Intention was signed in Tiruchy, India, in the pres-
ence of A. V. Krishnan, executive director, and other top BHEL
executives. On behalf of Leibniz University, D. Rehfeldt, professor,
exchanged the signed protocol with R. Easwaran, BHEL general
manager (WRI & Labs).
Regarding the agreement, Krishnan said, This research-acade-
mia partnership will augment its efforts to develop a Center for
Welding Power Source Evaluation, which will be helpful to the
nation in a big way. By bridging the technology gap, WRI can eval-
uate the current-generation power sources that have several
advanced features and need to be evaluated for their dynamic char-
acteristics.
He added, The modern inverter-based power sources have
many added features for improving the depth of penetration of
welds, making spatter-free welds, welding thin sheets, and so on.
Understanding the dynamic characteristics of the power sources
requires a high-power data-acquisition system in tandem with a
high-speed visualization system, as well as automation and manual
welding, to avoid human hand unsteadiness. This is exactly what
Hannover University has developed. The technology would have
great benefits including establishing an IS standard for power
source and consumables evaluation.
MARCH 2014 8
Shown from left are: Lise Ouellette, NBCC director Edmundston
Campus; Danny Soucy, minister of Local Development and
Environment of New Brunswick; Liane Roy, CCNB president and
CEO ; and Eric Levesque, welding instructor.
A highly focused laser performs
layer manufacturing.
D. Rehfeldt, professor, Leibniz University, and R. Easwaran,
WRI general manager, exchanged the power source evalua-
tion facility agreement in the presence of A. V. Krishnan,
executive director, BHEL.
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Queen Mary 2 Celebrates
Her First Ten Years
Cunard Lines Queen Mary 2 is cele-
brating her first ten years of service in
2014. The ship has undertaken 419 voy-
ages, including more than 200 transat-
lantic crossings, and has called at 182 ports
in 60 countries.
According to the company, since be-
coming its flagship on completion of her
maiden transatlantic crossing in May 2004,
Queen Mary 2 has remained unchallenged
as the worlds largest, longest, tallest,
widest, and most expensive ocean liner
ever built.
The 1000 miles of welding that holds
this 1132-ft-long, 151,400-gross-tonnage
ship together would stretch from London
to Moscow. The ship took a million hours
to design and eight million hours to build.
Tenth anniversary celebrations will
begin on May 9 when all three ships of the
Cunard fleet will arrive together in their
home port of Southampton, England.
Lincoln Electric, Cleveland, Ohio, and a group of partners have been
awarded funding by America Makes for metal-layering technology using a
Lincoln Electric-developed, laser-assisted, wire-based additive process. It is
believed success in this effort can pave the way for new processes that bene-
fit the U.S. manufacturing economy.
The $700,000 project, High Throughput Functional Material Deposition
Using a Laser Hot Wire Process, is funded by America Makes, a recently re-
branded name for the National Additive Manufacturing Innovation Institute
founded in August 2012.
The project features Lincoln Electric as coinvestigator with Case West-
ern Reserve University, which also serves as administrative controller. Part-
nering companies include AZZ/WSI, Inc.; rp+m, Inc.; and RTI International
Metals. The project participant roster represents a supply chain of mate-
rial/consumable suppliers, machine manufacturers, process optimizers, work-
force trainers, and product validators/testers.
While the laser-assisted, wire-based process was originally developed by Lincoln Electric for steel cladding, the process has
shown potential for other alloys. In this second round, it will be tested and benchmarked for generating structural parts with tita-
nium alloys and functional surfaces with nickel-based alloys. Achievement with titanium could be a boom to additive manufactur-
ing as this material currently poses fabrication and repair challenges.
The ultimate goal is to make a deposition process that is economical to use, can produce a competitive product by building
up a structure or coating a surface, and achieves better performance for the customer, said Badri K. Narayanan, materials re-
search group manager at Lincoln Electric, in describing the overall target of this research.
MARCH 2014 10
Lincoln Electric, Case Western Reserve University Join
Forces on New Additive-Manufacturing Project
The research is set to benchmark a proprietary laser-
assisted, wire-based additive process for titanium and
nickel-based alloys.
One thousand miles of welding holds the
Queen Mary 2 together. The liner is pic-
tured here near the Statue of Liberty in New
York City.
11 WELDING JOURNAL
Survey Shows Manufacturing Growth
Continues but Economy Still a Hurdle
According to results of the ASQ 2014 Manufacturing Out-
look Survey, 65% of manufacturers experienced revenue growth
in 2013, but nearly half still consider the economy the biggest
challenge. Also, while 64% of respondents worldwide expect in-
creased revenue in 2014, that percentage is down from years past.
In last years survey, 65% anticipated growth in 2013, and 66%
of respondents to the 2012 outlook survey anticipated growth in
2013. In 2012 and 2013, 70% of manufacturers said they experi-
enced revenue growth vs. 65% in this years survey.
Additionally, 46% of respondents say the economy continues
to be the biggest hurdle to operations, while 18% said the short-
age of skilled workers is the biggest challenge they foresee in
2014. Other hurdles include global competition, lack of new prod-
ucts, government sequestration, and lack of leadership.
Respondents represent aerospace, automotive, food, medical
device, pharmaceutical, and utility industries. More than 700
manufacturing professionals around the world replied.
Auburn Manufacturing Celebrates Grand
Opening of $1.4 Million Facility Expansion
Auburn Manufacturing, Inc., recently celebrated the grand
opening of the $1.4 million expansion at its Kitty Hawk manu-
facturing facility in Auburn, Maine. The 22,500-sq-ft expansion
nearly doubles the facilitys size, allowing the 35-year-old com-
pany to optimize its manufacturing processes.
The expansion will improve manufacturing capacity, effi-
ciency, and quality with new state-of-the-art technology and use
of lean manufacturing strategies, said President and CEO Kathie
Leonard.
Shell Awards TMK IPSCO Two
Long-Term Pipe Contracts
TMK IPSCO, Houston, Tex., has been awarded two three-
year contracts to provide both oil country tubular goods and line
pipe to Shell for onshore and offshore applications.
Currently, five of TMKs plants are providing pipe to Shell
under the contract. Welded and seamless oil country tubular
goods along with the companys UP brand connections are also
being delivered. Its Volzhsky and Sinarsky mills in Russia will
provide line pipe under Shells specification.
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Kathie Leonard, president and CEO of Auburn Manufacturing,
cuts a ribbon at the grand opening of the companys $1.4 million
expansion for its Kitty Hawk manufacturing facility in Auburn,
Maine.
MARCH 2014 12
Hobart Institute Opens New Training Area
The Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology, Troy,
Ohio, recently opened its
newest addition. The 6360-
sq-ft structure contains 52
arc welding booths, univer-
sally equipped for all
processes, and a fume-
exhaust system. The first
welders to use the booths in-
cluded a military group and
a few employees of Exxon
Mobile who were taking
part in two specialized train-
ing sessions.
With a goal to maintain
the architectural and aes-
thetic integrity of the origi-
nal design, construction
began in May by Ferguson
Construction Co., Sidney,
Ohio.
New Energy Center at Pittsburgh Technical
Institute Houses Welding Program
Pittsburgh Technical Institute (PTI) recently hosted the grand
opening and official ribbon cutting of its new Energy Technology
Center. The 15,392-sq-ft
steel structure serves as
headquarters for the col-
leges welding technology,
HVAC technology, and oil
and gas electronics pro-
grams. Located in the east-
ern quadrant of the col-
leges 180-acre campus, in-
cluded among its features
are labs equipped with up-
dated equipment, general
classrooms, faculty offices,
meeting rooms, and a two-
story plaza lobby.
PTI students will ex-
perience hands-on learning
to meet employer needs in
each of three dedicated labs
equipped with nearly $1.25
million in industry-specific
equipment. Employers who
partnered with the institute
have donated $750,000
worth of the equipment and
software installed in the
centers labs.
According to Greg DeFeo, PTIs president, industry demand
for electronics, pipeline, field service, and well site technicians,
as well as welders, soldering and brazing workers, machinists,
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BRIEFS
Hypertherm Transitions to a 100%
Employee-Owned Company
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., a manufacturer of plasma, laser,
and waterjet cutting systems, recently announced the transfer of
all its common stock into an Employee Stock Ownership Plan
(ESOP), making the company 100% employee owned under an
S-Corporation structure.
Previously, Hypertherms ESOP (known internally as the Hy-
pertherm Stock Ownership Plan, HSOP) held approximately one-
third of the companys stock. Controlling shareholders Dick and
Barbara Couch created the plan in 2001, followed by a Global
Stock Value Program for international associates in 2004.
With the redemption and purchase of all remaining shares
into the HSOP, Dick and Barbara Couch seek to ensure the con-
tinuation of Hypertherm as an independent company living its
core values and pursuing the long-term interests of its customers,
associates, and communities.
The well-being of our associates and shared rewards have
been cultural cornerstones of Hypertherm since our founding in
1968, said Dick Couch, founder and CEO.
TRUMPF and Partners Win German
Future Prize
Recently, the German Future Prize was presented to a team
of experts from TRUMPF, Bosch, and the University of Jena.
Federal President Joachim Gauck awarded the honor at a cere-
mony in Berlin to Dr. Jens Ko nig (Bosch), Dr. Dirk Sutter
(TRUMPF), and Prof. Stefan Nolte (University of Jena).
The three researchers have established ultrashort pulse lasers
as a new tool for industrial production with virtually unlimited
possibilities. The ultrashort pulse laser emits up to 24,000 pulses
of high energy in a fraction of a second. It drills ultrafine holes
in metal, cuts medical stents from tiny polymer tubes, produces
shatterproof touch screens for smartphone displays, structures
the surfaces of thin-film solar cells, and cuts through ultrathin
plastic foil, brittle ceramic components, and diamonds.
At this point, the technology is entering new sectors of mass
production and replacing conventional methods such as mechan-
ical drilling, eroding, and chemical etching. In addition, there is
no heat transferred to the material and no residue after process-
ing. This is because the ultrashort pulse only heats the material
locally and so intensely it is ejected and vaporized before the heat
can be transferred. This enables areas just a few micrometers in
diameter to be ablated.
Flame Spray Increases South Carolina
Manufacturing Operation
Flame Spray North America, Inc., a thermal spray coating
manufacturer and wholly owned subsidiary of Italian firm Flame
Spray S.p.A., is expanding its existing manufacturing facility in
Laurens County, S.C., essentially doubling its operation in the
Woodfield Industrial Park. The company plans to invest another
$9.1 million and create 45 new jobs as well.
Back in 2011, when we announced our first investment in
South Carolina, we had a lot of concerns on how fast we would
be able to grow, said Marco Prosperini, president and CEO,
Flame Spray North America. Today, we are thrilled to announce
a new investment to expand our operations...thanks to our team,
we will develop new applications to serve different industries.
We thank the South Carolina Department of Commerce and the
local authorities for their continuing support.
Armstrong Marine to Create 200 Jobs
North Carolina Governor Pat McCrory and Commerce Sec-
retary Sharon Decker announced Armstrong Marine, Inc., is
building a welded aluminum boat manufacturing operation in
Onslow County. The company plans to create 200 jobs and in-
vest more than $8.4 million at the new facility near Swansboro.
Josh Armstrong, company president and CEO, realized its ex-
isting manufacturing facility in Port Angeles, Wash., was inade-
quate to meet market demands and incurred substantial ship-
ping cost to clients on the Eastern seaboard.
Project partners include the N.C. Department of Commerce,
Coastal Carolina Community College, Onslow County, and Jack-
sonville Onslow Economic Development.
Dr. Jens Knig, Prof. Stefan Nolte, and Dr. Dirk Sutter (from left)
have developed ultrashort laser pulses from basic research into a
new tool for industrial mass production.
MARCH 2014 14
An overhead picture shows Dick Couch, Hypertherms founder and
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facility in Hanover, N.H.
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Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2014. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2015 consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
Nomination of AWS Counselor
I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-
vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individuals career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
- Loudorshp ol or vthn un orgunzuton thut hus mudo u substuntu contrbuton to tho
welding industry. (The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
- Loudorshp ol or vthn un orgunzuton thut hus mudo substuntu contrbuton to trunng
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individuals organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
ll. kLLLS
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.
B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
lll. NLMLk Cl CCLNSLLCkS 1C L SLLLC1LD
Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.
Return completed Counselor nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
4
Miami, FL 33166
(please type or print in black ink)
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2014
5
STAINLESS
Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q: We have built a number of mobile
structures using 17-4PH stainless steel
because the high strength and weldability
of this alloy are very attractive. Now our
designers are proposing to seek still
higher design strength by using 17-7PH
stainless in such structures. We have an
inventory of 17-4PH bars and plates along
with matching ER630 filler metal, and it
would help us economically if we could use
the 17-4PH material and ER630 for stiff-
eners that are not stressed quite as highly
as the main components of the structure.
But we note that 17-4PH is strengthened
by copper alloying while 17-7PH is
strengthened by aluminum alloying.
Would there be a compatibility issue con-
cerning the Al with Cu in the welds that
join 17-4PH to 17-7PH? Also, to maximize
strength, we would need to heat treat the
structure (all of the steels are supplied in
the soft Condition A), but the heat treat-
ments for these two alloys are different
is there a problem there?
A: Both 17-7PH (a.k.a. UNS S17700 or
ASTM A693 Type 631) and 17-4PH (a.k.a.
UNS S17400 or ASTM A693 Type 630) are
precipitation hardening stainless steels
that require heat treatment from the soft
Condition A (mill annealed) to their high-
strength conditions. But they are different
in that 17-4PH is a martensitic grade while
17-7PH is a semiaustenitic grade. The heat
treatment to develop high strength in 17-
4PH is simple because it is martensitic in
Condition A and therefore only requires
aging at about 900F (480C) to develop
maximum strength. But 17-7PH in Condi-
tion A is austenitic. It first needs to be
transformed to martensite (which involves
either cold work or thermal treatment)
followed by aging to develop maximum
strength. More about these treatments
later.
Table 1 lists the compositions of 17-
4PH and 17-7PH stainless steels as given
in ASTM A693. It also includes the com-
position of ER630 filler metal from AWS
A5.9/A5.9M and the composition of the
17-7PH filler metal as given in AMS 5824
(there is no AWS specification for this
filler metal). It can be seen that the filler
metal compositions are somewhat more
restrictive than the base metal composi-
tions. The higher nickel content of the 17-
7PH and AMS 5824, as compared to that
of the 17-4PH and ER630, is responsible
for the retention of austenite to room tem-
perature in the two former grades while
the two latter grades transform to marten-
site (Condition A in all four cases). A cop-
per-rich phase precipitates during the
aging heat treatment of 17-4PH base
metal and ER630 weld metal. A destabi-
lization of the austenite (cold work, deep
refrigeration or austenite conditioning
heat treatment) in the 17-7PH base metal
and AMS 5824 weld metal to induce
martensite transformation is necessary be-
fore the aging heat treatment of the 17-
7PH and AMS 5824 weld metal.
In 17-4PH, Condition A is reached by
annealing at 1925F (1050C), while Con-
dition A is reached in 17-7PH by anneal-
ing at 1950F (1065C), both followed by
cooling to room temperature. In the as-
welded condition, the weld metal and
HAZ of both steels is essentially also Con-
dition A, although it should be recognized
that both weld metals will contain some
ferrite (much more, on the order of 25%
in 17-7PH).
Mechanical properties of 17-4PH and
17-7PH are strongly affected by process-
ing history after reaching Condition A.
ASTM A693 includes the minimum me-
chanical property requirements shown in
Table 2. There are additional mechanical
property requirements after cold working
to destabilize austenite in 17-7PH, but I
am assuming that cold work is not possible
in your structure. So I do not include those
requirements. The elongation require-
ments are also affected by thickness, and
Table 2 includes only requirements for
3
16
Table 1 Compositions of 17-4PH, ER630, 17-7PH, and AMS 5824
Compositions, wt-% (single value is maximum)
Grade C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Cu Nb Al
17-4PH 0.07 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 15.0 to 3.0 to 3.0 to 0.15 to
17.5 5.0 5.0 0.45
ER630 0.05 0.25 to 0.03 0.03 0.75 16.00 to 4.5 to 0.75 3.25 to 0.15 to
0.75 16.75 5.0 4.00 0.30
17-7PH 0.09 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.0 to 6.5 to 0.75 to
18.0 7.7 1.50
AMS 5824 0.09 1.00 0.025 0.025 0.50 16.00 to 6.50 to 0.75 to
17.25 7.75 1.25
Table 2 Mechanical Property Requirements for 17-4PH and 17-7PH
Type Heat Tensile Yield Elongation Hardness,
Treatment Strength, Strength, in 2 in. Rockwell C
Condition ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) %
17-4PH(630) H900 190 (1310) 170 (1170) 8 4048
H925 170 (1170) 155 (1070) 8 3847
17-7PH(631) RH950 200 (1380) 180 (1240) 6 43 min
H900 = Start from Condition A, then aged for 1 h at 900F (480C)
H925 = Start from Condition A, then aged for 1 h at 925F (495C)
RH950 = Start from Condition A, then austenite conditioning at 1750F (955C) for 10 min, rapidly cooled to room temperature, cooled to 100F (75C) within 24 h
and held for at least 8 h, warmed to room temperature, then aged at 950F (510C) for 1h.
MARCH 2014 20
to
5
8 in. (8 to 16 mm) thicknesses. In thin-
ner gauges, the tensile and yield strength
requirements do not change, but the elon-
gation requirements do change.
Note that the tensile and yield strength
requirements of 17-4PH drop appreciably
with increase of the aging temperature
from 900 to 925F. ASTM A693 does not
address what happens to 17-4PH if it goes
through the entire RH950 processing that
would be used for 17-7PH, but it seems
likely that the 1750F austenite condi-
tioning for the 17-7PH would return 17-
4PH to Condition A (perhaps with not all
carbides dissolved). So RH950 would
somewhat overage 17-4PH and its
strength would be a little less than in the
H925 condition if the entire weldment
were run through the RH950 treatment
for 17-7PH. The austenite conditioning
treatment at 1750F will cause most of the
ferrite in the weld metal to transform to
austenite, so the weld metal responds to
the RH950 treatment much like the base
metal responds.
It may not be desirable or necessary to
take the entire weldment through the
RH950 treatment, but you can expect
lower strength. Harkins (Ref. 1) cites data
from General Electric that indicate typi-
cal mechanical properties of GTA weld-
ments of 17-4PH to 17-7PH as 180 ksi
(1240 MPa) tensile strength, 165 ksi (1140
MPa) yield strength, and 7% elongation
after a compromise thermal treatment
of 1600F (870C) for 90 min, air cooling
to 60F (15C), then aging at 900F for 1
h followed by air cooling. These data
clearly indicate that there is no incompat-
ibility between the Al in the 17-7PH and
the Cu in the 17-4PH or ER630 filler
metal. Harkin states that either ER630 or
AMS 5824 filler metal can be used for
GTA welds between 17-7PH and 17-4PH.
If you want to take full advantage of
the 17-7PH strength possibilities, then
you will need to use AMS 5824 filler metal
for the 17-7PH to 17-7PH joints, and you
need to use the RH950 thermal treat-
ment. Harkins quotes typical weldment
mechanical properties of
1
16-in. (1.6 mm)
17-7PH GTA welded with AMS 5824 filler
metal, given the RH950 treatment after
welding, of 220 ksi (1520 MPa) tensile
strength, 205 ksi (1410 MPa) yield
strength, and 6% elongation, which equal
or exceed the requirements shown in
Table 2.
To conclude, if you weld 17-4PH stiff-
eners into the 17-7PH main structure with
AMS 5824 filler metal, and use AMS 5824
filler metal for the 17-7PH to 17-7PH
joints, RH950 thermal treatment of the
structure will allow you to take full ad-
vantage of the higher strength of 17-7PH,
but the stiffeners will be appreciably less
strong. If you instead elect to go with the
compromise thermal treatment cited by
Harkins, your main structure will not be
as strong and you will lose the advantage
in design with 17-7PH for the main
structure.
I am indebted to John Grubb, ATI Al-
legheny Ludlum, and Paul Lovejoy, re-
tired from Westinghouse, for their in-
sights into this inquiry.
Reference
1. Harkins, F. G. 1965. Welding of age-
hardenable stainless steels. WRC Bulletin
103, Welding Research Council, Shaker
Heights, Ohio.
21 WELDING JOURNAL
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president, Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc. He is treasurer
of the IIW and a member of the A5D Subcom-
mittee on Stainless Steel Filler Metals, D1K Sub-
committee on Stainless Steel Structural Welding;
and WRC Subcommittee on Welding Stainless
Steels and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair
of the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Allied
Materials, and served as AWS president
(20052006). Send questions to damian@ dami-
ankotecki.com, or mail to Damian Kotecki, c/o
Welding Journal Dept., 8669 NW 36th St. # 130,
Miami, FL 33166-6672.
MARCH 2014 22
RWMA
Q&A
BY ROGER HIRSCH
Q: I am trying to weld a 0.031-in.-thick
steel ring to a 0.093-in.-thick steel oil fil-
ter thread ring Fig. 1. The ring is
about 3 in. in diameter and has six small
projections. This is being done in one hit
on a 250-kVA press welding machine. The
part is in a nest to align components. The
problem is that some of the projections
are good; some are low on strength
or have no fusion. We also noticed burn
marks on the flat part near the
projections.
A: Welding large parts with multiple pro-
jections can be a challenge. The last part
in your question regarding burn marks
near the weld zones gives me a clue as to
what is happening. I am betting that the
fixture holding the parts in line is actu-
ally preventing the two parts from com-
pletely coming together. This often hap-
pens when fixtures are used. It is impor-
tant that the fixture does not restrict ver-
tical movement of either part during the
entire weld sequence.
If the lower electrode area in line with
a projection has been eroded from weld-
ing on one spot, the welding current will
find a better path for conduction outside
the projection location and produce a
poor weld. Careful dressing of the elec-
trodes should cure this problem. Also,
check to see which copper alloy is being
used for the lower electrode (against the
nonprojection side of the part). I usually
recommend the use of RWMA Class 11
tungsten-copper for this application since
it has the best balance of high surface
hardness and electrical conductivity.
Another thing to check is the absolute
parallel of the upper and lower elec-
trodes when they are under full welding
force. Your 250-kVA press welding ma-
chine, if properly maintained, should
have a rigid ram guide system, but the
rear part of the electrode (closest to the
back of the welding machines throat) will
have higher force than the front part due
to normal flexing of the machines frame.
This means the electrodes will have to be
shimmed so that, when under full weld-
ing force, the front and back of the elec-
trodes touch with the same force. Be sure
the shimming is done so that welding
current passes through solid copper
surfaces.
One trick to get these electrodes par-
allel is to put soft solid-core solder on the
areas between the electrodes and then
close them under full welding force. Use
a micrometer to see the thickness of the
crushed solder. Shim until all thicknesses
are the same.
One last thing to consider is move-
ment of the welding machines ram
(upper moving part holding the elec-
trode). When doing any projections, and
especially multiple projections, it is im-
portant that the welding machines ram
is able to follow the part quickly as the
projections fuse down. This is called low
inertia. If it does not move fast enough,
the hot projections will expel some of the
metal outward away from the weld and
reduce strength considerably. Adjust the
ram guides or rollers, lubricate, and be
sure the air cylinder has flexible seals.
Rebuild the air cylinder if necessary.
Chances are nobody has looked inside
the welding machines air cylinder in
decades. If you remove all air from the
welding machine, a properly set ram
should drop quickly by its own weight.
Q: A prototype of a new part was just
brought into the welding department to
be welded and sent to our customer for
approval prior to production. The prob-
lem is that two of the welds are on 14-
gauge clips (Fig. 2) that have very small
welding surfaces, which puts the weld
area near the edge. Even with a -in.-di-
ameter electrode that has a -in. contact
surface, we are getting metal spitting out
the open edge of the clip. This leaves
rough metal sticking out the side. We
tried using a smaller diameter contact
surface on the electrodes but could not
achieve anywhere near the required weld
strength.
A: Metal in a nugget-forming zone is
molten at the time the nugget is being
formed. The electrode force pushes the
metal around the nugget zone down to
keep this molten metal from being ex-
pelled (flash). And the metal mass
around the edges of this molten zone acts
as a heat sink that lowers the tempera-
ture around the nugget zone to a point
below the liquidus temperature of the
metal. Unfortunately, when you are that
close to the edge of the part, there is not
enough material to sink heat away, and
since the molten metal cannot be con-
tained, it spits out, forming the rough
edges you are seeing.
If the design of the part cannot be
changed to allow more surface area all
around the nugget zone, then the only
other solution is to use pulsation. This is
a function in a welding control that
breaks up the welding heat time into a
group of smaller weld pulses that alter-
nate with nonheat times (cool). This
forms a heat-cool-heat-cool-heat-cool
sequence.
Fig. 1 An oil filter thread ring assembly.
Fig. 2 The prototype part has 14-gauge
clips with small welding surfaces.
Figure 3 shows what happens during
a pulsation weld sequence. Temperature
inside the nugget area rises during heat
pulses, and continues to rise, but at a
slower rate, during the cool phase. But
during cool times, the area outside the
weld nugget pulls heat away from the
metal into the rest of the part and the
electrode sucks heat out of the outer sur-
face to slow down the temperature rise.
If done properly, pulsation will form a
deep nugget and minimize or eliminate
expulsion from the edge of the part.
Typically, four or five heat pulses are
used. As a start, divide the classical weld
time obtained from an RWMA welding
chart by the number of pulses that will
be used. Add one cycle (or 17 ms) to each
of these times. Then set the control with
two to three cycles of cool time between
the pulses. Finally, adjust the weld cur-
rent as needed to get the desired nugget
strength.
Pulsation is also useful when welding
very thick metal with a welding machine
that does not have the required second-
ary current available. It is also useful
when welding 12 gauge or heavier galva-
nized steel parts. For both of these ap-
plications, use the heat/cool setting se-
quence as described previously.
23 WELDING JOURNAL
ROGER HIRSCH is past chair of the
RWMA, a standing committee of the Amer-
ican Welding Society. He is also president
of Unitrol Electronics, Inc., Northbrook,
Ill., a manufacturer of resistance welding
controls and process water chillers. Send
your comments and questions to Roger
Hirsch at Roger@unitrol-electronics.
com, or by mail to Roger Hirsch, c/o Weld-
ing Journal, 8669 NW 36th St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166.
Fig. 3 Heat rise during a pulsation weld.
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chapters, 2 appendices, 530 illustrations, 168
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WHB-1.9 $192 nonmembers/$144 members
Ninth Edition, Volume 2, Welding
Processes, Part 1
Presents comprehensive information on
welding and related processes. Contains
detailed information on arc welding power
sources. Covers shielded metal arc, gas tungsten
arc, gas metal arc, flux cored arc, submerged arc,
and plasma arc welding processes. Includes
chapters on electroslag welding, stud welding,
oxyfuel gas welding, brazing, soldering, oxygen
cutting, and arc cutting and gouging. 736 pages,
15 chapters, 260 line drawings, 100 photographs,
148 tables, hardbound. (2004).
Ninth Edition, Volume 3, Welding
Processes, Part 2
Over 600 pages of comprehensive information
on solid-state and other welding and cutting
processes. The book includes chapters on
resistance spot and seam welding, projection
welding, flash and upset welding, and high-
frequency welding. In addition to a chapter on
friction welding, a new chapter introduces
friction stir welding. The most recent
developments in beam technology are
discussed in expanded chapters on laser beam
welding and cutting and electron beam
welding. A diverse array of processes are
presented in chapters on the ultrasonic
welding of metals, explosion welding,
diffusion welding and diffusion brazing,
adhesive bonding, and thermal and cold
spraying. The last chapter covers various
other welding and cutting processes,
including modernized water jet cutting. 669
pages, 15 chapters, 3 appendices, 438
illustrations, 59 tables; hardbound. (2007)
Ninth Edition, Volume 4, Materials and
Applications, Part 1
This comprehensive volume had more than
50 experts in materials and materials applica-
tions assure its accuracy and the currency of
its content. It is a great reference source for
engineers, educators, welding supervisors,
and welders. Covers carbon and low-alloy
steels; high-alloy steels; coated steels; tool and
die steels; stainless and heat-resisting steels;
clad and dissimilar metals; surfacing; cast
irons; maintenance and repair welding; and
underwater welding and cutting. Includes
more than 500 tables, charts, and photos. 779
pages, 10 chapters, hardbound. (2011).
Eighth Edition, Volume 3, Materials and
Applications Part 1
Covers nonferrous metals, plastics, composites,
and ceramics; specialized topics on maintenance
and repair welding; under-water welding and
cutting. Includes applications of the specific
metals and processes, weldability, safe practices.
538 pages, 10 chapters, softbound. (1996).
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PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
Additive Manufacturing
System Supports
Production of Metal Parts
With a building chamber volume of 400
400 400 mm, the EOS M 400 allows
the production of larger metal parts on an
industrial scale, directly from CAD data
and with no need for tools. The modular,
extendable platform features a 1-kW
laser, two recoater blades, and a recircu-
lating filter system with automated clean-
ing function. The additive manufacturing
system, operable via touchscreen, consists
of process and setup stations.
EOS
www.eos.info
(248) 306-0143
Unfilled Nylon Suitable for
The FDM Nylon 12, a nylon material
engineered for the companys line of For-
tus 3D production systems, is useful in cre-
ating durable parts that can stand up to
high vibration, repetitive stress, and fa-
tigue. Manufacturers in aerospace, auto-
motive, home appliance, and consumer
electronics may find the material practi-
cal for end-use parts, like interior panels,
covers, environmental control ducting,
and vibration-resistant components, as
well as tools, manufacturing aids, and jigs
and fixtures used in the manufacturing
process. The nylon, offered in black, is
available for the Fortus 360, 400, and 900
systems.
Stratasys Ltd.
www.stratasys.com
(877) 489-9449
Equipment Brochure
Contains Helpful Tech Tips
The Welding and Cutting Equipment
Catalog presents an overview of flame
tools for professional welders and metal
workers in construction, bridge building,
railroading, mining, and farm application
positions. The color-coded catalog in-
cludes more than 120 pages of product in-
formation and helpful tech tips for effi-
ciency and safety on the job.
Uniweld Products, Inc.
www.uniweld.com
(800) 323-2111
Metal Laser Machine
Enables Production of
Complicated Parts
The company is partnering with Mat-
suura Machinery Corp., Fukui City,
Japan, to introduce the Lumex Avance-
25 metal laser sintering hybrid milling ma-
chine to the North American market-
The companys range of additive manufacturing motion systems
and components fit any application. It manufactures its own motors,
drives, and motion controllers that can be used to develop your own
system. Also, it has a selection of linear, rotary, lift, and Z-axis stages,
and goniometers that are accompanied by its drives and controls. In
addition, the company manufactures many linear motor gantry sys-
tems available with all electronics and a machine base. Custom sys-
tems can be engineered to specifications. Other offerings include
controllers in stand-alone and software-only versions from 1 to 32
axes of synchronized control; mechanical and air-bearing stages; mo-
tors that can be brush, brushless, torque, linear, or rotary; and steel
or granite machine bases for simple integration into your system.
Aerotech, Inc.
www.aerotech.com/industries-and-applications/additive-manufacturing.aspx
(412) 967-6854
MARCH 2014 26
Custom Systems and Components Available for Additive Manufacturing
27 WELDING JOURNAL
place. It relies on one-machine, one-
process manufacturing of complex molds
and parts by fusing metal laser sintering
technology with high-speed milling tech-
nology. The machine also enables produc-
tion of complicated parts through total
manufacturing by digital engineering
using 3D data. It achieves accuracy in part
fabrication since metal powders are
melted and sintered via laser, while sur-
faces are milled at high speeds.
MC Machinery Systems, Inc.
www.mitsubishi-world.com
(630) 616-5920
Software Provides Easy
Production Management
Software that helps small manufactur-
ers and wholesale distributors streamline
tasks such as production and inventory
management, logistics, and customer re-
lationship management is offered through
a monthly online subscription. The Exact
Online software integrates with Quick-
Books Online and QuickBooks Desktop,
bridging the gap between common man-
ufacturing and wholesale distribution
tasks, plus traditional accounting func-
tions. It also replaces disparate systems
and manual processes, giving business
owners a 360-deg view of their businesses.
Exact
www.exactonline.com
(855) 359-9256
New Website Highlights
Welding Table Products
The companys new website features
an extensive product catalog that provides
details on all of its welding table products,
including 3D, special gray cast, and Al/Cu
alloy welding tables, welding benches,
swiveling welding tables for jigs, lifting and
tilting welding tables for jigs, movable
table bridges, and anchor systems with
built-in rails. The website provides a
complete list of accessories and technical
specifications.
Forster America
www.forsteramerica.com
(678) 679-7987
Industrial Parts Cleaning
System is Ecofriendly
CleanBox Flow is suitable for bulk
cleaning small-to-medium sized parts.
The compact-sized product is also de-
signed for use with Bio-Circle CB 100, a
natural, water-based solvent. Together,
MARCH 2014 28
they offer an ecofriendly replacement for
solvents in virtually any type of mainte-
nance, repair, and operation environ-
ment. The parts washer system consists of
a sink and flow-through cleaning brush,
basin, and heavy-duty pump that cir-
culates through heavy oils, greases, and
contaminants. It comes with many
accessories.
Walter Surface Technologies
www.walter.com
(800) 522-0321
Abrasive Flap Discs
Useful for Edge Grinding
The Tiger Paw
TM
abrasive flap discs
have 100% zirconium grain. Applications
include pipe beveling, weld blending,
grinding, stock removal, edge chamfering,
and surface finishing with blending. The
multiple layers of coated abrasive mate-
rial on the flap discs expose sharp, fresh
grains as they slowly wear away, and the
poly-cotton backing prevents premature
grain shedding on aggressive applications.
The flap discs are offered in 4, 4
1
2, 5, and
7 in. sizes that come with or without a
5
8-
in.-11 nut.
Weiler Corp.
www.weilercorp.com
(800) 835-9999
Catalog Includes
Welding-Gear Booklet
The 2014 Equipment Catalog details
the companys GMAW, GTAW, and multi-
process equipment, plasma cutting sys-
tems, welding automation, fume control
systems, training products, orbital weld-
ing systems, accessories, and welding gear
products. The welding consumable sec-
tion includes product numbers to enable
quick cross referencing or order place-
ment. The catalog also features a bound-
in, removable copy of the companys
Welding Gear catalog, including Red
Line personal protection apparel,
VIKING autodarkening helmets, and
Radius tools. The catalog can be re-
COR-MET, INC.
12500 Grand River Rd.
Brighton, MI 48116
PH: 800-848-2719
FAX: 810-227-9266
www.cor-met.com
sales@cor-met.com
Manufacturing
Flux Cored
Welding Wire
Cobalt
Nickel
Hardface
Stainless
Alloy Steel
Tool Steel
Maintenance
Forge Alloys
Custom Alloys
F
o
r

i
n
f
o
,

g
o

t
o

w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x
quested from the information below or
viewed on the Lincoln Library mobile
app on Apple iOS devices.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
Mobile Unit Cleans
Machine Tool Coolants
The Hydroflow SumpDoc is a
portable inline fluid reclamation machine
that provides complete coolant restora-
tion and rejuvenation treatment of the
metalworking fluids in the machine tool
sump with minimal operator interface.
There is no interruption in the production
cycle or need to transport fluids. The
portable product can be wheeled next to
a machine tool, parts washer, or rinse tank
to provide full-service fluid reclamation
in a simple three-step process. The main
features include a sump cleaner for re-
moving sludge and solids 50 micron and
larger; pleated bag filter and housing for
removing solids down to 10 micron; con-
tinuous flow tramp oil coalescer; high-
speed centrifuge for removing emulsified
tramp oil and fines down to 3 to 5 micron;
ozone generator for microbiological treat-
ment of coolants; coolant makeup system
with proportioner; and electrical controls
with a touch-screen dashboard. All com-
ponents are housed on a mobile platform.
Eriez
www.eriez.com/hydroflow
(888) 300-3743
Classification Society
Releases Welding
Guidelines
Guidelines on the Welding of Duplex
Stainless Steels has been developed to help
shipyards safely and effectively make use
of new duplex steels that are being used
in the construction of cargo tanks for
chemical carriers. The guidelines, which
conform to ClassNK rules, provide a com-
prehensive summary of the requirements
for welding procedure specification certi-
fication and welding procedure qualifica-
tion tests, including relevant precaution-
ary measures for the welding of duplex
stainless steels. ClassNK has released the
guidelines for free via its website.
ClassNK
www.classnk.or.jp
+81-3-5226-2020
Goatskin Glove Features
Reinforced Palm
The Ironcat heavy-duty grain
goatskin glove with Kevlar liner
(#86552) is a natural-fitting glove built
for protection and performance. Key fea-
tures include reinforced palm and finger-
tips; flexible form-fitting stretch spandex
back; adjustable hook and loop wrist; 360-
deg Kevlar liner to provide cut protection;
and ANSI 3 cut level. It is useful for ma-
terial handling, carpentry, landscaping,
ranching, equipment operation, and as a
welders helper. Available sizes are
M2XL.
West Chester Protective Gear
www.westchestergear.com
(800) 647-1900
Cold Wire Feeder Contains
Dual Groove Roll System
The WF5 gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) cold wire feeder automates the
feeding of filler metal. Designed to in-
29 WELDING JOURNAL
crease productivity, the feeder features
the option of a cold wire pendant, con-
tains a dual-groove drive roll system, and
eliminates GTAW electrode stub loss. The
feed, dwell, delay start, and wire retract
times are set using the designated controls
on the face of the machine, and are con-
tinuously variable. It takes 12-in. wire
spools, and has a feed speed range of
0500 in./min. Acceptable wire sizes are
0.023, 0.030, 0.035, 0.045, and
1
16 in.
CK Worldwide
www.ckworldwide.com
(800) 426-0877
Wheel Features Anvil
Adjustment
The Benchtop
English Wheel
offers a 20-in.
throat and 18-in.
internal height.
Useful for metal
fabrication of
auto panels and
general metal
shaping, the
frame is fabri-
cated like large
bridge spans,
with doubler
plates, and structural hardware. Other
features include a large, 8-in. wheel and
5-in. radius anvil wheel that can be in-
dexed in different positions, and an X- and
Y-axis adjustment on the large forming
wheel that allows set up of the wheel to
personal preference.
Eastwood Co.
www.eastwood.com
(610) 705-5404
MARCH 2014 30
WORK
SMART
Model 200 Positioner

Model 1200 Pipemate

RT RT R A M S
K R O W

T
K

RT RT A M S

TT

CAN WE TALK?
The Welding Journal staff encourages an exchange of ideas with you, our readers.
If youd like to ask a question, share an idea or voice an opinion, you can call, write,
e-mail, or fax. Staff e-mail addresses are listed below, along with a guide to help you in-
teract with the right person.
Publisher
Andrew Cullison cullison@aws.org,
Extension 249, Article Submissions
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen mjohnsen@aws.org,
Extension 238, Feature Articles
Associate Editor
Howard Woodward woodward@aws.org,
Extension 244, Society News, Personnel
Associate Editor
Kristin Campbell kcampbell@aws.org,
Extension 257,
New Products, News of the Industry
Managing Editor
Zaida Chavez zaida@aws.org,
Extension 265, Design and Production
Senior Production Coordinator/Manager
Brenda Flores bores@aws.org,
Extension 330, Design and Production
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein salty@aws.org,
Extension 243, Advertising Sales
Advertising Sales Representative
Lea Garrigan Paneca lea@aws.org,
Extension 220, Production and Promotion
Advertising Sales Representative
Sandra Jorgensen sjorgensen@aws.org
Extension 254, Advertising Sales
Advertising Production Manager
Frank Wilson fwilson@aws.org,
Extension 465, Advertising Production
Peer Review Coordinator
Melissa Gomez mgomez@aws.org,
Extension 275,
Peer Review of Research Papers
Welding Journal Dept.
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FAX: (305) 443-7404

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C
omponents made from titanium
are candidates for additive manu-
facturing due to both the high ma-
terial cost and long lead times on mate-
rial purchases. Electron beam direct
manufacturing (EBDM) is the most
widely used method for additive manu-
facturing large-scale titanium parts. As
an example, this process is being quali-
fied for forging replacements on F-35 air-
craft. Electron beam direct manufactur-
ing is a true additive manufacturing
process (computer-aided design (CAD)
to part capability) that is well established,
produces high-quality deposits, and can
be applied to a variety of alloys (Ref. 1).
However, the process is performed in a
vacuum, so the size of the components is
limited by the size of the vacuum cham-
ber, and pump-down time contributes to
overall cycle time.
EWI, Columbus, Ohio, is investigat-
ing gas tungsten arc welding with a resis-
tively heated wire (GTAW-HW) as an
out-of-chamber freeform manufacturing
process for Ti 6-4 components. The basic
concept is to apply GTAW-HW out of
chamber using an integrated positioning
system and required programming soft-
ware. The work done to date indicates
GTAW-HW should be considered for in-
tegration into an additive manufacturing
system for producing components out of
chamber.
Arc Welding as an
Process
The ASTM F42 committee was
formed to develop industry standards for
additive manufacturing technology. Ac-
cording to its first standard, ASTM
F2792-12a, Standard Terminology for Ad-
ditive Manufacturing Technologies, addi-
tive manufacturing is defined as follows:
A process of joining materials to make
objects from 3D model data, usually layer
upon layer, as opposed to subtractive
manufacturing methodologies (Ref. 2).
A significant amount of work has been
done over the past half century to develop
the ability to produce parts from weld de-
posits using a layer-by-layer approach.
However, a fully automated CAD-to-part
additive manufacturing system that incor-
porates an arc welding process has yet to
be commercialized. This is the missing
link that keeps arc welding processes from
being incorporated into additive manu-
facturing systems.
The work done to date has demon-
strated that several arc welding processes
can be used to produce near-net shape
parts, using a layer-by-layer approach,
which meets or exceeds the properties of
the corresponding cast materials. Most
of this work can be described as shape
melting, which is a manufacturing
process where structural components are
fabricated entirely from weld metal.
Shape melting originated in West
Germany during the late 1960s and early
1970s where two companies (Krupp and
Thyssen) developed the technology
(Refs. 3, 4). In the 1970s, Thyssen man-
ufactured 19-ft-diameter 34-ft-long
cylindrical pressure vessel components
from ferritic materials by depositing sub-
merged arc welds against a consumable
mandrel (Refs. 3, 4). Their system was
computer controlled and used 16 tandem
submerged arc welding heads for a com-
bined capacity of 660 lb/h (Ref. 5). The
mandrels supported the weld beads and
provided the general shape, but the man-
drel and adjacent diluted weld metal had
to be machined away after the compo-
nent was produced.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Babcock and
Wilcox Co. (B & W) of Ohio advanced
the shape melting process by incorporat-
ing additional arc welding processes, in-
corporating robotics into the positioning
systems, and developing nonconsumable
preform devices. B & W established a ro-
botic shape melting cell that used gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) and offline
path programming. The robotic cell used
a vision sensor to detect the shape and
position of the previously deposited weld
bead, which was used to modify the torch
position to maintain proper interlayer re-
lationships and correct component di-
mensions (Ref. 3). Several other organi-
zations throughout the world, including
Cranfield University in the UK and In-
dian Institutes of Technology in India,
continue to work in this exciting field of
arc-based additive manufacturing.
While much focus is on powder bed
processes for fine detail in smaller parts,
especially in the aerospace and medical
markets, commercially available equip-
ment is limited in terms of part build en-
velope and build rate (Refs. 6, 7). At this
point, powder bed and other additive
manufacturing processes are competing
within themselves, emerging additive
manufacturing processes, and the con-
ventional tools for manufacturing
processes, which themselves are also
being advanced.
Exploring Arc Welding for
of Titanium Parts
NICK KAPUSTKA (nkapustka@ewi.org) is
an applications engineer and
IAN D. HARRIS (iharris@ewi.org), PhD,
is a technology leader, arc welding,
with EWI, Columbus, Ohio.
Gas tungsten arc welding with a
resistively heated wire has been
investigated as an out-of-vacuum
freeform manufacturing process
NICK KAPUSTKA AND IAN D. HARRIS
33 WELDING JOURNAL
Additive manufacturing is increas-
ingly being realized as a potential faster,
better, cheaper paradigm for disruptive
manufacturing and will find many places
competing in future advanced manufac-
turing technologies (Refs. 6, 7). Additive
manufacturing is not a solution for all ap-
plications, any more than any other tech-
nology, but competing with and even
combined with other technologies, shows
a strong economic as well as technical ad-
vantage for the correct application. Ad-
ditive manufacturing provides more tools
in the toolkit to develop the appropriate
solution. Additive manufacturing tech-
nologies are rapidly moving from the
realm of prototypes to production parts.
The work to be done is dependent on the
criticality and quality requirements of
each market, in terms of process quali-
fication, quality assurance, and nonde-
structive evaluation requirements.
Arc Welding for Use with
Additive Manufacturing of
Titanium Parts
EWI is investigating the use of arc
welding processes for producing titanium
components via an additive manufactur-
ing approach. The concept is to develop
a lower cost additive manufacturing sys-
tem that can produce large-scale, value-
added components out of chamber. The
conceptualized system will incorporate
an arc welding process, a robotic posi-
tioning system, and CAD-to-part pro-
gramming software. Titanium compo-
nents have been investigated for several
reasons, a few of which are listed below.
1. Production of titanium components
out of chamber with suitable interstitial
content implies that other equally or less
reactive alloy systems can be produced
with suitable cleanliness.
2. Titanium is expensive, difficult to
machine, and there can be long lead
times on material purchases. These char-
acteristics make additive manufacturing
an attractive alternative to subtractive
manufacturing technologies.
The work done to date has identified
GTAW-HW as a suitable arc welding
process for producing titanium compo-
nents via an additive manufacturing ap-
proach. Baseline mechanical and metal-
lurgical property data for Ti 6-4 weld de-
posits produced with this process have
been determined.
Lockheed Martin sponsored a project
with EWI to evaluate several arc weld-
ing processes for producing a demonstra-
tion article (titanium control arm for a
land-based vehicle) using a layer-by-layer
approach. The processes evaluated in-
cluded GTAW-HW, plasma arc welding
(PAW) with powder addition, PAW with
wire addition, pulse gas metal arc weld-
ing (GMAW-P), and reciprocating wire
feed GMAW (RWF-GMAW). Weld de-
posits were produced in the flat position,
out of chamber, using each process and
Ti 6-4 ELI grade consumables. Each
process was coupled with either a robotic
or mechanized positioning system. The
weld deposits were 10 in. long 3 in. tall
and made on a Ti 6-4 substrate. The dep-
osition rates for weld deposits made with
each process were recorded, and trans-
verse cross sections were subjected to
metallographic analysis.
Heated wire GTAW was selected to
build the control arm due to its relatively
high deposition rate, high weld deposit
integrity, relatively high process robust-
ness, and because it is a qualified process
Fig. 1 A Ti 6-4 weld deposit made with GTAW-HW. (Photo courtesy of Lockheed
Martin.)
Fig. 2 A Ti 6-4 near-net shape control arm produced using GTAW-HW. (Photo cour-
tesy of Lockheed Martin.)
MARCH 2014 34
for use in both nuclear and aerospace
markets. Independent control of the arc
and wire feed enables the weld deposit
to have complete fusion throughout, in-
cluding the start, stop, and start/stop
overlap regions.
A weld deposit produced with GTAW-
HW is shown in Fig. 1. This weld deposit
was 1 in. wide, 3 in. tall, and 10 in. long.
The weld deposit had a 1-in.-wide single
bead thick overhang that was made with
the substrate flat to prove that on large
parts the process could build horizontally.
Shown in Fig. 2 is a near-net shape
control arm produced with GTAW-HW
using the layer-by-layer approach (as-
deposited condition). A robot was used
for the positioning system, and the sub-
strate was a 1-in.-thick 36-in.-square Ti
6-4 plate. A template produced from a
CAD drawing was used to lay out the
perimeter of the control arm on each side
of the plate. The near-net shape demon-
stration article was then produced using
a layer-by-layer approach. The plate
was rotated throughout the production
process to mitigate distortion.
This work demonstrated that GTAW-
HW can be used to produce large-scale,
near-net shape titanium components at
desirable deposition rates. However, lim-
ited mechanical or metallurgical prop-
erty testing was conducted during this
project, which is needed to determine if
GTAW-HW can produce weld deposits
that meet or exceed the properties of cast
titanium parts.
EWI conducted a study to determine
baseline property data for a Ti 6-4 weld
deposit made out of chamber using
GTAW-HW and Ti 6-4 ELI wire. A rela-
tively simple mechanized welding system
was used to produce a weld deposit that
was 7 in. long, 1 in. wide, and 2 in.
tall. A heat input of 20 kJ/in. was used
for the GTAW torch, and the deposition
rate was 25 in.
3
/h (4 lb/h).
A small section was removed and
tested for the interstitial elements hydro-
gen, nitrogen, and oxygen using the inert
gas fusion method. The measured con-
tent of these elements in the weld deposit
are listed in Table 1, along with the nom-
inal content of these elements in Ti 6-4
ELI castings (Ref. 8), and the maximum
permissible content of these elements in
Ti 6-4 ELI forgings (Ref. 9). As listed,
the composition of each interstitial ele-
ment of interest in the weld deposit is less
than the nominal values for Ti 6-4 ELI
castings, and much less than the maxi-
mum permissible values for Ti 6-4 ELI
forgings.
A macrograph of the transverse sec-
tion removed from the weld deposit is
shown in Fig. 3. This section was pre-
pared after the longitudinal sides were
machined and the substrate was re-
moved. No discontinuities were detected
in the transverse section. The bowl-
shaped penetration profile results in
competitive grain growth in the weld pool
and overcomes the difficulty of large
columnar prior beta grain growth, which
leads to anisotropy in the mechanical
properties.
A total of 12 subsized tensile speci-
mens were prepared from the weld de-
posit. Six specimens were taken from the
plane parallel to the welding direction,
while six were taken in the plane paral-
lel to the build direction (perpendicular
to the welding direction). For each direc-
tion, two specimens were tested in each
of the conditions listed below:
As-deposited condition
Solution heat treatment followed by
anneal heat treatment
Anneal heat treatment only.
The solution heat treatments were
performed above the beta transus tem-
perature, while the anneal heat treat-
ments were performed between 700 and
785C. All heat treatments were per-
formed in a vacuum furnace.
The tensile test results are listed in
Table 2 along with the typical room tem-
perature tensile properties for Ti 6-4 ELI
castings (Ref. 8). Specimen orientation
did not affect the tensile test results. The
specimens tested in the as-welded con-
dition had similar strength and elonga-
tion to those tested after annealing. The
specimens tested in the as-welded and
annealed conditions tended to have
higher strength and lower elongation
than the specimens tested after the solu-
tion plus anneal heat treatments. The
specimens tested in the as-welded and
annealed conditions had higher strength
and lower elongation than the typical val-
ues for Ti 6-4 ELI castings. The speci-
mens tested after the solution plus an-
neal heat treatments had lower strength
than the typical values for Ti 6-4 ELI cast-
ings. All but one of these specimens had
elongation that was greater than the typ-
ical value for Ti 6-4 ELI castings. Only
the specimens tested in the annealed con-
dition had lower reduction in area val-
ues than the typical value for Ti 6-4 ELI
castings.
Although this initial work is promis-
ing, additional work is required to better
understand how GTAW-HW process
variables affect the microstructure and
mechanical properties of Ti 6-4 ELI weld
deposits.
EWI has demonstrated that Ti 6-4
Table 1 Measured Content of Select Interstitial Elements in the Weld Deposit, Along with Nominal and Maximum Permissible Content of these
Elements in Ti 6-4 ELI Castings and Forgings
Element Actual Composition Nominal Maximum Permissible
(wt-%) Composition for Ti 6-4 Composition for Ti 6-4
ELI Castings (Ref. 8) ELI Forgings (Ref. 9)
(wt-%) (wt-%)
Hydrogen 0.0013% 0.006 0.0125
Nitrogen 0.0078% 0.010 0.03
Oxygen 0.077% 0.11 0.13
Fig. 3 Macrograph of the transverse
section from the Ti 6-4 ELI weld deposit.
ELI weld deposits can be made using
GTAW-HW, out of chamber, with prop-
erties comparable to or better than that
of Ti 6-4 ELI castings. Of particular in-
terest is the fact that the content of hy-
drogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in the Ti 6-
4 ELI weld deposit was less than the max-
imum permissible values for Ti 6-4 ELI
forgings. Because titanium has high re-
activity, these results imply that parts
made from other alloys equally or less re-
active could have acceptable cleanliness
when produced using GTAW-HW out of
chamber.
The next step in developing a true
additive manufacturing system using
GTAW-HW is to develop the automation
software needed to produce the CAD-
to-part capability.
Conclusions
The use of arc welding processes for
producing components using a layer-by-
layer approach has been investigated
over the last half century. The justifica-
tion of this approach is application de-
pendent. Some factors that have con-
tributed to the use of arc welding for pro-
ducing parts in a layer-by-layer approach
include lead time or availability of the
base material, price of the base materi-
als, duration of the subtractive machin-
ing process, or the cost or size limitation
of established additive manufacturing
technologies. Several arc welding
processes have been evaluated along with
numerous alloy systems. Although sev-
eral advancements have been made, an
arc welding process has yet to be incor-
porated in a commercially available ad-
ditive manufacturing system.
Although more process development
and understanding is required, EWI has
determined that GTAW-HW is suitable
for producing Ti 6-4 ELI parts out of
chamber using a layer-by-layer approach.
The conceptualized additive manufactur-
ing system will incorporate GTAW-HW,
a 6-axis robot, and automation software
for true additive manufacturing (CAD-
to-part) capability. The advantages of
such a system over existing additive man-
ufacturing systems include lower capital
cost, an unlimited build envelope, and
higher production rates.
The ubiquitous nature of arc welding
implies a strong supply chain capability
and competitive cost environment for the
future. Industries that could benefit from
an arc-welding-based additive manufac-
turing system include space, aerospace,
nuclear, oil and gas, shipbuilding, and
heavy fabrication.
References
1. Taminger, K. M., and Hafley, R. A.
2006. Electron Beam Freeform Fabrica-
tion for Cost Effective Near-Net Shape
Manufacturing.
2. ASTM Standard F2792-12a, Stan-
dard Terminology for Additive Manufac-
turing Technologies.
3. McAninch, M. D., and Conrardy,
C. C. February 1991. Shape melting A
unique near-net shape manufacturing
process. Welding Review International.
4. Irving, R. R. November 23, 1981.
Shape welding: A new concept in fabri-
cation. Iron Age.
5. Shape welding. May 1990. Com-
pressed Air Magazine.
6. Harris, I. D. May 2012. Additive
manufacturing A transformational ad-
vanced manufacturing technology. Ad-
vanced Materials and Processes. ASM In-
ternational, pp. 2529.
7. Herderick, E., Kapustka, N. , and
Harris, I. D. November 2011. Additive
Manufacturing for Metals, A State-of-the-
Art Review. EWI Report No. MR1105.
8. Donachie, M. J. Jr. 2007. Titanium
A Technical Guide, Second Edition.
ASM International.
9. ASTM B381 06a, Standard Speci-
fication for Titanium and Titanium Alloy
Forgings.
35 WELDING JOURNAL
Table 2 Tensile Test Data for the Sub-sized Specimens along with Typical Tensile Test Properties of Bars Machined from Ti 6-4 ELI Castings
ID Specimen Condition Tensile Yield Elongation Reduction in
Orientation Strength Strength (%) Area
(ksi) (ksi) (%)
Baseline N/A Typical Values for 120 110 13 22
Ti 6-4 ELI
Castings (Ref.8)
1 Weld Direction As-welded 137.0 124.5 10.9 31.9
2 133.4 116.1 9.3 25.6
3 Weld Direction Solution heat 115.2 105.8 14.5 26.5
4 treatment + anneal 116.8 106.1 13.7 28.6
5 Weld Direction Anneal 135.6 123.0 12.9 18.9
6 135.3 122.0 9.4 20.0
7 Build Direction As-welded 136.3 119.2 9.7 28.8
8 134.6 117.4 10.9 38.0
9 Build Direction Solution heat 113.6 101.8 13.3 26.5
10 treatment + anneal 113.2 103.3 12.2 31.8
11 Build Direction Anneal 132.6 116.9 8.1 20.0
12 135.6 124.7 11.0 21.1
36 MARCH 2014
First, Lets Talk
There is a significant need for welding
professionals to expand their safety dia-
logues, particularly with regard to per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE). In
order for this to occur, it is essential that
the nature of these conversations and en-
gagements be improved.
Two approaches must take place for
success. First, the mindset of the welders
needs to be grounded in both individual
and shared accountability. There should
be the individual commitment of, I will
work safely, plus a team commitment of,
We will work safely. Individuals must
feel responsible to their teams and be em-
powered to take active roles in promoting
safety. In this way, welders can internal-
ize safety-oriented mindsets and ensure
safer work practices are followed by all
workers every day.
Second, welders should be active par-
ticipants in the safety-mitigation process
and conversations. This engagement
needs to emphasize their understanding
of the factors that influence their deci-
sions that could lead to injuries, as well as
thoughtful dialogue about how to make
critical safety decisions.
The openness and accountability that
results ensures stronger dialogue as
welders identify and address safety gaps
in PPE. Through the expansion of safety
dialogues, the welders will be better
equipped to develop innovative risk miti-
gation solutions, being more adaptive as
workplace environments change, and,
most importantly, show an improved abil-
ity to proactively avoid situations that
could result in an injury.
Keeping PPE Suppliers
in the Loop
In addition to talking to coworkers and
managers about improvements to safety
and PPE gaps, welders can also discuss
their issues with safety product manufac-
turers to help them identify ways to elim-
inate injuries or fatalities due to gaps in
current safety methods and PPE. This col-
laborative dialogue not only benefits
welders by having their voices and con-
cerns heard, but also helps PPE suppliers
provide better equipment based on
welders needs and experiences.
Observing Work Practices
To make improvements to the current
PPE available, its important that welders
have a better understanding of the factors
influencing their work practices and per-
formance. The observation of work prac-
tices helps determine whether profession-
als are wearing welding helmets and other
types of PPE correctly, and the ways in
which welders are interacting with PPE
on a daily basis.
For example, safety managers may ob-
serve a welding professional to determine
whether his or her PPE is comfortable and
Improving Welder Safety
DEANNA THORNTON is
global safety director of
marketing, KimberlyClark
Professional, Roswell, Ga.
Opening a dialogue among management,
welders, and protectiveequipment suppliers is
a wise idea for keeping pace with everchanging
workers environments
BY DEANNA THORNTON
Fig. 1 The special safety concerns for welders in confined areas include avoiding the
weld fume and using special ventilation safety measures.
37 WELDING JOURNAL
being used properly. When observing
workers using welding helmets with auto-
darkening filter technology, the focus
should be on whether workers are lifting
their helmets up and down or removing
their helmets completely. If so, the ques-
tion to ask is, What are the underlying
factors influencing these work practices?
When welding professionals work in en-
vironments where they remove their hard
hats or helmets, or do not use any PPE,
they are exposing themselves to safety and
health risks. Safety managers should begin
dialogues with these workers to learn their
reasons for not using the PPE appropri-
ately and find ways to encourage them to
use PPE correctly.
Through this dialogue, the underlying
reasons workers fail to use their PPE may
be identified as poor fit, comfort, or style.
Proper fit, critical to worker acceptance,
is one of the biggest factors affecting PPE
usage. Workers are more likely to comply
with PPE protocols when the equipment
is more comfortable to wear.
Discussing Compliance
Observing work practices can lead to
improvements in workplace safety en-
forcement, policies, and standards, and
draw workers attention to the hazards
present in the workplace. The findings
have helped not only welding profession-
als but also benefited safety product man-
ufacturers.
As an example, OSHA Instruction, Di-
rective Number CPL 03-00-017, describes
policies and procedures for implementing
a National Emphasis Program to identify
and reduce or eliminate the incidence of
adverse health effects associated with oc-
cupational exposure to isocyanates, a fam-
ily of highly reactive chemicals that is
linked to serious health problems such as
work-related asthma.
This instruction helps employers,
workers, and safety managers evaluate
their use of PPE during operations involv-
ing isocyanates, utilize effective wipe sam-
pling evaluation methods, and implement
proper housekeeping measures, including
cleaning frequency and methods assess-
ment. For example, the PPE should be
wipe-sampled for contamination includ-
ing the inside of respirators and gloves.
In response to this new instruction,
safety managers and welders serving the
automotive, aviation, and metal-manufac-
turing industries are discussing the vari-
ous ways to address and mitigate the
impact of isocyanates in the workplace
in collaboration with safety product
manufacturers.
Four Questions to Ask
As part of this movement toward more
innovative safety solutions, welding pro-
fessionals should ensure they are asking
the right questions in order to understand
their particular safety needs. Here are
four questions that should be asked.
1. What welding applications am I
doing? A welder could be doing multiple
types of welding, or a more specific type
of welding, such as arc welding, resistance
welding, solid-state welding, etc. The var-
ious welding applications require differ-
ent PPE to ensure the welder is fully pro-
tected from injuries. Welders should have
the opportunity to openly discuss the var-
ious welding applications to determine the
PPE that is most appropriate for their par-
ticular work tasks. These discussions will
likely help determine areas of improve-
ment to current PPE.
2. What are the lighting conditions
in my work area? The lighting conditions
during a work task or in a specific work
area (e.g., ambient light, indoor vs. out-
door lighting, etc.) will have a significant
impact on PPE selection. For example,
lighting conditions are particularly impor-
tant to determine the appropriate protec-
tive eyewear. Proper illumination when
welding is also essential for the optimiza-
tion of safety, comfort, and productivity.
This is another occasion where welders
can discuss ways to improve visibility with-
out compromising vision protection and
safety.
3. Beyond physical environmental
exposures, what else am I exposed to?
By asking this question, a welder can en-
sure he or she is taking all necessary pre-
cautions to identify and mitigate poten-
tially harmful workplace exposures. For
example, welders can experience occupa-
tional exposure to manganese in certain
welding fumes. Exposure to manganese
may be harmful, especially while working
in confined spaces such as storage tanks,
pipelines, or airplane compartments. To
minimize exposure, air-purification and
welding-fume extraction systems can be
implemented. By discussing these possi-
ble solutions, there can be more effective
strategies developed to reduce the impact
or chance of exposure Fig. 1.
4. In what additional ways can I pro
tect myself and those around me by
using proper PPE? This is an important
question to ask before beginning any
welding application, as well as when ob-
serving others working. By taking time to
assess the PPE needed to be worn and the
associated safe work practices, a welder
is empowered and held accountable to
identify any potential safety gaps in the
workplace and adjust his or her PPE ac-
cordingly. This shift in thinking ensures
safer actions are being taken. The promo-
tion of this mindset also catalyzes the con-
versation between safety managers and
workers, and guides safety product man-
ufacturers to develop improved PPE
Fig. 2.
Inspiring Innovations
Due to an engaged workforce and ex-
panded safety dialogue, major strides are
being made in PPE. One significant im-
provement has been to the design of hel-
mets with autodarkening filter technol-
Fig. 2 Welders complained that visibility was poor with the early welding helmets,
resulting in improved designs with larger visors.
ogy. The early helmets offered restricted
peripheral vision and view of the work-
piece. As a result, welders sometimes re-
moved their helmets to see better, thereby
exposing their eyes, faces, and hands to
harmful heat and light radiation.
Based on these observations, safety
product manufacturers improved the au-
todarkening filters to provide a uniform
shade level over the entire viewing area
without noticeable and annoying bright-
ening at the edges of the filter. With a bet-
ter standard of optical clarity, welders no
longer need to remove their helmets for
improved views. This welder-derived so-
lution has reduced the potential for in-
juries, while also improving work quality
and productivity. Another benefit is the
reduction of eye fatigue and headaches.
Workers suffering eye fatigue are more
likely to remove their safety eyewear, in-
creasing the chance for injury.
Given that welding professionals weld
on average 6.1 h/day in the United States,
and recognizing the amount of focus and
concentration needed to maintain qual-
ity, eye fatigue must be minimized.
These helmet discussions have also
drawn attention to their weight. Some
welding helmets weigh three lb. This
weight places stress on the welders neck
muscles and the cervical spine since most
of the helmets weight is toward the front,
which pulls the neck forward. The farther
outside the spines base of support the ex-
ternal force is held, the greater the strain
on the neck muscles and intervertebral
discs. In fact, a welder may experience ef-
fectively more than 50 lb of stress on his
or her neck and back Fig. 3.
To help prevent neck fatigue, strain,
and degenerative disc disease, welding
professionals have collaborated with
safety product manufacturers to design
lighter-weight helmets to address suspen-
sion and other ergonomic issues for im-
proved comfort, such as redistributed
pressure points. The impact of these
changes in PPE design is a direct result of
an expanded dialogue about safety.
Through the establishment of safety-
focused mindsets and the empowerment
that comes through risk mitigation en-
gagement, welding professionals are bet-
ter able to identify needs they may not
have been considering. Through these
safety-centered conversations, managers
also are able to proactively respond to the
ever-changing workplace environment
and observe changes or modifications in
work practices given evolving safety or
productivity needs. As a result, the iden-
tification of new hazards and their solu-
tions will arouse increased safety aware-
ness, ongoing responsiveness to changes,
and continuous improvement.
MARCH 2014 38
Fig. 3 A modern welding helmet is ligh
weight and fitted with an autodarkening
lens in part from feedback from industry.
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I
f youre a manufacturer, youve likely
heard the term additive manufactur-
ing or 3D printing too many times
to count over the past year. The process
involves making a three-dimensional
solid object of virtually any shape from a
digital model. It is achieved using an ad-
ditive process, where successive layers of
materials are deposited in different
shapes. This differs from traditional man-
ufacturing techniques, which mostly rely
on the removal of material, such as cut-
ting or drilling (subtractive processes).
Objects that are manufactured additively
can be used anywhere throughout the
product life cycle, from preproduction
(i.e., rapid prototyping) to full-scale
production (i.e., rapid manufacturing),
in addition to tooling applications and
postproduction customization, such as
repairs.
As you can imagine, there are numer-
ous additive manufacturing approaches
being used and tested all over the world.
Fused-deposition modeling (FDM) is the
popular extrusion approach that has been
a hit with manufacturers who produce
small thermoplastic products and parts
that typically fit in the palm of your hand.
Taking the Next Step in
RICHARD MARTUKANITZ, PhD, is director,
Center for Innovative Materials Processing
through Direct Digital Deposition, Applied
Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State
University, State College, Pa.
JAY HOLLINGSWORTH is director, Public
Relations, Phillips Service Industries, Inc.
Large, high-value metal
structures are the next big prize
for additive manufacturing
BY RICHARD MARTUKANITZ AND
JAY HOLLINGSWORTH
Fig. 1 An example of a three-dimen-
sional shape produced by additive man-
ufacturing. (Photo courtesy of Sciaky,
Inc.)
41 WELDING JOURNAL
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is a popu-
lar granular (powder-based) approach
that has produced a variety of small to
medium-sized metal and ceramic items
for manufacturers in a wide range of
industries.
Companies like Stratasys, which man-
ufacture 3D printers to build objects rep-
resenting complex geometries in a wide
range of thermoplastic materials, have
achieved significant mainstream success
and media attention with their additive
manufacturing processes. However, one
has to wonder: Whats the next big prize
for additive manufacturing?
Large, high-value metal structures
will be the holy grail for additive manu-
facturing practitioners, said Chris Cor-
nelius, director of Federal Business De-
velopment at Phillips Service Industries,
Inc. Manufacturers that rely on expen-
sive metals like titanium, tantalum, and
nickel-based alloys know how timely and
costly it is to work with these difficult al-
loys using traditional forging processes.
An approach that is cultivating a lot
of attention is the category of additive
manufacturing processes referred to as
directed energy deposition, which typi-
cally uses a laser (directed laser deposi-
tion) or electron beam (directed electron
beam deposition) to repetitively melt and
deposit layers of a metal, thus building
three-dimensional shapes Fig. 1.
These processes are capable of produc-
ing relatively complex shapes that require
minimal machining to achieve final di-
mensions. Because these processes add
material selectively, they offer promise
in dramatically reducing material and
machining costs associated with the fab-
rication of large structures.
The development of additive manu-
facturing techniques relevant to building
large structures within the United States
may be traced back to early development
efforts at Sandia National Laboratory,
the Applied Research Laboratory at
Penn State, and Sciaky, Inc., Chicago, Ill.
Sciaky is a pioneer in electron beam
welding technology. In the late 1990s, the
company began exploring the use of high-
energy electron beams for additive pro-
cessing. The approach was introduced to
the mainstream market in 2009. It com-
bines computer-aided design (CAD),
electron beam welding technology, and
wire feedstock. In short, a free-moving
electron beam welding gun deposits ma-
terial, such as titanium, layer by layer
onto a substrate plate (of the same ma-
terial) until the structure reaches near-
net shape. The entire process takes place
in a vacuum chamber, which protects the
selected material from external impuri-
ties. After the structure reaches near-net
shape, it undergoes minor postproduc-
tion machining until it reaches its com-
pleted state. To date, the Sciaky process,
referred to commercially as electron
beam direct manufacturing (EBDM), is
the only additive manufacturing ap-
proach that has produced metal struc-
tures more than 10 feet long.
The progression of the EBDM
process is as follows: from CAD file, to
part buildup on a substrate plate, to near-
net shape, to finished part (after minor
postproduction machining) Fig. 2.
According to Sciaky, the EBDM
process with its VX-300 electron beam
welding chamber (Fig. 2) has a standard
build envelope of 19 4 4 ft (L W
H), which allows manufacturers to pro-
duce very large structures/parts, with vir-
tually no waste. Deposition rates typi-
cally range from 7 to 20 lb per hour, de-
pending upon part geometry and the ma-
terial selected. A dual wire-feed system
can be utilized with the process (Fig. 3)
to increase deposition efficiency, as well
as to easily switch to different deposition
materials.
In summary, the benefits of EBDM,
when compared to traditional manufac-
turing and prototype processes, are sig-
Fig. 2 The progression of the electron beam direct manufacturing process. A CAD file; B part buildup; C near-net shape;
D finished part. (Photo courtesy of Sciaky, Inc.)
A B
C
D
MARCH 2014 42
nificantly reduced material costs, lead
times, and machining time.
AeroMet Corp., Eden Prairie, Minn.,
in the mid-1990s provided the first com-
mercial capability for large-scale builds
using the directed laser deposition
process. AeroMet, which was a subsidiary
of MTS Corp., commercialized technol-
ogy developed by the Applied Research
Laboratory at Penn State and Johns Hop-
kins University under sponsorship from
the Defense Advanced Research Project
Agency (DARPA). The AeroMet process
utilized powder as the feed material
along with an 18-kW CO
2
laser to build
structures up to several feet in size. In
the early 1990s, Sandia National Labo-
ratory developed the Laser Engineered
Net Shaping (LENS) process utilizing
lower laser power with powder additions.
Several companies have developed and
advanced laser and powder deposition
within the United States for relatively
large build sizes. This includes Optomec,
Inc., which commercialized the original
LENS technology, DM3D, Inc. (formerly
POM), and RPM Innovations. An ad-
vancement introduced by Optomec, Al-
buquerque, N.Mex., was a large build en-
velope system added to the product line.
Its LENS 850R system (Fig. 5) has been
commercially available since 2004. RPM
Innovations, Rapid City, S.Dak., has also
developed large-build capability with its
system. Using an innovative powder feed-
ing system, RPM Innovations technology
enables large build volumes while pro-
viding relatively good surface and fea-
ture quality Fig. 6. The companys
largest system is able to produce parts on
the order of 5 5 7 ft.
So, the race to produce large struc-
tures through additive manufacturing has
begun, and the current front runner is
electron beam deposition technology.
Through years of testing and devel-
opment, the electron beam direct manu-
facturing process has proven to produce
strong, high-purity parts, and its cer-
tainly less messy than powder-based ap-
proaches, said Kenn Lachenberg, Ap-
plications Manager at Sciaky, Inc. The
most important factors are part quality
and process repeatability.
Over the past three years, technology-
driven organizations like the U.S. De-
partment of Defense (DoD), Lockheed
Martin Aeronautics, Penn State Univer-
sity, DARPA, and the Tank Automotive
Research, Development and Engineer-
ing Center (TARDEC), a United States
Army laboratory, have entered into re-
search and development projects to ex-
plore the viability of the EBDM process.
At the end of 2011, Sciaky entered a
DoD Mentor-Prote ge Agreement with
the Aeronautics business area of global
security giant Lockheed Martin to ad-
vance Sciakys EBDM technology. The
DoD and the manufacturing industry
identified EBDM for repair and discrete
part production as a game changer,
meaning it could redefine and advance
the current state of the art in aerospace
manufacturing.
While the early focus is going to be
the F-35, we ultimately plan to imple-
ment EBDM technology across the
breadth of our aircraft product lines to
improve affordability and lead time for
titanium structures, said Brian Rosen-
berger, Affordability Lead for Improve-
ments & Derivatives at Lockheed Mar-
tin Aeronautics.
In 2012, Sciaky partnered with the
Center for Innovative Metal Processing
through Direct Digital Deposition
(CIMP-3D) at the Pennsylvania State
University to advance Direct Digital
Manufacturing (DDM) technology, via
Fig. 3 A dual wire system increases
deposition efficiency. (Photo courtesy of
Sciaky, Inc.)
43 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 4 The large electron beam welding chamber on the VX-
300 allows the manufacturing of large parts. (Photo courtesy
of Sciaky, Inc.)
Fig. 5 The Optomec LENS 850R system has five axes of mo-
tion and a build envelope of approximately 3 5 3 ft.
Fig. 6 The directed laser deposition process developed by
RPM Innovations for building relatively large, complex shapes.
4
5 6
funding from DARPA. The mission of the
center, which operates a state-of-the-art
additive manufacturing demonstration
facility, is to advance and deploy DDM
technology for highly engineered
components for the DoD and U.S.
industry.
Michael Maher of DARPAs Open
Manufacturing Program stated, Additive
manufacturing, when properly imple-
mented, has the potential to dramatically
impact manufacturing cost and lead times
for DoD systems; this means addressing
issues such as process capability, design
requirements, and qualification and cer-
tification methodologies up front.
In 2013, Sciaky entered into a Coop-
erative Research and Development
Agreement (CRADA) with TARDEC.
The CRADA centers on four primary
thrusts. The first is investigating new
processes for joining armor. The second
is blending (grading) metals to improve
part life and performance. The third is
discrete, on-demand metal part produc-
tion using Sciakys EBDM process. The
fourth is part repair and overhaul.
In a nutshell, EB welding and EBDM
processes will be used to support critical
military weaponry, while significantly cut-
ting material costs and usage, supply
schedules, and design time.
While additive manufacturing is be-
coming more mainstream each passing
year, there is still work to be done on per-
fecting the process of producing large-
scale, high-value parts. Like all great in-
novations, the right resources will need
access to the right tools.
With additive manufacturing, new
ground is being paved every day, said
Cornelius. If full potential is ever
achieved, Americas manufacturing in-
dustry will soar to new heights.
MARCH 2014 44
Change of Address?
Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding
Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address in-
formation (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.
46 MARCH 2014
More than just an exposition of the latest and
greatest, the event will feature a variety of
networking and learning opportunities
T
he newly renovated Toronto Con-
gress Centre will open its doors wide
10:00 AM March 1820 for visitors
to explore FABTECH Canada. Hosted by
the Society of Manufacturing Engineers
(SME), it is the only event of its kind in
the country. FABTECH Canada will dis-
play the latest technologies and trends in
welding, fabricating, metal forming,
stamping, coating, cutting, and finishing.
This year, the exposition has been signifi-
cantly expanded in exhibition floor space,
conference offerings, and scope.
Janine Saperson, SME show manager,
said, The decision to expand the show
was based on the success of the 2012 pre-
miere event, which was the first time the
world-renowned FABTECH brand
launched a show in Canada. Cohosting
the event with SME are other industry
leaders including Fabricators & Manufac-
turers Association, Intl (FMA); Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS); Precision
Metalforming Association (PMA); and
Chemical Coaters Association, Intl
(CCAI).
Educational Program Events
Featured in this years expansion are a
larger conference and welding area, and
new finishing and stamping pavilions
showcasing the wares and technologies of
diverse companies making their debuts at
the show, along with extensive interactive
networking and educational opportunities.
Tony Anderson, director of aluminum
technology, ITW Welding North America,
will make two presentations in the Edu-
cation Program: How to avoid cracking
when welding aluminum alloys, and Fun-
damentals of aluminum welding. Rob
Krause, Alcotec Wire Corp., will give
guidelines for aluminum filler metal se-
lection. Rich Campbell from Bechtel will
discuss changes to AWS D1.1, Structural
Welding Code Steel. David Hernandez,
AWS director, educational services, will
speak on challenges and innovations of
modern education. Walter Sperko, Sperko
Engineering Services, will discuss the lat-
est improvements to Section IX of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Other topics in the welding-related series
include fundamentals of weld cracking,
fundamentals of pipeline welding, over-
coming welding challenges in onshore
pipeline construction, and lean welding as
it applies to pipeline construction.
Registration prices are $119, one ses-
sion; $199, two sessions; $279, three ses-
sions; $359, four sessions; and $439 for ad-
mission to the full conference.
Supervisor Skills Class
A special event, new this year, will be
the LEAN TWI (Training Within Indus-
try) half-day workshop presented by
SME to improve the effectiveness of su-
pervisors and others who direct person-
nel. The methods presented are the essen-
Theres More to See and Do at
FABTECH Canada
HOWARD M. WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate
editor for the Welding Journal.
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
tial elements of the continuous-improve-
ment techniques used by the Toyota pro-
duction system and other successful com-
panies worldwide. Registration is $179.
Job Shop Night
Another new-this-year special event,
Job Shop Night, will be held Wednesday,
March 19, from 5:30 to 7:00 PM. Dis-
played will be machinery in action and
the latest manufacturing technologies of
special interest to independent job shop
owners. Free food and beverages will be
offered.
Why Canada, Why Now?
Commenting on why FABTECH
Canada is so important at this time,
Saperson said, In Canada, there is grow-
ing demand for the technical expertise
and industry insight provided by an event
like FABTECH. In Ontario alone, there
are 1.7 million manufacturing profes-
sionals the largest number of manu-
facturing employees of any jurisdiction
in both Canada and the United States
and this show is geared toward the needs
of these employees, from industries such
as automotive and energy to transporta-
tion and construction, as well as busi-
nesses that either produce or rely on
equipment and machinery in their day-
to-day operations.
Saperson also cited recent reports in
Forbes Magazine and the Economist In-
telligence Unit, which conclude Canada is
the best place in the world for businesses
to grow and the best country in the G-7
in which to do business over the next five
years.
Anne Goyer, CCAI executive director,
noted, Canada is a key market in the
metal-forming, fabricating, and welding
industry. The introduction of a major fin-
ishing and coatings component to the
FABTECH Canadian show is a testament
to the growth of this sector and the in-
creased need for the latest finishing and
coatings solutions and technologies that
will benefit businesses in both this coun-
try and beyond.
Mark Hoper, FMA vice president, ex-
positions, said, The success of the
FABTECH brand, both in Canada and
around the world, is the result of the
strong combination of the five partners,
each of whom brings a slightly different
perspective to the show. We are excited
to bring an expanded event to such a key
market as Canada in 2014.
The FABTECH Canada website,
www.fabtechcanada.com, displays the list
of exhibitors, floor plan, and complete
educational program listing. Visit
www.fabtechcanada.com/travel for travel
information and a list of several nearby
hotels that offer special rates for show
attendees.
FABTECH Canada
March 1820
Toronto Congress Centre
650 Dixon Rd.
Toronto, ON M9W 1J1, Canada
(888) 322-7333
www.fabtechcanada.com
47 WELDING JOURNAL
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Friends and Colleagues:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2014. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2015
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and chapter contributions
Professional recognition
RULES
1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS
2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
5. Nominations will remain valid for three years
6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year
NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.
AWS Fellow Application Guidelines
Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-
ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-
tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-
tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).
1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
3. Inventions and patents.
4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.
7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
8. Consultancy particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
11. Advocacy support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.
Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.
Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.
Return completed Fellow nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
4
Miami, FL 33166
(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2014
5
CONFERENCES
Workshop on Major Changes in OSHA
Labeling and Safety Data Sheets
for Welding Products
March 3, 4
Miami, Fla.
Strategies will be presented to help consumables manufactur-
ers meet new Globally Harmonized System (GHS) standards for
product classification, labeling, and hazard communication.
Sponsored by the AWS Safety and Health Committee. For fur-
ther information, contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org, (800/305)
443-9353, ext. 215.
Pipelines Conference
March 4, 5
Houston, Tex.
Welding has always been an integral part of pipeline construc-
tion, going all the way back to the days when hand-held oxyacety-
lene torches were used to connect pipes together in the field.
Current pipeline welding trends and whats expected in future
pipeline welding trends will be discussed.
Stainless Steel Conference
March 25, 26
Philadelphia, Pa.
This conference will bring together some of industrys out-
standing experts to discuss the welding of austenitic, duplex, and
other grades of stainless steel. Topics will include dissimilar metal
welds between stainless and steel, repair welding, cladding, clean-
ing, and the pitfalls involved in stress corrosion cracking.
Weld Cracking Conference
April 15, 16
Denver, Colo.
This conference will help welding engineers and others avoid
mistakes and turn out high-quality products. Topics range from
impact tests and how they relate to potential weld cracking as
well as the control of moisture in welding consumables.
International Symposium on Advances
in Resistance Welding
April 2830
Atlanta, Ga.
This is a first-ever technical conference on resistance welding
topics presented by AWS and the Resistance Welding Manufac-
turing Alliance (RWMA).
Aluminum Conference
May 28, 29
New Orleans, La.
The 17th Aluminum Welding Conference will feature a dis-
tinguished panel of aluminum-industry experts who will survey
the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and prac-
tice. This conference also provides several opportunities for you
to network informally with speakers and other participants, as
well as to visit an exhibition showcasing products and services
available to the aluminum welding industry.
Welding Education, Skills, and
Certifications Conference
July 2325
Indianapolis, Ind.
The American Welding Society has created a conference pro-
gram that answers questions on the essential requirements to be-
come an Accredited Testing Facility. Conference topics include
skill training, curriculum strategies, advanced e-learning strate-
gies, and many others. Educational institutions, corporate train-
ers, and educators are all encouraged to attend.
Heat Treatment Conference
August 12, 13
Dallas, Tex.
The thermal effects from welding and heat treatment influ-
ence the microstructure and mechanical properties of welds. Var-
ious materials, such as carbon steels and other alloy grades, are
affected by heat treatment, which changes the weld metallurgy
and influences the final welded product. Better understanding
of the impact of welding and heat treatment practices can allow
for optimization of weld quality and reliability.
Additive Manufacturing Conference
September 9, 10
Orlando, Fla.
Come and learn about additive manufacturing processes such
as powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directed energy depo-
sition, and material jetting. These are but a few of the topics that
will be discussed.
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 223, or e-mail
ablanco@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department website at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences
and registration information.
MARCH 2014 54
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North American Headquarters Ronkonkoma, NY t. 631.243.3900 f. 631.243.3209
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COMING
EVENTS
Pipelines Conference. March 4, 5. Sheraton Houston Brookhol-
low, Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
Topics to include current and future pipeline welding trends. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
ABB Robotics Technology Days and Open House. March 13, 14.
1250 Brown Rd., Auburn Hills, Mich. Offering workshops, train-
ing, and demonstrations. To register, visit www.abb.com/robotics;
call (800) 435-7365.
FABTECH Canada. March 1820. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. Cosponsored by the American Welding
Society. www.fabtechcanada.com.
Stainless Steel Conference. March 25, 26. Loews Philadelphia
Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include
welding of austenitic, duplex, and other grades of stainless steel
including dissimilar metals, and repair welding, cladding, clean-
ing, and coping with stress corrosion cracking. Contact P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Aluminium Brazil 2014. April 13. Centro de Exposies Imi-
grantes, So Paulo, Brazil. www.aluminium-brazil.com.
Metal & Steel Saudi Arabia 2014. April 710. Riyadh, Saudi Ara-
bia. Visit www.metalsteelsaudi.com.
FABTECH India colocated with Weld India. April 1012. Pra-
gati Maidan Exhibition Complex, New Delhi, India. Concurrent
with the 2014 Intl Congress of the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI, and India Institute of Welding.
www.fabtechexpoindia.com.
Weld Cracking Conference. April 15, 16. Hilton Garden Inn
Denver Downtown, Denver, Colo. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to
include impact tests, control of moisture in welding consumables,
and information for welding engineers to ensure higher-quality
welded products. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-
9353, ext. 215.
1st Smart Laser Processing Conf. 2014. April 2224. Pacifico
Yokohama, Yokohama, Japan. Organized by Japan Laser Pro-
cessing Society, colocated with Optics & Photonics Intl Congress
2014. www.jlps.gr.jp/slpc2014/.
ITSA International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.
April 2426. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Stand-
ing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
JOM, 18th Intl Conf. on Joining Materials. April 2629. Kon-
ventum LO-Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark. In association with the
Intl Institute of Welding, cosponsored by American Welding So-
ciety, Japan Welding Society, Welding Technology Institute of
Australia, Brazilian Welding Society, and others. E-mail
jom_aws@post10.tele.dk; download brochure at www.aws.org/wj/
JOM-18-CallForPapers.pdf.
Aluminum Conference. April 2830. Hotel Monteleone, New
Orleans, La. Sponsored by AWS. Aluminum industry experts will
survey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and
practice. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext.
215.
First Intl Symposium on Advances in Resistance Welding. April
2830. Atlanta, Ga. Sponsored by AWS and the Resistance Weld-
ing Manufacturing Alliance (RWMA), an AWS Standing Com-
mittee. Topics will include research results, projects, and industrial
experiences that describe significant advances in resistance weld-
ing technology. Visit www.aws.org/rwma, or contact P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 215.
AWS Weldmex, FABTECH Mexico, METALFORM Mexico.
May 68. Centro Banamex, Mexico City, Mexico. www.fabtech-
mexico.com.
JOIN-TRANS
3
Third European Conf., Joining and Construc-
tion of Railway Vehicles. May 6, 7. An IIW-associated event. Weld-
ing Training and Research Centre, SLV Halle GmbH, Halle
(Saale), Germany. www.jointrans.eu.
mfg4 colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.
May 68. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.
AKL 14, Intl Laser Technology Congress and Expo. May 79.
Aachen, Germany. Visit www.lasercongress.org/en/home/.
MMTS Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 1214. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.
Composites Manufacturing. May 1315. Northern Kentucky
Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers. www.sme.org/composites.
NDE Aerospace Materials and Structures IV. May 13, 14. Crowne
Plaza Hotel, St. Louis, Mo. American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, (800) 222-2768, www.asnt.org.
Metal & Steel Middle East 2014. May 1517. Cairo, Egypt. Visit
www.metalsteeleg.com.
THE BIG M including SME Annual Meeting, RAPID Conf. and
Expo, and North American Research Conf. June 912. Cobo Cen-
ter, Detroit, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.the-
bigmevent.com.
U.S-Japan NDT Symposium. June 1620. Makena Beach and
Golf Resort, Maui, Hawaii. American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, (800) 222-2768, www.asnt.org.
Welding Education, Skills, and Certifications Conference. July
2325. Indianapolis, Ind. Sponsored by AWS. This program an-
swers questions on the requirements to become an AWS Accred-
ited Testing Facility (ATF), including skills training and curricu-
lum. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Digital Imaging XVII. July 2830. Crowne Plaza Hotel, Warwick,
R.I. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, (800) 222-2768,
www.asnt.org.
Heat Treatment Conference. Aug. 12, 13. Sheraton Arlington
Hotel, Dallas, Tex. Sponsored by AWS. Attendees will get a bet-
ter understanding of the impact of welding and heat treatment
practices to optimize weld quality and reliability. Contact P.
Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
NDE/NDT for Highways and Bridges: Structural Materials Tech-
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
MARCH 2014 56
57 WELDING JOURNAL
nology (SMT) 2014. Aug. 2527. Grand Hyatt Washington, Wash-
ington, D.C. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, (800)
222-2768, www.asnt.org.
Additive Manufacturing Conference. Sept. 9, 10. Renaissance
Orlando Airport Hotel, Orlando, Fla. Sponsored by AWS. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
ASNT Annual Conference 2014. Oct. 2730. Charleston Conven-
tion Center, Charleston, S.C. American Society for Nondestruc-
tive Testing; (800) 222-2768; www.asnt.org.
7th Offshore Energy Expo and Conf. Oct. 28, 29. Amsterdam RAI,
The Netherlands. Visit www.offshore-energy.biz.
FABTECH 2014. Nov. 1113. Georgia World Congress Center,
Atlanta, Ga. This exhibition is the largest event in North America
dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fab-
ricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufac-
turing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-
9353, ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
Educational Opportunities
Workshop on Major Changes in OSHA Labeling and Safety
Data Sheets for Welding Products. March 3, 4. AWS Headquar-
ters, Miami, Fla. Sponsored by the AWS Safety and Health Com-
mittee. Strategies for consumables manufacturers to meet new
GHS (Globally Harmonized System) standards for product clas-
sification, labeling, and hazard communication. Contact P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Acoustic Emission: The PACwin Software Suite. April 1517.
MISTRAS Group, Inc., 195 Clarksville Rd., Princeton Junction,
N.J. www.mistrasgroup.com/training/courses/pacwin.aspx.
Clean Air Act Compliance Workshop. April 13. Houston, Tex.;
April 2324, Las Vegas, Nev. EPA Alliance Training Group.
www.epaalliance.com.
EWI Courses. April 10, Sheet Metal Forming; May 59, Aug.
48, Fundamentals of Welding Engineering; June 19, High-Power
Ultrasonic Processes. Columbus, Ohio. http://ewi.org/.
Grounding and Electrical Protection Courses. April 3, 4 in
Miami, Fla.; June 12, 13 in Oklahoma City, Okla.; Aug. 14, 15 in
Syracuse, N.Y.; Oct. 9, 10 in Phoenix, Ariz.; Nov. 13, 14 in New
Orleans, La. Lyncole XIT Grounding; (800) 962-2610; www.lyn-
cole.com/courses/.
Laser Safety Officer Training Courses. March 1014, San
Antonio, Tex.; June 26, Boston, Mass.; June 2426, St. Louis,
Mo. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
LAM Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop. March 12, 13.
Houston, Tex. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737;
www.lia.org/lam.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
MARCH 2014 58
Medical Laser Safety Officer Training Courses. March 29, 30,
Chicago, Ill.; June 7, 8, Boston, Mass. Laser Institute of America;
(800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. May 68, Aerobraze
Engineered Technologies Brazing Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Contact Jim Nicoll, (248) 585-6400, ext. 233;
brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.com.
Shot and Flap Peening Workshops. Shot Peening Workshop,
April 2224; Flap Peening Workshop, April 25; Superior Shot
Peening, Inc., 2350 Security Forest Dr., Cleveland (Houston),
Tex. Metal Finishing News; www.mfn.li/workshops.
Welder Training & Testing Institute Courses. API Endorsement:
May 29, Nov. 1; D1.5 Endorsement: May 30, Aug. 2; CWI: June
26, Aug. 1115, Nov. 37; D1.1 Endorsement: June 6, Aug. 15,
Nov. 7; Bolting Endorsement: Aug. 1. Contact Tracy Wiswesser,
WTTI, 1144 N. Graham St., Allentown, Pa.; (610) 820-9551, ext.
204; www.wtti.com.
E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of Welds.
Online video courses taken at ones own pace offer certificates of
completion and continuing education units. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology. hiwt@welding.org; www.welding.org.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials, in-
teractive e-learning courses, discussion forums, and blogs. Visit
www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian
Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial
Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI Z136.1,
Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customers site. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical informa-
tion to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to drilling,
welding, wireless and optical product requirements, and many
others. Visit website for complete information and to sign up for
modules. Laser Institute of America; www.lia.org/laseru.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly and on
request, include tutorials and practical training. Presented at
Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For schedule, cost,
and availability, send your request to info@servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.; (800)
922-7533; visit www.rockfordsystems.com.
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
NACE Intl Training and Certification Courses. National Assoc.
of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223; www.nace.org.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute; (800)
223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers locations.
Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, radiation
safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714) 255-1500;
www.testndt.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to Die
Casting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99), Product
Design ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Training ($19),
Managing Dust Hazards ($19), Safety (free). North American
Die Casting Assn.; (847) 808-3161; www.diecasting.org/educa-
tion/online.
Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification to
European plastics welding standards. Malcom Hot Air Systems;
www.plasticweldingtools.com.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses. At vari-
ous locations and online. The Society for Protective Coatings;
(877) 281-7772; www.sspc.org.
Robotics Operator Training. Presented by ABB University at 13
locations nationwide. For course titles and locations: (800) 435-
7365, opt. 2, opt. 4; www.abb.us/abbuniversity.
Safety Training Online. Unlimited training on myriad industrial
safety course titles for $45/employee/year. Visit website for com-
plete information and previews of several courses;
www.safety99.com.
Service Manager Course. For sheet metal workers and HVAC
service shop owners. Various locations and dates. International
Training Institute; www.sheetmetal-iti.org; (703) 739-7200.
Welder training and qualification coupons
Destructive test equipment
Full testing services

CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
San Francisco, CA Apr. 611 Apr. 12
New Orleans, LA Apr. 611 Apr. 12
Nashville, TN Apr. 611 Apr. 12
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Apr. 12
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 17
St. Louis, MO Exam only Apr. 19
Edmonton, Canada Exam only Apr. 28
Annapolis, MD Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Detroit, MI Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Corpus Christi, TX Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Knoxville, TN Exam only May 3
Fresno, CA May 49 May 10
Miami, FL May 49 May 10
Albuquerque, NM May 49 May 10
Oklahoma City, OK May 49 May 10
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only May 31
Birmingham, AL June 16 June 7
Hutchinson, KS June 16 June 7
Spokane, WA June 16 June 7
Bakersfield, CA June 813 June 14
Pittsburgh, PA June 813 June 14
Beaumont, TX June 813 June 14
Miami, FL Exam only June 19
Hartford, CT June 2227 June 28
Orlando, FL June 2227 June 28
Memphis, TN June 2227 June 28
Miami, FL Exam only July 10
Los Angeles, CA July 1318 July 19
Jacksonville, FL July 1318 July 19
Omaha, NE July 1318 July 19
Cleveland, OH July 1318 July 19
Phoenix, AZ July 2025 July 26
Louisville, KY July 2025 July 26
Kansas City, MO July 2025 July 26
Waco, TX July 2025 July 26
Sacramento, CA July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Denver, CO July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Miami, FL July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Milwaukee, WI July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Aug. 2
Chicago, IL Aug. 38 Aug. 9
Baton Rouge, LA Aug. 38 Aug. 9
Portland, ME Aug. 38 Aug. 9
Las Vegas, NV Aug. 38 Aug. 9
Philadelphia, PA Aug. 38 Aug. 9
Charlotte, NC Aug. 1015 Aug. 16
Mobile, AL Aug. 1015 Aug. 16
Rochester, NY Exam only Aug. 16
Seattle, WA Aug. 1015 Aug. 16
San Diego, CA Aug. 1722 Aug. 23
Minneapolis, MN Aug. 1722 Aug. 23
San Antonio, TX Aug. 1722 Aug. 23
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 1722 Aug. 23
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
New Orleans, LA Mar. 31Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Minneapolis, MN July 1418 July 19
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
(No exams given.)
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education require-
ments without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Dallas, TX Mar. 914
Miami, FL Mar. 2328
Sacramento, CA Apr. 27May 2
Boston, MA Apr. 27May 2
Charlotte, NC May 49
Pittsburgh, PA June 16
San Diego, CA July 1318
Miami, FL July 27Aug. 1
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Houston, TX Mar. 31Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Las Vegas, NV May 59 May 10
Miami, FL June 26 June 7
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The seminar dates (S:) are followed by the exam dates (E:)
S: July 2831, E: Aug. 1; S: Dec. 811, E: Dec. 12; at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
S: Apr. 2123, E: Apr. 24, 25; S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23, 24; at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23; at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
S: Apr. 710, E: Apr. 11; S: Aug. 1114, E: Aug. 15;
S: Oct. 1316, E: Oct. 17; at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
S: May 1921, E: May 22, 23; S: July 2123, E: July 24, 25
S: Sept. 2224, E: Sept. 25, 26; S: Nov. 1719, E: Nov. 20, 21; at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the sem-
inar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline
dates by visiting our Web site www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to
confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register
online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
MARCH 2014 60
!
WARNING
OSHA rules for welding consumables
labeling, classification, and
Safety Data Sheets have changed!
AWS Workshop on Major Changes in OSHA Labeling
and Safety Data Sheet Compliance
March 45, 2014 AWS Headquarters, Miami
The AWS Safety and Health Committee will conduct a workshop for welding, brazing, and thermal
spray consumables manufacturers about meeting new OSHA standards for product labeling and
hazard communication. Some have estimated that the new GHS (Globally Harmonized System)
Safety Data Sheet reporting requirements are four to eight times more laborious than those of a
traditional MSDS, for instance.
The workshop will be led by Denese A. Deeds, CIH, from Industrial Health & Safety Consultants,
Inc., and will provide the strategies your company can use to minimize the costs and risks of
complying with the new regulations.
Cost is $250 for AWS members and $325 for nonmembers. Register at aws.org/conferences
or call (800) 443-9353 ext. 223. Group hotel rates are available.
URGENT NEWS: The U.S. has adopted the United Nations
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS).
SOCIETYNEWS SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
63 WELDING JOURNAL
Central Piedmont Community College Celebrates
50th Anniversary with a Welded Time Capsule
On December 13, 2013, Central Pied-
mont Community College (CPCC), Char-
lotte, N.C., celebrated its 50th anniver-
sary with an open house to showcase a new
classroom building and inter a hermeti-
cally sealed stainless steel time capsule
designed by Steven Gore, program chair,
welding technology. The capsule project
was headed by AWS Student Chapter
members headed by Advisor Ray Sosko
and Welding Technology department stu-
dents and staff including instructors Terry
Mayes, John McPherson, and Greg Bel-
lamy; and Dr. Anver Classens, division di-
rector, Applied Technologies.
The welding work was performed by
Terry Mayess advanced students, includ-
ing Adam Calton, Brandon Adams, Bryan
Durrette, Clarence Fowler, Conor
Pohlman, Derek Waldo, George Price,
James Brooks, Justin Wilmoth, and Scott
Willard. The time capsule was con-
structed from an 18-in.-long section of 12-
in.-diameter Schedule 10, Type 304 stain-
less steel, with a 12-in.-diameter end cap
of the same metal that was circumferen-
tially welded using automatic gas tungsten
arc welding (A-GTAW) with ER 308L
filler metal. The other end consisted of a
standard Type 304 12-in.-diameter slip-on
flange that was welded by Justin Wilmoth
using manual GTAW and ER 308L filler
metal (see photo).
The CPCC 50th anniversary logo was
robotically welded using the gas metal arc
process and ER 308L filler metal with the
19632013 anniversary dates inscribed
in by machining student Saul Curson.
One purge and one vent port were in-
stalled and joined to the capsule using
manual GTAW by student Derek Waldo.
The purge and vent line lockable valves
were purchased and welded in place using
A-GTAW. This work was performed by
Managers Tim Gittens and Matt Schwall
at Liburdi Dimetrics, Inc.
The Science Technology Engineering
Math Division (STEM) members were
major players in this project. They de-
signed the two 50th Anniversary name
plates that were laser etched by Project
Specialist Amy Dowdy. Stephen Gerhardt
and Priscilla Kay of the colleges Graphic
Arts and Imaging Technology Depart-
ment contributed to the success of this
project. Once assembled, the time cap-
sule was loaded with memorabilia. The
capsule was then purged of air and back-
filled with argon to help preserve the con-
tents until its reopening in 25 years.
Dr. Kathy Drumm, executive vice pres-
ident, presided as the capsule was interred
in the lobby wall of the new 106,000-sq-ft
Elizabeth Avenue Classroom Building,
where it will remain on display until it is
removed and unsealed in 2038 to cele-
brate the colleges 75th anniversary.
College President Dr. Tony Zeiss said
Justin Wilmoth (left photo) welds the finishing touches on the stainless steel time capsule. Right photo: The Welding Technology staff mem-
bers are (from left) Terry Mayes, Steven Gore, Student Chapter Advisor Ray Sosko, John McPherson, and Greg Bellamy. Photos by Ray Sosko.
The time capsule will remain on display in
its nitch until unsealed in year 2038. Photo
by Chris Record.
the anniversary celebration offered the
ideal opportunity for an open house to
showcase the expertise of the colleges
welding students and other creative staff
members, and offer faculty and staff an op-
portunity to tour the recently opened 100-
seat, tiered auditorium, and 40 smart class-
rooms.
Tucked inside the time capsule are
myriad items including detailed instruc-
tions on how the time capsule was con-
structed, a ZIP drive with digital photo-
graphs depicting the Welding Depart-
ment and various AWS Student Chapter
activities, a 2013 student-designed AWS
Student Chapter welding T-shirt, and a
copy of the book, CPCC: The First Thirty
Years, by Carol L. Timblin. Visit the
CPCC website www.cpcc.edu/welding.
MARCH 2014 64
Erratum
AWS D9.1M/D9.1:2012
Sheet Metal Welding Code
Page 61 Title Correct Guide-
lines for the Preparation of Technical In-
quiries for Structural Welding Commit-
tee to read Guidelines for the Prepara-
tion of Technical Inquiries
Standard for Public Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute in
1979. AWS rules require that all standards
be open to public review for comment dur-
ing the approval process. The following
standard has been submitted for review.
D16.4M/D16.4:201X, Specification for
the Qualification of Robotic Arc Welding Per-
sonnel. Public review expires 3/4/14. Con-
tact C. Lewis, ext. 215, for a draft copy.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun to revise
the following standard. Affected individ-
uals are invited to contribute to this work.
B1.10M/B1.10:201X, Guide for the Non-
destructive Examination of Welds. This
guide addresses which examination
method visual, liquid penetrant, mag-
netic particle, radiographic, ultrasonic,
electromagnetic (eddy current), or leak
testing best detects various types of dis-
continuities. Acceptance criteria are not
addressed. Stakeholders: Welding indus-
try. Contact E. Abrams, ext. 307.
Revised Standard Approved by ANSI
B2.1/B2.1M:2013, Specification for
Welding Procedure and Performance Quali-
fication.
ISO Standards
In the United States, if you wish to par-
ticipate in the development of Interna-
tional Standards for welding, contact A.
Davis, ext. 466, adavis@aws.org. Other-
wise, contact your national standards-
preparing organization.
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. To attend a
meeting, e-mail the program manager
listed.
March 11, D15C Subcommittee on
Track Welding. St. Louis, Mo. J. Rosario,
ext. 308.
March 12, D15 Committee on Railroad
Welding. St. Louis, Mo. J. Rosario, ext.
308.
March 12, D15A Subcommittee on
Cars and Locomotives. St. Louis, Mo. J.
Rosario, ext. 308.
March 18, 19, C3 Committee and Sub-
committees on Brazing and Soldering.
Torrance, Calif. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
March 18, A5M Subcommittee on Car-
bon and Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for
Flux Cored Arc Welding. Orlando, Fla. R.
Gupta, ext. 301.
March 19, 20, A5 Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials. Orlando,
Fla. R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 20, 21, A5O Subcommittee on
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes
and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding.
Orlando, Fla. R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 27, 28, D16 Committee on Ro-
botic and Automatic Welding. Columbus,
Ohio. C. Lewis, ext. 306.
April 14, D1 Committee and Sub-
committees on Structural Welding.
Miami, Fla. B. McGrath, ext. 311.
April 2124, D14 Committee and Sub-
committees on Machinery and Equip-
ment. Pittsburgh, Pa. E. Abrams, ext. 307.
April 29, 30, A2 Committee and Sub-
committees on Definitions and Symbols.
Columbus, Ohio. S. Borrero, ext. 334.
Nominations Sought for
Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is presented
to one person, 40 years old or younger,
who has made significant contributions
to the advancement of materials join-
ing through research and development.
Send a list of your candidates expe-
rience, publications, honors, awards,
and at least three letters of recommen-
dation from fellow researchers to Todd
Palmer, tap103@psu.edu, associate pro-
fessor, The Pennsylvania State Univer-
sity. The award is sponsored by the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology,
Dept. of Ocean Engineering.
Tech Topics
Teambuilding behind the Scenes to Better Expedite AWS Standards
Shown with their inspirational Teamwork display are (from left) Willie Chinn, Yojaidy
Acosta, Sara Vidal, Alex Diaz, Vivian Perez, and Sissibeth Lopez.
Alex Diaz, associate director of opera-
tions, Technical Services Div., asked his team
members to analyze their strengths as well as
the strengths of their colleagues, then report
on how these strengths collectively define the
team. The key strengths reported were Mo-
tivation, Success, Creativity, Communica-
tion, Willingness, Collaboration, Skillful, and
Assertiveness. Graphic Artist Willie Chinn,
Marketing Div., then arranged these key-
words to design an image highlighting a let-
ter in each to spell the word TEAMWORK in
the brilliant colors of the codes, specifica-
tions, guides, and recommended practices
AWS publishes. The background images of
gears and AWS documents serve as an anal-
ogy, that like gears in a reliable timepiece,
the support arm of the Technical Services Div.
is always working in the background to facil-
itate production of its myriad publications.
Diazs team members include Standards Co-
ordinator Yojaidy Acosta and Senior Stan-
dards Coordinators Sissibeth Lopez, Vivian
Perez, and Sara Vidal.
65 WELDING JOURNAL
BY DENNIS HARWIG
The American Welding Society hosted
the U.S. and European Welding Stan-
dards Conference, which was jointly or-
ganized with the help of Gesellschaft fr
Schweitechnik Intl (GSI) Jan. 27, 28, at
its World Headquarters in Miami, Fla.
Seventy-seven welding industrialists from
around the world gathered for the event.
With increased globalization and com-
plexity of supply chains, more and more
companies in Europe and in North
America have realized the need to be
knowledgeable about the many national
and international fabrication codes and
standards.
AWS partnered with GSI to prepare
the program for the event. Gesellschaft
fr Schweitechnik Intl is an innovative
service provider in all areas of joining, cut-
ting, and thermal spraying. Founded in
1999 by The German Welding Society
(DVS), GSI is the result of a merger of
several German research institutes.
This conference bought together ex-
perts from both AWS and European stan-
dards-writing committees for the second
time. The 2012 meeting was held in Mu-
nich, Germany. This conference offered
a unique opportunity to present a num-
ber of U.S. and European welding stan-
dards on numerous topics to be compared
and discussed. Expert Panels were formed
to provide solutions and strategies to re-
solve the standards-conflict issues experi-
enced by American fabricators.
The conference attendees also learned
about ISO 3834, Quality requirements for
fusion welding of metallic materials
Parts 1 through 5, a quality system for
welding fabricators. GSI provided statis-
tical data indicating more than 5000 Eu-
ropean companies have already com-
pleted this certification.
Both AWS and GSI are certifying bod-
ies under the International Institute of
Welding (IIW) for United States markets.
ISO 3834 can be used independently or in
conjunction with ISO 9000 quality systems
to address the special process control re-
quirements associated with fusion weld-
ing and allied processes. ISO 3834 pro-
vides a range of quality levels to accom-
modate the complexity and risk for struc-
tures from basic-to-high integrity, with a
heavy focus on the role of welding coor-
dination. Under ISO 3834, fabricators can
map their countrys and/or companys
standards to other ISO and global stan-
dards, and use this quality system platform
to foster trade.
This conference benefited engineers,
inspectors, supervisors, and quality con-
trol personnel who are familiar with one
set of standards but needed to know more
about the other standards. The industrial
segment sessions were used to cover weld-
ing standards for structural fabrication,
pressure vessels and piping, railroads, and
heavy machinery segments. In each indus-
trial segment session, the experts provided
a detailed overview of the U.S. and Euro-
pean standards, and identified equivalent
standards and gaps requiring assessment
for improving trade.
The Europeans noted in each session
how the roles of welding coordinators can
improve the welding quality control sys-
tems. As a result, American representa-
tives expressed interest in implementing
the ISO 3834 system in their companies.
The presenters included Christian
Ahrens (GSI), Lyndsey Deckard (Senior
CWI), Peter Gerster (QA consultant),
Dennis Harwig, David Landon (AWS vice
president, Vermeer Corp.), Jrg Mhrlein
(SLV Duisburg), Carsten Ruchhoeft
(pressure vessel engineer), Bob Shaw
(president, Steel Structures Technology
Center), Walter Sperko (ASME Boiler
Code Committee), and Georg Wachken-
bauer (GSI, CWI).
This conference was recorded and will
be made available for viewing on the
American Welding Online website
(http://awo.aws.org/) in the near future for
those who want to experience this impact-
ful event. AWS and GSI plan to continue
presenting this conference annually. Plans
are underway to host the 2015 conference
in Germany.
The U.S./European Welding Standards Conference participants are shown January 28 at AWS World Headquarters in Miami, Fla.
AWS Hosts U.S./European Welding Standards Conference
DENNIS HARWIG (dharwig@aws.org), an AWS Fellow, is chief technology officer for the American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
MARCH 2014 66
Joining of plastics and composites, G1
Committee seeks educators, users, general
interest, and consultants. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Methods of weld inspection, The B1
Committee seeks educators, general inter-
est, and end users. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Safety and Health Committee seeks ed-
ucators, users, general interest, and con-
sultants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee seeks educators, general inter-
est, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L
Subcommittee seeks professionals. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and ed-
ucational members. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Sub-
committee seeks professionals. B. Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Com-
mittee seeks professionals. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Reactive alloys, G2D Subcommittee
seeks volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcommit-
tee seeks members. J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum al-
loys for aerospace applications, D17J Sub-
committee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1 Com-
mittee seeks educators, general interest,
and users. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying, The C2 Committee
seeks educators, general interest, and end
users. J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org.
Automotive, The D8 Committee seeks
members. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and surfac-
ing and reconditioning of industrial mill
rolls, D14 Committee and D14H Subcom-
mittee seek educators, end users, consult-
ants, and general interest members. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Hybrid welding. The C7D Subcommit-
tee seeks volunteers. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Opportunities to Serve on Technical Committees
Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
The U.S. TAG (Technical Advisory
Group) that serves as the United States
National Committee to ISO/TC 44/SC 10,
Unification of Requirements in the Field
of Metal Welding, seeks United States ex-
perts to serve on a newly created subgroup
dealing with micro melting diffusion
bonding.
The group is curently working on a new
ISO standard concerning micro joining of
second-generation high-temperature su-
perconductors.
For complete information, contact An-
drew Davis, managing director, technical
services, adavis@aws.org.
U.S. Experts Sought to Develop ISO Standard on Micro Melting Diffusion Bonding
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
End of Campaign Final Tally
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 216
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley 120
J. Morris, Mobile 75
M. Anderson, Indiana 57
D. Ebenhoe, Kern 50
G. Fudala, Philadelphia 45
M. Box, Mobile 42
B. Scherer, Cincinnati 40
J. Russell, Fox Valley 36
K. Rawlins, Columbia 31
S. Lindsey, San Diego 31
R. Richwine, Indiana 30
S. Siviski, Maine 29
D. Schnalzer, Lehigh Valley 27
B. Trankler, W. Tennessee 27
J. Foley, Pittsburgh 25
D. Wheeler, Oklahoma City 25
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 24
R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville 24
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 22
J. Ciaramitaro, N. Central Florida 21
F. Babish, Lehigh Valley 20
C. Daon, Israel 20
R. Jones, Atlanta 20
D. Crifase, Racine-Kenosha 20
M. Kress, Chattanooga 19
J. Theberge, Boston 19
J. Vincent, Kansas City 18
C. Donnell, NW Ohio 17
D. Bastian, Northwestern Pa. 16
G. Burrion, S. Florida 16
P. Kreitman, Chicago 15
S. Lathrop, Puget Sound 15
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh 15
R. Riggs, Tulsa 15
S. Schulte, Kansas City 15
J. Terry, Greater Huntsville 15
A. Duron, New Orleans 14
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 13
J. Goodson, New Orleans 12
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 12
J. Carney, W. Michigan 11
R. Poirier, Tidewater 11
T. Shirk, Tidewater 11
Michael A. Pelegrino, Chicago Section, is the campaign winner with 216 points earned.
Listed below are the members who participated in the 2013 AWS Member-Get-A-Mem-
ber Campaign. The campaign ran from June 1 through Dec. 31, 2013. Members received
five points for each Individual Member recruited and one point for every Student Mem-
ber recruited. See page 69 of this issue for campaign information and the prize list, or call
Rhenda Kenny, Membership Dept., (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 260, for information.
AWS Member Counts
February 1, 2014
Sustaining ......................................608
Supporting.....................................341
Educational ...................................664
Affiliate..........................................552
Welding Distributor........................47
Total Corporate ..........................2,212
Individual .................................59,723
Student + Transitional .................9,735
Total Members.........................69,458
67 WELDING JOURNAL
SECTIONNEWS
SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Shown at the Long Island Section meeting are (from left) Jack Billig, speaker Jennifer Trumino, Deborah McInnis, Chair Brian Cassidy,
Dist. 2 Director Harland Thompson, Ray OLeary, and Tom Gartland.
Shown at the New Jersey Section program are from left (back row) Seann Bradley, Larry
Abernethy, George Sheehan, (front row) Robert Petrone, Vince Murray, Jim Dolan, and
Harland Thompson, Dist. 2 director.
BOSTON
NOVEMBER 11
Activity: Section members met at Baker
Testing in Rockland, Mass., where Tom
Ferri, Dist. 1 director, presented William
Elliott the District Certified Welding In-
spector of the Year Award.
LONG ISLAND
JANUARY 8
Speaker: Jennifer Trumino, sales manager
Affiliation: Mercer Abrasives
Activity: Ray OLeary received the District
Meritorious Award from Harland Thomp-
son, Dist. 2 director.
NEW JERSEY
JANUARY 15
Speaker: Jeff Wiswesser, director, indus-
trial services; and Michael Warner
Affiliation: Welder Testing and Training
Institute
Topic: Proper use of welding symbols
Activity: Harland Thompson, Dist. 2 di-
rector, presented Life Member certificates
to Larry Abernethy and George Sheehan.
Other awardees included Robert Petrone
(District Director), Jim Dolan (District
Meritorious), George Sheehan (District
Educator), and Seann Bradley (Speaker
of the Year).
William Elliott (left) receives the CWI of the
Year Award fromTom Ferri, Dist. 1 director.
MARCH 2014 68
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com Presenters Jeff Wiswesser (left) and Michael
Warner (center) are shown with Paul Lenox,
New Jersey Section chair.
Pittsburgh Section members are shown at the January program.
Harland Thompson (far right), Dist. 2 di-
rector, is shown with wife Eileen and Ken
Temme, Philadelphia Section secretary.
Shown at the Tidewater Section program are
(from left) presenters Stephen Williams and
George Suiter with Wayne Smith, chairman.
PHILADELPHIA
DECEMBER 7
Activity: The Section held a holiday meet-
ing for board members at Riverwinds
Restaurant in West Deptford, N.J. The
event was hosted by Harland Thompson,
Dist. 2 director.
Central Piedmont C. C.
Student Chapter
DECEMBER 13
Activity: The college welding department
faculty and Student Chapter members,
headed by Advisor Ray Sosko, manufac-
tured a time capsule to commemorate
Central Piedmont Community Colleges
50th anniversary in Charlotte, N.C. The
complete story appears on the first page
of Society News (see page 63).
TIDEWATER
JANUARY 9
Speakers: Stephen Williams, metallurgist,
Newport News Shipbuilding; and George
Suiter, master gunsmith, Colonial
Williamsburg
Topic: The successful casting of a colonial-
style cannon for Colonial Williamsburg
Activity: The program was held at Smoke
BBQ Restaurant in Newport News, Va.
FLORIDA WEST COAST
JANUARY 8
Speaker: Jay L.Ginder, senior application
engineer
Affiliation: ESAB Welding & Cutting
Products
Topic: New trends in flux cored wires
DAYTON
OCTOBER 8
Speaker: Vern Mangold, consultant
Topic: Certification of robotic arc welding
personnel
Activity: The program was held at OTC
Daihen in Tipp City, Ohio.
NOVEMBER 12
Activity: The Dayton Section members
met at Miami County Fairgrounds in Troy,
Ohio. Gary Ward and Steve Roth from
Southern Ohio Forge and Anvil presented
demonstrations of various blacksmithing
techniques and offered attendees a chance
to try their hand at the art.
DECEMBER 10
Speaker: Uwe Aschemeier, Dist. 7 direc-
tor
Affiliation: Miami Diver, welding engineer
Topic: Underwater welding
Activity: This Dayton Section program was
held at Giuliano Tavern in Miamisburg,
Ohio, for 17 attendees.
PITTSBURGH
JANUARY 14
Speaker: Steve Forde, vice president
Affiliation: Marcellus Shale Coalition
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com

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Welding
71 WELDING JOURNAL
Topic: Alternative fracking technology
Activity: The Pittsburgh Section hosted its
past chairmens night program at La Mont
Restaurant in Pittsburgh, Pa. Honored
were Past Chairs John Folley, John Men-
hart, Ed Yevick, Roger Hilty, Tom Geisler,
Dick LaFave, Tom White, Dave Daugherty,
Carl Ott, and Bob Jackson.
NORTHEAST TENNESSEE
DECEMBER 12
Activity: The Section members attended
the open house held at Oak Ridge High
School in Oak Ridge, Tenn. Instructor Jeff
Hankins hosted the program that included
his students showcasing their welding skills
and use of a CNC plasma cutting system.
Erica Heckman presented her welded
gold-medal-winning metal sculpture. The
dinner was held at Ruby Tuesday in Oak
Ridge.
NEW ORLEANS
NOVEMBER 9
Activity: The Section hosted its 15th an-
nual student welder competition hosted by
Randy Rovira with the New Orleans Pipe
Trades in Metairie, La. The judges were
Chair Aldo Duron, Travis Moore, and Tony
DeMarco. The top welding instructor was
Paul Newton of the New Orleans Pipe
Trades who received a jacket of honor
from executive committee members Chair
Aldo Duron and Bruce Hallila.
Pittsburgh Section past chairs shown at the January program are John Folley (front) and
(from left) John Menhart, Dick LaFave, Ed Yevick, Tom White, Roger Hilty, Dave Daugh-
erty, Tom Geisler, Carl Ott, and Bob Jackson.
Shown at the NE Tennessee Section tour are (from left) Jonaaron Jones, Scott Mulleur, Mark Cade, Evan Eschenberg, John Folk, Briza
Wolfe, Byington Solway Technology Center Instructor Chris Ottinger, Lucia Roussa, Patrick Ford, Thomas Bowling, Chance Littleford,
Erica Heckman, South Doyle Instructor Jim Thomas, Kristen Lloyd, Keith Daniels, Mike DiTrapani, Oak Ridge High School Instructor Jeff
Hankins, Paul Pipkin, Barry Slaven, and Tyler Wyatt.
Speaker Jay Ginder (left) is shown with
Charles Crumpton III, Florida West Coast
Section chair.
Speaker Steve Forde (right) is shown with
John Menhart, Pittsburgh Section chair.
New Orleans Section welding contest judges
are (from left) Aldo Duron, Travis Moore,
and Tony DeMarco.
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
joshburgess1984@gmail.com
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
CLEVELAND
DECEMBER 11
Activity: The Section hosted its annual
holiday party featuring an auction to ben-
efit its scholarship fund. More than 100
attendees supported the live and silent
auctions to raise $11,000. Heading the
auction committee were Marilyn Har-
mon, Regis Holland, and Mike Sherman
who drew out the high bids as auction-
eer. The event was held at Toscana Party
Center in Cuyahoga Heights, Ohio.
DRAKE WELL
JANUARY 9
Activity: Chair Mike Owens presented
Travis Crate the Section Educator and
the Section CWI of the Year Awards. Rolf
Laemmer received the Section Meritori-
ous Award. Ward Kiser, who was not
present, was named to receive the Dis-
trict Meritorious Award. The meeting
was held at The Commons at Franklin,
in Franklin, Pa.
MARCH 2014 72
Some of the participants are shown at the New Orleans Section student welder competition.
The student welders and Drake Well Section judges are shown at the Northwest SkillsUSA District welding competition.
Shown at the New Orleans Section event are
(from left) Chair Aldo Duron, Bruce Hallila,
and Welding Instructor Paul Newton.
Rolf Laemmer (right) received the Section
Meritorious Award from Mike Owens,
Drake Well Section chair.
Travis Crate (right) received the Section Ed-
ucator and CWI of the Year Awards from
Mike Owens, Drake Well Section chair.
73 WELDING JOURNAL
JANUARY 17
Activity: The Drake Well Section mem-
bers participated in the Northwest Skills-
USA District welding competition held at
the New Castle School of Trades in New
Castle, Pa.
MAHONING VALLEY
JANUARY 16
Speaker: Matthew Brady, regional engi-
neer
Affiliation: American Institute of Steel
Construction
Topic: The new QC/QA specifications for
building with structural steel
Activity: Bob Brenner, Dist. 10 director,
presided at this awards-presentation pro-
gram held at Columbiana County Career
& Technical Center (CCCTC) in Lisbon,
Ohio. Huck Hughes, advisor to the
CCCTC Student Chapter, received the
District and Section Educator Awards.
Awards were presented to Jeff Andrews
and William Cunningham (CWI of the
Year), Denny Naples and Donald Jessop
(Section Educator), and Mike Sampson
(Section Meritorious). Tom Kostreba,
chair, Northwestern Pa. Section, attended
the program.
JANUARY 21
Activity: Donald Jessop, a welding instruc-
tor at Plumbers & Pipefitters Local #396
Apprenticeship Program, received the Ma-
honing Valley Educator Award from
Kenny Jones, Section treasurer.
NORTHWESTERN PA.
DECEMBER 15
Activity: The Section hosted its annual
holiday party and awards-presentation
program at Barbatos Italian Restaurant
in Erie, Pa. Chair Tom Kostreba hosted
the program. The awardees included
Mark Brereton, District CWI of the Year;
Marty Siddall, Section Meritorious; Don
Adams, Section Educator, Jesse McIn-
tosh, Section Educator; John Stempka,
Section CWI of the Year; and Vice Chair
Donna Bastian, District Private Sector
Educator.
Donald Jessop (left) is shown with Kenny
Jones at the Mahoning Valley Section event.
CWI Mark Brereton (left) receives his award
from Tom Kostreba, chair, Northwestern
Pennsylvania Section.
Shown at the Detroit Section program are (from left) Jeff Grivas, Ron Brown, Bill Forquer,
Wesley Doneth, and Sean Gleeson.
Awardees Jesse McIntosh (left) and Don
Adams are shown at the Northwestern Penn-
sylvania Section event.
Shown at the Northwestern Pennsylvania
Section program are (from left) Donna Bas-
tian, Marty Siddall, and Chair Tom
Kostreba.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rwilcox1@ford.com
tems gave presentations on material han-
dling innovations, resistance spot welding
inspection, and virtual welder training.
John Bohr from General Motors won a
pair of tickets to attend the Sections
Ladies Night event to be held April 12 at
the Detroit MGM Grand.
DETROIT
JANUARY 16
Activity: Ron Brown, business develop-
ment manager, hosted the program at EWI
in Madison Heights, Mich. Jeff Grivas with
Easom Automation, Sean Gleeson with
EWI, and Bill Forquer with Real Weld Sys-
NORTHWEST OHIO
MARK YOUR CALENDAR
APRIL 3, 6:009:00 PM
18th Annual Lincoln Electric
Motorsports Welding Program
Owens Community College
Perrysburg (Toledo), Ohio.
The public is invited. A Lincoln Elec-
tric speaker will discuss the materials and
welding processes that are used to fabri-
cate competition vehicles. About 25 com-
petition vehicles will be on display. A
VRTEX 360 virtual arc welding trainer
will be set up for guests to try their hand
at welding.
MARCH 2014 74
Milwaukee Section past chairs are (from left) Robert Bruss, Roger Edge, David Biddle, Gail Beyer II, Robert Schuster, Craig Wentzel, Ken
Karwowski, and John Albanese.
Shown at FABTECH are (from left) Chicago Section Chair Eric Krauss, Linda Brissey, Pete Host, Robert Zimny, incoming Director-at-
Large Rick Polanin, Dist. 13 Director John Willard, and Cliff Iftimie.
Shown at the Louisville Section awards-presentation dinner are (from left) Ben Coons, John Emmons, Tom Gillespie, Paul Twigg, Jim
Gillespie, Chair Bud Merill, Irvin Ziegler Jr., and Dan Hayes Sr.
Louisville Section members participated in the trophy presentation at Churchill Downs.
75 WELDING JOURNAL
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 606-7970
rlrichwine2@aol.com
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
Louisville Section members pose for a group shot during their Churchill Downs event.
Kansas Section members are shown at their November meeting.
CWI Scott Wallermann (left) is shown with
Todd Gilbert, Lakeshore Section chair.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com
LAKESHORE
JANUARY 9
Activity: The Section toured the Broad-
wind Towers & Heavy Industries facility in
Manitowoc, Wis., to study the manufac-
ture of wind and drilling towers used in the
power-generation and shale oil industries.
Scott Wallermann, a Certified Welding In-
spector, conducted the program. The din-
ner and business meeting were held at
Knoxs Silver Valley Supper Club.
MILWAUKEE
DECEMBER 19
Activity: The Section hosted its annual hol-
iday party and past chairmens night at
Sprecher Brewery in Milwaukee, Wis. The
event included a tour of the brewery. Past
chairs in attendance included Robert
Bruss, Roger Edge, David Biddle, Gail
Beyer II, Robert Schuster, Craig Wentzel,
Ken Karwowski, and John Albanese.
CHICAGO
NOVEMBER 19
Activity: The Section members partici-
pated in the FABTECH activities in
Chicago, Ill. Robert Zimny received his
Gold Member certificate for 50 years of
AWS membership and Linda Brissey re-
ceived her Life Member certificate for 35
years of service to the Society from Nancy
Cole, AWS president.
LOUISVILLE
NOVEMBER 30
Activity: The Section sponsored race No.
5 at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Ky., to
boost awareness of the Section and the
American Welding Society. The race was
won by Jockey Joe Rocco Jr. riding Home-
sick Angel #12.
DECEMBER 17
Activity: The Louisville Section held its
awards-presentation dinner at Louisville
Yacht Club in Louisville, Ky. Jim Gillespie
received his Life Member certificate for
35 years of service to the Society, and John
Emmons and Paul Twigg received Silver
Member certificates for 25 years of serv-
ice.
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
KANSAS
NOVEMBER 14
Speaker: David Landon, AWS vice presi-
dent and manager of welding engineering
Affiliation: Vermeer Mfg. Co.
MARCH 2014 76
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 224-6455
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
Topic: Implementing virtual reality weld-
ing for training and preemployment
screening
Activity: Following the talk, Jamie Kap-
pler (Lincoln Electric) demonstrated the
VRTEX360 virtual arc welding training
system. Dennis Wright, Dist. 16 director,
presented Diane Steadham the District
Meritorious Award. Chair Greg Siepert
presented Bob Simon his Silver Member
Certificate for 25 years of service to the
Society. This Kansas Section meeting was
held at WATC National center for Avia-
tion Training in Wichita, Kan.
JANUARY 18
Activity: The Kansas Section hosted its 5th
annual bowling tournament.
NEBRASKA
DECEMBER
Activity: The Section members presented
a week-long Certified Welding Inspector
training seminar and exam at Valmont In-
dustries in Valley, Neb., for 30 participants.
DISTRICT 17
SEPTEMBER
Activity: J. Jones, Dist. 17 director, pre-
sented Caterpillar Work Tools, Inc., in
Waco, Tex., the District Director Certifi-
cate Award for its continued support of
the Society and using AWS codes and stan-
dards. Receiving the award were Facility
Manager Jon Stalnaker, CWI Jason Mag-
nett, Bryan Neely, and Matt Lakata.
OZARK
DECEMBER
Activity: J. Jones, Dist. 17 director, pre-
sented Kenny McCoy the 20112012 Dis-
trict Director Certificate Award, and the
20112012 District and Section Private
Sector Instructor Awards to Brent Russell.
TULSA
NOVEMBER 19
Speaker: Ed Overshiner, industrial prod-
ucts specialist
Affiliation: Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
Topic: Submerged arc welding
Activity: The program was held at Golden
Coral in Tulsa, Okla.
Shown during the presentation of the District Director Certificate Award to Caterpillar Work
Tools, Inc., are (from left) Jason Magnett, Jon Stalnaker, Bryan Neely, District 17 Director
J. Jones, and Matt Lakata.
Kenny McCoy (right) is shown with J.
Jones, Dist. 17 director, at the Ozark Sec-
tion presentation.
Ozark Section member Brent Russell (right) is shown with J. Jones, Dist. 17 director, at Tin
Man Sheet Metal Workers Local 36.
Shown at the Tulsa Section program are (from left) Chair Paul Wittenbach, speaker Ed
Overshiner, and Rich Howard, vice chair.
77 WELDING JOURNAL
El Paso Section members are shown at their holiday dinner December 19.
Vince Martinez (left) is shown with John
Bray, Dist. 18 director, at the El Paso Sec-
tion event.
Shown at the El Paso Section program are
(from left) David Twitty, Dino Robles, and
Section Chair Jose Gomez.
Hon. Edward M. Emmett (left) receives a
speakers gift from Derek Stelly, Houston
Section chair.
Barbara Henon receives a speaker gift from
Steve Pollard, Puget Sound Section chair.
Bill Tatt (left) demonstrates cast iron weld-
ing at the Spokane Section program.
District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com
EL PASO
DECEMBER 19
Activity: The Section hosted its holiday
event and awards-presentation dinner at
Great American Land & Cattle Restau-
rant in Anthony, Tex. John Bray, Dist. 18
director, and Chair Jose (Pep) Gomez
presided. The awardees included Vince
Martinez (Section Meritorious), David
Twitty and Dino Robles (Section Educa-
tor), Chair Jose Gomez (Section CWI of
the Year), and Marco Costa (Student
Chapter). Dona Ana Community College
received the District Director Award for
its support of the Section.
HOUSTON
JANUARY 15
Speaker: Hon. Edward M. Emmett
Affiliation: Harris County judge
Topic: The countys industrial growth
Activity: The Section hosted its past chair-
mens night event at Bradys Landing in
Houston, Tex., for 165 attendees. Honored
were its long-time AWS members includ-
ing Roy Morton (56 years), Gold Members
Dick Wright and Larry Wilmesmeier (50),
Jim Bolton (49), John Stoll (39), Jon Lee
(35), Ron Theiss (34), Asif Latiff (28),
Robert Hunt (27), AWS Vice President
John Bray (25), Dennis Eck (24), Jerry
Koza (22), John Husfeld (13), and Justin
Gordy (11).
PUGET SOUND
JANUARY 9
Speaker: Barbara K. Henon
Affiliation: Magnatech LLC
Topic: Orbital welding in the biopharma-
ceutical industry
Activity: The program was held at Belle-
vue Coast Hotel in Bellevue, Wash.
SPOKANE
JANUARY 15
Speakers: Bill Tatt, Todd Kelsey
Affiliation: Bohler Welding Group USA
Topic: Cast iron welding and repair
Activity: The lecture and demonstrations
were held in the computerized classroom
and welding shop at Spokane Community
College. Following the talks, the members
had a chance to try their skills welding cast
iron and making other repairs.
Colorado School of Mines
Student Chapter (CSMSC)
DECEMBER 13
Activity: Several CSMSC members met at
the college in Golden, Colo., to congratu-
late Sindhu Thomas on her graduation
with a master of science degree. Attend-
ing were Advisor Prof. Stephen Liu, Steve
Klimowicz, Zhifen Wang, Ali AlShawaf,
Stephen Tate, Devon Gonzales, and Erik
Pfeif.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorindustrial.com
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
MARCH 2014 78
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
JANUARY 16
Activity: The Colorado School of Mines
(CSM) Student Chapter members and Ad-
visor Stephen Liu held a special meeting
to welcome Dr. Zhenzhen Yu who joined
the CSM faculty in January.
SACRAMENTO VALLEY
DECEMBER 15
Activity: The Section held its holiday party
at Cattlemens Steakhouse in the Sacra-
mento, Calif., area. Dan Finnigan, with
Victor Technologies, received his Silver
Certificate for 25 years of membership in
the Society from Chair Ken Morris.
CALIFORNIA CENTRAL
COAST
DECEMBER 9
Activity: At the invitation of Warden
Richard Ives, Chair Stan Luis and Dist.
21 Director Nanette Samanich joined
labor union and industrial leaders and em-
ployers to present a job fair for 90 inmates
preparing for release from the Federal
Correctional Complex in Lompoc, Calif.
(FCC Lompoc). The talks focused on job
and educational opportunities, appren-
ticeship programs, and scholarships in the
fields of welding, pipe fitting, and plumb-
ing. Christopher Gandee from Lincoln
Electric demonstrated the VRTEX 360
virtual reality arc welding training system,
then offered each attendee the opportu-
nity to try their skills using the technology.
Shown at the January CSMSC event are (from left) Zhifen Wang, Ali AlShawaf, Dr. Zhenzhen Yu, Cheryl Hawk, Nathan Switzner,
Advisor Prof. Stephen Liu, Erik Pfeif, Devon Gonzales, Stephen Tate, and Pedro Andrade.
Shown (from left) are CSMSC members Steve Klimowicz, Zhifen Wang, Ali AlShawaf, Ad-
visor Prof. Stephen Liu, Sindhu Thomas, Stephen Tate, Devon Gonzales, and Erik Pfeif.
Presenters at the FCC Lompoc job fair are (from left) Matthew Brown, Robbie Rhodes, Matthew Hoskins, Michael Lopez, Christo-
pher Gandee, Dist. 21 Director Nanette Samanich, Warden Richard Ives, California Central Coast Section Chair Stan Luis, and
Rayvon Snowden.
Dan Finnigan (left) receives his Silver
Member award from Ken Morris, Sacra-
mento Valley Section chair.
79 WELDING JOURNAL
New AWS Supporters
SUSTAINING
Brozelco Federal Services
229 Dunavant Dr.
Rockford, TN 37853
Rep.: Bob Hamilton
www.brozelco.com
Aero Bending Co.
560 Auto Center Dr., Ste. #A
Palmdale, CA 93551
Rep.: Robert Burns
www.aerobendingco.com
National Inspection Testing
Certification Corp. (NITC)
501 Shatto Pl., Ste. #201
Los Angeles, CA 90020
Rep.: Jaime Valdivia
www.nationalitc.com
National Inspection Testing Certifica-
tion Corp. tests and certifies personnel in
the plumbing, heating, ventilation, air-
conditioning, and refrigeration
(HVACR), and related industries. Certi-
fied to ISO 9001:2008, it offers numerous
personnel certifications and specializes in
examination question development and
manual torch brazing processes.
Trail King Industries
2130 3rd Ave. NW
West Fargo, ND 58078
Rep.: Kray Olson
www.trailking.com
SUPPORTING
Equipment & Controls, Inc.
210 Riverfront Dr.
Monessen, PA 15062
Louis Smith Construction, Inc.
18500 Hwy. 53
Gulfport, MS 39503
AFFILIATE
Ameri-Force Management Services
9485 Regency Sq. Blvd., Ste. 300
Jacksonville, FL 32233
Cincinnati Crane & Hoist
10860 Paddys Run Rd.
Harrison, OH 45030
Erickson Engineering
9330 James Ave. S.
Bloomington, MN 55431
Gjertson Metal Work
6681 Colorado Blvd., Unit 5
Commerce City, CO 80022
Metalcraft Services
of Tampa, Inc.
10706 N. 46th St.
Tampa, FL 33617
Rose Fabricating & Industrial Solutions
290 Industrial Rd.
Covington, TN 38019
Searles Mechanical, Inc.
14873 Sherwood Dr.
Greencastle, PA 17225
Teems Mfg., LLC
14290 U.S. Hwy. 287
Amarillo, TX 79118
Whelan Machine & Tool
134 Rochester Dr.
Louisville, KY 40214
WELDING DISTRIBUTOR
The Ramsey Companies
6805 N. 55th Ave.
Glendale, MO 65301
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Arkansas Welding Academy
1920 N. Redmond Rd.
Jacksonville, AR 72076
Fortis College
11499 Chester Rd., Ste. # 200
Cincinnati, OH 45150
Ingram State Technical College
5375 Ingram Rd.
Deatsville, AL 36022
Waxahachie ISD
1001 Hwy. 77 N.
Waxahachie, TX 75165
Welder Skill
Carrera 8 No. 15-44
Soacha, Bogota, Colombia
WorldSpec NDT Training
Div. of Hellier NDT
16631 W. Hardy R.
Houston, TX 77060
Candidates Sought for Welding-Related Awards
William Irrgang Memorial Award
This award is given to the individual who has done the most
over the past five years to enhance the Societys goal of advanc-
ing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500
honorarium and a certificate.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession,
or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in the
development of the welding art. Honorary Members have full
rights of membership.
Nat. Meritorious Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipients counsel, loyalty, and
dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela-
tions with industry and other organizations, and for contribu-
tions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individual who promoted the ad-
vancement of welding internationally by fostering coopera-
tive participation in technology transfer, standards rationali-
zation, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a
$2500 honorarium.
International Meritorious Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients significant contributions to
the welding industry for service to the international welding com-
munity in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificate
and a one-year AWS membership.
The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Contact
Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
MARCH 2014 80
Guide to AWS Services
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Dean R. Wilson
deanwilsonaws@gmail.com
Welldean Enterprises
151 Oak Tree Circle
Glendora, CA 91741
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers Committee
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Lorena Cora.. lcora@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(417)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS head-
quarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Accreditation Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and Coun-
selor nominations.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee
Associate Director, Operations
Alex L. Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qual-
ification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Rein-
forcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construc-
tion, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation
established to provide support for the educational
and scientific endeavors of the American Welding
Society. Promote the Foundations work with your fi-
nancial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
PERSONNEL
Bunting Magnetics Hires
Territory Managers
Bunting Magnetics Co., Newton,
Kan., a supplier of precision magnetic prod-
ucts for the automotive, electronics, recy-
cling, and other industries, has hired Gre-
gory L. Massey and Alex J. Schlosser to
serve as territory managers for standard
products. Massey is responsible for sales in
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas,
and Tennessee. Schlosser will service ac-
counts in southern California, Arizona,
New Mexico, and Clark County, Nev.
3M Announces Changes to
Safety Staff
3M, St. Paul, Minn., has named Frank
Little executive vice president of the com-
panys Safety and Graphics business. Pre-
viously, Little served as vice president and
general manager, Personal Safety division.
Succeeding Little in this post is Ashish
Khandpur who previously served as vice
president, research and development, In-
dustrial Business.
Intelligrated Appoints VP
Intelligrated, Cincinnati, Ohio, a
supplier of automated material-handling
systems, has hired
Chris Lingamfelter
as vice president,
integrated system
sales and strategy.
Lingamfelter has
more than 20 years
experience in the
supply chain software
and material-han-
dling industry.
Robotics Association
Elects Board Members
The Robotics Industries Association
(RIA), Ann Arbor, Mich., has named Stu
Shepherd, CEO, Americas, KUKA
Robot Group, chairperson. Joining Shep-
herd on the executive committee are Past
Chair Catherine Morris, ATI Industrial
Automation; First Vice Chair Joe
Gemma, Staubli Robotics; Second Vice
Chair Mike Jacobs, Applied Manufac-
turing Technologies; Secretary Curtis
Richardson, Spirit Aerosystems; and
RIA President Jeff Burnstein.
Fronius USA Names
Wisconsin Sales Manager
Fronius USA, Portage, Ind., a supplier
of manual and fully
automatic arc weld-
ing equipment, has
hired Jessie Roberts
as area sales manager
for the Wisconsin re-
gion. Roberts previ-
ously served as
branch manager for a
welding supply com-
pany.
IWDC Welding Cooperative
Names Event Planner
The Independent Welding Distribu-
tors Cooperative
(IWDC), Indianapo-
lis, Ind., has named
Jenne Schwartz
event and meeting
planner, responsible
for managing all of its
events. Previously,
Schwartz was a mar-
keting specialist and
the event planner at
St. Vincent Health.
Obituaries
Pamela A. Michalski
Pamela (Pam) A. Michalski, 48, died
Jan. 4 in Lyndhurst, Ohio, after a long ill-
ness. She was a 20-year AWS member af-
filiated with the Cleveland Section. A
graduate of Case Western Reserve Uni-
versity, she served as a project manager
at Dominion East
Ohio. Michalski was
active in the AWS
technical committees
involved with writing
the qualification stan-
dards for welding in-
spectors and techni-
cians, and held lead-
ership positions in the
preparation of tech-
nical standards for
welding pipe and tubing. She chaired the
B5F Subcommittee on Welding Techni-
cians and the D10T Subcommittee on
Low-Carbon Steel Pipe, was second vice
Ashish Khandpur
Jessie Roberts
Frank Little
Alex Schlosser
Chris Lingamfelter
Greg Massey
Jenne Schwartz
MARCH 2014 82
F
o
r

i
n
f
o
,

g
o

t
o

w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x
Pamela Michalski
chair of the Personnel & Facilities Quali-
fication Committee, and a member of the
B5A and B5B Subcommittees on Welding
Inspectors, B5I Subcommittee on Super-
visor Programs, D10 Committee on Pip-
ing and Tubing, D10S Subcommittee on
Purging and Root Pass Welding, and
served as AWS representative to the API
1104 Committee.
Joseph W. Harris Jr.
Joseph (Joe) W. Harris Jr., 80, died
Jan. 21 in Cincinnati, Ohio. His lifelong
career was serving as
head of J. W. Harris
Co., Inc., headquar-
tered in Cincinnati.
The soldering, braz-
ing, and welding
products manufac-
turer has numerous
facilities in the
United States and an
operation in Spain.
Founded by his father
in 1914, the company celebrates its 100th
anniversary this year.
Robert D. Stout
Robert D. Stout, 97, AWS president
19721973, died Dec. 18, 2012, at Mora-
vian Village of Bethlehem, in Bethlehem,
Pa. Born in Reading, Pa., Dr. Stout was
Dean Emeritus at Lehigh University,
where he served in various capacities for
70 years. A pioneer in the field of welding
materials, he remained an active re-
searcher through his 90s. He developed a
series of corrosion-resistant copper-nickel
steels approved
by the Federal
Highway Admin-
istration to build
bridges in Mis-
souri and West
Virginia. In 1996,
he received the
Lehigh Distin-
guished Alumni
Award, and later
the colleges
welding testing
laboratory was
named in his
honor. In 1981,
the Robert D. Stout Distinguished Profes-
sorship was established in his honor. The
chair is currently held by John N. DuPont,
professor of materials science and
engineering.
MARCH 2014 84
Robert D. Stout
Joseph Harris Jr.
Publish Your
Research in the
and Youll Get
Your research sent to more

than 68,000 American
Welding Society members
Your published paper

posted on the AWS Web
site for FREE access
worldwide
(www.aws.org/w/a/
research/index.html)
The most recent Impact

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(www.editorial
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Every research paper

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available FREE on the
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(www.aws.org/wj/
supplement/supplement-
index.html)
By far, the most people, at the
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Research in the
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elding Journal W
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, the most people, at the
continued from page 82
PERSONNEL

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Register Early and Save
Visit www.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353 ext 234.
May 28 29, 2014 / Hotel Monteleone, New Orleans
Earn PDHs toward your AWS recertifcation when you attend this conference.
A distinguished panel of aluminum-industry
experts will survey the state of the art in aluminum
welding technology and practice.
Te 17th Aluminum Welding Conference will
also provide several opportunities for you to
network informally with speakers and other
participants, and to visit an exhibition showcasing
products and services available to the aluminum
welding industry.
Aluminum lends itself to a wide variety of
industrial applications because of its light weight,
high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance,
and other attributes. However, because its chemical
and physical properties are diferent from those of
steel, welding of aluminum requires special
processes, techniques and expertise.

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call (800) 443-9353 ext 234.
Early and Save

. ence er
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 86
W
eve all been there theres an
old, corroded aluminum chair
in some corner of our patio that
no one ever sits in anymore. We think the
chair is nothing more than a waste of
space and its time to dump it, right?
Well, Gary Brunsman wouldnt think so.
He believes in giving things a second
chance and a new purpose through up-
cycling. While recycling breaks an item
down into something of lesser quality,
upcycling takes it a step further and turns
waste material into a better-quality prod-
uct. If Brunsman gets his hands on your
old chair, he will weld it into a whimsical
piece of art at Dixie Welding in Hamil-
ton, Ohio.
Welding as a Career
Gary Brunsman was introduced to
welding as a Boy Scout. He assisted in
maintenance and repair projects as a teen
then began his career as a production and
maintenance welder. Throughout his ca-
reer, Brunsman was passionate about
supporting welding education and train-
ing others, helping many achieve weld-
ing qualifications, and teaching blueprint
reading and math to apprentices. Thats
why when he was offered a position at
Scarlet Oaks as a welding instructor, he
was more than eager for the challenge.
He taught at the school, which is part of
the Great Oaks Career Campuses in
Cincinnati, for eight years, and although
a rewarding experience, he saw a need in
the community for integration between
education and career success. It was be-
cause of this that Brunsman decided to
leave Scarlet Oaks and reopen a dormant
business he owned.
I decided to start training young
workers for employers and help integrate
training strategies for the workforce, he
recalled. I am developing a network to
help firms train and educate less fortu-
nate and unskilled laborers to perform
basic skills and advance those skill sets
to meet the manufacturers needs. I also
consult and train at a community college
in its workforce development group.
Reduce, Reuse, Upcycle
Upcycling refers to reusing an object
in a new way without degrading the ma-
terial it was made from. When an object
The Art of Upcycling:
Welding Trash into Treasure
How one man brings discarded
treasures back to life with a little
welding and a lot of imagination
BY MELISSA GOMEZ
MELISSA GOMEZ
(mgomez@aws.org) is editorial
assistant of the Welding Journal.
Gary and Diana Brunsman display their
upcycled creations at Gallery of Dixie, a
studio they opened in 2012.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
87 WELDING JOURNAL
is upcycled by heating and welding,
adding other objects to create a form of
artistic expression, you cycle up toward
another purpose. In contrast, recycling
breaks the materials down and uses more
energy. To illustrate, an old cooking pot
welded to a chair leg and brass tins sol-
dered to the pot can create a beautiful,
metal flower. In the case of recycling, the
pot, chair leg, and tins would be scrapped
and melted down to be used in the man-
ufacturing process.
While an instructor, Brunsman dis-
covered upcycling was an effective way
to teach the fundamentals of welding.
When I taught welding, we struggled to
find materials that students would be
able to acquire to build projects. I dis-
covered that they could ask for items
from others and obtain metal objects that
we could use to build projects aligned
with the course of study.
Now, Gary and his wife, Diana, have
opened up a studio where he continues to
use this method for welding instruction.
When it comes to finding materials
for upcycling, the skys the limit. We
scan the shelves in second-hand shops,
including Goodwill Industries and St.
Vincent De Paul, and also browse flea
markets and yard sales. We see items such
as hubcaps on the road and have brought
them to our gallery, including some from
the Montana and Colorado areas while
vacationing. TSA agents had fun scan-
ning our bags! Gary and Diana have
even shopped curbside to gather metal
items before trash collectors pick
them up.
Coming up with ideas of what to cre-
ate and which items to use to create it,
however, can sometimes present a chal-
lenge. Our art usually begins with an
idea and can take a long time to form a
1 Wornout bicycles make a one-of-a-
kind fence.
2 Every garden needs flowers made
from hub caps, pot lids, plumbing tanks,
and box spring rolls.
3 Gallery of Dixie's garden of upcycled
items includes stove burners, auto parts,
and lawn mower handles.
1
2
3
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 88
relationship with the materials available
vs. the type of material we could obtain.
The layout and assembly, including join-
ing of the materials, usually takes one to
two hours. For assembling, the four pri-
mary welding processes (shielded metal
arc, flux cored arc, gas tungsten arc, and
gas metal arc) are used as well as a range
of tools, such as drills, mills, grinders, and
saws. Oxyfuel welding and manual cut-
ting processes including handheld
plasma cutting and carbon arc gouging
are also applied, and per customer re-
quirements, much of the work is ground,
sandblasted, and painted.
Their creations are sold to the public
or donated to schools, or charity and
church events. Some have even been en-
tered in festivals. We were encouraged
to enter some art expo events and asked
to participate in the art gallery events in
our town. We are optimistic about be-
coming involved in the future of the arts.
Dixie Welding and
Gallery of Dixie
Brunsman acquired Dixie Welding, a
fabrication and repair shop, in 2000. Cur-
rently, it services and supplies parts for
contractors and provides services for
businesses and industry in the greater
Cincinnati area.
In 2012, Gallery of Dixie was opened
at the same location as the shop (search
for Gallery of Dixie on Facebook to find
its official page). When I came back to
work at Dixie Welding, I wanted to cre-
ate the gallery in the community, adding
something supporting the arts and align-
ing welding and fabrication in various
forms.
Gary and Diana converted an old of-
fice into a studio that now displays the
work of various artists along with their
own. The gallery, open MarchDecem-
ber, provides different forms of art based
on designs and themes aligned with
metal. Different materials are incorpo-
rated to add color and shapes that reflect
the art theme. Some of the upcycled art,
most of which is never replicated, in-
cludes flowers, animals, and bird feed-
ers. The gallery has been a lot of fun and
has provided a place for people to shop
for yard art and welded sculptures.
Brunsman still has big plans for
Gallery of Dixie. This spring, for in-
stance, classes will be offered for artists
interested in welded art. We are antici-
pating hosting two art events this year,
including a local blacksmith who is ex-
cited about hosting a workshop. Future
workshops may include soldering, weld-
ing, metal fabrication, safety, and metal
working processes.
I really enjoy helping solve problems
with customers and working through a
network of professionals who can assist
others in achieving solutions for success.
Working with others that truly have an
interest in learning to weld excites me.
In the Works
Currently, Brunsman is working on a
three-step approach toward retire-
ment. Gallery of Dixie, which he plans
to expand, takes care of the first step.
Second is to start training welding tech-
nicians, artists, auto technicians, and re-
tirees, or provide tutoring for employers
needing assistance for new hires. He
hopes to employ bilingual instructors to
help immigrants in the community who
want to learn welding skills.
The final step is to assemble Dixie
Welding Solutions, a network of re-
sources to provide training, assist in
process and engineering functions, qual-
ity control assistance, and on-premise
training.
Hopefully we can create another net-
work within the welding and manufactur-
ing community to provide resources in
building a collaborative network with
equipment and personnel needs for the
future, as we move forward and take full
advantage of the resources the American
Welding Society already has in place for
welders today.
4 A discarded coal shovel makes a
great flag holder and a charismatic
face.
5 A kitchen sink, chair leg, and fur-
nace pipe were upcycled to create this
charming yard flower.
4
5
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 90
T
he new year is already here, but a
few months ago as the countdown
to 2014 started and you watched
the New Years Eve Ball in New York
Citys Times Square start to drop, it
probably didnt cross your mind how
much assembly went into creating this
globe. Yet once again, welding played an
important role in unifying a well-known
symbol.
At Hudson Scenic Studio, Yonkers,
N.Y., more than 5000 worker hours
3000 of which were by metalworkers,
welders, fitters, finishers, machinists,
and assemblers contributed to creat-
ing this ball. The companys services
include construction scenery for televi-
sion and Broadway musicals.
Heres the story of how this 12-ft-
diameter geodesic sphere, weighing
11,875 lb and adorned with 2688
Waterford Crystal triangles and illumi-
nated by 32,256 Philips Luxeon Rebel
LEDs, came into being. The feat recent-
ly earned the iconic ball the American
Welding Societys (AWS) Extraordinary
Welding Award.
Getting the Ball Rolling
Hudsons Foreman and Chief
Engineer Roger Bardwell, an AWS
Certified Welding Inspector and
Professional Engineer, oversaw this
project in 2008.
Bardwell recalled when extra signage
was added to the top of One Times
Square, Jeff Straus, president of
Countdown Entertainment (the New
Years festivities organizer), viewed this
time as an improvement opportunity. A
5, 4, 3, 2, 1...
Getting the New Years
Eve Ball Done!
KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org)
is associate editor of the Welding Journal.
As the iconic Times Square ball lowers to
ring in the next 365 days, its journey is
followed worldwide
BY KRISTIN CAMPBELL
In the heart of Times Square, with confetti and celebrations galore, 2014 was welcomed
in style. (Photo courtesy of the Times Square NYCs photostream on Flickr.)
THE AMERICAN WELDER
91 WELDING JOURNAL
much larger pole was installed. Also
requested was a larger New Years Eve
Ball that could remain on display all
year. This set the new diameter at 12 ft.
Referred to as the permanent Big
Ball, this marks the third New Years Eve
Ball Hudson has engineered. Their first
was for the year 2000, celebrating the
millennium. Their second, in 2007, was
for the 100th anniversary of the ball drop
tradition.
During this venture, Bardwell inter-
acted with the following personnel:
Production Supervisor Walter Murphy;
Hudson Sound and Light Foreman David
Rosenfeld; Automation Control Designer
Erik Nelson; and now part owner of
Hudson Scenic Studio, Corky Boyd.
Key Design Elements
Hudson designed and manufactured
the current balls structure, rigging, and
lighting equipment attachment.
It was substantially a scaled-up ver-
sion of the anniversary ball, Bardwell
said.
AutoCAD software captured the look
in 3D while Algor software assisted with
finite element analysis. Those designs
were reviewed and confirmed by R. Scott
Lewis PE, PC, New Canaan, Conn.
Hudson provided the winch and LED
fixture support frames, too, but subcon-
tractors were relied on for certain parts.
Fabrication Down the
Production Line
Work on Hudsons shop floor, housed
in its 120,000-sq-ft facility, began August
18, 2008. More than 60 company
employees participated in the undertak-
ing Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 This group shot, taken by Playbill for its Broadway Yearbook during the 20082009 season, features Hudson employees.
(Photo by Brian Mapp/Playbill Inc. Used by special permission.)
Fig. 2 The 4-in.-tube pentagon frames,
shown in plywood jigs, were tied to-
gether with 4-in. tubes coped for making
hexagons.
Fig. 3 Anthony Robinson uses GTAW
with 5356 filler metal to construct the
balls aluminum frame. 3
2
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 92
Creating Pentagons
and Hexagons
The balls shape was formed by 180
triangular faces arranged in 20 hexagons
and 12 pentagons.
Using a simple jig consisting of
blocks, 4-in.-tube pentagon frames were
made. Hudson performed this cutting
and joint preparation, plus used a com-
puter numerical control router to cut
templates and fixtures. These shapes
were then fit onto plywood to serve as
updated jigs and tied together with 4-in.
tubes coped to fit into the pentagon cor-
ners for creating hexagons Fig. 2.
Specialty Steel International, Bronx,
N.Y., performed the cutting, coping, and
joint preparation.
Aluminum Importance
and GTAW
Aluminum, predominantly Alloy
6061, makes up the balls frame. Hudson
purchased the material from Yarde
Metals, Inc., Hauppauge, N.Y.
Employees Jerry Valenzuela and
Anthony Robinson performed a majority
of the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
with 5356 filler metal Fig. 3. They
were aided by Donald C. Wright Jr.,
Hament Kallica, James Starr, Josh
Braun, Gabriel Tepoxteco, and John
Sissilli with 32 other welders/fitters.
The work gave a big boost to the
quality and confidence of our welders,
Bardwell said.
Its skeleton, made out of 4-in.-diame-
ter
1
4-in.-wall 6061 aluminum tubes,
came together with partial joint penetra-
tion square groove welds and fillet welds.
I think the biggest challenge was the
design and preparation of the joints in
the skeleton frame. The copes were at
difficult angles and not orthogonal. The
bevels needed to change as the dihedral
angle changed, Bardwell explained.
Three identical weldments, approxi-
mately 12 6 4 ft in size, were con-
structed to form the ball Fig. 4.
Eventually, these were placed upright on
an engraved plywood floor pattern and
connected with more coped struts.
South Plainfield Engineering, South
Plainfield, N.J., cut and bent secondary
aluminum attachment frames. In addi-
tion, flat pieces with complicated, coped
tubes were subcontracted.
Fig. 4 Three identical weldments,
about 12 6 4 ft, form the ball.
Fig. 5 The balls triangular faces are
created by the LED support frames,
behind which is the hexagonal/pen-
tagonal skeleton. A Triangular LED
support frame; B completed seg-
ment showing the LEDs and crystals.
4
5A
5B
THE AMERICAN WELDER
93 WELDING JOURNAL
Triangular Frame Time
The triangular LED support frames
were made using 304 stainless steel tube,
2
1
2 in. 18 gauge, joined by square
groove partial joint penetration welds on
the faces and fillet welds on the inside
corners Fig. 5A. The outside corner
was left open for drainage. A 4-mm
Alucobond panel was riveted to the
frames backside.
Four of the individual LED fixtures,
provided by Lighting Science Group,
Satellite Beach, Fla., were attached to
this panel. The LED fixtures were water-
proof plastic boxes, and the electronics
controlling them were in waterproof
enclosure cabinets. The mounting tabs
for these enclosures, as well as the guide
wheels and lifting lugs, were attached
with fillet welds.
Four Waterford Crystals are also
bolted to each fixture Fig. 5B.
Tents to hold the LED support
frames arrived formed, but they needed
standoffs and stiffening ribs attached
Fig. 6. Twelve were welded to the tube
skeleton while 18 crossing over the ship-
ping breaks were bolted to tabs welded
to the skeleton.
North Park Metalworkers Inc.,
Rhinebeck, N.Y., cut, welded, and
assembled the stainless steel frames that
the LED fixtures were mounted on.
Finishing Details
Inside the skeleton are extra struts
for attaching the lifting ropes, guide
wheels, and electronics Fig. 7. Two of
the hexagonal openings have no tents
attached as that would delineate the
poles path and balls center.
With the latest ball, we tried to min-
imize the gap, using narrow stainless
tube to contain the LED fixtures,
Bardwell added, to create cohesive
edges between facets. I think this is suc-
Fig. 6 An example of a tent to contain
the LED support frame is shown.
Fig. 7 The purpose for struts inside the
skeleton are to attach lifting ropes, among
other factors.
Fig. 8 The balls colorful LEDs were
tested and programmed for proper work-
ing order.
6
7
8
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 94
cessful because it minimizes the impact
of the unlit edge, leaving the lighting and
crystals as the primary design element.
Extra work included the following:
minimal finishing with hand grinders;
hiring Stone Services Corp., Bronx,
N.Y., to paint the pieces with an epoxy
primer; installing the balls interior cool-
ing fan and electronics; attaching, test-
ing, and programming the LEDs; and
adding chase lining Fig. 8.
Inspection Practices
In addition, one of Bardwells respon-
sibilities is Hudsons quality assurance
program. He has developed its welding
procedures and done testing for proce-
dure qualification records (PQR) and
welder qualification records (WQR).
On difficult projects, or when
requested by a client, we use outside
inspectors. John Brooks of John H.
Brooks & Associates in Middletown,
N.J., was used this time, Bardwell said.
He added Brooks gave invaluable
assistance in developing procedures for
the tubular joints and did visual inspec-
tion throughout the construction period.
AWS D1.2:1997, Structural Welding Code
Aluminum, was adhered to.
The coupon testing for their PQR
and WQR was done by Testwell of
Ossining, N.Y., Bardwell said.
Delivering the Ball
Hudson completed installing and
testing the ball on December 5, 2008, but
getting it up to the One Times Square
roof wasnt easy.
All the LED fixtures and control equip-
ment needed to come off, then the skele-
ton frame had to be disassembled down to
its three identical weldments, which were
then lifted using a window washing hoist. It
was then fit around the pole, bolted
together, attached to the winch, and
repopulated with LEDs Fig. 9.
Earning a Special
Welding Distinction
During a ceremony this year on
January 6, the AWS Extraordinary
Welding Award went to the Times
Square New Years Eve Ball.
Dean Wilson, AWS president, pre-
sented this honor at the annual ceremony
to relight and raise the ball back up the
130-ft pole atop One Times Square
Fig. 10. The ball will remain there for vis-
itors to see until it drops back down to
ring in 2015.
Voted on by AWSs Past Presidents
Committee, the award celebrates techni-
cal design or outstanding development in
welded fabrication, recognizing welding
excellence in construction, fabrication and
manufacturing, and designating those
welded structures whose purpose has
importance in, or influence on, history.
It means a great deal both to me and
everyone else at Hudson to be recog-
nized and honored by an organization
that many of us are members of and
which has been so important in helping
us improve the quality of our work,
Bardwell said.
Appreciation Aspects
Now, after learning about all the
steps that went into this balls creation,
perhaps you will have a newfound
respect and admiration for the structure
while waiting for next year to arrive.
It has been a kick, Bardwell said of
helping to make such a famous structure.
Most of my work is indoors, and seen by
a fairly small audience, often lasting for
less than a year or two. The ball sits in an
extreme environment [and fortunately
withstood Hurricane Sandys wrath]. It is
seen and enjoyed by millions.
Fig. 9 The balls components were all
transported to the One Times Square roof
where complete reassembly took place.
Fig. 10 At the recent event where the
Times Square New Years Eve Ball re-
ceived the AWS Extraordinary Welding
Award were (from left) Tim Tompkins,
Times Square Alliance president; Dean
Wilson, AWS president; Roger Bardwell,
foreman/chief engineer, Hudson Scenic
Studio; and Jeff Straus, Countdown En-
tertainment president.
9
10
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 96
W
elding and the Army: Either
career is relatively uncommon
for a woman; to combine the
two is rarer still. To Stacey-Ann McNish-
Rodriguez (Fig. 1), welding in the U.S.
Army is the perfect combination.
I was always fascinated with the
Army as a child, she recalled.
That fascination would lead her to
her career calling. At 15, McNish-
Rodriguez arrived in southern Florida
from Jamaica. After high school, not
sure of what she wanted to study and
concerned with education costs,
McNish-Rodriguez met with an Army
recruiter. He mentioned welding as a
potential service occupation, and she
was sold. Why welding?
I was fascinated with the welding
process because I love to create things,
she said.
So, in February 1994, she enlisted in
the U.S. Army as an Allied Trades
Specialist. Now, 20 years later, Chief
Warrant Officer 3 McNish-Rodriguez
directs the setup, operation, and mainte-
nance of machine tools and welding
equipment used to fabricate or repair
parts, mechanisms, tools, and machinery.
I am in charge of training officers
and other warrant officers, she
explained, describing her current assign-
ment at the Armys Fort Lee in Virginia.
During four combat deployments,
McNish-Rodriguez has witnessed just
how welding can play an important role
in Army operations.
Welding is a critical occupational
specialty in the Army, and during those
deployments it seemed that the welding
shop had more work than everyone
else, she said, noting that the majority
of deployment work involved recovery
and repair of damaged vehicles. When
something gets blown up or needs repair,
we handle that, and it all must be done
quickly. Sometimes we also add metal or
modify equipment. When a soldier
comes in for you to make something new
or to repair something, I see it as an art
project. Its a type of art form that I real-
ly enjoy and appreciate.
First Warrant Officer in
Welding-Industry
Training Program
To keep up with the latest welding
technology and procedures, McNish-
Rodriguez recently underwent 12
months of training at The Lincoln
Electric Co. in Cleveland, Ohio. For the
past six years, the company has partici-
pated in the U.S. Armys Training with
Industry (TWI) program, where an
enlisted Army soldier reports to work at
Army Offers Uncommon
Career Path
Based on information provided by The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio,
www.lincolnelectric.com.
Chief Warrant Officer Stacey-Ann McNish-Rodriguez relates why
she chose to become a welder in the U.S. Army
Fig. 1 Chief Warrant Officer Stacey-
Ann McNish-Rodriguez recently spent a
year in the U.S. Armys Training with In-
dustry program.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
97 WELDING JOURNAL
Lincoln Electric for one year. During
this period, the soldier gains knowledge
in order to advance welding practices in
the military. The program has been so
successful that it has been expanded to
include a warrant officer. McNish-
Rodriguez was the first to participate.
Being selected as the first warrant
officer in the Allied Trades field to fill
this position was a definite honor, said
McNish-Rodriguez, who completed her
assignment in July 2013 before heading
back to Fort Lee.
In this program, competitively
selected officers are given extensive
work exposure to corporate America,
explained Carl Peters, Lincolns director
of technical training. The officer gains
knowledge in welding and private-sector
business practices and procedures, and
then reports back to a military position
for three years in order to transfer the
knowledge.
During her time in Cleveland,
McNish-Rodriguez participated in weld-
ing-design and welding-productivity
seminars, training in advanced robotics
and Six Sigma operational analysis, and
in a comprehensive welding course (Fig.
2), as well as advanced-technology train-
ing and exposure to various types of
welding equipment. She also earned
multiple welding certifications.
Army Gains from
Industry Knowledge
The Armys main objective in spon-
soring the TWI program is to develop sol-
diers who are experienced in higher-level
managerial techniques and who have an
understanding of the relationship of their
industry as it relates to specific functions
of the Army, McNish- Rodriguez
explained. Once TWI students integrate
Fig. 2 McNish-Rodriguez practices her gas tungsten arc welding skills.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 98
back into an Army organization, they can
use this information to improve the
Armys ability to interact and conduct
business with industry. Participants may
also be exposed to innovative industrial-
management practices, techniques, and
procedures that are applicable to, and
benefit, the Army.
But there is much more to the pro-
gram than that, she said. The manage-
ment practices, research, and level of
technology she observed can all benefit
the Army, believes McNish-Rodriguez,
as well as improve the training for the
Allied Trades Specialist program.
Advanced robotics training and the
use of the companys VRTEX 360 vir-
tual reality arc welding training systems
are two examples of her experiences in
Cleveland that can translate well to
Army needs.
The advanced robotic training
showed how the welding world is evolving
and brought to mind ideas of how to
accomplish many of the Armys welding
needs, she said, noting also that the
Army has added 13 of the virtual reality
training systems to its Allied Trades Dept.
at Fort Lees Center of Excellence.
She recalled that her instructors and
direct supervisor made sure she was fully
involved in all of the available classes
and seminars keeping the Armys goal
in mind. She said, We are trying to
develop our welding curriculum in the
Army so that when soldiers leave they
can be competitive on the outside.
Perseverance Pays
As her year of training wound down,
McNish-Rodriguez prepared to bring a
host of new ideas back to Fort Lee. But
what wont change is the attitude that
enabled her to succeed as a female
welder and chief warrant officer in the
U.S. Army.
Being in the Army as a female and
an Allied Trades warrant officer has its
challenges, as in any profession, she
explained. You need to ask yourself
whether you will allow any small minds
and challenges to dictate your career
path for you. I have always been a
strong, persistent individual, never
allowing anyone or anything to control
what is attainable. When I tell people
what I do, they look at me and say, That
is not possible. The opportunities are
there for females, but if you are not on
top of performance and knowledge, it
will not work out. You have to prove
yourself every day.
My motto has always been to go for
the challenge, McNish-Rodriguez added.
Never allow another human being to dic-
tate how much you can achieve.
Looking back she knows shes made
the right decisions going for the challenge.
My overall Army career has been
fun, McNish-Rodriguez concluded.
Four deployments to Iraq, two beauti-
ful kids that are simply amazing, a won-
derful husband, and family support that
is stupendous.

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Yasuaki Okita and Kenji Oi (JFE Steel)
Development of In-Process Welding Current and Electrode Force Control Process for Indirect Spot Welding
Muneo Matsushita, Rinsei Ikeda and Kenji Oi (JFE Steel)
Influences of Tempered Pulses on Resistance Spot Welding of Hot Press Forming Steels
J. Hou, D. Saha, S. Nayak, K. Chan, N. Scotchmer, N. Zhou, and A. Gerlich
Current Challenges and Status of Adaptive Welding Technologies
Pierre Barthelemy (ARO Welding)
Comparison of Resistance Spot Welding and Refill Friction Stir Welding of Al 7075 Sheets
Y. Chen, J. Hou, K. Chan, N. Scotchmer, N. Zhou, M. Worswick, and A. Gerlich
Improvements in the Resistance Weldability and Properties of Thick-Thin Aluminum Alloy Combinations
Anthony Ananthanarayanan
Revised Work of ISO 14270 on Mechanized Peel
Kin-ichi Matsuyama (Osaka University)
Effects of Specimen Geometry and Material Strength on the Test Results in the Mechanized Peel Testing
Better Understanding of the Upset and Flash Welding as a Solid Phase Joining Process
Challenges and Advances in Welding of a New Generation of High Strength Steels in the Automotive Industry
Murali Tumuluru
Resistance Spot Welding of High Strength Dual Phase Steels
Murali Tumuluru
Safety: Protecting Your Bottom Line
Ray Michelena
Resistance Welding of Stranded-Wire Aluminum Cables to Connectors for Hybrid Automotive Applications with
No Pre-Cleaning or Plating of the Parts Welded
International symposium on
Advances in
Resistance Welding
April 2830, 2014 / Atlanta
Earn PDHs toward your AWS recertification when you attend this conference.
Co-sponsor with
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
FACT SHEET
101 WELDING JOURNAL
Ventilation in Confined
Spaces
Ventilation in confined spaces needs to
be sufficient to ensure adequate oxygen
for life support, to prevent accumulation
of asphixiants or flammable or explosive
mixtures, to prevent oxygen-enriched at-
mospheres, and to keep airborne contam-
inants in breathing atmospheres below al-
lowable limits.
Work in confined spaces requires spe-
cial precautions. Workers, including both
owner and contractor personnel, should
be familiar with written confined space
work program guidelines or should have
the work supervised by a trained person.
Asphyxiation causes unconsciousness and
death without warning. Oxygen-enriched
atmospheres greatly intensify combustion,
and may rapidly cause severe and often
fatal burns.
Ventilation before Entry. Do not enter
a confined space unless it is well ventilated
and tested to ensure it is safe for entry.
When it is not practical to maintain the
space safe for entry, the space is only to be
entered when the following conditions are
met:
The space has been tested and deter-
mined not to present an oxygen-defi-
cient or oxygen-enriched atmosphere, a
hazard of fire or explosion, or an at-
mosphere hazardous to life;
A trained second person equipped for
rescue is present outside the confined
space.
Testing Atmospheres. Confined spaces
are to be tested for toxic or flammable
gases, dusts, and vapors, and for adequate
or excess oxygen before entering and dur-
ing occupancy. The same precautions
apply to areas such as pits, tank bottoms,
low areas, and areas near floors when
heavier-than-air gases and vapors are
present, and to areas such as tank tops,
high areas, and near ceilings when lighter-
than-air gases are present.
If possible, a continuous monitoring
system with audible alarms should be used
for confined space work. Gases such as
argon, propane, and carbon dioxide are
heavier than air. Gases such as helium and
natural gas are lighter than air.
Adjacent Persons. Ensure there is ade-
quate ventilation in confined spaces not
only to protect welders or cutters them-
selves, but to protect all personnel who
may be present in the area.
Air Quality and Quantity. The quality
and quantity of air for ventilation must be
such that personnel exposures to haz-
ardous contaminants are maintained
below the allowable limits. Breathing air
supplied by cylinders or compressors are
to meet the Grade D requirements of
ANSI/CGA G-7.1.
The supply air line for respirators must
be a dedicated line that is not capable of
being valved to any other line that could
allow hazardous or toxic gases into the res-
pirator air line.
Prohibited Ventilation Gases. Oxygen,
or any other gas or mixtures of gases, ex-
cept air, is not to be used for ventilation.
Air may be natural air or synthesized
air for breathing purposes.
Ventilation in Areas Immediately Dan-
gerous to Life or Health (IDLH). When
welding, cutting, or related processes are
performed in areas immediately danger-
ous to life or health, the requirements of
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146 shall be
followed.
Location of Service
Equipment
The purpose of this provision is to pre-
vent contamination of the atmosphere of
a confined space by possible leaks from
gas cylinders or fumes from welding power
sources or similar equipment and to mini-
mize the possibility of electric shock.
Compressed Gas Cylinders and Weld-
ing Power Sources. When welding or cut-
ting in confined spaces, gas cylinders and
welding power sources are to be located
outside the confined space.
Heavy Portable Equipment on Wheels.
Heavy portable equipment mounted on
wheels is to be secured in position to pre-
vent accidental movement before opera-
tions are started in a confined space.
Ventilation Ducts. Ducts used to pro-
vide local exhaust ventilation for welding,
cutting, or related operations are to be
constructed of noncombustible materials.
These ducts are to be inspected as neces-
sary to ensure proper function and that the
internal surfaces are free of combustible
residuals.
When welding or cutting activities
occur near ventilation ducts or conveyor
systems, care should be taken to see that
sparks and spatter are not carried to loca-
tions with combustible or explosive
material.
Adjacent Areas. When welding or cut-
ting is to be done over, or adjacent to, any
confined space, personnel are to be made
aware of the hazards in the confined space
and are not to enter such spaces without
first following the precautions specified in
ANSI Z117.1 and OSHA 29 CFR
1910.146.
Emergency Signal. When a person en-
ters a confined space through a manhole
or other small opening, means must be
provided for signaling outside personnel
for help.
Attendants in Areas Immediately Dan-
gerous to Life or Health (IDLH). When
operations are carried on in confined
spaces where atmospheres immediately
dangerous to life or health may be present
or may develop, attendants are to be sta-
tioned on the outside of the confined
space.
Attendants Responsibilities. Atten-
dants need to have a preplanned rescue
procedure for quickly removing or pro-
tecting those working inside in case of
emergency, must observe the workers in-
side or be in constant communication with
them, and be capable of putting rescue op-
erations into effect.
Positive-pressure, self-contained
breathing apparatus need to be available
for each attendant who is required to
enter as a rescuer or first responder.
Rescue operations should take into
consideration such elements as the num-
ber of workers requiring rescue, the time
available to perform the rescue given dif-
ferent accident scenarios, and the time
needed for additional rescue personnel to
be summoned.
Body Harness Systems. When body
harness systems are used for emergency
rescue purposes, they need to be attached
to the persons body so that they do not be-
come obstructed in passing through a
small or tortuous exit path in following the
preplanned rescue procedure.
Working Safely in Confined Spaces
Reference: ANSI Z49.1:2012, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
LEARNING TRACK
MARCH 2014 102
T
he Merrill Institute, located in the
city of Alma in central Michigan, is
an American Welding Society
(AWS) Accredited Test Facility (ATF). It
was originally established by Merrill
Technologies Group to train welders,
especially returning veterans, to relieve
the shortage of skilled craftsmen in the
region. It is engaged in STEM (science,
technology, engineering, and mathemat-
ics) talent development to expose its stu-
dents to project-based learning experi-
ences with real-world opportunities that
include tours through manufacturing
plants and engagement with engineers
and technicians. The welding course of
study complies with the AWS SENSE
(Schools Excelling through National
Skills Standards Education) guidelines.
The school provides Levels IIII welding
courses complying with AWS QC 10,
Specification for Qualification and
Certification of Level I Entry Welder;
AWS EG 2.0, Guide for the Training of
Welding Personnel: Level I Entry
Welder; AWS QC 11, Specification for
Qualification and Certification of Level II
Advanced Welder; and AWS EG 3.0,
Guide for the Training of Welding
Personnel: Level II Advanced Welder;
AWS QC 12, Specification for
Qualification and Certification of Level
III Expert Welder; and AWS EG 4.0,
Guide for the Training of Welding
Personnel: Level III Expert Welder.
Mark Johnston, institute director,
said, From day one, students are
exposed to the schools failure is not an
option philosophy. Beyond providing
the student with the tools, resources, and
knowledge, the instructors will take time
outside of the classroom to assist stu-
The Merrill Institutes Welder Training Motto:
Failure Is Not an Option
When Merrill Technologies Group recognized
the shortage of skilled welders in the area, it
established an AWS-accredited facility to
properly train students for the jobs
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
HOWARD M. WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
Graduation day for Class 7. Shown from left are (front row) Jimnesia Jackson, Melvin Price, Victoria Perales, and Daymon Williams, (back
row) CWI/CWE Instructor Matt Alexander, Justin Yancer, Jeff Brush, Mike North, Ed Beamon, Clifford Coston, Rich Kobman, and
CWI/CWE Instructor Jason North.
Pipelines Conference

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 2
Highlights
- Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments
in pipeline welding.
-
business growth.
- AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional
Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance.
and renewals.
March 4-5, 2014 - Hcu:Icn
We|cing hc: c|wcy: Leen cn inIegrc| pcrI cf pipe|ine ccn:IrucIicn. lI c|| gce:
back to the days when hand-held oxyacetylene torches were u:ec Ic ccnnecI
pipe: IcgeIher in Ihe fie|c. CurrenI cnc fuIure pipeline welding trends will be
ci:cu::ec curing Ihi: AWS-sponsored conference cn pipe|ine we|cing.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 104
dents who require additional hands-on
coaching to succeed in their studies.
This personal involvement continues
through graduation and even into the
students futures. Following completion
of the welding program, the instructors
will work with graduates to assist them
with obtaining jobs in the industry.
The institute is located in the heart of
the Merrill Fabricators 400,000-sq-ft
facility where students are exposed daily
to an active industrial environment that
is certified to ISO 9001:2000 standards.
This environment further enhances their
preparation for entering the workforce.
The Welding Instructors
Johnston noted, Our instructors are
some of the most talented professionals
in the industry who provide real-world
application and expertise while promot-
ing a safe work environment. Each is
dedicated to students success, taking the
time beyond the classroom to assist them
with achieving their goals. The instruc-
tional staff includes Director Mark
Johnston; Dennis Beson, career devel-
opment specialist; Alex Teselsky; Jason
North, CWI, CWE, manager of opera-
tions and industrial training; and Josh
Upham, NDT Services and Training.
The Course of Study
North, who has worked at Merrill for
18 years, said the program is an intense,
hands-on experience that provides stu-
dents with the tools to start a career in
welding and fabrication. North teaches
welding and cutting processes as well as
weld symbol and blueprint reading.
The basic AWS SENSE Level 1
course of study is designed to teach the
skills and knowledge required to secure
employment within the welding industry.
It is an accelerated 7- to 10-week course,
clocking between 262 and 522 hours of
training. During the course, students
fabricate and weld metal components
together using the four most common
arc welding processes. Upon successful
completion of the course, graduates earn
the Merrill Institute Level 1 Welding
Certificate of Completion and the AWS
SENSE Level 1 Certificate.
The Merrill Institute is noted for its
small class sizes and programs that meet
the needs of local employers. It provides
students with the foundation for a suc-
cessful career with real-world, experien-
tial, project-focused training using state-
of-the-art machines and equipment to
develop the competencies and proficien-
cy required by employers. Most impor-
tantly, this certification is recognized
and accepted industry-wide.
Prescreening
Merrill recognizes that some prospec-
tive students do not have the basic qual-
ities necessary to succeed as a profes-
sional welder. Before being accepted
into the welder program, Johnston said,
prospective students are interviewed
for assurance they have the willingness
to do the work and tested to verify they
have the necessary eye-hand coordina-
tion and math skills. Of the 30 to 45 peo-
ple interviewed, only ten are chosen for
the course. Johnston added that he is
seeking additional funding and grants
Student Ed Beamon (left) is shown working with Welding Instructor Matt Alexander in the
Merrill Institute lab.
Instructor Jason North (left) works with Dan Hansen (center) and Jeremy Lewis on a braz-
ing bronze project.
LEARNING TRACK
This conference will help welding engineers and
others avoid mistakes and turn out high quality
products. Topics range from impact tests and how they
relate to potential weld cracking as well as the control of
moisture in welding consumables.
Earn PDHs toward your AWS recertification
when you attend this conference.
Impact Testing
Advanced Creep Strength Enhanced and Ferritic Steel
Designing Crack-Free Weld Procedures for High Strength Steels
Hydrogen Sulfide in Stainless Steels
The Control of Moisture in Welding Consumables
X-Ray Diffraction
Hydrogen Cracking
Titanium Alloy Welds
The Benefits of Preheating Weldments
Passivation & Other Post-Weld Cleaning
Crack-Free Welding of Nickel-Base Alloys
Root Pass Welding: May the Force(s) Be With You!
How to Avoid Cracking When Welding Aluminum Alloys

THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2014 106
for help with tuition costs. The student
screening pays off in that the program
maintains a more than 90% graduation
rate and 85% employment rate.
Merrill offers more than just welding
training. Several manufacturing courses
are offered and students may choose to
take just the manufacturing courses with-
out any welder training. Other offerings
include a specialized course titled
Everything Disc Work of Leaders, per-
formance improvement, effective hiring,
respect in the workplace, and learning to
be an effective trainer.
The Welding Lab
Johnston said two new welding labs
were added to the facility in 2013 for a
total of 35 welding booths. The students
work with the latest equipment, including
multiprocess Lincoln Flextec 650,
Precision TIG 275, and Power Wave
S350 with PF-10 wire feeders, to perform
the major arc welding processes: gas
tungsten, flux core, gas metal, and shield-
ed metal. The cutting operations use
Miller Spectrum 2050 plasma cutting
machine, Messer plasma cutting table,
oxyfuel and heavy-duty air-carbon arc
cutting tools used with a 9- 6-ft
Hypertherm 105-amp table. Students
fabricate and weld metal components
together using the common arc welding
processes including SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, and GTAW. Students also log
time using the welding-support opera-
tions of the oxyfuel cutting process, and
carbon arc gouging and cutting.
Our Accredited Testing Facility
(ATF) designation through the American
Welding Society authorizes the institute
to perform welder qualification and ATF
assessment testing for companies and
individuals across the country, said
Johnston. Its ATF program is audited by
the AWS to meet established criteria to
test and certify welders according to the
very high standards of the AWS.
The Reverse Career Fair
Prior to the completion of each class,
Merrill hosts a unique reverse career fair
to showcase its recent graduates for local
employers to interview. In this event,
the students set up booths and the
recruiters visit the students to discuss job
opportunities.
Vince Cohoon practices gas metal arc welding with an uplhill progession.
Merrill students are shown during a classroom session.
LEARNING TRACK
Merrill Institute
www.merrillinstitute.com
520 Republic Ave.
Alma, MI 48801
Office: (989) 462-0322
Contact:
Mark Johnston, Director
Merrill Institute
info-min@merrillinst.com
MARCH 2014 108
sheet metal workers, structural metal fabricators, boilermakers,
and pipe and steam fitters led to creating these new programs.
Our conversations with the regions employers indicate a
high demand in western Pennsylvania for professionals skilled in
electronics engineering, welding, and HVAC, said DeFeo. A
lot of resources are coming out of the ground in this region, in-
cluding natural gas, methane, propane, butane, both liquid and
gas. These need to be measured, processed, and transported and
electronics technicians such as those prepared by PTIs Oil and
Gas Electronics program are needed for every phase of these
processes.
As students begin their career training, the colleges Career
Services Department has also been receiving requests from re-
gional employers for both interns and graduates.
Industry Notes
Electrical Builders, Inc., a high-power conductor service
provider and AWS Sustaining Member Company, is celebrat-
ing a milestone in 2014 with its 40th year in business. From be-
ginnings out of a home office in Kimball, Minn., it has expanded
resulting in power projects throughout North America, includ-
ing servicing 60% of the domestic nuclear fleet.
Harvest Technologies, Belton, Tex., an additive manufacturing
service bureau, recently added to its in-house fleet of 3D print-
ers an XL-sized Fortus 900mc machine and will soon take de-
livery of two mid-sized Fortus 400mc machines.
TST Tooling Software Technology, LLC, Clarkston, Mich., and
Vero Software have made a grant of Edgecam software with a
retail value of $750,000 to Lawrence Technological University.
Its Blue Devil Motorsports teams can use this to create parts
to assemble its vehicles for international competitions.
The Boy Scouts of America has presented its North Star Award
to The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for its support
of the Welding Merit Badge program. The companys group
at Tennessee Rand has also been recognized by the Small Busi-
ness Institute for Excellence in Commerce with the 2013 Ten-
nessee Excellence Award. In addition, Lincoln has been named
Top Plant of 2013 by Plant Engineering magazine.
NuCor Steel has donated 60 tons of steel to the welding and
truck driver training programs at Greenville Technical College.
Its Darlington, S.C., operation donated the steel to be used by
welding students at the Brashier and Barton campuses. Three
students and their instructor took 8 h to drive the round trip
and spent another hour at the site loading/securing the steel
that is valued at $46,000.
Methods Machine Tools, Inc., will be opening a new, expanded
technology center in Anaheim, Calif. New applications, sales,
and service staff are being added to support the facility.
ABICOR Binzel has received the Frost & Sullivan Product
Leadership Award for Welding Torches 2013 for its RAB Grip
fume-extraction torch line and ABIMIG A T LW.
Lake Superior College will open a new campus in downtown
Duluth, Minn., to house integrated manufacturing training
programs, including welding and machine tool courses.
Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield, Pa., has completed an audit
and was reapproved by Nuclear Industry Assessment Com-
mittee member Crane Nuclear, Inc. The results approved the
company for another three-year term.
The Robert C. Byrd Institute for Advanced Flexible Manu-
facturing, Huntington, W.Va., will work with the Wayne
County Board of Education, Spring Valley Career Technol-
ogy Center, and Mountwest Community & Technical College
to deliver programs/classes that will prepare students to earn
associate degrees in welding technology from Mountwest.
They will be tested to AWS standards, among others.
The Association for Advancing Automation, Ann Arbor,
Mich., has launched a new website at www.a3automate.org.
Features include blog posts covering automation strategies.
Magic-Aire Industries, Inc., which distributes Uniweld prod-
ucts, hosted training on brazing technologies for HVAC/R
systems and emphasizing safety in Manila, Philippines.
Linn State Technical College, Linn, Mo., has been accredited
by AWS as an official testing facility. Students benefit from
this as it enhances their skills/employability as welding
technicians.
Promation, Inc., has completed renovating its soldering lab
in Kenosha, Wis., to offer many services, including robot
configurations, nitrogen assist, and a range of solders/tip
profiles.
FRIMO, Inc., installed a JoinLine IR-H-Highspeed infrared
welding machine at its TechCenter in Wixom, Mich., making
it possible to get processing speeds previously unachievable.
Lynnes Welding Training, Fargo, N.Dak., recently hosted its
2nd Annual Boy Scouts Welding Merit Badge training event
with 15 Scouts. Also, the school has added two new welding
booths.
Osborn, a supplier of surface treatment solutions and finish-
ing tools, has launched its new website at osborn.com joining
the different sites from various company locations worldwide.
Norton/Saint-Gobain will continue as primary sponsor to USA
Luge, Lake Placid, N.Y., through the 2018 Peyongchang Win-
ter Games. The relationship began nearly 30 years ago when
it donated sandpaper to the team for shaping/polishing their
steel runners and has grown to include product donations.
FANUC Merges All of Its Operations in the
Americas into a Single Corporation
FANUC has officially merged all of its operations in the Amer-
icas into a single company named FANUC America Corp. The
new company, headquartered in Rochester Hills, Mich., will have
combined annual sales in excess of $1 billion and 22 locations.
The merger of the FANUC companies in the Americas bet-
ter enables us to accomplish our mission of increasing the com-
petitiveness of North and South American manufacturers by cre-
ating opportunities for them to maximize their efficiency, relia-
bility, quality, and profitability, said Rick Schneider, president
and CEO, FANUC America Corp.
Also, in related company news, FANUC Corp. has been named
the 26th most innovative company in the world and sixth top-
ranked innovator in Asia by Forbes. Additionally, FANUC Amer-
ica Corp. has been recognized as one of Michigans top 100 work-
places by the Detroit Free Press.
BUSINESS BRIEFS
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
109 WELDING JOURNAL
Servo-Robot Training Seminars. Two-day laser-vision seminars
held throughout the year at Servo-Robot, Inc., near Montreal,
Canada. Seminars include tutorials and hands-on practical train-
ing. For seminar schedule and costs, e-mail request to info@
servorobot.com.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2-in. Pipe in the 6G Position
Uphill. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;
(800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
SSPC Training and Certification Courses. Courses in protective
coatings, abrasive blasting, paint inspector, bridge coatings
inspector, surface preparation, NAVSEA inspector, and many
others. The Society for Protective Coatings; www.sspc.org.
Thermadyne Distributor Training. Year-around training at
Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Bowling Green, Ky.; and
Chino, Calif. Contact trainingteam@victortechnologies.com.
TIP TIG Manual and Automated Plate and Pipe Welding
Workshops. Held the third Thursday of every month. 1901 Kitty
Hawk Ave., Bldg. 68, Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Philadelphia,
Pa.; (215) 389-7700; www.tiptigusa.com.
Tool and Die Welding Courses. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Personalized training
services on resistance and laser beam welding and laser marking;
(626) 303-5676; www.unitekmiyachi.com.
Vibration Training Short Courses. Presented at locations nation-
wide, customers site, and by correspondence. Vibration
Institute; www.vibinst.org.
Welding Courses. A wide range of specialized courses presented
throughout the year. The Lincoln Electric Co.; (216) 486-1751;
www.lincolnelectric.com.
Welding Introduction for Robot Operators and Programmers.
This one-week course is presented in Troy, Ohio, or at customers
locations. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-
9448, ext. 5603; www.welding.org.
Welding Skills Training Courses. Courses include weldability of
ferrous and nonferrous metals, arc welding inspection, quality
control, and preparation for recertification of Certified Welding
Inspectors. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-
9448; www.welding.org.
COMING EVENTS
For more information visit our website at http://videos.aws.org or please contact:
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Sandra Jorgensen
sjorgensen@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 254
Lea Paneca
lea@aws.org
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111 WELDING JOURNAL
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MARCH 2014 112
Introduction and Background
The weld metal microstructure has a
great influence on the properties of a fu-
sion weld. Many studies have shown that
small, equiaxed grains instead of large,
columnar grains can improve the mechan-
ical properties of the weld (Refs. 1, 2) and
the weldability of the base metal (Refs. 3,
4). Small, equiaxed weld metal grains are
usually achieved through the addition of
commercial grain refiner to the filler metal
(Ref. 5) where Al Ti5B1 is one of the most
important grain refiners (Ref. 6). It was
suggested that particles like TiB
2
and
Al
3
Ti act during solidification as very effi-
cient solidification nuclei for Al grains
(Refs. 79). Experimental results on grain
refinement in aluminum GTA welds are
shown in Part 1 of this study, where a fine
weld metal microstructure was achieved by
fusing cast inserts with a GTA welding
process. These inserts were produced with
a casting process, in which Al base metal
was enriched with varying amounts of
commercial Al Ti5B1 grain refiner
(Ref. 10).
Beside the presence of effective nuclei,
the chemical composition of the weld
metal influences the weld microstructure
strongly. The alloying elements partition
in the melt during the solidification of the
weld pool and provide constitutional un-
dercooling (Ref. 11), which is needed to
activate particles such as TiB
2
and Al
3
Ti
for nucleation (Ref. 12). The highest de-
gree of constitutional undercooling is pro-
vided by titanium (Ref. 13), which makes it
particularly favorable for Al grain refiners
(Ref. 14). Furthermore, the constitutional
undercooling is influenced by a third con-
trol variable regarding weld metal grain
refinement, the solidification conditions
that are controlled by the welding param-
eters. In arc welds, these conditions are
controlled, in addition to the weld geome-
try, particularly by the welding parameters
Welding speed (in mm s
1
)
Arc current I (in A)
Arc voltage U (in V)
that define the heat input H
(1)
These welding parameters result in
thermal conditions that can be expressed
by the parameters
Cooling rate dT/dt (in K s
1
)
Local thermal gradient G (in K mm
1
)
Solidification growth rate R (in mm s
1
)
Constitutional undercooling T
C
(in K)
where cooling rate, thermal gradient, and
growth rate have the following
relationship
(2)
It should be noted that the above so-
lidification parameters and the correspon-
ding microstructure vary strongly along
the solidification front. In fusion welds,
two different grain morphologies are fre-
quently observed. At the weld interface,
grains often start growing with a columnar
shape. While these columnar grains grow
toward the weld center, the solidification
conditions at their leading edge change.
Both dT/dt and R increase and G de-
creases (Ref. 15). As a consequence, the
H
U I
v
=

=
dT
dt
G R
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, MARCH 2014
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal:
Part 2 Thermal Conditions and Model for
Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition
The influence of solute content and heat input on microstructure was
investigated and a prediction model for solidification growth rate
and thermal gradient was developed
BY P. SCHEMPP, C. E. CROSS, A. PITTNER, AND M. RETHMEIER
KEYWORDS
Aluminum
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
Columnar-to-Equiaxed
Transition (CET)
Thermal Analysis
P. SCHEMPP (P.Schempp@gmx.de) and A. PIT-
TNER are with Federal Institute for Materials Re-
search and Testing, Berlin, Germany. C. E.
CROSS is with Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Materials Science & Technology, Los Alamos,
N.Mex. M. RETHMEIER is with Fraunhofer Insti-
tute for Production Systems and Design Technol-
ogy and Federal Institute for Materials Research
and Testing, Berlin, Germany.
Part 1 appeared in the February 2014 issue of the
Welding Journal.
ABSTRACT
In this study, the influence of solute content and heat input on microstructure was
investigated for gas tungsten arc (GTA) bead-on-plate welding of the aluminum al-
loys 1050A (Al 99.5) and 6082 (Al Si1MgMn). Temperature measurements in the so-
lidifying weld pool showed that parameters such as solidification growth rate, cooling
rate, local thermal gradient, and solidification time vary significantly along the so-
lidification front (between weld centerline and weld interface). As a result, the ob-
tained thermal data were used to explain the corresponding grain morphology from
the first part of this study. On the basis of this comparison, an analytical approach was
used to model the transition from columnar-to-equiaxed grain growth (CET). This
model allows the prediction of critical values for both solidification growth rate and
thermal gradient, at which the CET occurs.
69-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
degree of constitutional undercooling
changes. It was suggested that the extent
of constitutional undercooling is inversely
proportional to G/R
0.5
(Ref. 16). Thus,
high G/R values can be related to very low
constitutional undercooling ahead of the
solid-liquid interface (Ref. 17) that favors
planar or cellular growth (Ref. 18). Low
G/R values, however, result in a large zone
of constitutional undercooling (Ref. 17),
which allows columnar dendritic,
dendritic, or (at very low G/R values)
equiaxed dendritic structures to form
(Ref. 18). Accordingly, small and equiaxed
grains can be observed along the weld cen-
ter, dependent upon alloy content and
welding conditions. This columnar-to-
equiaxed transition (CET) is often ob-
served in aluminum weld metal (Refs.
1921) and is illustrated with micrographs
from aluminum GTA welds in Part 1 of
this study (Ref. 10).
It is important to note that large, colum-
nar grains provoke anisotropic mechanical
properties of the weld and facilitate the
propagation of solidification cracks (Ref.
22). Consequently, it is of interest to know
critical CET conditions in order to prevent
columnar grain growth. A model, which was
developed for directional solidification in
cast structure, predicts the critical thermal
gradient, under which the grain morphology
becomes predominantly equiaxed (Ref. 23).
This approach was originally developed for
directional solidification in castings and is
applied in this study to weld metal solidifi-
cation. The critical gradient (G
CET
) is de-
fined as the gradient at which the CET
occurs (G < G
CET
: equiaxed; G > G
CET
:
columnar)
(3)
Fully equiaxed growth is considered to
occur if the volume fraction of equiaxed
grains is higher than 49% (Ref. 23). It is of
interest that the model behind Equation 3
predicts a second critical condition for
fully columnar grain growth at a volume
fraction of equiaxed grains < 1% (Ref.
23). In between these two critical condi-
tions, both equiaxed and columnar grain
growth are expected to occur. For pur-
poses of simplicity and for a better under-
standing, this paper concentrates on the
critical conditions for fully equiaxed grain
growth (Equation 3). N
0
is the total num-
ber of heterogeneous substrate particles
that are available per unit volume and can
be approximated as (Ref. 24)
(4)
where d is the weld metal grain size. T
N
is the undercooling that is needed to acti-
vate these particles and T
C,CET
is the crit-
ical constitutional undercooling caused by
the partitioning of solute elements and
the solidification conditions. T
C
can gen-
erally be related to G and R as follows
(Ref. 25):
(5)
where Dis the liquid diffusion coefficient.
A is a materials constant that depends
upon chemical composition of the liquid
phase and that can be defined according
to Equation 6 (Refs. 23, 25) where is the
curvature undercooling (Ref. 25), m
L
is
the slope of the liquidus line, k is the par-
tition coefficient between solid and liquid
and C
0
is the chemical composition of the
alloy.
(6)
In this work involving GTA welding,
( )
( )

1
]
1
1

G N
T
T
T
0.617
1
CET
N
C CET
C CET
0
1
3
3
,
3
,
N
1
d
0
3
T
G D
R
A R
.
C
0 5

+
A 2 2
m 1 k C
D
.
L 0
0 5
( )

_
,
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 70-s

W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 GTA welding and temperature measurement setup (dimensions in mm).
Fig. 2 Weld bead (cross section) and location of thermocouple within the weld metal (along y axis).
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Base Metals as Measured by Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES)
Alloy Chemical composition in wt-%
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti B V Zr Al
1050A 0.09 0.24 0.01 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.004 0.01 0.008 0.0003 0.01 0.001 Bal.
(Al 99.5)
6082 0.86 0.42 0.09 0.43 0.75 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.032 0.0001 0.01 0.003 Bal.
(Al Si1MgMn)
the first term of Equation 5 (GD/R) was
neglected because the second term (AR
0.5
)
was much higher (about 24 times at the
lowest welding speed 2.0 mm/s and 70
times at 4.2 mm/s) due to high R values
and low G values (Refs. 23, 25):
(7)
With respect to R, one has to consider that
grain growth occurs parallel to the maxi-
mum temperature gradient, which is per-
pendicular to the advancing weld pool
boundary (Ref. 22). If one assumes that
the dendrite solidification velocity corre-
sponds to the grain growth velocity due to
competitive growth (Ref. 22) R can be ap-
proximated for the weld pool surface as
(8)
where is the angle between the direc-
tions of welding speed and R at a partic-
ular point at the solid-liquid interface, as
illustrated in Ref. 10.
Part 1 of this study presents results from
GTA welding of three aluminum alloys
where welding speed and grain refiner ad-
ditions were varied in order to investigate
their influence on microstructure and nu-
cleant particles (Ref. 10). In this second
part, an intensive thermal analysis reveals
the solidification conditions in the weld
pool, dependent upon base metal and weld-
ing speed, and their influence on the weld
microstructure. On the basis of the obtained
thermal data, the above CET approach
(Equation 3) is applied to solidification in
aluminum GTA bead-on-plate welds.
Experimental
Two different wrought aluminum alloys
were used in this study: Alloy 1050A (Al
99.5, temper H14) and Alloy 6082 (Al
Si1MgMn, temper T6), whose chemical
compositions are shown in Table 1. The
base metals were delivered in 3-mm-thick
plates and cut into 140 60 3-mm-thick
weld coupons that were cleaned by de-
greasing and etching for 15 min with an
etchant consisting of 869 mL H
2
O, 125 mL
65% HNO
3
, and 6.25 mL 48% HF. Each
weld coupon was placed in a fixture and a
GTA bead-on-plate weld (single pass,
complete penetration) was produced as il-
lustrated in Fig. 1 left.
A backing made of copper was used to
avoid unwanted melt through. The weld-
ing setup was, for purposes of comparison,
very similar to the first part of this study
(Ref. 10) and the welding parameters
(Table 2) were equal to those used in the
first part. Table 3 contains thermal prop-
erties for both alloys since they represent
the alloys solidification behavior.
Metallographic samples were prepared
from the middle of some welds (mid-
length) to obtain top-sectional views of the
weld metal. Each of these samples was
ground, polished mechanically, and etched
anodically with a solution containing 2%
HBF
4
and 98% H
2
O to reveal the grain
structure. Micrographs were made with a
microscope using polarized light, which
helped to differentiate grains.
Temperature measurements were ac-
complished in the middle of each weld
cos R ( ) =
T A R
.
C
0 5

W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 3 Approximation of grain growth direction in horizontal x-y plane (mid-length and depth
of weld metal; y = 0: centerline, y = 3 mm: weld interface). GTA bead-on-plate weld (no grain
refiner additions, welding to the left), Alloy 6082, plate thickness 3 mm, welding speed 8 mm s
1
,
heat input 258 J mm
1
.
Fig. 4 Solidification growth rate R, dependent
upon horizontal position in weld metal (y = 0:
centerline; y = 3 mm: weld interface). GTA weld-
ing, plate thickness 3 mm.
Table 2 GTA Welding Parameters
Parameter Alloy 1050A Alloy 6082
(Al 99.5) (Al Si1MgMn)
Welding speed in mm s-1 2.0 4.2 6.0 8.0 10.0 11.5 2.0 4.2 6.0 8.0 10.0 11.5
Current in A 174 180 186 190 192 195 170 175 181 184 190 196
Voltage in V ( 0.2 V) 11.1 11.3 11.6 11.6 11.7 11.6 10.7 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.8
Polarity AC (80% electrode negative, 20% electrode positive)
Frequency 50 Hz
Electrode W + 2% CeO
2
, diameter 3.2 mm, point angle 30 deg
Shielding gas 50% Ar, 50% He
Flow rate 26 L min
-1
Distance electrode 3 mm
coupon
A
B
(mid-length and depth) with a drill hole
method. Both wires of a Type K thermo-
couple were insulated with a two-hole ce-
ramic insulator and fused at their end.
This thermocouple was placed from below
into a hole that was drilled vertically into
the weld coupon Fig. 1 right. A constant
drill hole depth of 1.5 mm ensured tem-
perature measurements in the middle of
each weld (mid-depth). The horizontal po-
sition of the drill hole, and hence thermo-
couple, was varied in order to investigate
the thermal conditions during solidifica-
tion between weld centerline and interface
Fig. 2. This figure shows the cross sec-
tion from Fig. 1 left under higher magnifi-
cation after welding. Accordingly, the
thermocouple position was varied from
y = 0 (weld centerline) to y = 3 mm (weld
interface).
Results and Discussion
Approximation of R
As mentioned previously, the solidifi-
cation growth rate R varies widely along
the solidification front. To determine R de-
pendent upon the position in the weld
pool, one can use micrographs that show
the solidified grain structure (Ref. 10).
Here, the grain morphology usually indi-
cates the grain growth direction, and
hence R during solidification, for any point
in the weld metal. R can be calculated with
Equation 8, whereby the angle between
R and welding speed need to be deter-
mined dependent upon the position in the
weld. Therefore, micrographs of the hori-
zontal x-y plane from the middle of each
weld (mid-length and depth) were used to
approximate and consequently R. Figure
3 shows an example of this approximation
for one half (regarding width) of an Alloy
6082 weld, produced with a welding speed
of 8 mm s
1
; x is the welding direction (to
the left) and y is the transverse direction.
The black curve approximates the grain
growth direction, which depended on alloy
and welding speed, and which was calcu-
lated with Equation 9. Here, a and b are
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 72-s
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D
I
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R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 5 Heat input H at plate mid-thickness
(calculated with Equation 1 and data from Table
2), dependent upon alloy and welding speed. GTA
welding, plate thickness 3 mm.
Fig. 6 Cooling curves (mean values) at weld centerline (y = 0). GTA welding, plate thickness 3 mm.
Table 4 Critical Parameters
CET
, R
CET
, G
CET
, and T
C,CET
for the Transition from Columnar to Equiaxed Grain Growth (CET)
Parameter Unit Equation Alloy 1050A Alloy 6082
1 Welding speed v mm s
-1
- 8 10 6 8 10
2 Ti content wt.-% - 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
3 Grain size d m - 33 28 52 55 57
4
CET
deg (10) 37 45 0 23 45
5 R
CET
mm s
-1
(8) 6.4 7.0 6.0 7.3 7.1
6 G
CET
K mm
-1
- 53 50 53 52 47
7 G
CET
/R
CET
Ks mm
-
- 8.3 7.1 8.8 7.1 6.6
8 T
N
K - 1.0
9 N
0
mm
-
(4) 27826 45554 7112 6011 5400
10 T
C,CET
K (3) 3.0 2.4 4.5 4.7 4.4
11 D mm s-1 - 0.003
12 A s
1/2
K mm
-1/2
- 2.0
13 T
C,CET
K (7) 5.1 5.3 4.9 5.4 5.3
14 A* s
1/2
K mm
-1/2
- 1.2 0.9 1.8 1.7 1.7
15 T
C,CET*
K (7) 3.0 2.4 4.5 4.7 4.4
A
B
Table 3 Thermal Conductivities, (Ref. 26), Equilibrium Liquidus and Equilibrium Solidus
Temperatures (Refs. 26, 27), and Solidification Ranges for Alloys 1050A and 6082.
Parameter Alloy 1050A Alloy 6082
(Al 99.5) (Al Si1MgMn)
Thermal conductivity 210 W (mK)-1 170 W (mK)-1
Liquidus temperature 657 C 650 C
Solidus temperature 646 C 550 C
Solidification range 11 K 100 K
nondimensional parameters that were ad-
justed in each case on the grain morphol-
ogy of the corresponding weld as
demonstrated in Fig. 3.
After approximating the grain growth
direction for each alloy and welding speed
according to Equation 9, the angle be-
tween and R was determined with Equa-
tion 10, which originates from Equations
8 and 9. For purposes of simplicity, the
grain growth curvature in the vertical y-z
plane (which also influences R) was neg-
lected. This is a good approximation be-
cause here, the grain growth direction was
observed to be most often parallel to the
(horizontal) y axis.
y = a x
b
(9)
(10)
In a last step, R was calculated with Equa-
tion 8 dependent upon welding speed v
and the position in the weld pool (y). In
this calculation step, it was assumed that
dendrites are oriented in the same direc-
tion as grain growth due to competitive
growth and that grains grow normal to the
solid-liquid interface (Ref. 22). This is con-
sidered to be a reasonable approximation
Fig. 3. In other words, welding speed
provides in Equation 8 an order of magni-
tude upper limit for R at each position in
the weld pool.
Note that y is the direction transverse
to the welding direction (y = 0: centerline,
y = 3 mm: weld interface) Fig. 3. As
one can see in Fig. 4, the calculated R val-
ues are maximum at the centerline (y = 0),
where they correspond to welding speed,
and they are minimum at the weld inter-
face (y = 3 mm). Interestingly, for Alloy
6082, higher minima were observed at the
weld interface than for Alloy 1050A. This
is due to the angle that was found at the
weld interface to be generally lower for
Alloy 6082 than for Alloy 1050A.
Thermal Conditions
After having determined R by means of
micrographs, the temperature measure-
ments revealed the thermal conditions in
the weld pool. The most important influ-
encing weld parameter is the heat input
(H), which was calculated with Equation 1
on the basis of data from Table 2. Figure 5
shows for both alloys that H decreased
strongly with increasing welding speed, al-
though the weld current was raised with
increasing welding speeds to allow similar
weld bead sizes. As a result, the weld bead
width decreased slightly with increasing
welding speed, being approximately 5 to 6
mm in the middle of the weld (mid-depth).
Also, the copper backing (Fig. 1) con-
trolled the weld bead width because it
caused a dominating directional heat flow
from the weld coupon downward.
To determine the thermal conditions
for the whole weld pool, the position of
the thermocouple was varied between y =
0 and y = 3 mm (Fig. 2). The measure-
ment technique allowed an approximate
adjustment of the thermocouple position
(y). This approach complicated tempera-
ture measurements particularly at the
weld interface (where temperature
reaches liquidus temperature). This ex-
plains the limited experimental data for
the range between y = 2.5 mm and y = 3.0
mm in the following diagrams. The exact
thermocouple position was always deter-
mined through measurements after weld-
ing and was related to the recorded
temperature profile.
Figure 6 reveals the cooling curves for
both alloys and different welding speeds at
y = 0 mm (centerline); the start tempera-
tures (at 0 s) are the maximum tempera-
tures for each thermal cycle measurement.
Both diagrams suggest a slightly faster
cooling for Alloy 1050A than for Alloy
6082 welds. This can be explained by their
different thermal conductivities (Table 3):
high for Alloy 1050A due to its chemical
purity and comparably low for Alloy 6082.
This suggestion is further confirmed by
the corresponding cooling rates that are
shown in Fig. 7 dependent upon the posi-
tion in the weld pool (y axis). These values
are the cooling rates at liquidus tempera-
ture (Table 3) since the solidification starts
at this moment. The cooling rates were ob-
served to be maximum at the centerline (y
= 0) and are supposed to be minimum at
the weld interface (y = 3 mm). Figure 7
confirms the observation that high cooling
rates (at centerline and at high welding
speeds) generally result in finer grain
structure (Refs. 2830). This is in accor-
dance with results from the first part of
this study where small, equiaxed grains
formed particularly in the weld center and
at high welding speeds (Ref. 10).
In Figs. 6 to 11, each curve (Fig. 6) or
each data point (Figs. 7 to 11) is based on
at least two single temperature measure-
ments at constant welding parameters.
The data scatter in Figs. 7 to 11 was ob-
served to increase with increasing welding
speed and was caused on the one side by
fluctuations in the welding process. While
welding speed and arc current were con-
stant in all welds, the arc voltage varied
about 0.2 V, dependent upon the shape
of the electrode tip, which had to be sharp-
ened frequently. The resulting differences
in the heat input have probably caused
changes in cooling rate and other solidifi-
arctan arctan
dy
dx
a b
y
a
b 1
b
=


W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 7 Cooling rate dT/dt at liquidus temperature, dependent upon horizontal position in weld pool
(y = 0: centerline; y = 3 mm: weld interface). GTA welding, plate thickness 3 mm.
Fig. 8 Thermal gradient G
L
at liquidus temperature, dependent upon horizontal position in weld metal
A
A
B
B
cation parameters. On the other side,
banding (linear solute-rich bands in the
weld metal with very fine grain structure
(Ref. 28)) was observed in the weld metal.
This is further evidence for pool fluctua-
tions during welding and hence thermal
conditions (Ref. 30) and cannot be
avoided completely.
An additional and likely more impor-
tant point is the thermocouple. Small but
unavoidable fluctuations of both shape
and vertical position of the thermocouple
tip have probably caused a large part of
the observed data scattering. Further-
more, for purposes of simplicity, the liq-
uidus and the solidus temperatures (Table
3) are taken as equilibrium values that
may change with rapid solidification. Nev-
ertheless, Figs. 6 to 11 offer order of mag-
nitude values for solidification conditions
such as cooling rate or thermal gradient at
the solidification front.
In a further calculation step, the cooling
rates were used to determine the thermal
gradient G according to Equation 2. For
purposes of comparison, both gradients G
L
(calculated with dT/dt at liquidus tempera-
ture) and G
S
(calculated with dT/dt at
solidus temperature) were determined
Figs. 8 and 9. From centerline (y = 0 mm)
to weld interface (y = 3 mm), G did not
change significantly owing to the fact that
both R(Fig. 4) and dT/dt (Fig. 7) clearly de-
creased. Increasing welding speeds and de-
creasing heat inputs, however, reduced G
L
significantly (by up to 40%) Fig. 8. This
observation explains the results from the
first part of this study (Ref. 10) and former
studies (Refs. 3135), where equiaxed
grains formed particularly at high welding
speeds, low heat inputs, and hence, low
thermal gradients. Furthermore, the com-
parison between Figs. 8 and 9 shows clearly
that the most important stage during solid-
ification is the start at liquidus temperature,
regarding grain growth and subsequent
grain morphology. Here, the influence of
welding speed/heat input on Gis for Alloy
6082 significant (G
L
, Fig. 8B) and it be-
comes almost negligible at solidus temper-
ature (G
S
, Fig. 9B). Due to its low
solidification range, commercially pure Al
(Alloy 1050A) does not show this pro-
nounced behavior.
The above G values, however, cannot
explain solely why the grain morphology
often changes from columnar at the weld
interface to equiaxed at the centerline. In-
stead, the parameter G
L
/R can be used to
explain this phenomenon Fig. 10. For
both alloys, G
L
/R was, as expected, the
lowest at the centerline and the highest
next to the weld interface with an increase
in between, mainly for Alloy 1050A. Fig-
ure 10 further discloses that the dominant
factor in G/R is the growth rate R and not
the thermal gradient G, which confirms
former results on thermal conditions in Al
weld metal (Ref. 35).
It was suggested that the quotient G/R
is an indirect measure of the amount of
constitutional undercooling ahead of the
solidification front (Ref. 16), where low
G/R values favor the transition from
columnar to equiaxed grain growth (Ref.
18). Also, it was argued that the size of the
constitutionally undercooled zone in-
creases with decreasing G/R (Refs. 31,
36). Furthermore, a recent study about Al
weld metal grain refinement reported for
base metal composition (no grain refiner
additions) a grain size drop at a critical
G/R value (Ref. 21), which emphasizes
the significance of G/R. These observa-
tions help to relate the above thermal
data to the micrographs from the first part
of this study (Ref. 10), which revealed for
three different Al alloys a clear transition
from columnar to equiaxed growth with
increasing welding speed.
At this point, it is important to note
that, beside grain refiner additions, the
alloys chemical composition is a key fac-
tor with regard to the columnar-to-
equiaxed transition (CET). The first part
of this study (Ref. 10) showed that the ten-
dency for equiaxed growth increases
strongly with increasing alloy content, due
to the increasing supply of constitutional
undercooling through solute partitioning
during solidification (Ref. 11) that facili-
tates equiaxed grain growth (Ref. 18). Be-
side alloy content, one important
parameter that reflects upon the chemical
composition is the solidification time t
S
.
t
S
was determined on the basis of cool-
ing curves (Fig. 6) by calculating the time
period between the moments when the
temperature T was T
L
(liquidus tempera-
ture) and T
S
(solidus temperature). As one
expects, t
S
was much higher in Alloy
6082 welds than for commercially pure Al
(Alloy 1050A) welds Fig. 11. This ob-
servation emphasizes the need for suffi-
cient time at the beginning of solidification
to activate the particles present for nucle-
ation. It was argued elsewhere that
equiaxed grains have to grow to a sufficient
size in order to block columnar grain
growth (Ref. 23).
A comparison of Fig. 11 with micro-
graphs from the corresponding welds (Ref.
10), however, shows the following: Above a
minimum solidification time, the influence
of t
S
on grain morphology seems to get
eclipsed by the strong influence of thermal
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 74-s
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I
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G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
A
A
B
B
Fig. 9 Thermal gradient G
S
at solidus temperature, dependent upon horizontal position in weld metal
Fig. 10 Ratio G
L
/R at liquidus temperature T
L
, dependent upon horizontal position in weld metal
parameters such as dT/dt, G and G/R. Ac-
cordingly, the grain morphology was pre-
dominantly equiaxed at high welding
speeds and thus high dT/dt, low G/R and
low t
S
values (Ref. 10). Nevertheless, a re-
cent study on Al fusion welding revealed, at
constant chemical composition, for laser
beam (LB) welds a three times lower solid-
ification time than for GTA weld metal.
This large difference explains why the mean
weld metal grain size and the tendency for
columnar grain growth were found to be
generally higher in LB welds than in GTA
welds (Ref. 37).
Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET)
It is of note that the above temperature
measurement technique disclosed a varia-
tion in the thermal conditions along the
solidification front. This, in turn, allows
determination of critical solidification con-
ditions for the columnar-to-equiaxed tran-
sition (CET); this was accomplished in this
study according to the analytical model in
Equation 3 (Ref. 23). First, the critical
angle CET and the critical solidification
rate R
CET
were determined with Equa-
tions 10 and 8 for two (Alloy 1050A) and
three (Alloy 6082) different welding
speeds where the CET was observed
Table 4. For this purpose, micrographs
from the first part of this study (Ref. 10)
were analyzed and the weld metal mean
grain size (line 3 in Table 4) was deter-
mined. Note that the five analyzed welds
had the same Ti content (line 2 in Table 4)
to prevent variations in the grain refining
elements, titanium and boron, from influ-
encing the results.
Then, the critical thermal gradient
G
CET
was determined by comparing Fig. 8
with the corresponding micrographs (Ref.
10) and the ratio G
CET
/R
CET
was calcu-
lated (lines 6 and 7 in Table 4). Afterward,
these (experimentally determined) G
CET
values were compared with the analytical
model that predicts G
CET
(Equation 3)
(Ref. 23). The fact that G
CET
and T
C,CET
depend on each other (Equations 3 and 5)
led to the following calculation procedure:
The experimental G
CET
values were first
used to calculate the corresponding criti-
cal undercooling T
C,CET
with Equation
3 (lines 8 to 10 in Table 4). The parameter
T
N
was taken from literature (Ref. 24)
and N
0
was calculated with Equation 4.
Afterward, T
C,CET
was calculated for
comparison with Equation 5 (lines 11 to 13
in Table 4). For this purpose, Equation 5
was simplified to Equation 7, which is a
very good approximation for solidification
in fusion welds because here, R is high and
G is low (Refs. 23, 25). The parameters D
and A were taken from literature (Refs.
24, 38) based on the suggestion that they
are typical values for many commercial Al
alloys (Ref. 38).
The two different T
C,CET
values
(lines 10 and 13 in Table 4) were finally
compared to each other. As a result, both
calculations produced similar T
C,CET
val-
ues, particularly for Alloy 6082. This sug-
gests, on the one side, that the thermal
data in Figs. 6 to 11 and the experimentally
determined G
CET
values (line 6 in Table 4)
are realistic. Furthermore, the tempera-
ture measurement technique (Fig. 2) is ap-
propriate for describing the thermal
conditions of the fusion welds of this study
with sufficient accuracy. On the other side,
the results show that the analytical CET
approach from Equation 3, which was de-
veloped for slow cooling in castings (Ref.
23), can be applied to more rapid solidifi-
cation in Al welds.
One possible reason for the different
results from both calculation procedures
regarding T
C,CET
may be an overestima-
tion of N
0
that was approximated with
Equation 4. A more likely reason for dif-
ferences lies, however, in parameter A in
Equation 7. A is a materials constant in-
fluenced by the chemical composition but
was defined here for both Alloy 1050A
and Alloy 6082 to be 2.0 s
1/2
K mm-
1/2
, a
value taken from the literature (Refs. 24,
38). It was argued that this is a typical
value for many commercial aluminum al-
loys within the 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx series
(Ref. 24). However, A = 2.0 s
1/2
K mm
-1/2
may not be appropriate for commercially
pure Al (Alloy 1050A), as the results in
Table 4 show. For this reason, a fitting cal-
culation step was done to determine opti-
mum A* values that produce in Equation
7 T
C,CET
* values that are equal to those
calculated with Equation 3. Lines 14 and
15 in Table 4 show the obtained data,
which indicate that the optimum A values
are A* = 1.1 s
1/2
K mm
1/2
for Alloy 1050A
and A* = 1.7 s
1/2
K mm
1/2
for Alloy 6082.
The low A* value for Alloy 1050A can be
related directly to its low solute content.
After having determined the critical
CET conditions (Table 4), the CET was
modeled for both alloys in the R-G space
Fig. 12. The data points in these two di-
agrams originate from both parts of this
study (Ref. 10 and this paper); they repre-
sent welds with predominantly columnar
or equiaxed grain morphology, which were
produced at different welding speeds and
heat inputs and thus different Gand R val-
ues. The two curves in each diagram are
the graphs of Equation 3, one of them cal-
culated with a constant 2.0 s
1/2
K mm
1/2
(CET) and the other one with the ad-
justed A* value (CET*). In other words,
each curve represents the critical thermal
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 11 Solidification time t
S
, dependent upon horizontal position in weld metal (y = 0: centerline;
y = 3 mm: weld interface). GTA welding, plate thickness 3 mm.
Fig. 12 Predominant microstructure in R-Gspace and columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET), calcu-
lated with Equations 3 and 7 using A (CET) and the adjusted A* (CET*), CET and CET* are mean
values for each alloy at a constant Ti content of 0.02 wt-%. GTA welding, plate thickness 3mm.
A
A
B
B
conditions (R and G) for the transition
from columnar to equiaxed grain growth.
One can see clearly in Fig. 12 that the
CET* curve separates both equiaxed and
columnar regions in the R-G space better
than the CET curve, particularly for Alloy
1050A. Thus, we can summarize from
Table 4 and Fig. 12 that Equation 3 (Ref.
23) is appropriate to predict the CET for
aluminum GTA weld metal when A is ad-
justed in Equations 5 and 7 to suit the
chemical composition, as demonstrated
here. Interestingly, the adjusted CET*
curves in Fig. 12 are very similar for both
alloys. This emphasizes how strongly the
local solidification parameters Gand R in-
fluence grain morphology, reducing the in-
fluence of the chemical composition.
Furthermore, the slope of the CET*
curves in Fig. 12 can be used to predict
critical G/R values. Accordingly, the recip-
rocal value of the slope in the vicinity of
the data points (approximately at G
L
= 50
to 60 K mm
1
) corresponds to the
G
CET
/R
CET
values in Table 4, line 7, which
are 6 to 9 Ks mm
2
.
It is of note that several former studies
related the predominant grain morphol-
ogy in aluminum weld metal to welding
parameters such as arc current, voltage,
and welding speed (Refs. 3135). The tem-
perature measurement technique and the
analytical approach (Ref. 23) used in this
study, however, permit the prediction of
the critical solidification conditions for the
CET. Moreover, Fig. 12 provides impor-
tant information about the critical values
for solidification rate R and thermal gra-
dient G that are based on experimental
data. Consequently, one can now predict
the location of the CET in aluminum GTA
welds from the comparison of thermal
data (Figs. 3 to 11) with microstructural
data (Ref. 10). In turn, the critical welding
parameters can be deduced from the crit-
ical solidification parameters in order to
minimize or to prevent unfavorable
columnar grain structure in aluminum
welds. Hence, the above results are an im-
portant extension of a former study on
GTA welding of Al-Cu alloys, where the
CET prediction was achieved by simula-
tion and not, as in this study, by the com-
parison of micrographs with results from
temperature measurements (Ref. 39).
Conclusions
A thermal analysis of aluminum GTA
bead-on-plate welds (Al Alloys 1050A and
6082) with Type K thermocouples has re-
vealed the thermal conditions along the
solidification front of the weld pool. In
comparison to the weld centerline, tem-
perature measurements next to the weld
interface disclosed the following:
Lower solidification growth rates (R)
Lower cooling rates (dT/dt)
Slightly higher thermal gradients (G)
A higher solidification time (t
S
)
With similar weld bead sizes, increas-
ing welding speeds from 2 mm s
1
to 11.5
mm s
1
decreased the heat input by up to
80% and resulted in a strong increase in
dT/dt and a strong reduction of G, G/R,
and t
S
.
The obtained thermal data were used
together with data of the corresponding
grain morphology (from the first part of
this study) to model the columnar-to-
equiaxed transition (CET) according to an
existing analytical approach. This model
allowed the prediction of critical R and G
values, at which the CET occurs in alu-
minum welds.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to P. Gudde
from KBM Affilips B.V., The Netherlands,
for the very kind donation of grain refiner
(KBM Affilips). They also would like to
thank H. Strehlau (ICP-OES chemical
analysis) for her great support at BAM.
The authors are very thankful to the Ger-
man Research Association on Welding
and Allied Processes of the DVS for its
support and to the Program for Funding
of Industrial Research and Technology
(IGF) of the German Federal Ministry of
Economics and Technology for funding
the research project 16.242N.
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Appendix
List of symbols
Symbol Dimension Meaning
deg Angle between directions of and R
A, A* s
1/2
K mm
-1/2
Material constants
a, b Grain growth direction parameters
C
0
wt-% Chemical composition of the alloy
d m Grain size
D mm s
1
Liquid diffusion coefficient
dT/dt K s
1
Cooling rate
G K mm
1
Thermal gradient (local)
G
L
K mm
1
Thermal gradient at liquidus temperature
G
S
K mm
1
Thermal gradient at solidus temperature
G
CET
K mm
1
Critical thermal gradient for CET
H J mm
1
Heat input
I A Arc current
k Partition coefficient (between solid and liquid)
m
L
K wt-%
1
Slope of liquidus line
N
0
m
-
Total number of heterogeneous substrate particles
R mm s
1
Solidification growth rate
K Curvature undercooling
t
S
s Solidification time
T C Temperature
T
L
C Liquidus temperature
T
S
C Solidus temperature
T
C
K Constitutional undercooling
T
C,CET
, K Critical constitutional undercooling for CET
T
C,CET
*
T
N
K Undercooling required for nucleation
T
G
K Undercooling required for steady state grain growth
U V Arc voltage
v mm s
1
Welding speed
x mm Welding direction
y mm Horizontal direction perpendicular to welding
direction
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Introduction
In response to the deterioration of the
global environment, strict regulations of
fuel efficiency to reduce CO
2
emissions
have been enforced. In particular, corpo-
rate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) stan-
dards suggest regulations that affect the
fuel efficiency of automobiles, automobile
sales, price, and fuel consumption (Ref.
1). The large size of automobiles, the ad-
dition of reinforcing parts for safety, and
an increase in electronics for the conven-
ience of drivers have increased the weight
of car bodies. Under these conditions, the
automobile industry has been developing
lightweight vehicle technology to solve the
problem, especially concentrating on re-
ducing weight with the application of high-
strength steel (HSS) (Ref. 2).
Over the last several years, the applica-
tion of HSS sheet to automobiles for the
purposes of increasing collision safety and
reducing weight has been expanded. Also, it
was reported that the rate of adoption of
HSS per automobile stood at more than
50% (Refs. 3, 4). Recently, high-strength
980 ~ 1470 MPa grade hot-stamping steel,
is being applied to car bodies (Ref. 2). Al-
though the application of HSS is limited to
bumpers, door beams, and the main struc-
tural members of automobiles, the adop-
tion rate of HSS is expected to increase
(Ref. 3). Steel sheet for automobiles re-
quires both high strength and good forma-
bility. However, it is generally known that as
the strength of a material increases, the
formability decreases. In contrast, when the
formability improves, the strength de-
creases. The relatively poor formability of
HSS leads to the limitations of its applica-
tion to the car body. Conventional use of
HSS for automobiles is categorized into
dual-phase (DP) steel, complex-phase (CP)
steel, and transformation-induced plasticity
(TRIP) steel. Maintaining a 15 ~ 25%
range of elongation, these DP and TRIP
steels satisfy a 600 ~ 1000 MPa range for ul-
timate tensile strength (UTS) (Ref. 5). To
meet the needs for improved formability,
the scope of the study has been extended to
austenitic Fe-Mn-C alloys. As a result, twin-
induced plasticity (TWIP) steel, which
shows 60% elongation over an 800 MPa ten-
sile strength was developed (Ref. 6). For
welding of TWIP steel, the welding charac-
teristics are different from the conventional
HSSs such as DP and CP steel.
To apply lightweight metals such as HSS
and aluminum alloy, proper welding and
joining technologies are required. Resist-
ance spot welding is the leading joining
technology in sheet metal fabrication in-
cluding the automobile assembly process.
As the metals used in car bodies change to
lightweight metals, the demand for ad-
vanced RSW technology is expected to in-
crease. In particular, the poor resistance
spot weldability issue arises when HSS is ap-
plied to car bodies and, as a result, a solu-
tion is required to solve the problem. In the
case of RSW of HSS, a narrow suitable
welding range and low toughness caused by
brittle welds are the worst problems. Be-
cause the high content of alloying elements
causes an increase in the resistivity of base
metals, the lower boundary of current of
suitable welding range relatively shifts to
lower range compared to low-carbon steel.
Also, at the early stage of the RSW process,
the high resistance of the base metal causes
excessive heat energy input and, as a result,
the current in which expulsion occurs de-
creases compared to low-carbon steel. Since
its decrement is larger than that of the lower
boundary of current, the suitable welding
range becomes narrow. To reduce the ex-
pulsion and widen the suitable welding
range, high electrode force, low welding
current, and long welding times are re-
quired (Refs. 7, 8).
Nowadays, the weldability issue of
HSS, welding characteristics of TWIP
steel, and development of welding tech-
nology to improve weldability have been
intensively studied. Saha (Ref. 9) studied
Improvement of Weldability of 1 GPa Grade
Twin-Induced Plasticity Steel
A study was conducted related to improving weldability of 1 GPa grade
twin-induced plasticity steel using MFDC constant power control welding
BY J. YU, D. CHOI, AND S. RHEE
KEYWORDS
TWIP980
High Strength Steel
MFDC Constant Power Control
Welding
Weldability
Welding Signals
ABSTRACT
Applications of high-strength steel to car bodies with higher than 1 GPa grade
tensile strength have dramatically increased. Twin-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel
maintains high strength and secure high ductility, featuring a high content of Mn. In
spite of these advantages, the resistance spot weldability is poor. To improve the
weldability, conventional AC and MFDC resistance spot welding, and other various
types of joint technology have been required and developed. In this work, MFDC
constant power control (CPC) welding was applied to improve the weldability of 1
GPa grade TWIP steel, and the welding characteristics were analyzed. To investigate
the fundamental weldability of TWIP steel, tensile shear strength, suitable welding
range, and welding signal were analyzed. Compared to MFDC constant current con-
trol (CCC) welding, CPC welding has the advantage of reducing expulsion at the
early stage of the welding process; therefore, it is possible to apply higher heat input
to the weld. As a result, it was found that larger nugget size and higher tensile shear
strength were obtained in CPC welding than CCC welding. To compare the charac-
teristics of these two welding methods, welding signals were analyzed and high-speed
images were used for observing the difference in the nugget growth mechanism. Fur-
thermore, this work evaluated the adaptability of CPC welding according to elec-
trode force changes and coating conditions.
J. YU and S. RHEE (srhee@hanyang.ac.kr) are
with the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea. D. CHOI is
with Product Application Center, POSCO, Korea.
resistance spot weldability of 1 GPa TWIP
steel for automobile applications, espe-
cially focusing on the metallurgical and
mechanical properties of the weld. Yu
(Ref. 10) evaluated the weldability of
TWIP980 steel by using the medium-
frequency direct current (MFDC) con-
stant current control (CCC) RSW
process, and comparatively analyzed the
RSW characteristics of TWIP980 steel
with DP980 steel, which has the same
strength, thickness, and surface treat-
ment. Nevertheless, few studies have been
conducted on methods to improve the
weldability of TWIP steel. Tumuluru (Ref.
11) analyzed the correlation between the
failure mode of resistance spot welds of
DP steel, weld diameter, and hardness of
the weld. Brown (Ref. 12) evaluated weld-
ability by analyzing the welding signals of
alternating current (AC) and MFDC
RSW, and thus revealed that the suitable
welding range of MFDC was larger than
that of AC RSW. Alfaro (Ref. 13) com-
pared the nugget growth mechanisms of
AC and MFDC RSW by using high-speed
filming, and discovered that MFDC RSW
secured a more uniform nugget in a short
welding time than did AC RSW. By using
a nonlinear feedback linearization tech-
nique, Kim (Ref. 14) controlled the weld-
ing power of the RSW system and con-
ducted computer simulations to illustrate
the performance of the controller. How-
ever, the RSW process primarily applied
for sheet metal was MFDC CCC welding,
which showed its technical limitations in
the case of the application of welding
HSS. In that aspect, the MFDC constant
power control (CPC) method was devel-
oped to solve the limitation problems and
apply it to actual manufacturing process.
Therefore, more studies on the differ-
ences between CPC welding characteris-
tics and the conventional welding charac-
teristics need to be conducted.
In this work, MFDC CCC and CPC
welding were applied to 1 GPa grade TWIP
steel in order to compare the characteristics
of each welding process. A lobe diagram
was used to compare suitable welding
ranges. For comparison analysis on each
welding mechanism, welding signals and
high-speed images were used. Further-
more, to investigate the adaptability of CPC
welding to the changes in the welding con-
dition, comparison tests on CCC and CPC
welding were conducted with regard to
change in electrode force and on galvanized
(GI) coated steel as well.
Materials
The material used in this work was cold-
rolled TWIP steel sheet of 980 MPa grade.
The chemical composition of TWIP980 is
indicated in Table 1. TWIP980 is composed
of 18% Mn, 0.6% C, and Al as a minor al-
loying element. The test steel sheet is 1.4
mm thick; uncoated and GI-coated steel
were used as well. To analyze the funda-
mental welding characteristics of the test
material and the mechanisms of CCC and
CPC welding, uncoated TWIP980 was
used. The coating amount of the GI-coated
TWIP980 was 60 g/m
2
, which was used to
evaluate the adaptability of CPC welding to
a coating layer.
Equipment and Experimental
Procedure
In this experiment, a MFDC pedestal-
type RSW system with 130 kVA capacity
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Fig. 1 Schematic of welding signal monitoring
system.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of TWIP980
(mass%)
C Mn Etc. Fe
TWIP980 0.60 18.0 Al Bal.
Fig. 2 Suitable welding range of TWIP980. A Lobe diagram of CCC welding; B lobe dia-
gram of CPC welding.
A
B
Table 2 Welding Conditions
Items Conditions
Welding machine Air-pressure control
type
MFDC 130 kVA
Cooling temperature 20C
Cooling rate 6 L/min
Electrode fore (kN) 2.0 / 3.0 / 5.0
Hold time (ms) 300
Welding time (ms) 150 / 200 / 250 / 300 /
350
was developed as shown in Fig. 1. The de-
veloped welding system was a MFDC
RSW machine with 1 kHz switching fre-
quency. By controlling pulse width modu-
lation (PMW), two modes, CCC welding
and CPC welding are possible in the same
welding machine. The welding timer re-
ceives the welding current feedback from
the transformer (a Bosch Rexroth
PGS6130), and welding voltage feedback
from both electrode tips. With the use of
the developed welding system, it is possi-
ble to maintain the additional experimen-
tal conditions including electrode force,
electrode alignment, welding gun, and a
cooling condition equally in CCC and
CPC modes. Aside from the welding
timer, a Rogowski coil (DC flex, PEM
Corp.) for current measurement was in-
stalled to measure the welding signals that
were actually given to the weld, and both
tips of the electrode were clipped to meas-
ure the voltage. By using an analog-to-dig-
ital converter (a National Instruments
NI9229), analog current and voltage were
measured at the same time with a rate of
50,000 samples per second per channel.
Since the control frequency of the MFDC
RSW machine used was 1 kHz and the
sampling rate was 50 kHz, 25 data per 0.5
ms were used for resistance and power cal-
culation. Digitized welding voltage and
current in root mean square (RMS) value
were computed per 0.5 ms. Finally, resist-
ance and power were calculated with
Equations 1 and 2 as follows:
r(t) = v(t)/i(t) (1)
p(t) = v(t)/i(t) (2)
where, i(t) is the RMS value of the weld-
ing current, v(t) is the RMS value of the
welding voltage, r(t) is the resistance, and
p(t) is the power (Ref. 15).
Cu-Cr dome-type electrodes having a
tip diameter of 6 mm and a tip radius of 40
mm were used, and the electrode tips were
conditioned by making 50 welds prior to
the experiment (Refs.
16, 17). Specimen size
was 125 mm 40 mm.
The welding experi-
ments were conducted
on two sheets of the
same type of
TWIP980. Details of
the experimental con-
ditions are described
in Table 2, and other
details of the testing
methodology can be
found in the ISO stan-
dard (Ref. 18).
Results and
Discussion
Suitable Welding Range of TWIP980
To evaluate the weldability of TWIP980,
a suitable welding range of test material was
used. Generally, a suitable welding range is
indicated through a lobe diagram using
welding current, welding time, and elec-
trode force. Also, to evaluate the welding
characteristics of CCC and CPC welding, a
suitable welding range was drawn through a
lobe diagram of welding current and weld-
ing time while the electrode force was fixed
at 3.0 kN. The lower boundary of the suit-
able range was related to the acceptable
tensile shear strength, and the upper
boundary was dependent on occurrence of
expulsion. The acceptable tensile strength
was set as 11091 N (Ref. 19). Figure 2 shows
the lobe diagram of TWIP980 in the case of
both CCC and CPC welding. In Fig. 2A, the
vertical axis stands for welding time and the
horizontal axis for welding current. The
white range in the diagram represents the
conditions where tensile shear strength is
insufficient, the gray area is for suitable
welding conditions and the dark area repre-
sents the welding conditions considered as
defective welding by expulsion. Welding
conditions written in boldface type repre-
sent pull-out fractures during the shear ten-
sion test, and the other conditions are in-
terfacial fractures. To compare CCC and
CPC welding, tensile shear strength and
total heat input to the weld as well as aver-
age welding power were recorded. Total
heat input was calculated with Equation 3,
and average power was calculated by divid-
ing total heat input with welding time. In
each welding condition, three values indi-
cate tensile shear strength, total heat input,
and average welding power. The top value
stands for tensile shear strength, the value
in the blank in the middle for total heat
input; and the value in the angle blank on
the bottom for average welding power.
Each unit of the values is N, J, and W. In Fig.
2B, the vertical axis stands for welding time,
and the horizontal axis for welding power. It
is a quasi-lobe diagram to compare with the
general lobe diagram of CCC welding.
Q
total
= i
2
(t) r(t) dt
= i(t) v(t) dt = p(t) dt (3)
where, Q is heat, is welding thermal ef-
ficiency, i(t) is welding current, r(t) is elec-
trical resistance of the weld, v(t) is welding
voltage, p(t) is welding power, and t is the
time the welding current is applied to the
test material (Ref. 10).
As shown in Fig. 2A, the welding cur-
rent range for CCC welding is 5.0 ~ 5.5
kA, total heat input range is 1330 ~ 2375
J, and average welding power range is
6049 ~ 7465 W in the suitable welding
range. In contrast, in the case of CPC
welding in Fig. 2B, the range of total heat
input is 1017 ~ 2637 J, and the range of av-
erage welding power is 5043 ~ 8300 W in
the suitable welding range. Therefore,
compared to CCC welding, it was found
that total heat input to the weld and the
upper and lower boundary of average
welding power range expanded farther in
CPC welding. Also, owing to higher heat
input on the weld than CCC welding, it is
considered that a larger weld is formed,
and thereby higher tensile shear strength
is secured. A larger weld and higher ten-
sile shear strength led to an increase in
welding conditions that caused pull-out
fractures. In the case of TWIP980 sheet
with the thickness of 1.4 mm, it is consid-
ered that tensile shear strength, a bound-
ary between interfacial fracture and pull-
out fracture in shear tension test, stands at
approximately 14000 N.
To investigate the relation between
tensile shear strength and nugget diame-
ter, nugget diameter was measured
through the cross-sectional image of the
weld in all welding conditions just before
the occurrence of expulsion, which is
shown in Fig. 2. In other words, the maxi-
mum tensile shear strength and nugget di-
ameter that can be secured according to
the welding time were measured and com-
pared. The weld cross section was etched
with Nital (5% HNO
3
; 95% ethanol) and
then magnified 40 with an optical micro-
scope for observation. Figure 3 shows the
relation between the tensile shear strength
of the weld and its nugget diameter. Since
the nugget diameter is proportional to the
tensile shear strength and CPC welding is
able to give higher heat input to the weld
than does CCC welding, the nugget diam-
eter was larger; therefore, the maximum
tensile shear strength appeared to be
higher. In addition, in both CCC and CPC
welding, the longer the welding time, the
higher the total heat input is to the weld.
As a result, it was found that both nugget
diameter and tensile shear strength
increased.
To find the reason for the difference in
total heat input between CCC and CPC
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MARCH 2014, VOL. 93
Fig. 3 Maximum tensile shear strength and nugget diameter of TWIP980.
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welding, welding signals for each welding
mode were measured. Figure 4 shows
welding signals of CCC welding for weld-
ing conditions without and with expulsion.
The total heat input shown in Fig. 4A is
2375 J, and it is the maximum heat input
among suitable welding conditions. In the
case of CCC welding, since the welding
current is constant, as shown in Equations
2 and 3, its power and resistance are de-
termined by the welding voltage. Since
heat input to the weld is an area under the
welding power curve, high heat input is
given at the early stage of a welding
process, and then is gradually reduced. In
the case of TWIP980, as welding current
more than 6.0 kA is applied, excessive heat
in the weld is generated as shown in Fig.
4B. Due to the excessive heat input, ex-
pulsion occurs at an early stage in the
process. For this reason, in the case of
CCC welding, the upper boundary of a
suitable welding range has a limitation in
expansion to the higher welding current
range. Also, in Fig. 4B, the resistance, volt-
age, and power decline rapidly when an
expulsion occurs because molten metal ex-
pels out of the weld because of excessive
heat input. Figure 5 presents welding sig-
nals of CPC welding in welding conditions
without and with expulsion. The total heat
input at the time shown in Fig. 5A is 2637
J, which is the maximum heat input for the
suitable welding range. Since CPC weld-
ing controls welding power constantly,
welding current changes in response to the
change in weld resistance unlike in CCC
welding. In other words, to maintain the
constant power as shown in Fig. 5A, rela-
tively low current is applied at the early
stage of a welding process depending on
the changes in resistance. Then, to com-
pensate for the change in resistance that is
on the decrease at the latter stage of the
welding process, welding current increases
gradually. Since constant power is sup-
plied over the entire process, the heat en-
ergy is constantly applied to the weld. In
Fig. 4 Welding signals of CCC welding. A Without expulsion (3.0 kN/5.5 kA/350 ms); B with expulsion (3.0 kN/6.0 kA/350 ms).
Fig. 5 Welding signals of CPC welding. A Without expulsion (3.0 kN/7.5 kW/350 ms); B with expulsion (3.0 kN/8.0 kW/350 ms).
A B
B A
Table 3 Tensile Shear Strength according to Electrode Force Change
Constant Current Welding Constant Power Welding
Force (kN) Tensile Shear Average Tensile Force (kN) Tensile Shear Average Tensile
Strength (N) Shear Strength (N) Strength(N) Shear Strength(N)
12752 12665 13850
2.0 13173 (Expulsion) 2.0 14080 13939
12070 13888
12783 12674
3.0 12797 12809 3.0 12833 12774
12848 12816
10650 12390
5.0 10898 10834 5.0 12655 12370
10953 (Insufficient TSS) 12065
this aspect, since CPC welding effectively
reduces expulsions caused by excessive
heat input at the early stage of a welding
process, it is possible to increase the total
heat energy that can be given to the weld.
Therefore, as shown in Fig. 2B, it is possi-
ble to secure a higher tensile shear
strength and a wider suitable welding
range. Regarding an aspect of expulsion
occurrence shown in Fig. 5B, expulsion in
CCC welding occurs at the early stage of
the welding process, whereas expulsion in
CPC welding occurs at a relatively later
stage of the welding process. Of course,
expulsion in CPC welding can also occur
at an early stage of the welding process
when welding is conducted with exces-
sively high power.
Nugget Growth Mechanisms of CCC and
CPC Welding
To compare the difference in the
nugget growth mechanism between CCC
and CPC welding, high-speed filming was
used. There is previous research using
high-speed film photography (Ref. 13),
and generally the welding process in
progress is observed in the state that an
electrode cap tip and a specimen are cut in
half. However, in that state, the boundary
condition of a weld becomes different
from the boundary condition of actual
welding. Therefore, it is difficult to quan-
titatively configure welding parameters,
such as electrode force, welding current,
and power. Accordingly, to qualitatively
compare the difference between the
nugget growth mechanism of CCC weld-
ing and that of CPC welding, a trial-and-
error method was used to configure the
welding parameters. The maximum cur-
rent and power conditions where melting
metal is not expelled in the weld were set
using a trial-and-error method, and thus
each welding condition of CCC and CPC
welding was, respectively, 1.0 kN, 300 ms,
2.5 kA, and 1.0 kN, 300 ms, 2.0 kW. The
camera speed for observation was set to
2000 frames per second.
Figure 6 shows a high-speed image of
CCC and CPC welding at 50 ms intervals. In
the case of CCC welding, nugget formation
was faster than in CPC welding; however,
after 200 ms, nugget growth remained still,
and at 300 ms, the nugget started to cool. On
the other hand, in the case of CPC welding,
although nugget formation was slower than
with CCC welding, the nugget consistently
grew until 300 ms. Finally, it was observed
that the CPC welding secured the same or
larger nugget size than CCC welding. The
cause for the difference in the nugget
growth mechanism can be inferred by the
difference in the welding power profiles
shown in Figs. 4 and 5. In the case of CCC
welding, since high welding power is applied
to the weld early in the welding process, the
nugget forms quickly. However, the welding
power constantly decreases. As a result, it is
considered that the nugget growth stands
still. In the case of CPC welding, since con-
stant welding power is applied to the weld
over the entire welding process, nugget
growth is relatively slow but keeps growing.
Welding Characteristic on Electrode
Force and Coating
To test the adaptability according to the
changes in electrode force and the surface
treatment (GI coating), each characteristic
of CCC and CPC welding was compared. In
the condition that electrode force is 3.0 kN
and welding time is 350 ms, the total heat
input was equally set as a criterion of test
conditions for both CCC and CPC welding.
The test condition was set about 2120 J as
total heat input in Fig. 2. Therefore, the
welding conditions were set as 5.0 kA, 350
ms for CCC welding, and 6.0 kW, 350 ms for
CPC welding. To evaluate the adaptability
of CPC welding for the changes in electrode
force, these welding conditions were used
for conducting tests on electrode force with
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 82-s
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Fig. 6 Nugget growth images for CCC and CPC welding.
Table 4 Tensile Shear Strength of GI-Coated TWIP980 Steel
Welding Tensil Shear Average Tensile Shear
Condition Strength (N) Strength (N)
11870
CCC 12477 12347
3.0 kN 12693
13296
CPC 13149 13061
3.0 kN 12738
three levels, 2.0, 3.0, and 5.0 kN. Table 3
shows the results of the tests on electrode
force with three levels. In each condition,
three tests were repeatedly conducted. In
the case of CPC welding, it satisfies accept-
able tensile shear strength for all force con-
ditions. In contrast, in the case of CCC
welding, with an electrode force of 2.0 kN,
expulsion occurred in all three repeated
tests due to an increase in dynamic resist-
ance. Also, with an electrode force of 5.0
kN, it failed to secure the acceptable tensile
shear strength in three repeated tests due to
the lack of heat input caused by a reduction
in dynamic resistance. Therefore, regarding
the changes in electrode force, it can be con-
cluded that the adaptability of CPC welding
is better than that of CCC welding.
Figure 7 shows each dynamic resist-
ance and power curve for CCC and CPC
welding in each condition that electrode
force is 2.0, 3.0, and 5.0 kN. In both CCC
and CPC welding, the lower the electrode
force, the higher the resistance. As shown
in Fig. 7A, in the case of CCC welding,
since the welding current is constant, the
electrode force is lower, and the welding
power is higher. That is, as the electrode
force gets lower, the total heat input (an
area under the power curve) applied to the
weld increases. Therefore, in the 2.0 kN
condition, excessive heat energy is applied
to the weld early in the welding process,
and thereby expulsion occurs. In the 5.0
kN condition, since the lack of total heat
energy causes insufficient nugget forma-
tion, acceptable tensile shear strength is
not secured. While in the case of CPC
welding, since equal heat energy is applied
to the weld under the three levels of elec-
trode force, as shown in Fig. 7B, accept-
able tensile shear strength can be obtained
in all force conditions. That is because, as
shown in Fig. 8, CPC welding compensates
for the resistance
change caused by a
force condition by
changing the weld-
ing current. The
lower the resistance,
the higher the cur-
rent, and vice versa.
The result indicates
that, regarding the
changes in electrode
force, the adaptabil-
ity of CPC welding is
better than that of
CCC welding.
To evaluate the
adaptability of CPC
welding to the GI
coating layer of the
test material, weld-
ing of GI-coated TWIP980 steel sheet
with the same thickness of 1.4 mm was
conducted. Table 4 shows the results of
CCC and CPC welding of GI-coated
TWIP980 steel. In both CCC and CPC
welding, no expulsion was found, and ac-
ceptable tensile shear strength was se-
cured. The tensile shear strength of CPC
welding was about 700 N higher than that
of CCC welding. That is because the total
heat input of CCC welding decreases due
to the GI coating layer. However, CPC
welding compensates for the resistance
drop caused by the GI coating layer, and
thus applies equal total heat input as the
uncoated TWIP980 steel.
Figure 9 shows the dynamic resistance
and power curve of both uncoated and GI-
coated TWIP980 welding. In the case of the
GI-coated steel, resistance of each CCC
and CPC weld decreased. As shown in Fig.
9A, in the case of CCC welding, welding
current is constant and welding power de-
creases due to the resistance drop caused by
the GI coating layer. Since total heat energy
is an area of power curve, it decreases due
to the effect of the GI coating layer. As a re-
sult, the tensile shear strength of the coated
steel is lower than that of the uncoated steel.
However, in the case of CPC welding, since
equal heat energy is given to the weld re-
gardless of coating treatment, as shown in
Fig. 9B, CPC welding secures higher tensile
shear strength than CCC welding. As shown
in Fig. 10, because CPC welding compen-
sates for the resistance change caused by the
GI coating layer, the welding current
changes. The lower the resistance, the
higher the current, and vice versa. Like the
test result of adaptability to electrode force
changes, it is considered that, regarding GI
coating, the adaptability of CPC welding is
better than that of CCC welding.
Conclusions
This work applied MFDC CPC welding,
and evaluated weldability through com-
parison with conventional MFDC CCC
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Fig. 7 Resistance and power signals according to the electrode force. A CCC welding; B CPC welding.
A
B
Fig. 8 Welding current profiles of CPC welding under three electrode forces.
welding, to improve resistance spot weld-
ability of 1 GPa grade TWIP steel. The fol-
lowing conclusions were drawn from the
investigation on the weldability of the
MFDC constant power welding and con-
stant current welding to 1 GPa grade
TWIP steel:
1. By evaluating fundamental weldabil-
ity, this work obtained the suitable weld-
ing range of both CCC and CPC welding
for TWIP980 steel. Furthermore, it was
found that the suitable welding range for
CPC welding was larger than that of CCC
welding with regard to total heat input.
Also, it was found that nugget diameter
was proportional to tensile shear strength.
2. Constant power control welding re-
duced expulsion because it prevents ex-
cessive heat input to the weld durging the
early stage of the process. Therefore, the
suitable welding range for CPC welding
was expanded.
3. Due to the heat input profile (i.e., a
different power profile) of CPC being dif-
ferent from CCC welding, there are differ-
ent nugget growth mechanisms between
CPC welding and conventional welding
(i.e., CCC welding).
4. Constant power
control welding showed
better weldability in the
case of coated steel and
for different electrode
force conditions.
Acknowledgments
This work was sup-
ported by the National
Research Foundation
of Korea (NRF) grant
funded by the Korea
government (MEST)
(No. 2012-0005415).
References
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Resistance welding Procedures for determining
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Fig. 9 Resistance and power signals of uncoated and GI-coated TWIP steels. A CCC welding; B CPC welding.
Fig. 10 Welding current profiles of CPC welding of uncoated and GI-
coated TWIP steels.
A
B
Introduction
In the manufacturing industries, weld-
ing plays a major role as a crucial manu-
facturing process for producing a count-
less number of industrial goods from
buildings to bridges and cars to comput-
ers. Among various welding processes,
GMAW is a semiautomatic or automatic
arc welding process in which a continuous
and consumable wire electrode and a
shielding gas are fed through a welding
gun for joining metals. It is a major weld-
ing method for fabricating many engi-
neered artifacts and structures such as
cars, ships, space shuttles, offshore drilling
platforms, and pipelines.
The level of imperfections of the welds
are assessed through various inspection
processes. Nondestructive examination
(NDE) is one of the major inspection
methods for welding in industry. The
NDE technology for weld inspection has
evolved rapidly during the past few years.
The NDE techniques normally used to ex-
amine welds are visual, radiographic, mag-
netic particle, liquid penetrant, and
ultrasonic.
In all the above evaluation methods,
components are inspected by a trained
NDE inspector. A decision is then made
based on the inspectors acceptance of the
component under test. Computerization
of this inspection process paves the way
for image enhancement, real-time or near
real-time viewing, comparative inspec-
tions, and archival capabilities. Machine
vision technology improves productivity
and quality management and also enables
industries to withstand a competitive
atmosphere.
Reliable detection of weld defects is
one of the most important tasks in NDE.
It is imperative to recognize the inherent
limitations of various NDE inspection
programs. Visual inspection does not pro-
vide a permanent record. Radiographic
equipment used in the radiographic test-
ing method produces radiation that is
harmful to body tissue; moreover, it is not
generally suitable for fillet weld inspec-
tion. Magnetic particle inspection is appli-
cable to ferromagnetic materials only, and
it is difficult to use on rough surfaces. Liq-
uid penetrant tests cannot be applied ef-
fectively on hot assemblies. Ultrasonic
testing is less suitable than other NDE
methods for determining porosity in
welds. An NDE interpreter must have a
thorough knowledge of the weld process
and associated flaws as well as the accept-
ance criteria as specified in reference
codes and standards. Automated interpre-
tation software for inspection is more reli-
able as its decision is not dependent on
subjective factors. The proposed method
was developed through overcoming the
previously mentioned limitations in other
NDE methods of weld examinations.
A literature survey has been made in
this specific area. The Wang (Ref. 1) study
reveals the advantage of visual inspection:
Quality Level Assessment for
Imperfections in GMAW
A vision inspection system for welded joints using a Gaussian
distribution-based feature for image extraction has been developed
as well as verified with real-time practices
BY G. SENTHIL KUMAR, U. NATARAJAN, T. VEERARAJAN, AND S. S. ANANTHAN
KEYWORDS
Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW)
Welding Defects
Vision System
Gaussian Distribution
Chi-Square Test
Backpropagation Neural
Network (BPN)
Differential Evolutionary
Algorithm (DEA)
G. SENTHIL KUMAR (senthilgandhi@
ymail.com) is an associate professor with the
Dept. of Mech., Velammal College of Eng. &
Tech., Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. U. NATARA-
JAN is an asst. professor with the Dept. of Mech.,
A. C. College of Eng. & Tech., Karaikudi, Tamil
Nadu, India. T. VEERARAJAN is the dean, Dept.
of Mathematics, Velammal College of Eng. &
Tech., Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. S. S. ANAN-
THAN is the sr. deputy general manager, Welding
Research Institute, BHEL, Tiruchirapalli, India.
ABSTRACT
In this investigation, an attempt has been made to evaluate the quality level
for imperfections of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) by capturing the images in
a vision system and processing them using neural networks. The level of imper-
fections is assumed by approximating the surfaces of the welded images with a
Gaussian distribution. Images of welded joints based on surface variations are
classified as a good weld, excess weld, insufficient weld, and no weld (as per stan-
dard EN25817). Primarily, images of butt joint beads in GMAW were extracted
through a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera of a machine vision system. Af-
terward, the gray level values of the pixels from the captured images were as-
sumed to fit a Gaussian distribution, fitness was tested through the chi-square
test, and then the characteristics of the distribution were considered as a feature
extraction. Finally, images of the welded joints were classified into one of the four
predefined ones based on quality of level for imperfections as per standard by
using an artificial neural network (ANN) with backpropagation (BP) and ANN
with differential evolutionary algorithm (DEA) separately. In this technique, 80
images of welded joints were tested and 96.25% overall accuracy was achieved.
When the same method was used in an average grayscale-2D feature vector, only
a 95% accuracy level was achieved. The results obtained by ANN using DEA
were closer to ANN using BP, but the computational time of ANN using DEA
was shorter.
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Inspection of welded structures is essen-
tial to ensure that the quality of welds
meets the requirements of design and op-
eration, thus enssuring safety and reliabil-
ity. Visual inspection is the primary evalu-
ation method of many quality control
programs. It can be carried out easily and
inexpensively and usually does not require
special equipment other than magnifying
glasses, borescopes, or video camera sys-
tems. It is used most effectively for weld
inspections if quick detection and correc-
tion of flaws or process-related problems
are required, resulting in significant cost
savings.
Shafeek et al. (Ref. 2) introduced a
novel automated vision system to detect
and assess welding defects in gas pipelines
using radiographic films. In his work, a
novel automated vision system with an au-
tomatic welding defect assessments (Au-
toWDA) algorithm was developed to de-
tect and assess welding defects in gas
pipelines using radiographic films. In his
method, grayscale values of neighboring
pixels were used as a boundary chain code
algorithm to detect welding defects.
Jagannathan (Refs. 3, 4) introduced an
automatic inspection system for wave-
soldered joints by using an intelligent his-
togram-related technique that divides the
gray level histogram of the captured image
from a joint into different modes.
Kim et al. (Ref. 5) described an effi-
cient technique for solder joint inspection
using three layers of ring-shaped LEDs
with different illumination angles. In his
paper, the region of interest from the im-
ages was segmented and their characteris-
tic features, including the average gray
level and 2D features, were extracted.
Based on the backpropagation algorithm
of neural network, each solder joint was
classified into predefined types. If the out-
put value was not within the confidence in-
terval, 3D features were calculated and
the solder joint was classified based on the
Bayes classifier.
Liao (Refs. 6, 7) developed a weld ex-
traction methodology based on the obser-
vation that the intensity plot of a weld
looks more Gaussian than the other ob-
jects in the image.
Chang et al. (Ref. 8) developed a cork
quality classification system using a linear
transformation as a function of the dis-
tance between the average and gray level
of each pixel within the windowed area.
Silva et al. (Ref. 9) estimated the accu-
racy of classification of welding defects
using geometric features of the pixel
values.
Wang et al. (Ref. 10) recognized the
welding defects in radiographic images
using a support vector machine classifier.
In his approach, he measured how often
one gray value will appear in a specified
spatial relationship to another gray value
within the image.
Rajneesh Kumar et al. (Ref. 11) used a
regression analysis based on the grayscale
value method in an application of image
magnification for surface roughness eval-
uation in a machine vision system.
In a previous study by Senthil Kumar et
al. (Ref. 12), a 2D feature vector was used
for feature extraction and 95% overall ac-
curacy of classification for welded joints was
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 86-s
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Fig. 1 A Schematic diagram of a machine vision system for GMAW inspection; B Rapid 1 V3.4 machine vision system for acquiring the images.
Fig. 2 Four zones of LED illumination angle po-
sition setup.
A
B
Table 1 Computations of Observed Frequencies in Images for a Good Weld in Butt Joint
Class Interval Mid Value Average Grayscale Percentage of Frequency
x
i
(Intensity) Value Intensity Value f
i
i
118 9.5 1432.00 6.17 6
1936 27.5 2092.00 9.01 9
3754 45.5 2437.20 10.50 11
5572 63.5 3313.00 14.28 14
7390 81.5 2333.00 10.05 10
91108 99.5 3494.00 15.06 15
109126 117.5 2250.10 9.69 10
127144 135.5 2085.80 8.99 9
145162 153.5 1184.00 5.10 5
163180 171.5 1655.80 7.13 7
181198 189.5 921.00 3.97 4
Total 23197.90 100 100
f
i
= (
i
/
i
)100
achieved using a vision inspection system.
Various studies (Refs. 1723) show the
grayscale intensity value of pixels depends
on the amount of light generated by the
light sources, nature of the welded sur-
face, and amount of light that is captured
by the sensor (camera). In Liaos work
(Ref. 6), the pixel values of the welded im-
ages were used to study the closeness of
the vertical cross section of the welded
surface to a Gaussian distribution. In tune
with the trend of this statistical approach,
a front lighting system with CCD camera
was used to capture images of gas metal
arc welded joints, and gray values of the
pixels were extracted from the images.
The intensity values (grayscale values) of
the pixels are divided into a suitable num-
ber of class intervals (grouping) and
recorded in each class interval. Finally, the
grayscale values of the various images
such as good weld, excess weld, insuffi-
cient weld, and no weld are fitted to the
Gaussian distribution through calculated
mean and standard deviations of the re-
spective images. Expected normal fre-
quencies of these images are calculated
and fitness of the same is verified by using
the chi-square test. In general, the cali-
bration process is difficult to carry out in
industrial environments due to vibrations
and random movements that vary with
time (Ref. 13). Therefore, the calibration
process is not followed in this proposed
method.
The second section of this paper illus-
trates the overview of a vision inspection
system. The third section discusses the
quality level of imperfections in welded
joints. In the fourth section, preparation
of welded joints and experimentation of
image capturing are explained. In the fifth
and sixth sections, fitness of Gaussian dis-
tribution and chi-square test for the im-
ages are thoroughly discussed. In section
seven, feature extraction of the welded im-
ages is discussed. The back propagation
neural network (BPN) classifier is dis-
cussed in the eighth section, and the re-
sults are discussed in the ninth section. Fi-
nally, section ten presents the conclusions
of this work.
Inspection of Vision System
The schematic diagrams of a vision in-
spection system and Rapid 1 V3.4 ma-
chine vision system for acquiring the im-
ages are shown in Fig. 1A, B. Vision-based
inspection systems were developed for
noncontact inspections and measure-
ments. The instruments integrate a multi-
tude of technologies, including digital im-
aging, electronics, embedded systems, and
software. Rapid 1 V3.4, a vision-based
metrology instrument, utilizes image cap-
turing to enable precise inspections. By
combining precision work stages and soft-
ware, high resolution is achieved. It is ca-
pable of carrying out diverse measure-
ment tasks, including all basic 2D
measurements, depth, and even thread
parameters.
The front lighting illumination system
of this inspection system is shown in Fig. 2.
It has four zones of LEDs with different il-
lumination angles. There is a camera at
the center of this lighting system. Four
frames of images are sequentially cap-
tured as four zones of LEDs are turned on,
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Fig. 3 Different types of acceptable and unacceptable weld profiles in butt joints as per EN 25817. A Good weld; B excessive reinforcement weld;
C insufficient weld; D no weld.
Fig. 4 Four images of a good weld captured with illuminations from four different zones. A Zone
1; B zone 2; C zone 3; D zone 4.
A
B
C D
A
C
B
D
one after the other. Both the lighting sys-
tem and camera are controlled by a com-
puter. During inspection, succeeding op-
erations such as image capturing and
inspection of the objects are executed by
the computer.
Level for Imperfections in Weld
A welded joint should normally be
evaluated separately for each individual
type of imperfection. A butt joint weld
was made within the cross section of the
abutting plates in a butt or T-joint. Be-
fore welding, the plate edges are to be
prepared. This weld can be classified as
a complete-joint-penetration butt joint
weld and partial joint penetration butt
joint weld. In complete joint penetration,
there is a complete penetration and fu-
sion of the weld and base metal through-
out the thickness of the joint. In partial
joint penetration, the material pene-
trates partially. Based on the values ob-
tained from the various measurements of
the welded surface, acceptance or level
for imperfections in the weld will be de-
cided in conformity with EN 25817. The
scrutiny of welding defects in the butt
joints inspected leads to the classifica-
tion of welds as a good weld, excess weld,
insufficient weld, and no weld.
Figure 3 depicts the different types of
acceptable and unacceptable groove weld
profiles in butt joints based on standard
EN 25817:1992. Figure 3A shows the
image of a good weld; h, b, and t denote
reinforcement height, width of the weld,
and thickness of the workpiece, respec-
tively. Good welds refer, when the rein-
forcement height (h) has neither been sat-
isfied h 1 mm + 0.15b, maximum of 7
mm, and also has not been satisfied under
groove height h1 0.1t, maximum of 1
mm. Figure 3B shows the excessive rein-
forcement weld. When the reinforcement
height (h) of the weld lies between 1 and 7
mm, it may be considered as excessive re-
inforcement. Figure 3C refers to an insuf-
ficient weld. When the under groove
height (h1) lies between 0.1 and 1 mm, it
may be considered as an insufficient weld.
Figure 3D illustrates the no weld. In this
type, the groove surface is not filled.
Experimentation
The experimentation of inspection
quality level for imperfections in GMAW
joints during the proposed system com-
prises various stages.
First of all, different types of joints like
acceptable and unacceptable joints in the
single-V-groove butt welded joint in the
GMAW process have been prepared as
per Standard EN 25817:1992. Carbon
steel plate sized 80 x 20 x 4 mm was used
as a base material in this work. The volt-
age and current maintained during weld-
ing was 27 V and 260 A. ER 70S6 with a
1.2-mm-diameter electrode was used in
this experiment. Carbon dioxide was sup-
plied during the welding process at the
standoff distance of 15 mm.
In the next stage, a vision system was
used to capture the images of welded joints
that were prepared as per the standard. In
this experiment, welded surfaces were ori-
ented horizontally for the convenience of
capturing images. The image is a collection
of digitized elements (pixels) in the form of
an array of intensity values. The region of
interest (weld bead area) was selected from
the original image by a cropping mechanism
and then the cropped image was converted
into a grayscale image (stored with 8 bits per
sample pixel, which allows 256 different in-
tensities). Four images of different welds
were classified by illuminating four zones of
LEDs with different intensity levels by using
a Rapid 1 V3.4 machine vision system. Dur-
ing the experiment works, parameters like
illumination of light, focal length, magnifi-
cation factor of the camera, and position of
workpiece were maintained constantly both
in training and testing.
Figure 4 shows the images of good (de-
fect-free) welds captured with illumina-
tions from four different zones. Figure 4A
shows the image of the good welded joint
during illumination from zone 1. Figure
4B shows the image of the good welded
joint during illumination from zone 2. Fig-
ure 4C shows the image of the good
welded joint during illumination from
zone 3. Figure 4D shows the image of the
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Fig. 5 Four images of excess weld illuminated from four different zones. A Zone 1; B zone
2; C zone 3; D zone 4.
A
C
B
D
Table 2 Computations of Expected Frequencies in Image for a Good Weld in Butt Joint
Class Interval Mid Value Observed Frequency d
i
f
i
d
i
x
i
(f
i
)
118 9.5 6 -4 -24
1936 27.5 9 -3 -27
3754 45.5 11 -2 -22
5572 63.5 14 -1 -14
7390 81.5 10 0 0
91108 99.5 15 1 15
109126 117.5 10 2 20
127144 135.5 9 3 27
145162 153.5 5 4 20
163180 171.5 7 5 35
181198 189.5 4 6 24
Total 100 11 54
good welded joint during illumination
from zone 4.
Figure 5AD shows the images of ex-
cess welds illuminated from four different
zones.
Figure 6 shows the images of insuffi-
cient weld illuminated from four different
zones. Information about zones 14 are
shown in Fig. 6AD, respectively. Figure 7
shows the images of no weld illuminated
from four different zones.
Figure 7AD give information about
zones 14 of the images of no weld. The
noise of the captured image is reduced,
and the quality of the image is improved
by employing image processing tech-
niques. In this method, color images are
converted into grayscale by applying
image processing techniques. Hue and
saturation are eliminated and mean filter-
ing is applied to the retained luminance. A
region of interest of the image is cropped
manually for further processing. Gray-
scale values of the pixels of the cropped
images of the weld are listed. Features of
the image are extracted from grayscale
values of these cropped images using
properties of Gaussian distribution. These
extracted features are considered as input
variables, and types of welded joints are
considered as output variables. In this
stage, the intelligent techniques like artifi-
cial neural networks trained by backprop-
agation and differential evolution algo-
rithms were used to classify the images as
per predefined images based on standard
EN 25817:1992.
Gaussian Distribution and
Fitness
In probability theory, the Gaussian (or)
normal distribution is a continuous proba-
bility distribution that is often used as a first
approximation to describe real-valued
random variables that tend to cluster
around a single mean value. The graph of
the associated probability density function
given below is bell shaped and known as
the Gaussian function or bell curve (Ref.
15).
Where parameter is the mean (loca-
tion of the central tendency) and
2
is the
variance (measure of the deviation from
the mean of the distribution).
The distribution with = 0 and
2
= 1
is called the standard normal distribution.
This is also considered the most promi-
nent probability distribution in statistics.
There are several reasons for this. First,
the normal distribution is tractable analyt-
ically; that is, a large number of results in-
volving this distribution can be derived in
explicit form. Secondly, the normal distri-
bution arises as the outcome of the central
limit theorem, which states that under
mild conditions, the sum of a large num-
ber of random variables is distributed just
about normally. Finally, the bell shape
of the probability curve of the normal dis-
tribution makes it a convenient choice for
modeling a large variety of random vari-
ables encountered in practice. For this
reason, the normal distribution is com-
monly used in practice, and is used
throughout statistics, natural sciences, and
social sciences as a simple model for com-
plex phenomena.
The chi-square test has a large number
of applications in statistics. It is powerful
for testing the significance of the discrep-
ancy between theory and experiment; was
given by Prof. Karl Pearson in 1900; and is
known as chi-square test of goodness of
fit. It can determine whether the devia-
tion of the experiment from theory is just
by chance or it is really due to the vast dif-
ference between theoretical and observed
values. Though it is an approximate test
for larger values of n, the chi-square test
of goodness of fit is a valid test for small
values of n.
Random samples have been drawn
from a normal population with a specific
variance (
2
), the calculated values are
compared with the critical values of the
chi-square distribution corresponding to a
f(x)
1
2
e < <
2
(x )
2
2
2
=
x (1)
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Fig. 6 Four images of insufficient weld illuminated from four different zones. A Zone 1;
B zone 2; C zone 3; D zone 4.
Table 3 Computations of Standard Deviation for a Good Weld in Butt Joint
Class Interval Mid Value Frequency
x
i
(f
i
) d
i
f
i
d
i
f
i
d
i
2
118 9.5 6 -4 -24 96
1936 27.5 9 -3 -27 81
3754 45.5 11 -2 -22 44
5572 63.5 14 -1 -14 14
7390 81.5 10 0 0 0
91108 99.5 15 1 15 15
109126 117.5 10 2 20 40
127144 135.5 9 3 27 81
145162 153.5 5 4 20 80
163180 171.5 7 5 35 175
181198 189.5 4 6 24 144
Total 100 11 54 770
A
B
C
D
few important levels of significance (chi-
square table), and then used to decide
whether the null hypothesis may be ac-
cepted or rejected. In the present case, the
null hypothesis assumed is that the cross-
section curve of the welded surface is a
normal curve.
After the conversion of the grayscale
image, the values of pixels of images in all
rows and columns are added and the per-
centage of pixel values is calculated and
taken as frequency (f
i
). The arithmetic
mean of a set of observations is the sum of
the observed values divided by their num-
ber. The arithmetic mean of this distribu-
tion is calculated as follows:
If the values of midvalue and f
i
are
large, the calculation of mean is quite time
consuming and tedious. The arithmetic
computations are reduced to a great ex-
tent by taking the deviations of the given
values from any arbitrary value A. Any
number can serve the purpose of arbitrary
value A but, usually, the value of x
i
corre-
sponding to the middle part of the distri-
bution will be more convenient. In case of
grouped frequency distribution, the com-
putation is simplified by taking
Where x
i
is midvalue of class interval,
A is an arbitrary value, and C
l
is length of
the class interval (length of the group of
the pixels). The computations of observed
frequencies for images of a good weld in
the butt joint are shown in Table 1. Stan-
dard deviation () is the positive square
root of the arithmetic mean for the
squares in the deviations of the given val-
ues in their arithmetic mean. It is also the
best and most powerful measure of dis-
persion. In this case, the variance is inde-
pendent of change in origin but not of the
scale. The standard deviation () is calcu-
lated in this distribution as follows:
To fit a normal distribution to the given
data, calculated values of the mean ()
and standard deviations () from the
given data are used in the equation of the
normal curve, and expected normal fre-
quencies are calculated. To calculate the
expected normal frequencies, first the
standard normal varieties corresponding
to the midpoint of each of the class inter-
vals are computed by the following for-
mula. Table 2 illustrates computations of
expected frequencies in images for a good
weld in the butt joint. Table 3 shows the
computations of a standard deviation for a
good weld in the butt joint
Then the ordinate values of normal
curves (z) are computed from the nor-
mal distribution tables. Finally, the ordi-
nates of normal probability curve values
are multiplied by NC/, and the expected
normal frequencies are obtained.
Validity of Chi-Square Test
The chi-square (
2
) distribution is used
to test the goodness of fit and also the in-
dependence of attributes. For the
2
test of
goodness for fit to be effective and valid,
the number of observations must be large;
individual frequencies must not be too
small, i.e., O
i
10 (in case O
i
< 10, it is
combined with the neighboring frequen-
cies); and the number of classes must be
neither too small nor too large (Refs.
1517). In this experiment, it is assumed
that random samples (grayscale of pixels)
have been drawn from a normal popula-
tion with a specific variance (
2
). To test
the goodness of fit, differences between
observed and expected frequencies have
been determined after combining the end
classes to make the individual frequencies
neither too small nor too large.
Table 4 shows the expected frequencies
of grouped interval good welds in a butt
joint.
The number of degrees of freedom
2
is given by = number of classes (n)
Z
x
i
=

(5)
= =

1
( ) (
1
)
1
2
1
2
N
f d
N
f d
i i i i i i
(4)
d
x A
C
i
i
=
( )
(3)
1
= +
=
A
N
f d
i
n
i i
1
(2)
1
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Fig. 7 Four images of no weld illuminated from four different zones. A Zone 1; B zone 2; C
zone 3; D zone 4.
A
C D
B
Table 4 The Expected Frequencies of Grouped Interval for a Good Weld in Butt Joint
Class Mid Value
Interval x
i
z (z) Nc / Expected Frequency
( (z) (f
i
)
118 9.5 -1.67 0.0990 3.6382 4
1936 27.5 -1.30 0.1714 6.2976 7
3754 45.5 -0.93 0.2589 9.5125 10
5572 63.5 -0.57 0.3390 12.4556 13
7390 81.5 -0.20 0.3910 14.3662 15
91108 99.5 0.17 0.3931 14.4434 15
109126 117.5 0.54 0.3447 12.665 13
127144 135.5 0.90 0.2661 9.7771 10
145162 153.5 1.27 0.1781 6.5438 7
163180 171.5 1.64 0.1040 3.8212 4
181198 189.5 2.01 0.0529 1.9437 2
Total 100
number of statistical constants obtained
from the data (k). In this experiment, to
find the expected frequencies, the values
of o
i
, and have been used. Hence, de-
grees of freedom = 8 3 = 5. From the
2
table for the 5% level of significance
(LOS),
2
5%
( = 5) = 11.09. Since
o
2
<
2
5%
, the null hypothesis that assumes the
grayscale value-based distribution is
nearly normal is accepted, and the normal
fit for this distribution is satisfactory.
Table 5 shows the computation of chi-
squared values of a good weld in the butt
joint. Then the test of goodness of fit ap-
plies to all types of samples of welded im-
ages one by one and analyzed. Samples of
good and excess weld images are accepted,
and images of insufficient and no weld are
not accepted at a 5% level of significance.
Figure 8 depicts the probability curves
of the observed and expected frequencies
for a good weld. Figure 9 shows the prob-
ability curves of observed and expected
frequencies of the excess weld. Figures 10
and 11 illustrate the probability curves of
the observed and expected frequencies of
the insufficient weld and no weld.
Feature Extraction
A feature is a value describing an ob-
ject in a numerical form and the selection
of the best features is essential for the suc-
cess of any classification algorithm.
Rather than using the raw data directly,
some measures or descriptors are often se-
lected upon which the classes of the ob-
served objects are determined by the clas-
sifier. These measures, commonly called
features, are generally of a much lower di-
mension than the data space. The process
of searching for internal structure in data
items, that is for the features or properties
of the data, is called feature extraction.
The process of choosing desirable features
from the initial set of observations is called
feature selection. The relevancy of ex-
tracting features is determined either by
trial and error or based on an automatic
feature selection procedure (Ref. 10).
Extracting desirable features is an ex-
tremely difficult task and problem de-
pendent (Ref. 8). To distinguish welds
from nonwelds, features with discriminat-
ing capability must be identified (Ref. 9).
In this process, the gray level values of the
pixels from the captured images are as-
sumed to fit a Gaussian distribution, test
the fitness through
2
test, and then char-
acteristic of the distribution is considered
as a feature extraction. Then true color
images are converted into a grayscale
image. After this selection, a region of in-
terest is cropped for further processing.
Finally, features of the images are com-
puted as shown at right.
The average gray values of pixels in the
cropped images were calculated and tabu-
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Features Gaussian Distribution Formula
Properties
F
1
Mean
where d
i
= (x
i
A) (6)
C
1
F
2
Standard deviation
(7)
F
3
Coefficient of variation
(8)
F
4
Median
(9)
F
5
Mode
(10)
F
6
Pearsons coefficient
of skewness
(11)
F
7
Bowleys coefficient
of skewness
(12)
F
8
Coefficient of kurtosis
(13)
where l is the lower limit of the median class,
f is the frequency of the median class,
h is the magnitude of the median class,
c is the cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class,
and N =f.
f
1
is the frequency of the modal class,
f
o
and f
2
are the frequencies of the classes preceding and succeeding the
modal class, respectively.
is the standard deviation of the distribution.
Q
1
is the first quartile of the distribution.
Q
3
is the third quartile of the distribution.
2
is the second central moment.
4
is the fourth central moment.
+
A
N
f d
i
n
i i
1
1

_
,

1
( )
1
1
2
1
2
N
f d
N
f d
i
n
i i i
n
i i
M=1+
h
f
N
2
c
_
,
Mo=1+
h(f -f )
2f -f -f
1 0
1 0 2
1
0
=
3( ) M M
4
4
2
2
S
Q Q M
Q Q
Q l
c
f
N
m
k
d
+
+
3 1
3 1
1
2
where =
4
_
,
_
,
Q l
c
f
N
m
3
3
4
C V . * 100

lated. In this work, 80 welded image sam-

ples are taken into account in the classifi-
cation process. Table 6 shows the values of
the Gaussian feature for welded images in
a butt joint.
ANN Using a BP Classifier
An ANN is an information processing
paradigm inspired by the biological nerv-
ous systems, such as the brain processing
information. It has been successfully em-
ployed in similar applications to perform
the classification (Ref. 12). After feature
selection, a BPN is employed to perform
the classification (Refs. 1723). The back-
propagation algorithm minimizes the
squares of the differences between actual
output and desired output unit for all
training pairs. The error obtained when a
training pair consisting of both input and
output given to the input layer of the net-
work is given by the equation
Where T
pi
is the i
th
component of the
desired output, and O
i
is the calculated
output of i
th
neuron in the output layer.
The overall error of all the patterns is
given by
To obtain a gradient descent in E, the
weight W has to be updated
Where is a constant real number
called learning rate, which determines the
influence of error over weight change;
pj
is the error due to the P
th
pattern con-
nected to J
th
neuron; and O
pi
is the i
th
neu-
ron output when P
th
is processed by the
network.
In the gradient descent, Equation 16, the
error value pj can be computed as follows:
pj
= o
pi
(1 O
pi
)(T
pj
O
pi
) (17)
For hidden layers
pj
= O
pi
(1 O
pi
)O
pi
W
jk
(18)
In this work, a BPN classifier is used to
classify the weld joints. The backpropaga-
tion algorithm was used to train the net-
work. The network was trained by using av-
erage gray values for four zones of images
as input variables and types of weld joints as
output variables. To improve the perform-
ance of the system, normalizing the data is
important (Ref. 12). It can make the neural
network training more efficient due to a sig-
nificant reduction of the dimensionality of
E T O
p i pi pi
=

1
2
2
( - ) (14)
E E
p
=
(15)
W O
ij pj pi
= (16)
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Fig. 8 Probability curves of the observed and expected frequencies of a good
weld.
Fig. 10 Probability curves of the observed and expected frequencies of an
insufficient weld.
Fig. 9 Probability curves of the observed and expected frequencies of an
excess weld.
Fig. 11 Probability curves of the observed and expected frequencies of a
no weld.
Table 5 Computations of Chi-Squared Values for a Good Weld in Butt Joint
Class Observed Frequency Expected Frequency (O
i
E
i
)
2
X
2
=(O
i
E
i
)
2
O
i
E
i Ei
1 15 11 16 1.45
2 11 10 1 0.10
3 14 13 1 0.07
4 10 15 25 1.60
5 15 15 0 0.00
6 10 13 9 0.69
7 9 10 25 0.83
8 16 13 16 0.69
Total = 5.43
the input data. Normalization is done as
follows:
Where x
1
is the value of the feature in
the welded image, and x
max
is the maxi-
mum value of the feature in the welded
image.
The average gray values of four zones
in images for four types of welded joints
are used as input variables. Four types of
joints such as good weld, excess weld, in-
sufficient weld, and no weld are assigned
values 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1, respectively,
as output variables. Table 7 shows normal-
ized values of input and output of welded
images.
The features like average gray values
of four zones for four types of weld joints
are the inputs given to the input layer of
the ANN.
The weights between input layer and
hidden layer and weights between hidden
layer and output layer are generated ran-
domly for the selected topology 4-5-5-1 of
the network.
The number of training patterns used
for training is 80.
The patterns were normalized.
The training was done offline using
the computer.
x
x
x
1
1
=
max
(19)
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Fig. 12 Schematic flow chart of the ANN-BP. Fig. 13 Schematic flow chart for ANN training using DEA.
Fig. 14 Classification performance of neural network using a Gaussian dis-
tribution-based feature vector in a butt joint.
Fig. 15 Comparison of computational speed for ANN using BP and DEA
for a butt joint in GMAW.
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Table 6 The Values of Gaussian Feature for Welded Images in Butt Joint
Sample No. Gaussian Feature Type of Weld
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
1 89.55 43.69 48.80 87.78 80.92 0.040 0.057 3.317
2 89.52 43.96 48.63 87.92 80.12 0.034 0.075 3.32
3 89.46 43.94 48.87 87.49 80.64 0.043 0.089 3.23
4 89.56 43.67 48.36 87.43 80.56 0.023 0.098 3.63
5 89.32 43.13 48.78 87.61 80.17 0.064 0.071 3.36
6 89.25 43.19 48.93 87.16 80.75 0.079 0.017 3.39
7 89.23 43.71 48.39 87.33 80.67 0.097 0.029 3.93
8 89.76 43.17 47.56 87.29 80.71 0.046 0.092 3.78
9 89.73 43.31 47.32 87.94 80.65 0.032 0.037 3.87
10 89.67 43.76 47.81 87.71 80.76 0.072 0.073 3.89 No weld
11 89.37 43.75 47.49 87.17 80.57 0.014 0.091 3.98
12 89.31 43.57 47.65 88.43 81.12 0.039 0.019 3.45
13 89.13 43.28 47.23 88.34 80.69 0.043 0.044 3.54
14 89.71 43.82 47.18 88.56 80.46 0.059 0.066 3.65
15 89.17 43.59 47.94 88.12 80.21 0.095 0.099 3.56
16 89.69 43.95 47.42 88.21 80.79 0.093 0.015 3.61
17 89.96 43.63 47.24 88.67 80.97 0.034 0.056 3.16
18 89.39 43.36 49.72 88.76 80.96 0.041 0.019 3.17
19 89.93 43.68 49.27 88.72 81.21 0.027 0.029 3.71
20 89.74 43.86 49.51 88.27 81.75 0.022 0.039 3.82
21 85.365 48.75 57.73 83.65 80.65 0.035 0.026 2.503
22 85.87 48.65 57.78 84.23 80.25 0.029 0.024 2.58
23 85.59 48.54 57.87 84.76 81.45 0.027 0.021 2.81
24 85.46 48.98 57.79 84.19 80.94 0.038 0.018 2.96
25 85.71 48.89 57.97 84.79 80.26 0.041 0.017 2.17 Insufficient weld
26 85.78 48.45 57.13 84.77 80.74 0.039 0.012 2.36
27 85.95 48.87 57.64 82.73 80.92 0.040 0.025 2.28
28 85.64 48.56 57.12 82.19 81.46 0.042 0.027 2.95
29 85.17 48.78 57.91 82.71 81.63 0.045 0.031 2.83
30 85.82 48.12 57.46 82.39 80.39 0.055 0.028 2.92
31 85.34 48.21 57.31 82.57 81.27 0.032 0.015 2.67
32 85.93 48.13 57.73 84.12 80.76 0.033 0.029 2.84
33 85.76 48.73 57.21 84.76 80.94 0.046 0.036 2.39
34 85.43 48.31 57.19 84.49 81.92 0.048 0.044 2.87
35 85.28 48.76 57.43 84.37 80.70 0.053 0.024 2.38
36 85.14 48.19 57.49 84.39 80.52 0.039 0.014 2.54
37 85.39 48.91 56.72 84.74 80.41 0.036 0.021 2.62
38 85.41 48.37 56.71 84.93 80.37 0.032 0.032 2.69
39 85.67 48.67 56.76 85.46 80.18 0.033 0.033 2.32
40 86.12 48.46 56.71 85.23 81.28 0.029 0.048 2.94
41 87.34 39.74 46.09 87.14 85.112 0.004 -0.019 3.350
42 87.25 39.75 46.93 87.18 85.42 0.006 -0.011 3.36
43 87.49 39.78 46.23 87.12 85.72 0.007 -0.015 3.37
44 87.19 39.48 46.37 87.19 87.46 0.002 -0.017 3.39
45 87.76 39.71 46.21 87.46 87.12 0.003 -0.018 3.38
46 87.45 39.52 46.19 87.43 87.45 0.005 -0.012 3.31
47 84.42 39.64 46.75 87.42 87.49 0.001 -0.014 3.33
48 87.69 39.65 46.92 87.19 87.16 0.008 -0.016 3.38
49 87.17 39.44 46.78 87.56 87.18 0.012 -0.020 3.39 Excess weld
50 87.49 39.88 46.22 87.28 87.49 0.013 -0.016 3.31
51 87.92 39.54 46.23 87.49 87.43 0.019 -0.022 3.34
52 87.93 39.61 46.27 87.22 87.44 0.017 -0.021 3.36
53 87.97 39.63 46.51 87.88 87.42 0.016 -0.025 3.35
54 87.75 39.75 46.19 87.87 87.43 0.018 -0.011 3.37
55 87.71 39.48 46.11 87.43 87.49 0.019 -0.013 3.39
56 87.95 39.24 46.17 87.65 87.59 0.020 -0.015 3.34
57 87.76 39.32 46.12 87.66 87.56 0.023 -0.017 3.31
58 87.43 39.37 46.13 87.44 87.26 0.015 -0.012 3.37
59 87.42 39.78 46.28 87.11 87.26 0.016 -0.022 3.31
60 87.12 39.66 46.37 87.42 87.13 0.017 -0.018 3.39
61 85.05 42.99 51.85 83.89 80.54 0.026 0.011 2.784
62 85.63 42.35 51.12 83.12 80.12 0.026 0.012 2.77
63 85.61 42.61 51.45 83.16 80.16 0.021 0.015 2.79
64 85.6 42.68 51.13 83.17 80.13 0.022 0.017 2.74
65 85.61 42.23 51.42 83.26 80.17 0.024 0.019 2.75
66 85.84 42.98 51.48 83.71 80.75 0.027 0.018 2.76
67 85.74 42.95 51.28 83.28 80.19 0.029 0.016 2.73
68 85.13 42.56 51.23 83.42 80.43 0.026 0.015 2.71
69 85.12 42.16 51.57 83.65 80.45 0.024 0.014 2.79
70 85.46 42.76 51.75 83.61 80.77 0.023 0.016 2.73
71 85.75 42.78 51.79 83.94 80.33 0.022 0.012 2.74 Good weld
72 87.49 42.79 51.89 83.69 80.23 0.027 0.016 2.63
73 85.15 42.96 51.59 83.67 80.56 0.021 0.017 2.64
74 87.69 42.93 51.26 83.49 80.44 0.029 0.018 2.65
75 87.26 42.16 51.23 83.17 80.66 0.025 0.011 2.69
76 85.79 42.16 51.42 83.47 80.96 0.026 0.021 2.61
77 85.45 42.35 51.78 83.46 80.39 0.028 0.023 2.63
78 87.16 42.96 51.26 83.79 80.37 0.030 0.022 2.68
79 85.19 42.75 54.19 83.44 80.27 0.034 0.026 2.69
80 85.16 42.19 51.28 83.22 80.29 0.038 0.028 2.64
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Table 7 Normalized Values of Input and Output for Welded Images
Sample No. Normalized Values Output Type of Weld
1 0.995442 0.993881 0.981657 0.989049 0.989933 0.04 0.057 0.833417 1
2 0.995109 1 0.978077 0.990536 0.980061 0.034 0.075 0.834171 1
3 0.994442 0.999545 0.982904 0.985692 0.986422 0.043 0.089 0.811558 1
4 0.995554 0.993403 0.972647 0.985016 0.985443 0.023 0.098 0.91206 1
5 0.992886 0.981119 0.981094 0.987044 0.980673 0.064 0.071 0.844221 1
6 0.992108 0.982484 0.984111 0.981974 0.987768 0.079 0.017 0.851759 1
7 0.991885 0.994313 0.97325 0.983889 0.986789 0.097 0.029 0.987437 1
8 0.997777 0.982029 0.956557 0.983438 0.987278 0.046 0.092 0.949749 1
9 0.997443 0.985214 0.95173 0.990762 0.986544 0.032 0.037 0.972362 1
10 0.996776 0.99545 0.961585 0.98817 0.98789 0.072 0.073 0.977387 1
11 0.993442 0.995223 0.955149 0.982087 0.985566 0.014 0.091 1 1 No weld
12 0.992775 0.991128 0.958367 0.996282 0.992294 0.039 0.019 0.866834 1
13 0.990774 0.984531 0.94992 0.995268 0.987034 0.043 0.044 0.889447 1
14 0.997221 0.996815 0.948914 0.997747 0.98422 0.059 0.066 0.917085 1
15 0.991218 0.991583 0.9642 0.99279 0.981162 0.095 0.099 0.894472 1
16 0.996999 0.999773 0.953741 0.993804 0.988257 0.093 0.015 0.907035 1
17 1 0.992493 0.950121 0.998986 0.990459 0.034 0.056 0.79397 1
18 0.993664 0.986351 1 1 0.990336 0.041 0.019 0.796482 1
19 0.999667 0.993631 0.990949 0.999549 0.993394 0.027 0.029 0.932161 1
20 0.997554 0.997725 0.995776 0.994479 1 0.022 0.039 0.959799 1
21 0.9912332 0.99540629 0.99596343 0.9788205 0.98452148 0.035 0.026 0.84560811 0.75
22 0.9970971 0.99326256 0.99672244 0.9856073 0.97961426 0.029 0.024 0.87162162 0.75
23 0.9938458 0.99101674 0.99827497 0.99180903 0.9942627 0.027 0.021 0.94932432 0.75
24 0.9923363 1 0.99689495 0.98513925 0.98803711 0.038 0.018 1 0.75
25 0.9952392 0.99816252 1 0.99216007 0.97973633 0.041 0.017 0.73310811 0.75
26 0.996052 0.98917926 0.98550975 0.99192605 0.9855957 0.039 0.012 0.7972973 0.75
27 0.998026 0.99775419 0.9943074 0.96805523 0.98779297 0.04 0.025 0.77027027 0.75
28 0.9944264 0.99142507 0.98533724 0.96173648 0.99438477 0.042 0.027 0.99662162 0.75
29 0.9889689 0.9959167 0.99896498 0.9678212 0.99645996 0.045 0.031 0.95608108 0.75 Insufficient weld
30 0.9965165 0.98244181 0.99120235 0.96407676 0.98132324 0.055 0.028 0.98648649 0.75
31 0.9909429 0.9842793 0.9886148 0.96618301 0.99206543 0.032 0.015 0.90202703 0.75
32 0.9977938 0.98264598 0.99585993 0.98432015 0.98583984 0.033 0.029 0.95945946 0.75
33 0.9958198 0.99489588 0.98688977 0.99180903 0.98803711 0.046 0.036 0.80743243 0.75
34 0.9919879 0.98632095 0.98654476 0.98864966 1 0.048 0.044 0.96959459 0.75
35 0.9902462 0.99550837 0.99068484 0.98724549 0.98510742 0.053 0.024 0.80405405 0.75
36 0.9886205 0.98387097 0.99171986 0.98747952 0.98291016 0.039 0.014 0.85810811 0.75
37 0.9915235 0.99857085 0.97843712 0.99157501 0.98156738 0.036 0.021 0.88513514 0.75
38 0.9917557 0.98754594 0.97826462 0.99379827 0.9810791 0.032 0.032 0.90878378 0.75
39 0.9947747 0.99367089 0.97912713 1 0.97875977 0.033 0.033 0.78378378 0.75
40 1 0.98938342 0.97826462 0.99730868 0.9921875 0.029 0.048 0.99324324 0.75
41 0.9928953 0.99661484 0.98216493 0.99157943 0.9717091 0.004 -0.019 0.98820059 0.5
42 0.9918154 0.99674022 1 0.99203459 0.97522548 0.006 -0.011 0.99115044 0.5
43 0.9945436 0.99749248 0.98508417 0.99135184 0.97865053 0.007 -0.015 0.99410029 0.5
44 0.9911333 0.98996991 0.98806733 0.99214838 0.99851581 0.002 -0.017 1 0.5
45 0.9976128 0.99573721 0.984658 0.99522076 0.99463409 0.003 -0.018 0.99705015 0.5
46 0.9940889 0.99097292 0.98423183 0.99487938 0.99840164 0.005 -0.012 0.97640118 0.5
47 0.9596453 0.99398195 0.9961645 0.99476559 0.99885832 0.001 -0.014 0.98230088 0.5
48 0.9968171 0.9942327 0.99978692 0.99214838 0.99509076 0.008 -0.016 0.99705015 0.5
49 0.990906 0.9889669 0.99680375 0.99635867 0.9953191 0.012 -0.02 1 0.5 Excess weld
50 0.9945436 1 0.98487108 0.99317251 0.99885832 0.013 -0.016 0.97640118 0.5
51 0.9994316 0.99147442 0.98508417 0.99556213 0.99817331 0.019 -0.022 0.98525074 0.5
52 0.9995453 0.99322969 0.9859365 0.99248976 0.99828748 0.017 -0.021 0.99115044 0.5
53 1 0.99373119 0.9910505 1 0.99805914 0.016 -0.025 0.98820059 0.5
54 0.9974991 0.99674022 0.98423183 0.99988621 0.99817331 0.018 -0.011 0.99410029 0.5
55 0.9970444 0.98996991 0.98252717 0.99487938 0.99885832 0.019 -0.013 1 0.5
56 0.9997726 0.98395186 0.98380567 0.99738279 1 0.02 -0.015 0.98525074 0.5
57 0.9976128 0.98595787 0.98274025 0.99749659 0.9996575 0.023 -0.017 0.97640118 0.5
58 0.9938615 0.98721163 0.98295333 0.99499317 0.99623245 0.015 -0.012 0.99410029 0.5
59 0.9937479 0.99749248 0.98614958 0.99123805 0.99623245 0.016 -0.022 0.97640118 0.5
60 0.9903376 0.99448345 0.98806733 0.99476559 0.99474826 0.017 -0.018 1 0.5
61 0.9698939 1 0.95691087 0.99947582 0.994849308 0.026 0.011 0.99784946 0.25
62 0.9765082 0.98506699 0.94334748 0.99023112 0.989624506 0.026 0.012 0.99283154 0.25
63 0.9762801 0.99111463 0.94943717 0.99070765 0.990118577 0.021 0.015 1 0.25
64 0.976166 0.99274284 0.94353202 0.99082678 0.989748024 0.022 0.017 0.98207885 0.25
65 0.9762801 0.98227577 0.94888356 0.99189898 0.990242095 0.024 0.019 0.98566308 0.25
66 0.978903 0.99972088 0.94999077 0.99725995 0.997406126 0.027 0.018 0.98924731 0.25
67 0.9777626 0.99902307 0.94630006 0.99213724 0.99048913 0.029 0.016 0.97849462 0.25
68 0.9708062 0.98995162 0.94537738 0.9938051 0.993453557 0.026 0.015 0.97132616 0.25
69 0.9706922 0.98064756 0.9516516 0.99654515 0.993700593 0.024 0.014 1 0.25
70 0.9745695 0.99460365 0.95497324 0.99606862 0.997653162 0.023 0.016 0.97849462 0.25
71 0.9778766 0.99506885 0.95571139 1 0.992218379 0.022 0.012 0.98207885 0.25
72 0.9977192 0.99530145 0.95755674 0.99702168 0.990983202 0.027 0.016 0.94265233 0.25
73 0.9710343 0.99925568 0.95202067 0.99678342 0.995059289 0.021 0.017 0.94623656 0.25 Good weld
74 1 0.99855787 0.94593098 0.99463903 0.993577075 0.029 0.018 0.94982079 0.25
75 0.9950964 0.98064756 0.94537738 0.99082678 0.996294466 0.025 0.011 0.96415771 0.25
76 0.9783328 0.98064756 0.94888356 0.99440076 1 0.026 0.021 0.93548387 0.25
77 0.9744555 0.98506699 0.95552685 0.99428163 0.992959486 0.028 0.023 0.94265233 0.25
78 0.993956 0.99925568 0.94593098 0.99821301 0.992712451 0.03 0.022 0.96057348 0.25
79 0.9714905 0.99437105 1 0.99404336 0.991477273 0.034 0.026 0.96415771 0.25
80 0.9711484 0.98134537 0.94630006 0.99142244 0.991724308 0.038 0.028 0.94623656 0.25
The training function of Levenberg-Mar-
quardt (TrainLM) is used in this network.
The application of Levenberg-Marquardt
to neural network training is the fastest
method for training a moderate-sized feed
forward neural network. In many cases,
TrainLM is able to obtain lower mean
square errors than any of the other algo-
rithms tested. The number of iterations in
this work was 5000, learning rate was
0.0001, hyperbolic tangent function is an ac-
tivation function, and three-layered feed
forward BPN was used. Figure 12 shows the
schematic flow chart of ANN using BP.
ANN Using DEA
Differential evolution algorithm
(DEA) is a heuristic method for optimiz-
ing nonlinear and nondifferentiable con-
tinuous space functions. Hence, it can be
applied to global searches within the
weight space of a typical neural network.
In this work, a very popular feed forward
multilayer perceptron neural network
(MLPNN) was used. Training a MLPNN
to recognize the objectors is typically real-
ized by adopting an error correction strat-
egy that adjusts the network weights
through minimization of learning error.
E = E (Y0, Y) (20)
Where Y is the real output vector of a
MLPNN, Y0 is the target output vector,
and Y is a function of synaptic weights w
and input values X. In the MLPNN, the
input vector x and the target output vector
Y0 are known, and the synaptic weights in
Ware adapted to obtain appropriate func-
tional mappings from the input x to the
output Y0. Normally, the adaptation can
be carried out by minimizing the network
error function E, i.e., network training
procedure. The opimization goal is to
minimize the objective function E by opti-
mizing the values of the network weights.
W = (W1, W2...WD) (21)
Differential evolution maintains a pop-
ulation M of constant size, and the real
value vector l
i
G
I l
i
G
, , h, re, (i = 1,2,...,M)
is the index to the popu (ati, n a, d G(G =
1,2,,Gmax) is the generation to which
the population belongs
PG = {l
1
G
, l
2
G
,...,l
m
G
} (22)
Each individual of the population is
compared with its counterpart in the cur-
rent population, and the vector with the
lower objective function value wins a place
in the next generations population. As a
result, all the individuals of the next gen-
eration are as good as or better than their
counterparts in the current generation.
In this work, the values extracted from
different features through experiments
have been used to train the neural network
with DEA rather than the type of welded
images that have been classified as per
standards. The schematic flow chart for
the neural network training using differ-
ential evolution algorithm is shown in Fig.
13. A neural network with different
topologies has been trained, and the opti-
mal structure (4-5-5-1) found out by a
trial-and-error approach for the error con-
vergence is 0.0001. The results obtained
from the DEA-based ANN model were
compared with the BP-based ANN model.
In this work, a total of 80 images of
welded joints were used for training and
testing by dividing each 20 images into 4
sets as good weld, excess weld, insufficient
weld, and no weld. These 80 images were
used in the ANN using BP and DEA net-
works. The data were fed into the neural
network (values of Gaussian distribution-
based feature extraction of images) as
input variables and types of weld joints
(assigned values: 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1) were
considered as output variables. The train-
ing and testing data of the four types of
welded joints classified as good, excess, in-
sufficient, and no weld are shown in Table
8. Accuracy of the ANN is determined by
means of recognition rate. The recogni-
tion rate mostly depends on the number of
hidden neurons and the learning rate used
in the network. The recognition rate is de-
fined as follows:
The network was trained at 0.0001 al-
lowable errors. It can be seen that the
error coverage was 7.8222e-005. The per-
formance of the proposed classifier has
been evaluated in terms of recognition
rate and execution time. The classification
performance of the network using a
Gaussian distribution-based feature vec-
tor in a butt joint is shown in Table 9. For
individual comparison, it was found that
the accuracy varies with the type of defect.
The results obtained by ANN using BP
shows the highest accuracy is 100% for in-
sufficient welds and the lowest is for ex-
cess, good, and no welds (90%). The over-
all accuracy is 96.25%. In ANN using
DEA, 95% is the greatest accuracy
achieved in all types of welds. The overall
performance of neural networks in a butt
joint is shown in Table 10.
Figure 14 depicts the classification per-
formance of neural networks using a
Gaussian distribution-based feature vec-
tor in a butt joint.
In comparison of computational times,
ANN using DEA computational time was
shorter than that of ANN using BP. Table
11 and Fig. 15 show the comparison of
overall computational time for the inspec-
tion system in a butt joint. These images
were used in the average grayscale-2D fea-
ture vector method. In the average
grayscale-2D feature vector, the average
gray levels and percentage of the high-
lights were extracted from the digitized
images of welded joints and then average
values of pixels in the cropped images
were computed as follows (Ref. 12):
Recognitionrate =
Number ofunseenpatterns s correctly classified
Total number ofunseeenpatterns
100 (23)
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 96-s
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Table 9 Classification Performance of Network Using Gaussian Distribution Based Feature
Vector in Butt Joint
S. No. Type Number Results
of of Sample Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect
Weld (%) (%)
BP DEA BP DEA BP DEA BP DEA
1 Good weld 20 19 19 1 1 95 95 5 5
2 Excess weld 20 19 19 1 1 95 95 5 5
3 Insufficient weld 20 20 19 0 1 100 95 0 5
4 No weld 20 19 19 1 1 95 95 5 5
Total 80 77 76 3 4 96.25 95 3.75 5
Table 8 Training and Testing Data of the Four Types of Welds
S. No. Type of Weld Training Data Testing Data
1 Good 20 20
2 Excess weld 20 20
3 Insufficient weld 20 20
4 No weld 20 20
Total 80 80
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) (24)
Where x is the 2D feature vector; x
1
is
the average grayscale value of the zone 1
cropped image; x
2
is the average grayscale
value of the zone 2 cropped image; x
3
is the
average grayscale value of the zone 3
cropped image; x
4
is the average grayscale
value of the zone 4 cropped image; I
i
(x,y)
is the image of the i
th
layer; Ris the welded
region; and Nis the number of pixels in the
welded region.
These average gray values of images
for four types of welded joints were used
as input variables, and the type of weld
joint as output variables. This feature ex-
traction method was performed only in
95% accuracy level in ANN using both BP
and DEA (Ref. 12). In fact, Gaussian dis-
tribution-based features show a significant
difference in computational time as well
as accuracy level.
Conclusion
The vision inspection of welded joints
using a Gaussian distribution-based fea-
ture image extraction has been devel-
oped as well as verified with real-time
practices. In this technique, four zones of
LEDs were used for efficient extraction
of shape information, which is used to
characterize the weld nature. The classi-
fication is based on the neural network
using BP and DEA. It provides the high-
est overall accuracy of 96.25%. When the
same method was used in an average
grayscale-2D feature vector, the per-
formance showed only 95% in accuracy
level. This vision-based inspection sys-
tem could be further expanded for clas-
sification of images with different types
of joints in the welding process.
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welded joints by radiographic tests. NDT & E
International 38: 335343.
10. Wang, Xin, et al. 2010. Recognition of
welding defects in radiographic images by using
support vector machine classifier. Research
Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and
Technology 2(3): 295301.
11. Kumar, Rajneesh, et al. 2005. Applica-
tion of digital image magnification for surface
roughness evaluation using machine vision. In-
ternational Journal of Machine Tools & Manu-
facture 45: 228234.
12. Senthil Kumar, G., Natarajan, U., and
Ananthan, S. S. 2012. Vision inspection system
for the identification and classification of de-
fects in MIG welding joints. International Jour-
nal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
(IJAMT) 61: 923933.
13. Gauss, M., Buerkle, A., Laengle, T.,
Woern, H., Stelter, J., Ruhmkorf, S., and Mid-
delmann, R. 2003. Adaptive robot based visual
inspection of complex parts. ISR2003.
14. Carrasco, Miguel, and Merry, Domingo.
2010. Automatic multiple view inspection using
geometrical tracking and feature analysis in alu-
minum wheels. Machine Vision and
Applications.
15. Veerarajan, T. 2010. Probability, Statistics
and Random Processes. Third edition. Tata Mc-
Graw-Hill Publishing.
16. Gupta, S. C., and Kapoor, V. K. 1999.
Fundamentals of Mathematical Statistics. Sultan
Chand & Sons Publishing.
17. Sonka, M., Hilavac, H., and Boyle, R.
1998. Image Processing, Analysis and Machine
Vision. Second edition. PWS Publishing (USA).
18. Sonka, M., Hilavac, H., and Boyle, R.
2011. Digital Image Processing and Computer
Vision. Fourth edition. Cengage Learning
Products.
19. Gonzalez, Rafeal C., and Woods,
Richard E. 2002. Digital Image. Second edition.
Addison-Wesley.
20. Umbaugh, Scott E. Computer Vision and
Image Processing. Prentice Hall International
Editions.
21. Gonzalez, Rafeal C., Woods, Richard E.,
and Eddins, S. L. 2009. Digital Image Processing
Using MATLAB, Fifth Impression. Pearson Ed-
ucation in South Asia.
22. Schalkoff, Robert J. Digital Image Pro-
cessing and Computer Vision. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
23. Sridhar, S. 2011. Digital Image Process-
ing. First Edition. Oxford University Press.
x
N
I x y
x y R 1 1
1
=

( , )
( , ) (25)
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Table 10 Overall Performance of Neural Network in Butt Joint
S. No. Feature Extraction Overall Performance
Method BP DEA
1. 2D feature vector 95% 95%
2. Gaussian distribution features 96.25% 95%
Table 11 Comparison of Overall Computational Time of Inspection System in Butt Joint
S. No. Feature Extraction Overall Computational Time (s)
Method BP DEA
1. 2D feature vector 46 32
2. Gaussian distribution features 49 33
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 98-s
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Introduction
Steels are currently being used as the
principal structural material in naval ship
construction, primarily because of their
relatively low cost and good combination
of mechanical properties. For many years,
the U.S. Navy has focused on developing
stronger and tougher steels for the hull
and deck applications (Refs. 13). The
projected property requirements for high-
strength, blast-resistant naval steels
needed for future ship applications is im-
pact fracture toughness above 115 J
at 64C with a yield strength in the range
from 1030 to 1240 MPa. These steels
should possess good formability and weld-
ability, especially good resistance to heat-
affected zone (HAZ) hydrogen-induced
cracking (HIC) (Ref. 4).
A new steel, BlastAlloy 160 (BA-160),
was developed at Northwestern Univer-
sity to meet these rigorous requirements
for blast-resistant naval material applica-
tions. It was designed based on a theoret-
ical computational materials design con-
cept, using a multiscale materials
modeling method and detailed advanced
microstructural characterization tech-
niques. It has high yield strength of 1100
MPa (160 ksi) and impact toughness of
176 J at 25C. The chemical composition
of BA-160 is listed in Table 1. The steel
heat treatment procedure, as outlined in
Table 2, was used to achieve the combina-
tion of high strength and toughness. The
high strength results from the combined
effects of a martensite/bainite matrix,
M
2
C carbides (where M=Cr, Mo, and V)
and copper precipitates, which are in the
range of 35 nm. High toughness results
from the presence of finely dispersed, Ni-
stabilized austenite, based on a dispersed
phase transformation toughening mecha-
nism. More information on the design and
microstructure development of BA-160
can be found in publications by Saha et al.
(Refs. 5, 6).
As with most steels developed for ship-
building applications, one of the primary
design objectives for BA-160 is that it
should possess good weldability. Among
the weldability issues associated with
welding high-strength steels, HAZ HIC is
one of the biggest concerns, as validated
by numerous publications by previous re-
searchers (Refs. 715). Heat-affected
zone HIC was also referred to as HAZ
cold cracking or delayed cracking in the
welding literature. Researchers have pro-
posed a number of theories to describe the
cracking mechanism. Some of the more
popular theories that have evolved over
the years include the surface adsorption
theory by Petch (Ref. 16), the decohesion
theory by Troiano (Ref. 17), and the the-
ory proposed by Beachem stating that
fracture behavior is dependent on the
combined effect of stress intensity at crack
tip and hydrogen concentration (Ref. 18).
Even though a unified mechanism for HIC
still does not exist, it is generally agreed
that the occurrence of HIC in the HAZ of
welds in high-strength steels requires the
simultaneous presence of a threshold level
of hydrogen, a susceptible microstructure,
and tensile residual stress (Ref. 19).
In order for the new steel to be welded
with good resistance to HAZ HIC, an un-
derstanding of the influence of welding
Effect of Welding Parameters on the
Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced
Cracking Tendency of a Blast-Resistant Steel
The effect of heat input and preheat on the HAZ hydrogen-induced cracking
tendency of BA-160 was evaluated by the implant test
BY X. YUE, X.-L. FENG, AND J. C. LIPPOLD
ABSTRACT
An implant test was used to investigate the effect of welding conditions on the
susceptibility of a blast-resistant steel, BlastAlloy-160 (BA-160), to heat-affected
zone (HAZ) hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). The lower critical stress (LCS)
was determined using the implant test with different heat input conditions and
preheat temperatures. Welding was performed using the gas metal arc process and
hydrogen was introduced using an Ar-15%H
2
shielding gas. The microstructure
of the coarse-grained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of BA-160 was characterized
by means of both optical and transmission electron microscopy. The CGHAZ mi-
crostructure of the as-welded, low-heat-input welds consisted of untempered
martensite with some retained interlath austenite. Increased heat input leads to
the formation of lower bainite, decreasing the hardness of the microstructure. Use
of preheat for low-heat-input welds also slightly reduced CGHAZ hardness, and
the microstructure is predominantly martensite with the possibility of some bai-
nite. It was shown in the implant test results that both increasing heat input and
using preheat improved the HIC resistance of the HAZ. The fracture behavior
was studied using scanning electron microscopy. It was shown that both welding
with high-heat input and applying preheat resulted in an increase in fracture mor-
phology dominated by microvoid coalescence with no intergranular fracture.
X. YUE (yuexinosu@gmail.com), X.-L. FENG,
and J. C. LIPPOLD are with the Welding Engi-
neering Program, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio.
KEYWORDS
High-Strength Steels
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Heat Input
Preheat
Implant Test
CGHAZ Microstructure
Fracture Behavior
BA-160
parameters on the cracking tendency
using lab test is needed. In the present
study, the implant test was used to evalu-
ate the HAZ HIC tendency of BA-160
under different welding conditions. The
influence of heat input and effectiveness
of preheat on reducing cracking suscepti-
bility have been investigated using the im-
plant test. The CGHAZ microstructure
was characterized using optical and trans-
mission electron microscopy, and the frac-
ture behavior was studied with scanning
electron microscopy.
Material and Experimental
Procedures
BA-160 was provided in the form of 35-
mm- (1.375-in.-) diameter bar stock by
QuesTek Innovations LLC, Evanston, Ill.
The composition of the material used in
this study is listed in Table 1. It was heat-
treated following the procedure in Table 2,
and the base metal microstructure is
shown in Fig 1.
The implant test, which was originally
developed by Henri Granjon (Ref. 20),
was used in the present investigation to
evaluate the HAZ HIC susceptibility. It
has been shown to be an effective HAZ
HIC test method, which provides a quan-
titative measure of HIC susceptibility
(Refs. 21, 22). The schematic of the im-
plant test, testing system, and implant
specimen are shown in Fig. 2AD. The im-
plant specimens, as shown in Fig. 2D, were
machined from the BA-160 steel along the
rolling direction of the bar stock, with di-
mensions shown in Table 3. One end of the
implant specimen was 0.5 in. (12.7 mm)
long with a 10-32 UNF thread and was in-
serted into a clearance hole in the center
of the specimen plate, with the top of the
10-32 UNF thread section flush with the
specimen plate top surface. The other end
of the implant specimen was 0.5 in. (12.7
mm) long with a 1/4-20 UNC thread and
was threaded into a connection rod of The
Ohio State University Modified Implant
Testing System (OSU-MITS) so that a
constant tensile load could be applied
after welding is completed.
A weld bead was deposited using the
gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process
with 0.047-in.- (1.2-mm-) diameter Su-
perArc LA-100 wire (composition
shown in Table 1) on the surface of the
specimen plate directly over the 10-32
UNF thread and the hole. A low and a
high heat input, which were 33 kJ/in. (1.3
kJ/mm) (voltage, 30 V; current, 220 A;
travel speed, 12 in./min); and 66 kJ/in(2.6
kJ/mm) (voltage, 30 V; current, 220 A;
travel speed: 6 in./min), respectively,
were used to evaluate the effect of heat
input on the HAZ cracking tendency. In
addition, for the low heat input, preheat
of 60, 100, and 150C were applied be-
fore welding to evaluate the preheat ef-
fect on reducing the HIC tendency. Be-
fore welding, the specimen plate and
implant specimen were heated to 300C
in a heating furnace, then were quickly
moved to the OSU-MITS and fixed on
the testing system. A Type K thermocou-
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Fig. 1 Microstructure of the BA-160 base metal,
which shows a tempered martensite/bainite matrix
with various precipitates dispersed on the matrix.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of BA-160 Steel and SuperArc LA-100 (wt-%)
C Mn Si P S Cu Ni Cr Mo V Nb Ti Al Zr
BA-160 0.059 0.001 0.015 <0.005 <0.001 3.39 6.8 1.9 0.61 <0.001 <0.001 0.016 0 0
SuperArc LA-100 0.05 1.63 0.46 0.005 0.002 0.11 1.88 0.04 0.43 0.01 0 0.03 0.01 0.01
0.06 1.69 0.50 0.009 0.005 0.14 1.96 0.06 0.45 0.04
Fig. 2 The implant test system (OSU-MITS) and specimen. A Schematic drawing of the implant
test; B full view of the OSU-MITS; C close-up view showing an implant specimen under loading
and an unloaded one on the top right corner ; D the implant specimen.
A
C
B
D
ple was connected to the data-
acquisition system of OSU-MITS and
used to measure the temperature of the
specimen plate. Welding was started on
the preheated specimens once the tem-
perature of the specimen plate dropped
to the predetermined preheat tempera-
ture. Argon + 15% H
2
shielding gas at a
flow rate of 45 ft
3
/h (21.2 L/min) was used
to introduce sufficient diffusible hydro-
gen into the weld joint to promote HIC in
the HAZ.
A HAZ was created in the 10-32 UNF
thread region of the implant specimen
after welding. Two minutes after comple-
tion of welding, the implant sample was
subjected to a static tensile load. The ten-
sile stress was determined by the load di-
vided by the cross-sectional area of the
root diameter of the 10-32 thread. The im-
plant sample was free of bending, torsion,
or shock loading as a result of the specific
design of OSU-MITS. The stress concen-
tration caused by the 10-32 UNF thread
forced cracking to occur in the susceptible
HAZ region rather than the fusion zone.
The data-acquisition system was used to
monitor the load and measure the time to
failure. To generate the implant test curve,
multiple samples were welded with the
same welding parameters and subjected to
different loads in order to generate a ten-
sile stress vs. time to failure relationship.
The highest stress at which no failure oc-
curs after 24-h loading was defined as the
lower critical stress (LCS) (Ref. 23), which
was taken as an index to determine sus-
ceptibility to HIC in the HAZ.
Metallographic samples were sectioned
perpendicular to the welding direction
along the axis of the implant specimens. Fol-
lowing mounting and polishing, they were
etched with 5% nital and examined using
optical microscopy. Transmission electron
microscope (TEM) samples were evaluated
in a Philips CM200 TEM operated at 200
kV. The fracture surface of the implant sam-
ples was examined under a Philips XL30F
ESEM. Vickers hardness measurements
were conducted along the axis of the im-
plant samples using a 1-kg load, in accor-
dance with ASTM E 384-10.
Weld Macrostructure
The weld macrostructures under dif-
ferent welding conditions are shown in
Fig. 3AC. It can be seen that a distinct
HAZ was created on the 10-32 UNF
thread region for all three weld condi-
tions. When increasing heat input (Fig.
3B) and using preheat (Fig. 3C), the area
of the fusion zone is larger as compared to
that welded with low heat input (Fig. 3A),
and the width of the HAZ becomes larger
when high heat input or preheat was used.
Figure 3D shows a fractured implant spec-
imen sectioned to reveal the HIC fracture
path. The fusion boundary separating the
fusion zone and HAZ can be clearly seen.
The crack initiates from the root of the un-
fused thread and propagates through the
CGHAZ approximately 100300 microns
away from the fusion boundary. In most
steels, the CGHAZ is the most susceptible
to HAZ HIC since it has the largest prior
austenite grain size and high hardness
(Refs. 2426).
Vickers Hardness Test Results
Hardness is a direct indication of a dif-
ferent microstructure formed, and is an
important factor that influences the HAZ
HIC tendency. Therefore, Vickers hard-
ness measurements were taken along the
axis of the implant specimens welded
under different conditions, starting in the
fusion zone and running through the HAZ
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 100-s
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Fig. 3 Macrostructure of implant test specimens welded under dif-
ferent conditions. A Weld with low heat input; B weld with high
heat input; C weld with low heat input, preheat at 150C before
welding; D macrostructure of a fractured implant specimen after
loading showing the fracture path.
A
B
C
D
Table 2 Heat Treatment Procedure for BA-160
Step Temperature,C Duration Post step procedure
1. Austenitization 900 1 h Water quench
2. Liquid nitrogen hold 196 30 min Air warm to room temp
3. Tempering 550 30 min Water quench
4. Tempering 450 5 h Air cool to room temp
to the unaffected base metal, as shown in
Fig. 4AC. The HAZ is indicated in the
three hardness plots as the region between
the two black solid lines. The red dotted
line is the approximate boundary between
the CGHAZ and its adjacent fine-grained
HAZ (FGHAZ).
It can be seen in all three hardness
traverses that the hardness of the fusion
zone is lower compared to HAZ and base
metal. And when welded with high heat
input or using preheat, the fusion zone
hardness decreases as compared to using
low heat input without preheat, indicat-
ing different cooling rates under differ-
ent welding conditions lead to the forma-
tion of different microstructures in the
fusion zone.
For all three conditions, the hardness
of the CGHAZ is actually the lowest
across the HAZ. This is attributed to the
difference in lath martensite morphology
and Cu precipitation behavior in different
HAZ regions as a result of different ther-
mal cycles experienced (Ref. 4). Even
though the CGHAZ has the lowest HAZ
hardness, it is the most HIC-susceptible
region, as shown in Fig. 3D. When using
low heat input as shown in Fig. 4A, the av-
erage CGHAZ hardness is 370 HV
1.0
, and
it slightly decreases to an average of 358
HV
1.0
when welded with high heat input,
and to an average of 363 HV
1.0
when using
preheat at 150C. The hardness results are
summarized in Table 4.
Weld CGHAZ Microstructure
Since cracking occurs in the CGHAZ
region adjacent to the fusion boundary,
the CGHAZ microstructure will influence
the cracking tendency. Therefore, in this
study, the CGHAZ microstructure of BA-
160 under different welding conditions
was characterized.
It is known that cooling rate influences
the phase transformation behavior. Using
an online weld modeling tool, EWI E-
Weld Predictor(Ref. 27), the t
8/5
, which
represents the cooling time from 800 to
500C, is estimated to be 3.5, 7.3, and 4.8 s
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Table 3 Specimen Plate/Implant Specimen Dimensions
Specimen plate
Material A36 steel
Plate thickness in. (mm) 0.5 (12.7)
Plate width in. (mm) 2 (50.8)
Plate length in. (mm) 4 (101.6)
Length of test in. (mm) 3.5 (88.9)
bead
Hole diameter in. (mm) 0.201 (5.1)
Implant specimen
Material BA-160
Total length of implant 1 (25.4)
specimen in. (mm)
Type of thread 10-32 UNF
Pitch in. (mm) 1/32 (0.79)
Major diameter in. (mm) 0.1900 (4.83)
Minor diameter in. (mm) 0.1517 (3.85)
Thread length in. (mm) 0.5 (12.7)
Thread angle 60 deg
Thread root radius in. (mm) 0.004 (0.1)
A C B
Fig. 4 Vickers hardness measurements taken along the axis of the implant specimen. A Weld with low heat input; B weld with high heat input;
C weld with low heat input, preheat at 150C before welding.
B
A
C
Fig. 5 Optical micrographs for the CGHAZ of BA-160. A Weld with low heat input; B weld with high heat input; C weld with low heat input, pre-
heat at 150C before welding.
for low heat input, high heat input, and
using preheat of 150C, respectively. Note
that the calculated t
8/5
is only an approxi-
mate value; however, it can be clearly seen
that both welding with high heat input and
applying preheat decrease cooling rate as
compared to welding with low heat input.
It is shown in the optical micrographs
in Fig. 5AC that no diffusion-controlled
transformation products such as ferrite or
pearlite can be observed, and martensite is
the predominant feature. The predomi-
nant formation of martensite in the
CGHAZ is primarily due to the high alloy
addition in BA-160, which results in high
hardenability as indicated by the high car-
bon equivalent (CE
AWS
= 1.24) (Ref. 28).
The CGHAZ microstructure forming at
different welding conditions was further
investigated under higher magnification
TEM, as shown in Fig. 6AC. A packet of
martensite laths can be observed in Fig.
6A. Because of the low carbon content in
BA-160 (0.059 wt-%), the martensite
formed in the CGHAZ is lath martensite,
which can also be confirmed by the exis-
tence of a dislocation network within the
martensite laths. The dark region between
martensite laths is retained austenite.
The existence of retained austenite re-
sults from the high-nickel addition (6.8
wt-%) in BA-160, which is an effective
austenite stabilizer depressing the M
s
and
M
f
temperatures. It was determined that
for BA-160 CGHAZ, M
s
is 355C and M
f
is 178C (Ref. 29). During the welding
cooling process, austenite rich in Ni did
not transform to martensite. It was stabi-
lized to the ambient temperature and
therefore results in incomplete austenite
transformation to martensite, even under
fast cooling rates. At higher heat input,
lower bainite is formed in the CGHAZ
under slower cooling rates, which can be
confirmed by the formation of intralath
plate-like cementite precipitates within
the bainite laths, as shown in Fig. 6B. The
cementite precipitates are oriented at a
preferential angle with the primary bainite
lath growth direction, and this is the char-
acteristic feature distinguishing lower bai-
nite from upper bainite or lath martensite
(Ref. 30). Note that lower bainite repre-
sents only a small fraction of the CGHAZ
microstructure, and because of the thin
laths and limited amount, it cannot be re-
solved in the optical microscope. Marten-
site laths free of intralath cementite can
also be seen in Fig. 6B and C, and it was
found that less retained austenite was
present with increasing heat input or ap-
plying preheat. The average Vickers hard-
ness of the CGHAZ with low heat input is
370 HV
1.0
and decreases to 358 HV
1.0
with
the increase in heat input and to 363 HV
1.0
with applying preheat of 150C. Due to the
hardness decrease when using preheat, it
is postulated that a small quantity of
lower-hardness bainite may form in the
CGHAZ when welding with preheat of
150C because of the lower cooling rate as
compared to welding with low heat input.
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Table 4 Summary of Microstructure, Hardness, and Implant Test Results for Different Welding Conditions for BA-160
Welding Conditions Low HI High HI Low HI Low HI Low HI
(33 kJ/in.) (66 kJ/in.) (33 kJ/in.), preheat (33 kJ/in.), preheat (33 kJ/in.), preheat
at 60C at 100C at 150C
CGHAZ microstructure M M+B M M M+(B)
a
CGHAZ Hardness (Avg)
b
370 358 368 366 363
Implant test LCS 91 ksi 96 ksi 94 ksi 103 ksi 107 ksi
(627 MPa) (661 MPa) (648 MPa) (710 MPa) (737 MPa)
(a) M represents martensite; B represents bainite; (B) represents possible formation of bainite in the microstructure.
(b) Avg means the average hardness of the CGHAZ, which is determined by taking the average of hardness data points in the CGHAZ region
together. The approximate boundary of CGHAZ is determined by metallographic observation.
Fig 6 Bright-field TEM micrographs for the CGHAZ of BA-160. A Weld with low heat input; B weld with high heat input; C weld with low heat
input, preheat at 150C before welding.
A
B
C
B A
Fig. 7 Implant test results for BA-160. A Weld with low heat input; B weld with high heat input.
Effect of Heat Input on BA-160 HAZ
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Tendency
Heat input is a factor that influences the
HIC tendency. Different heat inputs will re-
sult in different cooling rates and, as shown
in Figs. 5 and 6, lead to the formation of dif-
ferent microstructures in the HAZ during
cooling after welding. As discussed in the
previous section, the low heat input resulted
in a harder microstructure as compared to
the high heat input.
The implant test results for the two
heat inputs are shown in Fig. 7A and B.
The lower critical stress (LCS) for each
welding condition was determined. Lower
critical stress is defined as the maximum
stress at which cracking does not occur
after 24-h loading under the influence of
diffusible hydrogen. Therefore, the higher
the LCS, the better is the resistance to
HIC. It can be seen in the implant test re-
sults that an incubation time is observed
before the final failure occurs at each
stress level, and represents the time taken
for microcracks to form under the influ-
ence of stress and hydrogen that then link
up together to lead to the final failure.
When interpreting the implant test re-
sults, it is considered that for an equivalent
external stress applied to the implant spec-
imen, a longer incubation time indicates
better resistance to cracking (Ref. 31).
The LCS values were determined to be 91
ksi (627 MPa) and 96 ksi (661 MPa) for
low and high heat input, respectively, as
listed in Table 4. The increase in LCS when
using high heat input indicates that in-
creasing heat input when welding BA-160
steel reduces the tendency for HIC in the
CGHAZ. The reduction in cracking sus-
ceptibility when using high heat input can
also be seen by the comparison of the in-
cubation time before failure. When the
applied stress is 107 ksi (737 MPa), the in-
cubation time for the low heat input is 17
min, while it increases to 139 min for the
high heat input.
Clearly, the reduced HIC susceptibility
for the CGHAZ of BA-160 when increas-
ing heat input is the difference in mi-
crostructure as a result of slower cooling
rates. The lower hardness microstructure
of the mixed martensite and lower bainite
formed at slow cooling rates has a better
resistance to cracking as compared to the
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B
C
A
Fig. 8 Implant test results for BA-160, weld with
low heat input. A Preheat at 60C; B preheat
at 100C; C preheat at 150C.
A
A
C D
B
B
C
Fig. 9 Fracture morphology of implant specimen, weld with low heat input, failed after 17 min under
tensile stress of 107.9 ksi. A General fracture appearance; B intergranular; C quasi-cleavage;
D microvoid coalescence.
Fig. 10 Fracture morphology of implant speci-
men, weld with high heat input, failed after 139 min
under tensile stress of 107.9 ksi. A General frac-
ture appearance; B quasi-cleavage; C mi-
crovoid coalescence.
higher hardness martensitic microstruc-
ture formed at low heat input.
However, it should be noted that in real
welding practice, reducing HAZ HIC ten-
dency by using a very high heat input may
either not be practical or lead to severe
grain coarsening, which may either reduce
toughness or cause softening. As a result,
the determination of heat input should
also consider other factors.
Effect of Preheat on Reducing BA-160
HAZ Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Tendency
Preheat and/or interpass temperature
control are used as effective means in ac-
tual welding practice to alleviate HAZ
HIC in steels. First, preheating the steel
before welding will lead to a slower cool-
ing rate, which generally results in the for-
mation of lower hardness microstructures
such as ferrite, pearlite, and/or bainite in
the HAZ. These transformation products
are less susceptible to HIC as compared to
hard and brittle martensite. Second, pre-
heat can drive off any preexisting moisture
and promote longer weld cooling times
both of which reduce the diffusible hydro-
gen content in the HAZ. The reduction of
diffusible hydrogen will thereby reduce
the cracking tendency. Since BA-160 is de-
signed as a structural steel for naval ship
applications, it is likely that high-restraint,
high-hydrogen conditions will be encoun-
tered during fabrication. Therefore, it is
necessary to investigate using the lab test
if preheat is effective to alleviate HAZ
HIC when welding BA-160.
In the present study, implant testing
was conducted with preheat temperatures
of 60, 100, and 150C to evaluate the pre-
heat effect on reducing the cracking ten-
dency. The implant test results are shown
in Fig. 8AC. It can be seen that with pre-
heat before welding, all three curves show
that the incubation time prior to failure is
longer than that without preheat at equiv-
alent tensile stress levels, as compared to
Fig. 7A, indicating applying preheat re-
duces HAZ cracking tendency. This is be-
cause applying preheat can reduce the dif-
fusible hydrogen content, and thereby a
longer incubation time is required to
reach the critical hydrogen level to cause
cracking to occur. This is one evidence in-
dicating that preheat is effective to allevi-
ate the HAZ HIC cracking tendency for
BA-160.
The LCS with preheating at 60C was
determined to be 94 ksi (648 MPa), which
is slightly higher as compared to 91 ksi
(627 MPa) without preheat. Increasing the
preheat temperature to 100C, the LCS
was increased to 103 ksi (710 MPa), and
this was also with a concomitant increase
in incubation time. By further increasing
the preheat temperature to 150C, the
LCS was increased to 107 ksi (737 MPa).
This clearly indicates that increasing pre-
heat temperature is beneficial to reduce
HAZ cracking tendency for BA-160. How-
ever, increasing preheat temperature to
150C to reduce cracking was not so effec-
tive compared with the 9-ksi LCS increase
from preheat at 60 to 100C. Based on the
implant test results, it is shown that apply-
ing preheat and increasing preheat tem-
perature are beneficial to reduce the
cracking tendency for BA-160. One rea-
son is that applying preheat results in a
lower cooling rate, which leads to the for-
mation of a lower hardness microstructure
in the CGHAZ as found in the Vickers
hardness test results. The other reason is
that preheat is effective to reduce the dif-
fusible hydrogen level in the HAZ as dis-
cussed previously.
Effect of Welding Parameters on Fracture
Behavior
The fracture surfaces of the implant
specimens welded under different condi-
tions were studied using SEM to analyze
the effect of welding parameters on frac-
ture behavior. The SEM fractographs of
the BA-160 implant specimens are pre-
sented in Figs. 911. For the three welding
conditions, the fracture surface studied
was from the implant specimens failed at
the same tensile stress (107.9 ksi) for the
purpose of comparison.
Figure 9A shows the general fracture
appearance of a BA-160 implant specimen
with low heat input, and regions with dif-
ferent fracture modes are shown in Fig.
9BD at higher magnification. Coarse in-
tergranular (IG) failure, as shown in Fig.
9B, is only observed in the region close to
the root of the thread where the crack ini-
tiates. A quasi-cleavage (QC) mode, as
shown in Fig. 9C, constitutes the majority
of the fracture surface. Microvoid coales-
cence (MVC) is observed in only a small
area close to the final failure region, as
shown in Fig. 9D.
The fracture morphology of a speci-
men from a high-heat-input weld is shown
in Fig. 10AC. There is no faceted, coarse
IG fracture observed on the fracture sur-
face, in contrast to the fracture surface
with low-heat input. Quasi-cleavage is also
the predominant feature, as shown in Fig.
10A and B. However, the region of MVC
becomes larger as compared to that of low
heat input.
Figure 11AC shows the fracture mor-
phology with low heat input and a preheat
level of 100C. Similar to Fig. 10A, no ob-
vious IG failure can be observed at the
crack initiation site. The crack initiates
and propagates with QC mode for a long
distance, and then the fracture mode
changes to MVC.
It is found that using both high heat
input and preheat eliminate the IG frac-
ture mode, and increase the MVC area on
the fracture surface as compared to the
low-heat-input condition. This is an indi-
cation that increasing heat input and using
preheat improve HIC resistance. And this
is the result of formation of lower hard-
ness microstructure in the CGHAZ with
decreasing cooling rate, and also because
of the preheating effect to drive off hy-
drogen from the weld pool.
Conclusions
1. Using low-heat-input welding condi-
tions (33 kJ/in.), the CGHAZ microstruc-
ture of BA-160 is lath martensite with re-
tained austenite. With high heat input (66
kJ/in.), lower bainite forms in the
CGHAZ. The mixture of martensite and
lower bainite has a lower hardness as com-
MARCH 2014, VOL. 93 104-s
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A
C
B
Fig. 11 Fracture morphology of implant speci-
men weld with low heat input and preheat of
100C, failed after 80 min under tensile stress of
107.9 ksi. A General fracture appearance; B
quasi-cleavage; C microvoid coalescence.
pared to the martensitic microstructure
formed with low heat input.
2. When preheat of 150C is applied in
conjunction with the low-heat-input weld-
ing conditions, the hardness is decreased
and the microstructure is a mixture of
martensite and a possibly small fraction of
bainite.
3. Implant test results show that at
equivalent stress levels, the incubation
time prior to failure is longer when high
heat input is used as compared to low heat
input. The lower critical stress (LCS) was
found to increase from 91 ksi (627 MPa)
with low heat input to 96 ksi (661 MPa)
with high heat input. Both the longer in-
cubation time present and increase in the
LCS indicate that using higher heat input
reduces the HAZ cracking tendency for
BA-160.
4. The LCS was determined to be 94,
103, and 107 ksi (648, 710, and 737 MPa)
with preheat levels of 60, 100, and 150C,
respectively. The LCS with preheat is
higher than that without preheat. And the
incubation time at equivalent tensile stress
is also longer than that without preheat.
Both indicate preheating can effectively
reduce the tendency for HIC in BA-160.
5. Intergranular, quasi-cleavage, and
microvoid coalescence fracture modes
were observed on the fracture surface of
implant samples from low-heat-input
welds. Only quasi-cleavage and microvoid
coalescence were observed on the fracture
surface when using high heat input and ap-
plying preheat. The elimination of IG and
increase in MVC area on the fracture sur-
face correlated well with LCS values and
indicated better resistance to cracking.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge
the financial support of the Office of
Naval Research, Award No.
N000140811000. Grant Officers: Dr. Julie
Christodoulou and Dr. William Mullins.
The authors would like to thank Johnnie
DeLoach, Matthew Sinfield, and Jeffrey
Farren with the Naval Surface Warfare
Center Carderock Division, West
Bethesda, Md., for valuable discussions
regarding the weldability of naval steels.
Thanks are extended to Prof. Gregory
Olsons research group at Northwestern
University for collaboration on this re-
search project and QuesTek Innovations
LLC for providing the BA-160 steel. Dr.
Yuping Yang with EWI is acknowledged
for providing access to the E-Weld Predic-
tor. Dejian Liu and Geoffrey Taber are
thanked for their constructive ideas and
assistance with building the implant test-
ing system.
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