Invasive Alien Insects: The causes and consequences

Species invasions are one of the main conservation threats today and many have caused major economic losses in agriculture and forestry as well as negatively impacted ecological integrity. The introduction of species outside their native territory contributes to the loss of biodiversity, change the structure and functioning of ecosystems, and damages to the economy and human health. Biological invasions principally by insects have drawn great attention especially by alien species that establish as pests on crop plants. Over the last many decades, hundreds of alien arthropods, native to different continents have been introduced in India knowingly or accidentally and crop losses to alien arthropods total $16.8 billion per year. What are Invasive Alien Species? Invasive alien species are plants, animals and other organisms that are non-native to an ecosystem, and whose introduction may likely to cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health.

How do invasive insect arrive at new habitat?

The major pathways of arthropod invasion are indeed accidental through human actions, such as global trade and transportation in which they are habitually moved into new places. The introduction of alien species may be deliberate, for example through farm animals, pets, ornamental plants and crop plants. Natural climatic events such as floods, droughts or strong winds are also introducing insect pests is the movement of infested plant materials from quarantined areas. responsible for the movement and spread of insect invasive species. The most common pathway for

What characteristics make invasive alien species successful?

threats in their new ecosystem.

A complex of ecological factors allows alien species to become abundant and emerge as ecological Host availability: The availability of valuable hosts has strongly influence the success of insects

invasion. Generalist feeders have a higher probability of finding a suitable host plant than those of polyphagous, which may have greater competitive success when species shift ranges and habitat changes than monophagous or oligophagous species. Natural enemies: The natural enemies also influences development of invasive species, when an and to the consequent damage.

specialist which are restricted to one or few a plants. Several invasive insect species are

exotic pest colonizes a new habitat, the absence of natural enemies can contribute to its settlement Reproductive rate: Reproduction rate plays an important role in establishment of a self-sustaining it will be dependent on the dispersal abilities of the insect and the area of the habitat that it is invading. If higher the propagule pressure greater the chance of successful establishment.

population. Frequency and number of propagules introduced into a habitat is crucial in success and

Size of Insects: Insects body size also influence the invasion success as smaller-bodied organisms are more likely to be successful invaders as they have higher rate of intrinsic growth and can establish quickly. Changes in land-use patterns that increase habitat fragmentation and alter/ disturbed regimes will increase the prevalence of invasive species.

Does climate change cause Insect invasions? (Sir, pl quote some more example)
Climate change influences invasive species by affecting their movement, establishment, spread and colonization of new habitats. There are sufficient reasons for accepting that climate change will facilitate invasive. The establishment rate of invasive alien insect species has been increasing worldwide during the past century. Rising ambient temperature is an important factor, especially for insects Europe, increase because for flight warmer the they instance activity are in of pine poikilothermic,

temperatures

Thaumetopoea

pityocampa,

defoliator moths, enabling them to disperse over greater distances.

Invasive plant species Vs Insects species richness:

Insects and plants have a two-way relationship; insects are dependent on plants for their habitat and food whilst plant species depend on insects for their pollination. Insect species richness, especially the richness of specialist herbivore, increases with increasing plant species richness because a greater diversity of plants provides a greater diversity of resources for insects, also increase the availability of alternate hosts. On the other hand, insects can influence the chance of an invasion alien plant species as they help disperse their seeds, principally as pollinators.

Recent insect pest invasion in India:

Papaya Mealy bug, Paracoccus marginatus:

The Papaya Mealy bugan invasive insect species native to Mexico was first reported in Tamil Nadu during 2008 on papaya. The species is highly invasive and soon spread to other economic crops like tapioca, mulberry, teak and to more than 100 other plants. The Papain, Sago and Silkworm industries were threatened by the menace of this alien invasive mealy bug and devastate crops in the state of Tamil Nadu, wiping out an estimated $93 million worth of papaya, mulberry and tapioca crops, eventually spreading to other states. Damage: Papaya mealy bug infestations are typically observed as clusters of cotton-like masses on leaves, stem and fruits as the pest secrete a thick waxy coat over the body. While feeding, it injects a toxic substance into the leaves, resulting in chlorosis, plant stunting, leaf deformation or crinkling, early leaf and fruit drop, and death of plants. Heavy infestations are capable of rendering fruit inedible due to the build up of thick white waxy coating. The pest could be successfully managed through classical biological control wherein Acerophagus papayae was imported from USA.

Eucalyptus gall wasp, Leptocybe invasa:

The Australian origin new insect pest attack on eucalyptus was detected in 2002 from Southern India, posing great threat to paper industry and forestry areas and it has now spread throughout India causing heavy damage in nurseries and plantations. The pest has affected more than 20,000 hectares of Eucalyptus plantations in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. Damage: It is a tiny wasp that forms leaf and stem Source: http://www.nbaii.res.in

galls in Eucalyptus seedlings and in mature trees, the galls occurred only on leaf midribs. Eucalyptus trees up to two years of age were found more prone to the pest. Gall formation by L. invasa on growing shoot tips and leaves, resulted in quicker abscission of leaves and drying up of shoots. A heavy infestation of the wasp resulted in loss of vigor and growth retardation in seedlings.

The spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus disperses:

Aleurodicus dispersus is native to the Caribbean islands and Central America. In India, it was first reported in 1993 in Kerala on tapioca subsequently soon spread to Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Lakshadweep Island and Maharashtra. It poses threat to many agricultural and horticultural crops as it has more than 200 host plants. Heavy incidence of spiralling whitefly caused yield reduction up to 53.10% in tapioca in India. Damage: The whitefly piercing the leaf and sucking the sap, which leads to premature death of the plant when infestations are high. Indirect damage is caused by the accumulation of the honeydew and the waxy, white, fluffy, woolly material produced by the whiteflies.

The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis :

The coconut mite invasion was first reported in Kerala, in the late 1990s and within a period of two years it has spread to almost all the major coconut growing state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,

Andhra Pradesh and Lakshadweep. It poses great threat to coconut towards management of this pest.

plantation and annually more than Rs.100 crores are being spent

Damage: The mites feed on the meristematic tissue found under the perianth of growing nuts and also adhere to the inner surface of sepals. Severe incidence cause scarring and distortion of the fruits, and may cause premature fruit drop.

What harmful does invasive insects? Invasive alien species are causing profound changes to
natural ecosystems around the world and What does mean biological pollution? Biological Pollution is the disturbance of the ecological balance by the accidental or deliberate introduction of an invasive alien species into an environment. considered the second greatest threat to biological diversity after habitat loss. Ecologists condemn to these invasive organisms as biological pollution.

 Invasive alien insects can affect native plant populations by consume or defoliate, sometimes extinction. forceful them to local

What is Invasion meltdown? The process by which the negative impacts induced on native ecosystems by one invading nonindigenous species are intensified by interactions with another exotic species.

Invasive insects can rapidly establish in a

forest, kill native trees, degrade wildlife habitat, alter nutrient cycles, and threaten basic ecosystem structure and functions.

Invasive insects may affect native insects cycle.

with decreasing the abundance of plants on which they depend for at least part of their life-

Invasive alien species can transmit diseases to humans, plants and animals. nesting sites.

Invasive pollinators may also compete with native pollinators for floral resources and

What can be done?

Prevention: preventing the spread of invasive species across international or domestic borders is the first and most effective option. Plant quarantine is the first line of protection in managing invasive insects. Inspection at entry points is recognized as the primary phytosanitary measure that checks establishment. alien pests. Effective implementation of this act could potentially prevent more introductions and Early detection of introductions and rapid response can restrict the spread of alien invasive pest species and also it is vital in eradication of the species. The Pest Surveillance and Forecasting System is an essential component in preventing the spread of invasive pests. exclusion, or reduction through integrated pest combination of cultural, chemical, biological,

Management: many established introduced species can be managed by eradication, containment, management approach involving the suitable mechanical and others are recommended so that their populations remain restricted and their impacts are minimized. Amongst the different management approach, the classical biological introduction of exotic natural enemies. What are classical biological controls? Controlling an invasive species by introducing exotic natural enemies from the native range of the introduced pests in order to permanently establish them so that they will provide continuing pest control.

controls have achieved significant successes by the

Future thrust:

The rates of pest invasions have increased with increased global agricultural trade, and movement invasive species, as the diverse climate provides a highly favourable environment for the invader.

of seeds and planting materials between and within continents. India is particularly vulnerable to In India, more than 100 alien insect species known to have successfully invaded and their impact

on agricultural production and environment is remarkable (e.g. papaya mealy bug invasion). In fact

there are many areas that need to be strengthened to control the alien insect species. Abide by international and domestic quarantine and early detection and rapid response will prevent spread of invasive species in order to reduce their impact.

Acknowledgement:

The authors acknowledge the help rendered by Mr. P.P. Gireesan, Technical Officer, for helping in photography and all the reference sources from where some of the statements or diagrams were reproduced in this article. Selected Reference:

Doddabasappa, B., B.S. Basavaraju, A. K. Chakravarthy and B. Naga chaitanya. 2010. Strategies for the management of insect invasives. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 23(1): 19-22. Gandhi K.J. K. and D. A. Herms. 2010. Direct and indirect effects of alien insect herbivores

on ecological processes and interactions in forests of eastern North America. Biological

Invasions, 12:389405.

Jucker, C and D. Lupi. 2011. Exotic Insects in Italy: An Overview on Their Environmental Impact,The Importance of Biological Interactions in the Study of Biodiversity. Available From: http://www.intechopen.com. Kenis, M., M. A. A. Rozenberg, A. Roques, L. Timms, C. Pere, M. J. W. Cock, J. Settele, S.

Augustin and C. L.Vaamonde. 2008. Ecological effects of invasive alien insects. Biological

Invasions, 11 (1): 2145

Mandal, F.B. 2011. The management of alien species in India. International Journal of

Biodiversity and Conservation, 3(9): 467-473.

Mani. M. 2010. Origin, introduction, distribution and management of the invasive 75.

spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell in India. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 23(1):59Haq, M. A. 2011. Coconut destiny after the invasion of Aceria guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae) in India. In: Proceedings of the International Congress, Acarology XIII (eds. Moraes, G.J. de & Proctor, H.): Zoosymposia 6, 1304. Pimentel, D., S. McNair, J. Janecka, J. Wightman, C. Simmonds, C. OConnell, E. Wong, L. Russel, J. Zern, T. A quino andT. Tsomondo. 2001. Economic and environmental threats of 120. alien plant, animal, and microbe invasions. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 84: Robinet,C., C.E. Imbert, J. Rousselet, D. Sauvard. J. Garcia, F. Goussard and A. Roques. 2012. Human-mediated long-distance jumps of the pine processionary moth in Europe. Biol Invasions 14:15571569. Sathyanarayana. N and K. Satyagopal. 2013. Invasive alien species: Problems and the way forward, Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 19 (1):85-91.

Ward N. L. and G. J. Masters. 2007. Linking climate change and species invasion: an illustration using insect herbivores. Global Change Biology, 13: 1605-1615.