Descriptive Research

I The most commonly used methodology for research. The basic intent of descriptive research is to identify the cause of
something that is happening. For example:
A. What age group is buying a particular brand of cola?
B Does a company’s market share differ between geographical regions?
C. How many competitors your company has in a particular market.

II Descriptive research questions give rise to observational designs.

A. Observations are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis
(remember a hypothesis is a statement about what you expect to observe).
B. Observational designs use three general ways to gather data: observation, interview, or survey.

III Descriptive research aims to gather data without any manipulation of the research context. In other words, descriptive
research is also low on the "control or manipulation of research context" scale. It is non-intrusive and deals with naturally
occurring phenomena.

IV Although this research is a highly popular research methodology, it does not always offer the causes behind a situation (but it
can in some cases).

Observational Variables: Before you start on a research project make sure you how you are going to interpret your
observations.

1. Descriptive: Descriptive observational variables require no inference making on the part of the researcher. You see
something and write it down.
2. Inferential: Inferential observational variables require the researcher to make inferences about what is observed and the
underlying emotion. For example, you may observe a girl banging on her keyboard. From this observation you may assume
(correctly) that she is frustrated with the computer.
3. Evaluative: Evaluative observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a judgment from the
behavior. For example, you may question whether computers and humans have a positive relationship. "Positive" is an
evaluative judgment. You observe the girl banging on her keyboard and conclude that humans and computers do not have a
positive relationship (you know you must replicate these findings!).
 Basic Concepts of Quantitative Research

I For quantitative research you want to measure the relationship between two things and explain the reason for the
connection.
A. In quantitative research you do not attempt to influence any variables.
B. You only observe (and/or record) them to measure the effects of variables.
1. For example: What is the relationship between blood pressure and cholesterol?
2. Variables are things that we can measure, control or manipulate in research.
a. Independent Variables-those variables that are manipulated
b. Dependent Variables-you measure the effects of your manipulation on the
dependent variables. Depended variables depend on what someone will do or
will not do to create (measure) a certain result.
c.These terms are also used in studies where we do not literally manipulate
independent variables but only assign subject to experimental groups based on
some pre-existing properties of the subjects. For example, if in an experiemtn,
males are compared with females regarding their white cell count, gender could
be called the independent varibable and cell count the dependent variable.

II In order for your research to have value it must be able to predict that a similar occurance will happen in some
predictable way.
A. In other words we are not so interested in what is going on in your research samples.
B. We are more interested in a theory as to how your work can predict results on general populations.

III Statistical Significance-In normal English, "significant" means important, while in Statistics "significant" means
probably true (not due to chance).
A. Significance is a statistical term that tells how sure you are that a difference or
relationship exists.
B. Some researchers use the word "significant" to describe a difference or relationship
that may be strategically important to a client (regardless of any statistical tests).

IV Population vs. samples

The basic idea of statistics is simple: you want to extrapolate from the data you have collected to make general
conclusions. There is a large population of data out there, and you have randomly sampled parts of it. You analyze your
sample to make inferences about the population. Consider several situations:

Quality control : Sample: The items you tested. Population: The entire batch of items produced.

Political polls: Sample: The ones you polled. Population: All voters.

Clinical studies: Sample: Subset of patients who attended Tuesday morning clinic in August Population: All similar
patients.

Laboratory research: Sample: The data you actually collected Population: All the data you could have collected if you
had repeated the experiment many times the same way
 Case Study Method

I Examine/observe the intervening variables in an individual case to determine

what causal mechanisms may have been at work.
A. What are the historical explanations for particular cases.
B. How does performance (or obtaining the desired results) in this
particular case compare with other cases (alternative approaches to
getting the desired results).
1. Are there some factors which result if getting different results?
2. Can those factors be manipulated in the case you are studying?

II A case study is a well-defined aspect of a historical happening that the

investigator selects for analysis. The emphasis for research is an ability to
offer causal explanations.
A. Process Tracing-examine the causal mechanisms effecting a historical
process.
B. Specify the causes of the consequences and offer theories on how certain
results can be avoided or produced.
C. Offer test cases to experiment on your theory.

III A case study is much more than a chronological narrative. You use theory to
show that in a particular circumstanse of the case the outcome can be
predicted.
A. Test particular economic claims to see if they are predictably reliable.
B. Your intention is to come up with a theory as to what will improve
reliability.

IV What is the role international organizations (EU) play (s) in promoting

cooperation, peace and stability?
A. What cases have proven this to be true?
B. What are the factors involved in the process?
1. What are the stages in the process?
2. What needs to happen at each stage to get the desired results?
C. Can you predict that the same factors and process applies in the case you
are studying?

V One of the most important things for any research is to identify the relevant
variables (independent and dependent).
 CONSTRUCTIVISM and Epistemology
From Philosophy to Practice
Knowledge is constructed in interactions with people and things in a person’s environment. Knowledge is the result of
learning what has value and meaning. It is with this insight that people make sense out of their world.

I Epistemology and IR theory: IR theories can be roughly divided into one of two epistemological camps:
"positivist" and "post-positivist".
A. Positivist theories aim to replicate the methods of the natural sciences by analysing
the impact of material forces. They typically focus on features of international
relations such as state interactions, size of military forces, balance of powers etc.
1. Realism- states are self-interested, power-seeking rational actors, who seek to maximize their
security and chances of survival.
2. Liberal international relations theory- states mutually gain from cooperation and that war
was so destructive that it is essentially futile. Eventually liberal theorists proposed human
rights as the basis for the legitimacy of international law.
3. Neorealism ("structural realism")- While retaining the empirical observations of realism, that
international relations are characterized by antagonistic interstate relations, neorealists point to
the anarchic structure of the international system as the cause.
4. Neoliberalism- states are the key actors in international relations, but non-state actors (NSAs)
and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) matter.
B. Post-positivist epistemology rejects the idea that the social world can be studied in an objective and
value-free way. It rejects the central ideas of neo-realism/liberalism, such as rational choice theory,
on the grounds that the scientific method cannot be applied to the social world and thus to IR.
1. International society theory (the English School)- focuses on the shared norms and values of
states and how they regulate international relations. Examples of such norms include
diplomacy, order, and international law. They value the significance of humanitarian
intervention.
2. Social Constructivism- aim to address questions of ontology as well as questions of
epistemology. Constructivism claims that the behavior of humans is determined by their
identity, which itself is shaped by society's values, history, practices, and institutions.
Constructivists hold that all institutions, including the state, are socially constructed.

II Constructivist theory holds that it is possible to change the anarchic nature of the system of states.
A. Constructivist theory rejects the basic assumption of neo-realist theory that the state of anarchy (lack
of a higher authority or government) is a structural condition inherent in the system of states.
B. The structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material
forces.

C. The identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than
given by material (realist) interest.

III The social constructs of the state actors:

A. The values, culture, identity, the goals, threats, fears, and other elements of "social reality" that are
primary guides to state actions.
B. “One of the problems with theories based on rationality, interests and utility
maximization is that they do not take into consideration that the acts of a state or non
state entity depends largely on what values are related to its identity.
C. However, international values and norms also play a role in how states will act.
D. Thus if we are going to understand how a state will act we must understand the social
structures the state is committed to (local, national and international).”
(By S. M. Thomas-textbook for Comparative Religion Class, p. 80)