MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER BORES IN AUSTRALIA

Edition 2
Revised September, 2003

FOREWORD
Groundwater has played a vital role in the development of many areas of Australia. The extensive use made of groundwater resources stems from a number of factors. The resource extends over large areas, making distribution costs more economic than from surface supplies. It is generally wellfiltered, is mostly accessible at reasonably shallow depths, and the scale of development required can be tailored closely to meet individual water demands. Access to the resource is usually by bores or excavated wells. However, bores must be constructed to an acceptable standard using appropriate materials in order for this access to be achieved efficiently, cost-effectively and reliably without danger to the resource from pollution or overuse. It is estimated that over $6.6 billion has been spent on bore construction in Australia. For many individual landholders the cost of constructing a water supply from bores represents a large proportion of their total property investment. It is important to both the nation as a whole and groundwater users that the very large investment in bore construction be protected by proper construction methods. All States and Territories have introduced, or are about to introduce the national system of licensing water bore drillers. In order to underpin the skills levels on which the three classes of drilling licences are based, it is essential that there be a common reference standard for bore construction and that this standard be clearly defined and accepted by water licensing agencies and the drilling industry throughout Australia. The purpose of this document is to provide such a reference as a technical basis and description of the minimum requirements for constructing water bores in Australia. This document is a minimum guideline only. It must be recognised that special conditions may require a higher standard to be applied to a particular bore. This document draws on and is supported by a number of state and industry documents and standards which are referenced in the relevant chapters. Although the document is focused mainly at drillers and drilling contractors, it will also be of value and use to water licensing agencies, consultants, consulting engineers and clients. We urge you to become fully acquainted with the requirements set out in here.

Chair, Water Reform Task Group Member, Land and Water Biodiversity Committee

Chair, National Minimum Bore Specifications Committee

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The members of the National Minimum Bore Specifications Committee are: Australian Drilling Industry Association Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee Department of Environment, Western Australia Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment, Northern Territory Department of Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources, New South Wales Department of Mineral Resources, Tasmania Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Australia Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy Water Corporation, Western Australia

This book is based on information available in September 2003. It is available from the Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy Library, the State Library of Queensland and the National Library, Canberra, through interlibrary loan. ISBN 1 9209 2009 9 QNRM04027 Land and Water Biodiversity Committee, 2003 Inquiries should be directed to the appropriate authorities listed on pages 7 and 8 of this publication.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
1.1 1.2 1.3

Need for minimum bore construction requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Types of water bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.0 3.0

Administrative requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1 3.2 3.3 Client responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Driller responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Joint responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.0

Drillers classification system and drilling methods used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.1 4.2 4.3 Drillers classification system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Drilling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Choice of drilling method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5.0

Siting a water supply bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1 5.2 5.3 Obtaining information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Driller considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Client considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6.0

Formation (strata) sampling and water sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6.1 6.2 Formation sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Water sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7.0 8.0

Drilling fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Plumbness and alignment of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8.1 Method of testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

9.0

Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.1 9.2 9.3 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Types of casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Choosing casing type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

10.0

Grouting (cementing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Decreasing the specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Increasing specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Reducing setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Increasing setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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11.0

Water entry
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Open hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slotted casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41
41 41 43 45

12.0

Bore development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.1 12.2 12.3 Use of chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Use of mechanical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Sand content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

13.0

Disinfection of water bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

13.1 Disinfection practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

14.0

Test pumping of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

14.1 14.2 Testing of bores by drillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Test pumping of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

15.0 16.0

Recording and reporting data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Headworks and completion of bore site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

16.1 16.2 16.3 Headworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Disposal of wastes and materials from the site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Restoration of drilling site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

17.0

Reconditioning of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
17.1 17.2 17.3 Problems encountered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Rehabilitation of artesian bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

18.0

Decommissioning of bores (abandonment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

19.0

Monitoring bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 Monitoring bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drilling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drilling fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monitoring bore designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drill core samples and bore logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bore casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screen or slotted casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 79

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19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13

Gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sealing of annulus above or between monitored intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centralising casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79 79 79 79

19.14 Decommissioning bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
A B C Definitions and metric conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 List of references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Typical bore types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2 Figure 11.3 Figure 11.4 Figure 12.1 Figure 12.2 Water monitoring bore (non-flowing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Low-yield bore (non-flowing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 High-yield bore (non-flowing, screened and gravel packed) . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Flowing bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Types of bore misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Typical bore plumbness test assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Example of open-hole bore construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Examples of perforated and slotted casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Stacked set of sieves used to provide grain distribution curve . . . . . . . . 43 Example of sieve analysis report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Improving bore permeability through development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Commencing development of a bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Figure 15.1(a) Example of a drilling log (front of form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 15.1(b) Example of a drilling log (back of form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 18.1 Figure 18.2 Figure 18.3 Requirements for decommissioning a flowing bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Requirements for decommissioning a single aquifer non-flowing bore . . . 75 Requirements for decommissioning a multiple aquifer non-flowing bore . . 76

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 14.1 Table 15.1 Table 15.2 Table 17.1 Drilling methods and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 National Water Quality Management Strategy Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 pH limits for various water uses (guidelines only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Suggested Marsh funnel viscosities for drilling unconsolidated materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Recommended up-hole circulation velocities and Marsh funnel viscosities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Reactivity of steel casing to corrosive waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Comparison of strengths of bore casing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Bore casing manufacturing standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Minimum acceptable wall thicknesses for steel casing or steel tubes . . . . 33 Maximum potential pressure differential for PVC bore casing (head difference) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Recommended range of cementwater mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Recommended cementbentonitewater mixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Type and duration of pumping test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Guidelines for soil classification and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Guidelines for rock classification and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Chemicals used in the treatment of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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chapter

1.0
1.1

INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR MINIMUM BORE CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
These minimum requirements aim to provide a technical base for driller licensing, bore licensing and use by the drilling industry. The document considers the design, materials and recording aspects for bore construction. In doing so the requirements aim to ensure the: protection of the groundwater resource from contamination, deterioration and undue depletion, and the long-term economic production of groundwater of the best possible quality. Definitions of the various terms used are listed in Appendix A. This document was originally prepared by a steering committee made up of representatives from all State and Territory Governments, the Australian Drilling Industry Association and the Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee, using information from Australia, and other parts of the world. It accessed industry reference materials, as well as appropriate Australian and overseas Standards. This document has been reprinted following a review, which sought submissions from the drilling industry. Reviews are conducted every five years. A list of useful references is shown in Appendix B. These requirements are not designed to meet the specific requirements of landholders or purchasers, or replace specifications currently used by various state water authorities. However, they may be included into specific documents. The minimum requirements relate to the text and clauses in the shaded blocks. All other text is general information only and is not part of the minimum requirements. These minimum requirements have a broad scope. They deal with the whole life of the water bore from tendering and licensing to construction, development and decommissioning for shallow small-diameter and low-yielding bores through to deep large-diameter and highyielding bores.

ome twenty per cent of Australias total water use is from groundwater sources. In general this percentage is increasing as surface water sources become fully utilised and economics favour the use of groundwater. Water bores are the most common means of tapping groundwater resources. The siting, design, materials and construction method used in a bore all influence the quantity and quality of water obtained. The final bore 'product' is a result of a range of considerations and decisions which include the: intended purpose of the bore geological and hydrogeological conditions including the groundwater quality drilling methods construction methods bore performance improvements (for example bore development and disinfection) bore performance indicators (for example pumping test and water quality test). The final bore product is further influenced by the inherent nature of drilling which disrupts the native environment. Bores drilled to intersect a hydraulic regime (aquifer) will disturb that regime by providing a vertical connection between aquifers of different head or groundwater qualities. Where drilling intersects groundwater held under pressure, uncontrolled flowing (artesian) bores can result causing wastage of the groundwater resource and the loss of hydrostatic pressure. All non-flowing bores can potentially provide a means of contaminating groundwater by acting as a conduit for surface run-off. Encrustation and corrosion of bores affects both the security of supply and the level of groundwater protection; this, in turn, affects how and what will constitute the bore product. All bores have a finite life span. Deteriorated or abandoned bores which threaten the groundwater resource should be decommissioned in such a way that the hydrogeological environment is maintained or returned as close as possible to the condition that existed prior to drilling.

1.2

PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT

1.3.1 Single aquifer non-flowing bores

(a) Monitoring bores
Monitoring bores are normally of small diameter and drilled specifically to obtain accurate formation samples and are then equipped and used for the sole purpose of taking water samples and/or monitoring water levels. The basic characteristics are 50100 mm casing slotted and/or screened, normally of low-yield construction but providing for accurate water quality sampling and water level measurements from a particular zone of interest within an aquifer. Annulus seals and selective filter packing are used where necessary to isolate the zone being monitored. Care must be taken during drilling operations and in selecting the drilling method to ensure that there are no contaminants introduced that may affect the monitoring/sampling results. Casing, filter pack and sealing or grouting materials should similarly be selected so that their chemical properties have minimal or no effect on the proposed sampling requirements. An example of monitoring bore construction is shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.1.

The purpose of this document is to provide a technical basis for and description of the minimum requirements for constructing water bores in Australia. It both complements and underpins the national drillers licensing system by providing a bore construction standard which is consistent across Australia. Although its use is focused mainly at the water drilling industry, it should also be of interest to anyone intending to construct a water bore. In prescribing the minimum acceptable construction requirements, it is not intended to be viewed as a substitute for formal training. Drillers play a vital role in the development, use and protection of the groundwater resource. They supply a service to clients and in so doing have a responsibility to ensure that this role is fulfilled through high standards of work and the use of materials appropriate to the particular works involved.

1.3

TYPES OF WATER BORES

The type of bore used to obtain a water supply depends on a number of factors which include: flowing (artesian) or non-flowing (subartesian) source the potential or desired bore yield single or multiple aquifers system the stability of the strata the grain size of the aquifer material whether the bore is to be used for monitoring or production purposes. There are numerous combinations of these which result in the many types of bore necessary, a number of which are shown in Appendix C. The following describes some of the different construction requirements for single, multiple and flowing aquifer systems. The minimum requirements for each of the component parts of their construction are detailed in subsequent chapters.

(b) Low-yield bores

Low-yield bores are the most common and numerous type of bore and therefore drilling of these bores tends to be competitive and of relatively low cost. The drilling priority is usually to obtain a usable supply of water for livestock watering and/or domestic use. Such bores normally use casing of some 100150 mm diameter to contain costs. It is most important however that the bores be constructed to an adequate standard because they are often the only source of permanent water available for a property.

Figure 1.1

Water monitoring bore (non-flowing)

Any shallow water beds of poor-quality water should be excluded from the bore. Potential surface water runoff or shallow subsoil seepage should also be excluded and sealed from bore entry. An example of a non-flowing bore of low yield in a consolidated aquifer is shown in Figure 1.2.

(c) High-yield screen and gravel packed bores (unconsolidated formation)

The major objective when drilling a high-yield bore is to ensure that the formation remains stable and capable of being pumped at the maximum efficient water yield with immunity from contamination, particularly from the surface. To achieve this result a test hole drilling program is usually carried out to locate the optimum production bore site. The same criterion used for low-yield bores applies to high-yield bores in regard to possible contamination or pollution. The surface casing should be sealed to prevent surface runoff and subsoil seepage entering the bore annulus. Figure 1.2 Low-yield bore (non-flowing)

The basic requirements for these bores are: construction technique and water entry selected to allow long-term production of clear silt-free water adequate bore straightness to allow installation and reliable operation of the client's preferred pump use of proper bore casing of acceptable standard and suitable materials effective isolation of the main production aquifer from thief zones (lateral leakage), aquifers of poorer quality and intrusion through surface runoff and or seepage of contaminants or pollutants a usable supply of water of acceptable quality.

Other important factors which must be considered include: selection of a casing size based on the desired or potential yield and the required pump size selection of screen length appropriate to the aquifer thickness being screened choice of gravel pack size based on analysis of the gradation of the aquifer materials selection of a screen slot aperture approximately 20 per cent smaller than the gravel pack modal size selection of a screen diameter and length that will transmit the bore yield at low entrance velocities selection of a hole diameter large enough to allow a gravel pack thickness of 50 to 100 mm selection of a gravel pack material that is well rounded and clean. It is important in constructing a high-yield bore that the long-term stability and efficiency of operation are not compromised by imprudent cost savings. An example of high-yield bore construction is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3

High-yield bore (non-flowing, screened and gravel packed)

1.3.2 Multiple aquifer non-flowing bores

(a) Monitoring bores
When a single bore is required for the monitoring of multiple aquifers of differing water quality, yield or pressure, it is drilled with a larger diameter to allow the insertion of two or more separate strings of small-diameter casing. As with all monitoring work, care should be taken with design, materials selection, and drilling/installation methods to ensure that water samples are not contaminated. Extra care is required with the placement of annular seals between aquifers to ensure that representative samples of each zone of interest can be obtained. The usual method of construction is to drill and sample the hole to full depth first, carry out any logging work to help define potential aquifers then slot and/or screen the first or deepest set casing string and run it into the hole. Gravel is then placed around the slots through the lower aquifer up to where the first annular seal is required. A tremie pipe is then run and the between-aquifer annular seal is set. The tremie pipe is withdrawn and the second casing string run and gravel packed. If there is little distance between aquifers and the hole is reasonably stable the annular seal is sometimes left overnight to set before the second casing string is gravel packed. This procedure is then repeated for any subsequent casing strings. Experience has shown that it is sometimes quicker and more secure to drill multiple holes if room permits as any drilling time saved with a single hole can be taken up with the setting of multiple casing strings and annular seals.

(b) Low-yield bores

Often the top or upper aquifer in an area is saline or of poor quality or may be fully committed to other users. Bores in these cases are drilled through the upper aquifers to allow tapping of the better lower aquifers. The bores are drilled to full depth with careful sampling for quality and testing for yield as drilling progresses so that the bore can be completed to yield the most suitable water. Any unsuitable waters are excluded from the bore during casing by slotting or screening only the selected aquifer. Annular seals are then set above the slots or, if necessary to protect steel casing from possible corrosive waters, grouting of the casing to the surface is carried out. Care must be taken to ensure waters of differing quality or pressure cannot mix either in the bore casing or in the annulus between casing and bore hole. Sometimes two or more aquifers may be penetrated before the selected aquifer and in these cases it is often easier to ensure there is no possible mixing of waters by grouting the annulus from the production aquifer to surface.

The requirements for an artesian bore include the protection of production casing from corrosive soils and prevention of discharge up the outside of the casing by the setting and cementing of surface control casing, then prevention of intermixing of waters of different quality or pressure from one aquifer to another, tapping of one primary aquifer only, and the control of formation pressures by selective cementing of the production casing. During the selection process for production casing and headworks materials, consideration must be given to the depth of installation, grouting pressures, well head static pressure and water temperature together with the corrosive nature of the water and strata. Bores must also be fitted with headworks of approved design to permit the control of flow, and for periodic maintenance and measurement. These approved headworks must have provision made for flow and pressure to be measured without having to disconnect or interfere with reticulation or surface pumping systems. Because of the high costs involved, few artesian bores are drilled for monitoring purposes only. The monitoring of artesian bores is usually carried out by the licensing agencies and involves a series of measurements, at regular intervals, of flow, pressure, temperature and water quality on a set of selected representative bores. The construction requirements for artesian bores tapping the Great Artesian Basin (GAB) vary from state to state, and can be different to the minimum requirements described in this document. Local licensing authorities should be consulted concerning artesian bore construction requirements before drilling in an artesian aquifer of the GAB. In artesian aquifers outside of the GAB, alternative construction requirements may be approved by the licensing authority to meet the local requirements. An example of the construction for a flowing bore is shown in Figure 1.4.

(c) High-yield bores

The completion of a high-yield, large-diameter bore usually requires a large drilling rig and an experienced driller and may require two or more strings of casing for deeper bores. The aim is to construct the bore to allow efficient pumping from the selected aquifer at maximum yield but prevent mixing of waters from other aquifers penetrated.

1.3.3 Flowing bores (artesian)

The drilling priority for artesian bore construction is the control of artesian pressure and flow.

Figure 1.4

Flowing bore

chapter

2.0

ADMINISTRATIVE REQUIREMENTS
he following general legislative provisions and policies are enacted by water agencies in each of the States and Territories. Because the relevant legislation varies between authorities,

drillers, consultants and clients must become fully conversant with the requirements of the State in which they intend the work be undertaken.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS

R2.1 Driller. Unless state or territory legislation provides an exemption, only drillers licensed for the class of work proposed and endorsed for the construction method to be used may carry out work on a water bore. This includes the construction, reconditioning, decommissioning by plugging or other work as specified. The licensed driller must be on site at all times during such operations. It should be noted that it is the individual driller who is licensed, not drilling companies. R2.2 Works. Where necessary, the owner or legal occupier of the land on which a bore is to be constructed must obtain the appropriate licence or permit from the licensing authority in the relevant State or Territory. Work must not commence on a bore until such approval has been granted. A driller must sight the licence or permit before commencing any work and be aware of the conditions relating to the particular bore. The licence or permit will stipulate the nature of the work that has been approved. It may also stipulate the reporting requirements. The following is a list of government agencies in Australia and driller associations from whom further information may be obtained in regard to this document or drilling requirements generally.

Western Australia
Water Corporation PO Box 100 LEEDERVILLE WA 6007 Department of Environment PO Box 6740 Hay St, EAST PERTH WA 6892

Goulburn Murray R.W.A. PO Box 165 TATURA VIC 3616 Wimmera Mallee R.W.A. PO Box 56 HORSHAM VIC 3402

New South Wales

Department of Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources GPO Box 39 SYDNEY NSW 2001

South Australia
Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation Drilling Services PO Box 219 INGLE FARM SA 5098 Resource Assessment PO Box 2834 ADELAIDE SA 5001

Queensland
Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy PO Box 156 MAREEBA QLD 4880

Northern Territory
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment Natural Systems PO Box 30 PALMERSTON NT 0831

Victoria
Southern R.W.A. PO Box 153 MAFFRA VIC 3860

Tasmania
Mineral Resources Tasmania PO Box 56 ROSNEY PARK TAS 7018

Industry
Australian Drilling Industry Association Ltd PO Box 3020 FRANKSTON EAST VIC 3199 Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee PO Box 742 LANE COVE NSW 2066

chapter

3.0

RESPONSIBILITIES
hen a bore is to be constructed both the driller and client are responsible for various aspects of the work. It is in the interest of both parties that a written agreement or contract be entered into detailing all aspects of the work to be performed. The following is a general guide to the responsibilities of driller and client. It is emphasised that some responsibilities relate to legislative requirements which vary between licensing authorities. When in doubt, the respective agency should be contacted at the address shown in Chapter 2.

providing the client with regular and timely reports of progress, and any other information that may be relevant to the work and its cost ensuring, where legislation requires, that the client holds a current Waterworks or Bore Licence for the type of bore being constructed and that the driller is conversant with the construction requirements, depth and aquifer limitations contained therein providing the client and the water licence authority with a written log of each bore's details providing advice on the flow and quality of water on completion of a bore leaving the site in a clean and tidy manner and free from contamination. Note: a driller cannot warrant or guarantee quantity or quality of water before drilling is carried out.

3.1

CLIENT RESPONSIBILITIES

In general the client has the following responsibilities: obtaining the necessary licence or permit to construct the bore and comply with the bore licence conditions selecting and if necessary preparing or clearing the site, often in consultation with the driller providing access to the bore site(s) submitting reports and water samples to the relevant authority where required arriving at a written agreement/contract with the drilling contractor on the work to be carried out and materials to be supplied ensuring, where legislation requires, that the driller holds a current Drillers Licence for the class of work and drilling method employed seeking advice on likely availability of water supply and its quality.

3.3

JOINT RESPONSIBILITIES

3.2

DRILLER RESPONSIBILITIES

The driller generally has responsibility for: providing the client with accurate and competent technical advice on the work providing references offering warranty on completed and tested works including materials and the quality of work undertaken providing the client with a written quotation for work to be performed and materials to be supplied ensuring the quantity and quality of materials used are suitable for the job the standard of work and deciding the construction method used

The type and nature of bore construction should be discussed fully between the driller and the bore owner before the work commences. The following should be taken into account: legislative requirements (including State occupational health and safety legislation) protection of the aquifer materials required the desired yield or purpose of the bore known geological conditions the desired life and future maintenance of the facility costs duration of contract provision of detailed strata logs, strata samples and water samples as specified by the relevant licensing agency preferred pumping equipment and power source options. The construction of a bore can often be a very important development resulting in a vital and valuable source of supply to a property, town or project. The client, or a representative, should be on site for a substantial amount of the construction period or at least be readily contactable when absence is necessary. The client should also be made fully aware of the more critical phases of

construction of the bore. Differing geological formations encountered may present difficulties that even the most experienced driller could not anticipate, and may require consultation with the client.

10

chapter

4.0

DRILLERS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM AND DRILLING METHODS USED

nder the national system of drillers licensing, there are three classes of licence and endorsements for four basic drilling construction methods. The class of licence relates to the skill level required to construct bores in different types of aquifer systems, while the endorsements relate to the drilling and construction methods which a driller is licensed to use.

4.1

DRILLERS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

4.1.1 Licence classes

Class 1 This licence is restricted to drilling operations in non-flowing (sub-artesian) single aquifer systems. Class 2 This licence, in addition to operating in Class 1 conditions, permits operations in non-flowing (sub-artesian) multiple aquifer systems. Class 3 This licence, in addition to operating in Class 1 and Class 2 conditions, permits drilling operations in flowing (artesian) aquifer systems.

4.1.2 Drilling endorsements

Cable tool This endorsement permits drilling operations using cable tool or cable percussion drilling methods. Auger This endorsement permits drilling operations using bucket auger, hollow-stem auger and solid-stem auger techniques. Rotary air This endorsement permits drilling operations which use rotary drilling methods with air or foam as the drilling fluid. This endorsement also includes the use of down-hole hammers. Rotary mud This endorsement permits drilling operations which use rotary drilling methods with water as the drilling fluid or as the base for the drilling fluid. Non-drilling rig This endorsement covers operations such as spear points etc.

4.1.3 Required skills, experience and abilities

Class 1 licence: The holder of a Class 1 Drillers Licence must be capable and have knowledge and skills, as they apply to the drilling method endorsement, in:

the provisions of the legislation and regulations relating to groundwater and groundwater drilling; and understanding and appreciation of bore construction licence application procedures and licence conditions siting a bore recognising potential contamination sources to water supply bores and appropriately siting a bore to prevent contamination and meeting the location requirements of the bore licence straightness and plumbness of hole setting up a rig, the causes of bent bores and the methods of hole straightening drilling correctly choosing and using equipment, having regard to such factors as rotational speed and proper annular velocities fishing tool string inventories, fishing tools and procedures formation sampling and description obtaining representative formation samples, and labelling and describing them bore design designing and constructing bores for domestic use, stock watering and household irrigation purposes in single aquifer systems construction seating and sealing of casing, casing types and their limitations and uses, and completion of the bore site cementing grouting surface casing and decommissioning (abandoning) bores or test holes setting screens and stabilising gravel fill selecting the appropriate slot size, screen length and diameter, and procedures for screen installation in low-yield bores bore development basic knowledge of development techniques disinfection procedures basic knowledge of disinfection procedures and safe chemical disposal aquifer testing and water sampling carrying out a single stage pumping test, and determining and recording static water level, drawdown and yield; taking and labelling a water sample decommissioning designing and selecting appropriate materials for the decommissioning (abandonment) of bores in single aquifer systems bore completion reports correctly filling in a drill log or other required bore reports for each bore or test hole construction standards all bores constructed under this class of drillers licence must be constructed to meet the relevant minimum standards requirements set out in this document.

11

Class 2 licence: The holder of a Class 2 licence must have the knowledge and skills required of a Class 1 driller together with knowledge and skills, as they apply to the drilling method endorsement, in: bore design designing and constructing bores in multiple aquifers with emphasis on designs and methods used to exclude unsuitable waters including the use of inert plastic and other nonferrous casings screen setting and gravel pack selection skill in the design of high-yielding bores is required. This entails overcoming entrance velocity problems and carrying out sand sieve analysis in order to select appropriate gravel pack material and screens (that is screen length, diameter and aperture) cementing grouting casing, placing cement plugs over selected zones, effect of cement additives; ability to calculate hole volume, slurry volumes and specific gravities; hole preparation, casing installation and circulation requirements aquifer testing the procedures involved and data required from a multistage pumping test decommissioning designing and selecting appropriate materials for the decommissioning or abandonment of bores in multiple aquifers construction standards all bores constructed under this class of driller's licence must be constructed to meet the relevant minimum standards requirements set out in this document. Class 3 licence: The holder of a Class 3 licence must have the knowledge and skills required of a Class 1 and Class 2 driller together with knowledge and skills, as they apply to the drilling method endorsement, in: drilling fluids methods, procedures and calculations required for formation fluid pressure control cementing methods and procedures and calculations required in carrying out pressure cement jobs bore design in aquifer systems that have high-pressure conditions; design of efficient bores in corrosive water areas; use of inert plastic and other nonferrous casing headworks design, fabrication and fitting of suitable bore flow control and remeasurement headworks construction standards relevant bores must be constructed to meet the minimum standards requirements set out in this document.

4.2

DRILLING METHODS

Drilling methods are many and varied, ranging from simple digging with hand tools to highspeed drilling with sophisticated equipment. The most commonly used methods are described briefly below for the general information of readers who do not have a drilling background.

4.2.1 Cable tool drilling

Cable tool drilling, otherwise known as percussion drilling, is probably the oldest drilling method. Basically it involves the lifting and dropping of a string of solid steel drilling tools suspended from a wire rope, which hit the bottom of the hole. This process drives the cutting bit, fracturing or pulverising the formation. The crushed material forms a slurry on mixing with water that is either added or naturally present in the hole. The blow rate varies from 40 to 60 strokes per minute and due to the characteristic lay of the wire rope cable, the bit turns and strikes across a different section of the hole bottom at each blow. When the bit can no longer fall freely through the watercuttings mix, the drill tools are withdrawn from the hole. A tubular bailer, which is run on a separate smaller wire rope, is then used to pick up the slurry and cuttings and remove them from the hole before drilling is resumed. In cable tool or percussion drilling there are basically three major operations: (i) the drilling of the hole by chiselling or crushing the rock, clay or other material by the impact of the drill bit (ii) removing the cuttings with a bailer as cuttings accumulate in the hole (iii) driving or forcing the bore casing down into the hole as the drilling proceeds.

12

Cable tool drilling rig

Because of the relatively low initial cost and simplicity of the equipment used, cost per unit drilled is relatively low. However, the technique is slow and when the increased cost of labour is taken into account, there is usually little net advantage over faster rotary drilling methods in the drilling of new bores. Cable tool drill plants are used extensively for reconditioning work. They are usually smaller than a rotary plant with an equivalent depth capacity and therefore easier to establish over a bore hole. They can also lower and retrieve tools to probe a bore more quickly than with a rotary plant and are able to work inside casings and insert casing liners more quickly due to their better access around casing strings for screwing or welding a joint.

4.2.2 Auger drilling

Auger drills are used mainly for soil investigation and drilling in soils and very soft rock. The mechanical clearing of the hole eliminates any need for pumps or compressors. Continuous-flight augers can be driven by any top-drive rotary machine provided it has adequate torque rating and slow rotation. In deep, small-diameter holes using continuousflight augers, cuttings are supported by the hole and carried to the surface by rotation of the helical flights. Hollow augers consist of a continuous-flight auger which has a hollow centre tube. They are normally used with a bit plug held in place by a secondary internal rod string with the augers used to drill as with a conventional continuousflight auger to the required depth. At that point the central bit plug and rod string is withdrawn. Short-flight and plate augers are loaded with cuttings and then pulled out of the hole. At the surface the cuttings are 'spun' off the auger. With bucket augers the cuttings are picked up in a bucket, hoisted to the surface and dumped through the hinged bottom of the bucket. Extensions are added as the hole gets deeper. Short-flight, plate and bucket augers are used for shallow, large-diameter holes.

Rotary air drilling rig

4.2.3 Rotary air drilling

This method is used to drill holes in consolidated or semi-hard formations such as sandstone or shales which are self-supporting. The principle common to all rotary techniques is that a drill bit is attached to the end of a hollow drill pipe and rotated against the bottom of the hole, thereby imparting either a fracturing, digging or scraping action, depending on the bit type and the nature of the formation. Pressure is applied to the bit by the weight of the drill pipe and additional weight (feed) is also applied from the drill plant. The cuttings produced by this process are cleared by circulating air, which is derived from a compressor and fed down the drill pipe to emerge through a bit. To remove cuttings effectively an annular velocity of at least 900 metres per minute is necessary. Compressor output, hole diameter and drill pipe size should be matched to provide velocities of this order.

13

Holes can be drilled to depth using a large volume of air at high pressure. However, the equipment normally used is limited in depth once below water level. Two general types of bit are used. These are the roller-cone type, usually called a rock bit, and the drag type, of either a fishtail design or the wing insert bit of three- or four-piece design. A major advantage of the rotary air drilling method is that water is blown to the surface as soon as the water bearing stratum is encountered. This allows the driller to obtain a progressive indication of the available supply and monitor any changes in the quality and quantity of water as the drilling progresses. Air is used principally in hard clay or rock formations, because once the air pressure is turned off, loose formations tend to cave in against the drill pipe. Foaming additives are occasionally used to increase the up-hole carrying capacity of the return air. Down-hole hammer method The down-hole hammer method involves a pneumatically operated special bottom-hole drill bit that efficiently combines the percussion action of cable tool drilling with the turning action of rotary drilling. The pneumatic drill can be used

on a standard rotary rig with a high pressure air compressor of sufficient capacity. It is used for fast and economical drilling of medium to extremely hard formations. Fast penetration results from the blows transmitted directly to the bit by the air piston. Continuous hole cleaning exposes new formation to the bit and practically no energy is wasted in redrilling old cuttings. Down-hole hammer drilling is generally the fastest method of penetration in hard rock. The bit is turned slowly (515 rpm) by the same method by which the drill bit in the fluid or air drilling operation is rotated. Foaming additives are occasionally used to increase the up-hole carrying capacity of the return air. The downhole hammer has revolutionised hard rock drilling and has enabled water bores to be established from rock aquifers previously regarded as being too hard to drill. The method is not recommended for drilling loose, unconsolidated materials. Reverse circulation drilling method air (dual tube rotary air and down-hole hammer) For this drilling method, air is introduced through a dual swivel head on a top drive rotary rig and pumped down the annulus in the dual drill pipe to the bit or hammer being used. Cuttings are returned to the surface through the inner tube. This method is used primarily for mineral sampling to obtain an uncontaminated strata sample. However, it can also be used for

Mud rotary drill rig Rotary mud drilling

14

water sampling programs. Large-diameter dual tube rotary air drill strings permit the insertion of up to 50 mm PVC casing through the inner tube for the construction of monitoring bores. It is not a common method for water bore construction.

4.2.4 Rotary mud drilling

Rotary mud drilling functions on the same principle as air drilling except that the circulation medium is aqueous. The technique was developed for handling soft, unconsolidated formations which would collapse if air was used. The mud forms a membrane which inhibits flow through the walls of the hole. The internal pressure of the mud provides structural support to the hole wall. Drilling fluids are also used for drilling deep bores which are beyond the capacity of air compressors. In the rotary mud system, drilling fluid or mud is pumped down through the drill pipe and out through nozzles in the bit. The cuttings are removed by continuous circulation of a drilling fluid as the bit penetrates the formation material. The fluid also serves to cool and lubricate the bit. The mud fluid then flows upward in the annular space around the drill pipe to the surface, carrying the cuttings with it in suspension. At the surface, the fluid is firstly channelled into a settling pit, where most of the cuttings settle out, and then into a storage pit, where the mud pump picks it up again for recirculation. The basic fluid normally used for rotary drilling is water to which specific chemicals and other additives can be added to increase density or viscosity to improve hole support. The fluid can also be weighted to control artesian pressures.

Reverse circulation drilling method mud In the reverse circulation drilling method, instead of circulating the drilling fluid through and up the outside of the pipe, the process is reversed. Fluid is fed down through the space between the wall of the hole and the drill pipe where it is then pumped up, together with the cuttings, through the hollow part of the pipe and then out through a discharge pipe. Of particular importance is the possible use of a light (nearly clear) drilling fluid for large diameter holes rather than a viscous and heavy drilling mud as used in conventional rotary mud drilling which sometimes tends to seal-off water-bearing formations. However, a substantial quantity of fluid must be on hand to maintain an open hole. This method is used for rapid drilling of largediameter holes in soft formations where gravels are encountered. It is possible to bring gravel to the surface through the hollow drill pipe because of the extremely high velocity of the fluid as it is drawn up by the suction pump. The walls of the hole are held in place by the pressure of the fluid against the sides of the hole.

4.3

CHOICE OF DRILLING METHOD

Each of the common drilling methods has its advantages and disadvantages. The choice of drilling method employed should be made on the basis of geological conditions and the type of facility to be constructed.

15

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS

R4.1 Drilling operations shall comply with relevant State or Territory Workplace Health and Safety Regulations. R4.2 Drilling equipment shall meet any State or Territory inspection and certification requirements. R4.3 Drillers should not contract for or attempt works which could be reasonably expected to exceed the depth, diameter or casing load rating of the drill plant to be used. R4.4 Quality assurance procedures may be required.

Table 4.1
Type of formation

Drilling methods and their applications

Cable tool drill Auger* Rotary air Rotary mud High-pressure rotary air with down-hole hammer
Not suitable

Dune sand Sand Loose sand & gravel Loose coarse gravels & boulders Loam and silt Sandy clay Puggy shale & mudstone Shale Sandstone Conglomerate

Slowfair (if casing driven) and/or mud used Difficultfair (if casing driven) Difficult slow (but generally can be handled if casing driven) Suitable Suitable Fair Suitable Suitable Slow

Fair Not suitable below water table Not suitable Not suitable

Difficultslow (Fair with foam injection) Difficult not suitable Not suitable

Suitable (with good fluid control) Suitable (with fluid control) Difficultslow sometimes impossible Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Fairslow (rock bits) Fair (rock bits) Fair (rock bits)

Not suitable Fair (see note) Not suitable Fair (see note) Not suitable Fair Slow (water injection) Fair Suitable Fair (if consolidated formation) Suitable Suitable

Fair Fair Slow Fair Slow Not suitable

Fair Suitable (drag bits) Fair (water injection) Suitable Suitable Fairslow (rock bits) Fair (rock bits) Fair (rock bits)

Limestone & dolomite Limestone with small cracks or fissures Cavernous limestone Weathered basalts Thick layered Basalts Metamorphic rocks Granite

Slow Fair

Not suitable Not suitable

Fairslow Fair Very slow - not suitable Very slow not suitable Very slow not suitable

Not suitable Slow Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable

Fair (circulation problems) Suitable Fair (rock bits only) Fair to slow (rock bits) Slow (rock bits only)

Not suitable Suitable Fair (rock bits only) Fair to slow (rock bits) Slow (rock bits only)

Fair (circulation problems) Suitable Suitable Suitable Fairsuitable

LEGEND Not suitable : Normally cannot drill formation type. Difficult : Generally not suitable but can sometimes be adapted. Slow : Can be used but drilling progress is usually slow. Fair : Suitable with some care and/or special technique suggested thus. Suitable : Normally used to drill formation type economically. Note * : Fair if top drive rig using hammer and swing out reamer and casing following bit. : Auger drilling requires high torque for rotation so depth is limited.

16

chapter

5.0

SITING A WATER SUPPLY BORE

he siting of a bore usually involves the consideration of a range of factors in the course of providing a cost-effective and reliable supply of water of acceptable quality.

T
5.1

OBTAINING INFORMATION

The initial location selection and investigation are very important in the overall construction and performance of a bore. The depth, cost and relative importance of a production bore will usually dictate the amount of investigation required. Most licensing authorities can provide information, advice and, if required, give an assessment of groundwater availability in a specific area of interest. This could include data available on any previous drilling work in an area and other geological and geophysical records. Depending on the extent of the work required to provide the assessment, a charge may be made for providing this service. Local information may also be available from other drillers and neighbouring landholders. This could include the location, depth to water, amount of water pumped, type of water bed or formation, and water quality. Siting the bore The client should advise the driller if there are any underground or overhead services in the area of the proposed drill site. The positioning of a bore should be based on the best prospects for obtaining a successful supply and on working convenience. Consideration of other requirements may be required if the pump is to be solar- or windpowered. A cleared area might be preferable if such pumps are to be used. State and local laws and planning schemes might limit or control the ways in which vegetation or timber can be cleared, and should be checked prior to undertaking any clearing for a bore site. The production bore site should allow ready access for heavy machinery for drilling and subsequent servicing of the bore and pumping equipment. Some licensing authorities may have a bore licence or permit condition that requires that a bore should be located not less than a specified distance from the property boundary and/or from a bore on a neighbouring property, channel, stream, or source of pollution such as a septic tank. This requirement is to minimise the possibility of interfering with the flow and water levels in nearby bores.

5.2

DRILLER CONSIDERATIONS

If a driller has worked consistently in an area it is probable that he has a knowledge of the construction, depth, quality and yield of bores in that area. However, the client has access to bore information which is held by State licensing and water authorities. The driller should have an understanding of the known hydrogeological conditions of the area so that a determination can be made of whether the drilling equipment available can do the job. Provisions relating to licensing vary between authorities; drillers must become conversant with the requirements of the particular area in which they operate.

5.3

CLIENT CONSIDERATIONS

The client should seek advice from the relevant water authority so that the best site for the bore can be determined.

17

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SITING A BORE

R5.1 Distance condition: The driller shall not commence construction of a bore if its location does not comply with a distance condition specified in the bore licence. R5.2 Sources of contamination: All bores shall be positioned away from the influence of any possible sources of contamination such as a dairy, septic tank and absorption trench, refuse dump, land fill, effluent discharge (piggery or feedlots, sewerage treatment discharge), drainage ditch, cattle/stock dip or chemical spray use/preparation area. In bores where the target aquifer is deeper than the source of the pollution, the bore may be constructed providing the contaminated formation is adequately cased and cement sealed before the target aquifer is encountered. If the driller has any doubts concerning the potential problems and the requirements for a particular situation, advice should be sought from the relevant licensing or local authority. R5.3 Protection of headworks: All bores or wells should be positioned so that the headworks can be protected from frequent flooding and surface water drainage. If the bore has to be located in an area of potential flooding, the casing should be raised above flood level or if this is not feasible, completely sealed to prevent the entry of flood water. Temporary caps should be fitted to all bores during the period from completion to pump installation to ensure foreign matter does not enter the bore. R5.4 Access to site: Access to a site and work to be carried out should be planned and conducted in such a manner as to minimise damage to property improvements, crops, land, drainage works and roads. R5.5 Overhead power lines: Prior to commencement of drilling, the driller must contact the local electricity/power supply authority to obtain advice on the minimum clearance distances between the drilling rig and overhead power lines. This information should be supplied, as far as practical, in written form. R5.6 Underground/overhead services: The driller shall check with the client that no underground or overhead services are located within the area of the proposed bore sites.

18

chapter

6.0

FORMATION (STRATA) SAMPLING AND WATER SAMPLING

F
6.1

ormation and water sampling are carried out to determine the nature and type of strata beneath the site and the water quality in any water bearing formation.

Geophysical logging equipment can also be used and is recommended to confirm drilling depths and strata details. It can also provide information on the porosity of formation, clay content, the integrity of the borehole and the best production zones within the aquifer sequence.

FORMATION SAMPLING

Reliable information on specific geological materials and aquifer conditions at a site is necessary to establish the optimum design for various elements of a final production bore including the casing size and length, aperture of the bore screen, and the gradation of the gravel pack.

6.2

WATER SAMPLING

Knowledge of the quality of water encountered as a bore is being constructed is highly desirable and, in some instances, imperative, because it can affect decisions regarding continued construction, selection of materials, and modifications in construction or in the planned operation of the completed bore.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR FORMATION SAMPLING

R6.1 Frequency of sampling: Formation samples shall be taken at least every three metres, and if required, bagged and delivered as specified in the bore licence or permit. Particular care should be taken when collecting samples from expected water producing zones. Samples of water beds shall be taken at one metre intervals. R6.2 Collection and marking: Samples required for collection shall be collected as soon as possible after being withdrawn from the hole, drained of excess moisture and kept in plastic bags, or other containers of at least 500 g capacity for each interval drilled. Containers shall be plainly marked with the bore number and depth interval. R6.3 Arrangement of samples: Samples, whether required for collection or not, shall be laid out on regular lines so that both the driller and client can see the formation changes. R6.4 Where there is no licence requirement for samples they shall be taken at each change in formation and the depth recorded so that a reliable drilling log can be completed.

Laying out samples of drill cuttings

19

Common examples of water quality-related problems are: water zones to be excluded by casing or grouting; choice of casing material; selective casing perforation; selection of screen materials; screen setting; and the installation and operation of water conditioning equipment. If water is to be used for domestic consumption both chemical and biological analyses are necessary as recommended by the relevant government agency. If the water is to be used for irrigation or for a special purpose, further analysis to determine its suitability is advisable. Wherever possible water sampling and testing programs should be carried out under Quality Assurance guidelines. In order to determine the chemical constituents of waters in various aquifers it is necessary to obtain water samples and carry out a chemical analysis. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the sample is representative of the water body and is not contaminated by bore construction materials. Use a clean, thoroughly washed container of not less than one litre volume to obtain and store water samples. Used plastic drink bottles with residual smell, colour and/or taste are not acceptable. Where it is necessary to determine the suitability of a particular aquifer or provide early advice to the client on the likely quality of water from a bore, an approximate indication of water quality may be obtained by the use of field test equipment. Professional water bore drillers would be expected to have some basic water analysis equipment so that an 'in the field' guide to groundwater suitability can be given to the bore owner Basic equipment would include a conductivity meter and a meter or other method of determining pH. The equipment used should be checked and recalibrated at intervals to ensure its accuracy. Most licensing agencies would be able to provide this service for a nominal charge. A guide to the quality of water for various uses is given in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.

A quick determination of the total salts in bore water may be made using a conductivity meter. Conductivity can be used as a guide to total salinity, but it does not indicate the concentration of individual ions, which is ultimately required to assess the suitability of water for a particular use, nor does it indicate the presence of possible contaminants. If no conductivity meter is available and water is required for domestic or irrigation use be aware of water that clears quickly when left standing in a container, as this usually means high salinity levels are present. The sample should be placed in a clean bottle preferably rinsed at least five times with the water to be analysed. The bottle should be sealed so as to prevent the entry of air. Special sampling and preservation techniques are required for the analysis of specific ions. The taking, handling, storage and analysis of groundwater samples for particular contaminants may require special considerations.

6.2.1 Water used for irrigation

A guide to the suitability of water for irrigation can be obtained from a conductivity analysis. Water authorities can supply charts listing the range of values for different crop types. High concentrations of individual ions may render the water unsuitable, even if the conductivity value is within limits suggested. The suitability of water for continued irrigation will depend on plant species, soil type, climate and soil leaching conditions. The client or bore owner should already be aware of any water quality restraints imposed by the intended crop types or proposed water use.

20

Table 6.1

National Water Quality Management Strategy Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 1996
Guideline values: Health Aesthetic
>85% Low concentrations allow growth of nuisance microorganisms (iron/manganese/sulfate/nitrate-reducing bacteria) causing taste and odour problems, staining and corrosion. Low oxygen concentrations are normal in groundwater supplies and the guideline value may not be achievable. Caused by calcium and magnesium salts. Hard water is difficult to lather. <60 mg/L CaCO3 soft but possibly corrosive 60200 mg/L CaCO3 good quality 200500 mg/L CaCO3 increasing scaling problems >500 mg/L CaCO3 severe scaling While extreme pH values (<4 and >11) may adversely affect health, there is insufficient data to set a health guideline. <6.5 may be corrosive. >8 progressively decreases efficiency of chlorination. >8.5 may cause scale and taste problems. New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes can significantly increase pH and a value up to 9.2 may be tolerated provided monitoring indicates no deterioration in microbiological quality. May indicate undesirable contaminants, but usually indicates problems such as algal or bio-film growths. Generally impractical to control; rapid changes can bring complaints. <500 mg/L is regarded as good quality drinking water based on taste. 5001000 mg/L is acceptable based on taste. >1000 mg/L may be associated with excessive scaling, corrosion and unsatisfactory taste. 15 HU just noticeable in a glass. Up to 25 HU is acceptable if turbidity is low. If colour is high at time of disinfection, then the water should be checked for disinfection by-products such as THMs. 5 NTU just noticeable in a glass. >1 NTU may shield some micro-organisms from disinfection. <1 NTU desirable for effective disinfection.

Characteristic

Comments

Dissolved oxygen

**

Hardness as CaCO3

**

200 mg/L

pH

6.58.5

Taste and odour Temperature Total dissolved solids

** ** **

Acceptable to most people No value set 500 mg/L

True colour

**

15 HU (Hazen Units)

Turbidity

5 NTU

NOTE

* Insufficient data to set a guideline based on health considerations. ** No health-based guideline is necessary.

21

Table 6.2

pH limits for various water uses (guidelines only)

Domestic use
Desirable 78.5 Maximum 6.59.2

Stock water use

Desirable 69.5 Maximum 4.310.0

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER SAMPLING

R6.5 Water sampling: After construction, water samples of at least 1 litre in volume shall be taken by the driller for analysis. Prior to taking a sample from a particular formation, the bore shall be pumped out or airlifted not less than three times the volume of the bore to remove material which may contaminate the sample. The method used to collect the sample shall not cause contamination of the bore or the sample. R6.6 Licensing requirement: Samples of water separate from the client's sampling requirements of at least 1 litre in volume from every completed bore shall be supplied as required to the relevant licensing authority for chemical analysis. A clean container rinsed with the water to be sampled shall be used. Sample containers shall be clearly labelled with the name and address of licensee, bore licence number, depth to water bed and the date the sample was taken. The relevant water authority may be a source of clean water sample bottles. R6.7 Testing on site: Measurements of electrical conductivity (EC) and pH shall be taken using portable meters or other methods.

22

chapter

7.0

DRILLING FLUIDS

rilling fluids are used to facilitate the removal of formation cuttings, act as a lubricant and stabilise drilling operations. The density (or weight) of a drilling fluid should be kept as low as possible. Dense mixes should only be used to control formation overpressure or collapse or to control artesian flow. Mud viscosity should be kept as thin as practicable while the mud retains the ability to stabilise the formation and adequately clean the hole. Mud viscosity should be measured using a Marsh funnel. Suggested Marsh funnel viscosities for drilling unconsolidated materials are shown in Table 7.1.

Because viscosity can often be confused with density, the specific gravity or density should be determined by means of a mud balance and not just estimated. The use of chlorides as a hydration (clay) inhibitor and weighting agent is not recommended where steel casing is used. Rotary-drill rig pumps or compressors should have sufficient capacity to obtain the circulation rates shown in Table 7.2.

Table 7.1
Material drilled
Fine sand

Suggested Marsh funnel viscosities for drilling unconsolidated materials

Approriate Marsh funnel viscosity (seconds)
3045 4055 5065 6075 7585 85120

Medium sand Coarse sand Gravel Coarse gravel Lost circulation

Table 7.2
Circulating fluid
Air or mist Water Normal mud Thick mud

Recommended up-hole circulation velocities and Marsh funnel viscosities

Marsh funnel viscosity (seconds)
Nil 26 3240 5080

Recommended up-hole velocity m/s

1525 0.6 0.4 0.2

23

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING FLUIDS

R7.1 Water: Fresh nonpolluted or if this is not possible the best quality water that is reasonably available shall be used as the base fluid (make-up water) for all water bore drilling fluid preparations. Water taken from swamps or creeks may be contaminated. If no other water supply is available and swamp or creek water is used the bore may need disinfection before use. Where possible water shall be obtained from a treated town water supply. Water shall not be used where it is obvious that it is polluted or suspected that it may be polluted in that it occurs close to a pollution source. The conductivity and pH values of all make-up waters shall be measured. R7.2 Types of drilling fluids: The following types of drilling fluids shall be considered acceptable for water bore drilling: water-based drilling fluids natural drilling fluids air-based drilling fluids Fluid additives: Additives to drilling fluids that are acceptable for water bore drilling are classified as follows: (i) Dissolved additives (a) mud-thinning agents. The use of mud thinner based on phosphates is not recommended (b) surfactants, drilling detergents, and foaming agents (ii) Non-dissolved additives (a) native solids (clays and sand) (b) bentonite (c) polymers (liquid, powder) (d) density-increasing materials (e) loss-circulating materials (not recommended for the production zone). R7.3 Manufacturers recommendations: The use of drilling fluid additives shall be in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. Safety notes and manufacturer's recommendations for any additives used or proposed to be used by the driller shall be available for perusal by the licensing authority and client at the bore site during construction. R7.4 Properties and tests: During drilling operations, when additives to water are used, drilling-fluid properties shall be maintained within the limits that will allow their complete removal from the bore, if necessary, and shall not affect the potential capacity, efficiency, or quality of the bore. Drilling-fluid properties may be requested to be maintained during normal drilling operations within the specified limits using test procedures conforming to API RP 13B: (i) Weight (fluid density) test equipment: mud balance (API) (ii) Viscosity test equipment: Marsh funnel (API) (iii) Filtration (wall cake and filtration loss) test equipment: filter press (API) (iv) Sand content (solids larger than 200 mesh) test equipment: sand-content set (API).

24

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING FLUIDS (continued)

R7.5 Maintenance of fluid properties: The driller shall ensure that the composition and properties of the drilling fluid are maintained to protect the water-bearing formations penetrated and to allow the collection of good representative samples of the formation materials during drilling. R7.6 Toxicity: Chemicals or other substances which could leave a residual toxicity shall not be added to the fluid. R7.7 Frequency of fluid testing: Drilling fluid properties should be tested regularly as a normal part of the drilling program or as determined by the drilling conditions. R7.8 Removal: The drilling fluid must be removed from the hole to allow the subsequent development of the bore.

Measuring viscosity using a Marsh funnel

25

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26

chapter

8.0

PLUMBNESS AND ALIGNMENT OF BORES

ore holes should be drilled and casings set to retain roundness and also be constructed with as straight an alignment and true vertical plumbness as possible. In shallow low-yield bores, where the smallest inside diameter of the bore is considerably larger than the maximum outside diameter of the pumping equipment installed in the bore, some deviation in plumbness and alignment seldom causes problems. Plumbness and alignment are never perfect. However, the driller should be expected to keep alignment and plumbness within practical limits under most conditions, by exercising reasonable care and using equipment that is adequate and appropriate for the job. Plumbness and alignment become more critical with deeper holes and where a shaft-driven turbine pump, helical screw type or rod-driven pump such as a windmill or pumpjack is to be installed in the bore. A badly aligned bore or one containing kinks at casing joints, bends or corkscrews can cause wear on the pump rods or pump shaft, shaft bearings and discharge column. Under extreme conditions it may be difficult to insert a pump into or withdraw it from a bore. Alignment may not be as critical if a submersible or jet type non-shaft-driven pump is to be used. All bores completed for the purpose of extracting water, other than monitoring purposes, should be constructed to or pass the plumbness/alignment methods of testing.

Figure 8.1

Types of bore misalignment

(b) The test for plumbness shall be made using a plummet suspended on a thin-braided wire. This consists of a pulley installed three metres above the bore head on a tripod or frame and positioned so that the plumb line comes off its outer edge exactly over the centre of the bore casing. The outer plumb ring or plunger should be 56 mm smaller in diameter than the inside diameter of the bore casing. The plummet must be heavy enough to keep the plumb line taut but the hub of the ring must not be solid as the water must pass through it as it is lowered into the bore. The wire must be attached in the exact centre of the plummet hub. Bore alignment shall be determined by lowering the plummet three metres at a time and taking a measurement of plumb line deflection from the exact centre of the casing at the bore head (see Figure 8.2). Measurements are normally taken as North, South, East and West and maybe a combination of two. If the plumb line hangs through the casing centre line the bore is plumb at the depth the plummet is suspended. If the line does not hang in the centre, the bore at that depth is out of plumb by the distance from centre plus an equal distance for each three metres the plummet is below bore head level.

8.1

Method of Testing

(a) Rigid dummy A rigid dummy is made 12 metres long of casing or similar material. The outside diameter of the dummy shall be 80 per cent of the internal diameter of the bore casing being used. Test dolly A test dolly is made up by welding three rings each of 85 per cent of the inside diameter of the bore casing onto a light but rigid centre tube 12 metres long one ring each end and one in the centre. In both of the above the lowering wire attachment bail should be on the top and in the centre of the assembly when suspended in the bore. The cased hole must be sufficiently straight to allow a rigid dummy or test dolly to be lowered freely under its own weight to the lowest proposed setting depth of the borehole pump.

27

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR BORE ALIGNMENT

R8.1 The completed bore shall be sufficiently plumb and straight so that there will be no interference caused to the installation, alignment, long-term operation or future removal of the permanent borehole pump intended for use.

Figure 8.2

Typical bore plumbness test assembly

28

chapter

9.0

CASING
ores must be lined with an adequate length of appropriate casing to prevent the collapse of the strata penetrated. The casing also acts as a safe housing for any pump installed in the hole.

B
9.1

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The improved drilling methods and techniques now available allow the use of a range of materials for bore casing: steel PVC thermoplastic fibreglass Each of these has advantages over the others and may be more suited for a particular application.

The casing must be of sufficient strength and composition to withstand the pressure exerted by the surrounding strata and other forces imposed during installation, bore development and any cementing operations, and to resist rapid corrosion by the soil and water environments. It should provide a secure and leakproof conduit from the water source to the surface through unstable formations and through zones of actual or potential contamination. It must be joined and installed so that it is reasonably straight and free of kinks or twists. The selected diameter of the bore casing should firstly comply with the minimum requirements of the respective licensing authority and be adequate to accommodate the size of pump selected to meet design or supply requirements. It should take into account: the efficiency of the pumping unit the expected pump life the extra clearance required in the event that the casing is not perfectly straight the possibility of weld metal projecting inside at the joints of steel casing. The wall thickness or class of the bore casing should be selected in accordance with good design practice and experience as applied to conditions found at the bore site. Where it is necessary to drive casing only steel should be used. Casing that is placed in an oversized drill hole may be of other types of materials as noted in these guidelines. Irrespective of what material is used all joints should be watertight and have the same structural integrity as the casing itself.

9.2.1 Steel
Steel is a commonly used casing material because of its greater strength. Today much of the steel used as casing is in the form of piping or tubing and each length is joined by butt welding. Some screwed and socketed casing is used but the former is less expensive. If using steel, choose casing or piping that is clean, new and of approved quality. Do not use steel tubing that is defective or reject pipe. Steel has these advantages over other types of materials: The diameter of drill hole can be smaller in soft formations. It is stronger than other materials. It can be pressure-cemented to greater depths due to its higher collapse strength. It can withstand rougher treatment. A disadvantage with steel is that its life can be reduced in a corrosive environment. This can be through corrosive soils, water or by galvanic action arising from the use of dissimilar materials in the bore. Stainless steel has generally fewer problems but cost may be a prohibiting factor. It is also best not to use steel in situations where iron bacteria are present. These bacteria can cause corrosion and use steel as an additional source of energy. Some potable waters can be very corrosive to steel because of the dissolved gases they contain, carbon dioxide being the most common. Indications of high CO2 water qualities that can accelerate the corrosion of steel are listed in Table 9.1.

9.2

TYPES OF CASING

Casing selection depends on several major factors: strength requirements, corrosion resistance, ease of handling, cost considerations, type of formation, method of drilling, the particular bore design, construction techniques and licence or permit requirements. Casing must have the column, collapse and tensile strengths required for a specific borehole.

29

Table 9.1
Reactive agent
pH O2 CO2 CO2 CO2

Reactivity of steel casing to corrosive waters

Water quality
less than 5.5 more than 4 mg/L more than 100 mg/L 50 to 100 mg/L less than 50 mg/L

Reaction
corrosive corrosive corrosive marginal/corrosive acceptable

The short-term strength of plastic casing is much higher than its strength over time. In general, short-term test results for strength are not a good indication of long-term strengths. Other factors to consider when using plastic materials include impact resistance, toughness and pipe stiffness. When casing protrudes above ground level, for example, it must be protected because it can be severely damaged by moving vehicles or contact with drilling tools. The casing should also be shielded from the suns ultraviolet rays if exposed above ground for long periods, because the impact strength of the material may be reduced significantly over time. Care must be used during cold weather to prevent shattering of the plastic during handling. Because the weight of plastic casing is only one-fifth to oneseventh that of steel, tensile strength is usually less important. Occasionally, it will float in a bore during installation, thus creating special handling problems. Plastic pipe may present a hazard to drinking water quality in areas where groundwater contamination has occurred. If volatile organic chemicals exist in groundwater near a bore, but above the intake section, it is possible for some of these chemicals to move into the discharge by passing through the wall of the casing. Although this process is not fully understood, it appears that plastic casing can be permeable in the presence of certain chemicals.

The reactivity shown in the table can vary depending on the chemistry of the particular water. Nonferrous or plastic materials are commonly used as casing materials where corrosive waters preclude the use of steel.

9.2.2 Plastic
Plastic materials have much lower strength and weight than steel and require care in handling, storage and installation to prevent breakage or distortion of their shape and must be derated in accordance with the manufacturers specifications when used with waters which are above certain temperatures. Plastic casing is low in compressive strength relative to steel casing. High temperatures derate the pressure rating of the casing, so care must be used when grouting to minimise the effects of the heat of the curing grout around the casing. Plastic material is much more flexible than steel. Therefore, plastic casing must be centred in the borehole before backfilling or filter packing is completed. Any voids in the backfill or filter pack material may lead to sudden collapse of formation materials against the casing, causing it to break. The collapse strength of unreinforced plastic casing is much less than for steel casing. The actual strength for any situation will depend on the wall thickness uniformity, roundness of the casing, rate of loading, and the temperature of the casing when the loading is applied. Where unreinforced plastic casing is fully supported by evenly compacted non-clayey fill or by grout, the collapse strength and hence possible setting depth is significantly increased.

9.2.3 PVC (unplasticised polyvinyl chloride)

PVC pipe is made as piping for a wide range of drainage and general water distribution uses. It is made in a variety of wall thicknesses and internal diameters. The only PVC piping suitable for use as bore casing is pressure rated pipe manufactured to AS 1 477 standards. The piping is swell-jointed and solvent-welded. The only solvent and primer to be used is Type 'P' conforming to AS 3879. If screws are `used to support the joint while the solvent cures, only stainless steel screws are to be used. Care must be taken to ensure the screws do not protrude internally. All other PVC piping is unsuitable for use in bore construction. PVC sewer or drainage pipe shall

30

not be used. Class 6 pressure pipe has been found to have insufficient strength to be used as bore casing. Class 9 can be used with care for shallow bores. Class 12 piping is the recommended casing for most bore construction applications. Under NO circumstances is mPVC to be used as bore casing.

9.3.1 Collapse resistance of pipes or casings

Plastic pipe or casing which is subjected to a high enough pressure externally (or vacuum internally) can be potentially unstable. For any given diameter:wall thickness ratio, there is a critical collapse pressure at which the pipe wall will commence to buckle inwards. The failure mode is unstable, (that is the more it buckles the less resistance to buckling) and so total collapse occurs rapidly. Situations where pipe buckling can arise are common in bore drilling and bore development and this can be the controlling factor in the selection of a pipe class. The maximum possible differential pressure against collapse resistance should be used to calculate the theoretical maximum depth for each casing class. Plastic casings have been and can be installed in a water-filled hole to greater depths than the theoretical maximum provided the pressure differential does not exceed the external collapse pressure rating for that particular casing type and size. Maximum differential pressures that should be allowed for have been calculated to range from 12 kPa per metre head for an evenly compacted non-clayey filled bore annulus to 23 kPa per metre head for bores in swelling clays. Plastic casing should not be set to a depth in unconsolidated formations where the maximum potential pressure differential could exceed the collapse rating of the pipe with consideration also given to any loss of strength if the pipe is slotted. Drillers need to be aware that problems can eventuate when the bore is developed or airtested especially if a long column of mud or water is rapidly discharged. Pumping of the bore can also cause a pressure difference. A comparison of the similar strengths of casing materials is shown in Table 9.2.

9.2.4 ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)

In recent years thermoplastic ABS casings have been developed specifically for use in water bores. ABS is generally a low-density material with a higher tensile strength and lower temperature derating than PVC. It is light and easy to handle and inert in aggressive groundwater conditions. The only acceptable ABS piping to be used shall comply to AS 3518.1. There is a variety of joining methods available. ABS can be supplied in a flush internal and external screw joint as well as a tapered solventweld flush internal and external joint. The solvent used must conform with the pipe manufacturers recommendations and compliances.

9.2.5 FRP (fibreglass-reinforced plastic)

Casing for water wells may also be constructed from various types of fibre-reinforced plastic materials. This type of casing is usually referred to as fibreglass casing as the reinforcing fibre is normally glass strand. Fibreglass casing is resistant to most forms of corrosion, is not conductive, and has a higher strength to weight ratio than steel. It is used for deep water supply bores in some areas. Fibreglass casing has more collapse resistance than other plastic pipes. A higher initial cost may be offset by longer bore life.

9.3

CHOOSING CASING TYPE

Where resistance to collapse is the most critical strength requirement for boreholes with unstable strata, steel or FRP casing is usually selected to meet the strength characteristics required. For corrosive water, PVC, ABS, FRP or stainless steel casing provides the longest life possible. Because of the many and sometimes conflicting factors involved in selecting the most suitable casing material, the driller or contractor should consult with the water authority, owner and local drilling contractors before selecting the type of casing.

31

Table 9.2 Comparison of strengths of bore casing materials

Material Specific gravity
1.04 1.40 1.89 7.85 8.0

Tensile strength 103 kPa

31 55 115 350 (yield) 517 (yield)

Tensile modulus 105 kPa

20.0 28.0 158.0 2068.0 2000.0

Impact strength (relative to PVC)

x6 x1 x20 very high(2) very high(2)

Upper temp. limits, 0C

50 40 80(1) 8001000 8001000

ABS PVC Fibreglass (FRP) Steel Stainless steel

(1) FRP higher temperature with special resins. (2) The impact strength of steel and stainless steel is so high relative to PVC and to the demands of water well work, that it is generally not a design consideration.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR CASING OF BORES

R9.1 Material: The casing material types listed in Table 9.3 shall comply with manufacturer's standards shown. (Drillers may be required to supply copies of these compliances.) Second grade or reject steel pipe or tube shall not be used as bore casing. Joints in steel casing may be welded or screwed. Care should be taken with welded joints to ensure a round, straight, secure and leakproof joint is obtained. Holes should not be cut into casing for the purpose of raising or lowering a string of casing in a bore. Casing of nonferrous or plastic type inert material shall be used in all areas where a corrosive problem from bore water or strata is known to exist. Table 9.3 Bore casing manufacturing standards
Standard
AS 13962000 steel water bore casing AS 15792001 arc welded steel pipes and fittings for water and wastewater API5L350 MPa linepipe AS 3518.1 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) pipes and fittings for pressure applications pipes AS/NZS 14771999 PVC pipes and fittings for pressure applications

Casing material
Steel

ABS PVC

R9.2 Casing diameter for bores: The minimum casing size shall be 100 mm for shallow lowyield bores and 125 mm for deeper bores unless otherwise formally approved by the licensing authority. As a general guide the diameter of the bore casing for high-yield bores shall be approximately 50 mm larger than the pump size specified for the bore. It is recognised that small diameter casing may be used for monitoring bores. R9.3 Casing wall thickness: Bore casing wall thickness shall be sufficient to withstand the anticipated formation and hydrostatic pressures imposed on the casing during its installation, bore development and use. The minimum wall thickness shown in the following tables represents the minimum thickness required in the absence of unusual stresses placed on the casing in the course of installation, bore development, or use.

32

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR CASING OF BORES (continued)

The minimum acceptable wall thickness for steel casing or steel tube is listed in Table 9.4. Table 9.4
Outside diameter (mm)
101 127 152 168 203 219

Minimum acceptable wall thicknesses for steel casing or steel tubes

Minimum wall thickness (mm)
3.86 4.76 4.76 4.80 6.35 6.35

Outside diameter (mm)

250 273 323 355 457 508

Minimum wall thickness (mm)

7.79 7.79 9.53 9.53 12.70 12.70

R9.4 uPVC bore casing: The class of plastic casing used shall conform to the requirements listed in Table 9.5. Class 9 uPVC pressure pipe shall be the minimum class allowable for use as bore casing. Class 6 uPVC pipe, uPVC sewer or drainage pipe shall not be used as bore casing. Type P solvent cement (AS/NZS 3879) for pressure pipe applications must be used for joining uPVC piping/casing. Applications are to be applied evenly to both spigot and socket ends, applied to the socket end first. Table 9.5
Class

Maximum potential pressure differential (i) for PVC bore casing (head difference)
Unconsolidated formation/clays (metres head)
26 56 100 200

Consolidated formation (ii) (metres head)

60 110 200 300

9 12 15 18

Note: (i) uPVC should be derated in pressure rating when temperature exceeds 20C. (ii) The maximum difference in metres between external and internal water level. Includes fully grouted and gravel pack.

It should be noted that PVC is approximately 1.25 times stronger than ABS for collapse pressure and approximately two thirds as rigid as GRP. Thus, as an example, the equivalents to 150 mm Class 12 PVC (which has a wall thickness of 8.8 mm), would be 8.8 x 1.25 = 11 mm for ABS and 8.8 x 2/3 = 5.6 mm for GRP.

This example is provided as a guide only within the normal limits of sizes and depths used by most drillers. It should not be regarded as a substitute for proper bore casing design.

33

Pa ge de lib er at ely lef tb lan k

34

chapter

10.0

GROUTING (CEMENTING)

he purpose of cement grouting the casing in an artesian or flowing bore is to: seal off the annular space between the casing and the borehole above high-pressure aquifers so that the flow can be controlled, and there is no surface or down-hole lateral leakage seal the annular space in the casing and the borehole between high-pressure and lowpressure aquifers preventing transfer of water between the two zones seal off poor-quality aquifers protect the casing from corrosive soils.

Some of the water authorities have maps which delineate known areas of strata and water that are corrosive to steel casing. In these areas the authority may request as a bore construction requirement or licence condition the use of plastic type casing or the grouting of steel casing. The purpose of grouting the casing in a subartesian or non-flowing bore is to: seal the annular space between the casing and the borehole between high and low standing water level aquifers thus preventing the transfer of water between the two seal off aquifers with poor water quality protect the casing from corrosive soils and waters prevent surface runoff or shallow subsoil contamination or pollution from reaching the aquifers prevent lateral leakage.

Direct contact between a cement grout and a viscous bentonite-based drill or hole fluid should be avoided. Pump a volume of clean water ahead of the grout to provide a spacer between the cement grout and bentonite mud. Be aware a low-viscosity but dense cement grout will channel a high-viscosity but less dense bentonite mud. If the viscosity of the hole fluid cannot be reduced before cementing add some bentonite to the cement grout because there is less chance of a dense grout or fluid channelling a lighter or less dense fluid if they have similar viscosity. Efficient mud control throughout the drilling process is necessary to avoid the accumulation of excessive wall cake and mud rings in the drilled hole. Where this has occurred or is suspected, proper conditioning of the hole is necessary prior to cementing to remove unwanted drill mud residues that would otherwise contaminate the cement mixture and/or jeopardise the effectiveness of the cementing program. In corrosive water areas centralisers should be of inert material and there should be no metal contact between steel casing strings. In general, positive placement of grout by tremie pipe or pressure cementing is to be used for all bores where the grout is to be placed under water or where the void to be filled is not easily accessible from the surface. An outer casing pressure cementing normally involves placing the casing into the hole and testing for circulation by pumping fluid into the casing to the bottom and back to the surface via the annular space between casing and borehole. A calculated volume plus allowances for washouts or formation loss of cement grout sufficient to fill the annular space is then mixed and pumped into the bore casing. Sufficient fluid, again a calculated volume but this time to fill the casing only, is then pumped into the casing behind the grout to displace the grout from the bore casing. A valve between the pump and the casing is then closed to hold this fluid within the bore casing while the cement sets.

(a) Effective cementing

To be effective, the cement grout should provide a continuous dense lining which completely surrounds the casing. To ensure that this occurs: The hole must have been drilled large enough to provide adequate clearance between borehole wall and casing. The casing should be centred in the hole by means of mechanical centralisers. Free circulation down the casing and up the annulus must be obtained. The drilling fluid in the hole must be conditioned to be as fluid and as low in viscosity as possible to avoid channelling. Grout should be pumped into place as quickly as possible.

35

A neat-fitting, drillable bottom plug should be used to separate the drilling fluid and the grout when casing diameter is greater than 100 mm. Alternatively, a slug of clean water may be used to separate the drilling fluid from the grout. If a tremie pipe is used for cementing, the base of the pipe should be accurately placed before proceeding with the cementing operation. Intercasing cementing can be carried out by normal pressure cementing techniques or by reverse circulation. Reverse circulation cementing involves pumping a calculated volume of cement grout directly into the annulus between the inner and outer casings while controlling the discharge and holding the pressure of hole fluid from the inner casing. When all of the grout has been pumped, the valve controlling the hole fluid discharge is closed and the grout allowed to set. The discharge fluid can be measured to further ensure that no grout has been pumped inside the inner casing. Always ensure the water bed, if exposed, is protected before any inner casing cementing is carried out. If the water bed is mudded off, pressure test the bore to the anticipated pressure to hold the cement column in place before cementing. Some accelerating or retarding admixtures (for example calcium chloride) can cause corrosion of steel and should not be added to the grout. In most cases use of chlorides is not permitted. Prior to the use of accelerators, retarders or other admixtures, competent profesional advice should be sought. Care should be taken with mixing water as poor water quality may extend the setting time for grout.

10.1 DECREASING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY 10.1.1 Bentonite

Bentonite is commonly added to a cement mix to decrease its specific gravity. Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay material which has the ability to absorb many times its own weight of water and swell to many times its original volume. As an admixture to cement, common bentonite allows the use of much more mixing water in the slurry before water separation occurs. It provides lower specific gravity, an increase in slurry yield per bag of cement, a smooth grout and reduced shrinkage in the cement as it sets in the bore. Bentonite also gives the slurry better sealing properties in porous formation openings. These benefits are partly offset by decreased strength of the set mix. However this does not greatly affect the finished job when only a seal is required. Recommended practice is to mix the bentonite in the water first then add cement after hydration.

10.1.2 Hollow spheres

Hollow spheres are microscopic mineral additives that look just like a powder to the naked eye. They are a relatively recent product to come on the market as an admixture to cement grouts, but can achieve much lower specific gravities than powdered bentonite when added to grout mixes. Such products can maintain high compressive strength at low specific gravity, even under high temperature conditions. Similar reduced shrinkage can be achieved to that of bentonite cement mixes. Hollow spheres are generally a mixture of a combination of naturally occurring chemicals with a similar nuisance dust classification to bentonite products for health and safety purposes. Typical chemical properties (by weight): Silica 55.0% Alumina 43.1% Iron (as Fe2O3) 0.5% Titanium dioxide (TiO2) 1.4%

Cement grout should be allowed at least 24 hours setting time before any further work is carried out. Recommended cementwater and cement bentonitewater mixes are listed in Tables 10.1 and 10.2.

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Table 10.1

Recommended range of cementwater mixes

Litres of mixing water(ii)
30 25 20

Number of 40 kg bags of cement

1 1 1
Notes: (i) (ii)

Litres of grout
42.67 37.67 32.67

Specific Gravity (SG)

1.64 1.72 1.83 (i)

Plasticiser cement additive can be used to improve and extend the workability of the mix and reduce friction while pumping high SG grouts. Cement will settle out of the grout if a mix ratio greater than 38 litres of water per 40 kg of cement is used without other additives.

Table 10.2
Cement 40 kg bags

Recommended cementbentonitewater mixes

% Bentonite in mix(i) Mass of bentonite (kg) Volume of water (litres)(ii) SG (kg/L) Yield per bag of cement (litres)
47.83 52.99 58.15 63.31 68.47 73.63 104.27 Malleable to plastic V Firm

Firmness

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Notes: (i) (ii)

1 2 3 4 5 6 10

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 4.0

35 40 45 50 55 60 90

1.57 1.52 1.48 1.45 1.42 1.39 1.28

Hard

A 10% or greater bentonite mix is not recommended for normal cementing operations. Bentonite mixes can be affected by the quality of water used.

10.2 INCREASING SPECIFIC GRAVITY

A common additive used to increase the specific gravity is barium sulphate (barite), which has a specific gravity of 4.3. One 25 kg bag of barite has a volume of 5.8 litres when added to fluid and requires 5.7 litres of mix water.

These admixtures should be used at the dosage rates recommended by the supplier. These rates should not be exceeded as excess quantities can sometimes cause a retarding effect.

10.4 INCREASING SETTING TIME

When cementing deep bores with higher pressures and temperatures there is always a danger, especially when using small capacity pumps, that the grout will take an initial set before being pumped into its final position. Chemical admixtures are available which help inhibit flashsetting. They are also used to retard or increase the setting time of the grout to allow placement over a longer time period or retard setting in higher temperature bores.

10.3 REDUCING SETTING TIME

Accelerators are used to reduce the time taken for the cement grout to set. Calcium chloride is one such accelerator but is corrosive to steel and should not be used as an accelerator when steel bore casing is used. Most cement additive supply companies have chloride-free admixtures for accelerating the setting time of cement.

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUTING

R10.1 Cement used for grouting shall be to Australian Standards AS 39721997 for Portland and Blended Cement. Note: Portland cement is commonly marked as G.P. or General Purpose cement. Blended cement is marked as G.B. or Builders cement. The driller shall use fresh cement free from lumps in the proportion of one bag (40 kg) of cement to not more than 30 litres of fresh water or such other grout mixes as may be approved by the licensing authority in special circumstances. See Tables 10.1 and 10.2 for recommended cement mixes. In certain circumstances, special grades of cement may be required when strata or groundwater having a high sulphate content is encountered. R10.2 Water Water shall be free from contaminants harmful to cement and steel bore casing. Note: Water can be expected to meet the above requirements if it is: (a) potable; or (b) clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials and other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel. R10.3 Additives Contractors shall have on hand manufacturer's guidelines and safety data sheets for all additives and materials used. These should list instructions for handling, recipes, use, any potential hazard and any disposal requirements for the product or container. R10.4 Great Artesian Basin Bores constructed in the Great Artesian Basin must be constructed to the requirements of the local state licensing authorities which may be more stringent in some requirements than these minimum construction requirements. R10.5 Flowing bores Unless authorised by licence or permit, the supply from artesian bores shall be drawn from one primary formation only. All aquifers and permeable zones other than the intended production zone shall be adequately cemented off to prevent interconnection or wastage between zones of differing pressure or water quality. The outer surface or control casing shall be placed to a minimum depth to allow control of the bore during drilling and seated 10 metres into competent impermeable strata and cemented from the shoe to the surface. The inner production casing shall be cemented as stated in the licence or permit or so that the supply of water can be drawn from one primary formation only. All other aquifers and permeable zones shall be cemented off.

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUTING (continued)

Should saline or poor quality water or a permeable or porous formation or a formation suspected of being capable of yielding or taking water be located during drilling below the cemented surface casing and above the water production aquifer, the second cementing shall be extended to seal and protect the production casing from that formation. Note: In some States or Territories the minimum depth of any intercasing cementing requirements will be specified on the bore permit as may the requirement for onsite monitoring/supervision of cementing operations. Annular thickness: The surface casing shall be sheathed with cement grout having a minimum annular thickness of 20 mm above maximum dimension of casing (for example coupling or shoe). This can be obtained by the use of inert centralisers. Inner cementing: Inner casing or casing liners shall be sheathed with a minimum of 15 mm of cement grout. R10.6 Nonflowing bores (single aquifer) In determining the specific grouting requirements of a non-flowing bore at a designated site, consideration must be given to existing surface conditions, especially the location of sources of pollution, and to subsurface geological and hydrological conditions. To protect against contamination or pollution by surface waters or shallow subsurface waters (such as effluent from septic tanks) the annular space shall be sealed from the surface to whatever depth is necessary to protect the bore. R10.7 Nonflowing bores (multiple aquifer) Formations which yield polluted water or water of an undesirable quality must be adequately sealed off to prevent pollution or contamination of the overlying or underlying water-bearing zones. Note: Deeper bores penetrating multiple aquifers may have a licence requirement or target aquifer requirement to allow tapping of one aquifer only with all other aquifers of differing water quality, yield or water level to be excluded from the bore by pressure cementing. The properties of the slurry may be varied to meet the requirements of the particular cementing procedure which is used and to provide acceptable results. The casing shall be sheathed with a minimum cement cover of 20 mm of cement. This can be obtained by the use of inert centralisers. R10.8 Supervision of cementing. The bore licensing authority may require onsite monitoring or supervision of all cementing operations by an authorised officer. This requirement may be stated in the bore licence or permit document.

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chapter

11.0

WATER ENTRY
The entry of water from the water bed to the bore can be by the following mechanisms: open hole slotted or perforated casing screens gravel pack gravel stabilisation.

11.1 OPEN HOLE

The cheapest method of completing low-yield bores, but one which will work only if the underlying rock and water bearing formation are consistently firm and stable, is to case the bore with only a surface string of casing to the top of the rock formation. The remainder of the hole is then left uncased. Where this method is used, care must be taken to ensure that the surface casing is firmly seated into the rock, and grouted to protect from possible surface run-off and any undesirable sub-surface seepage. It is good practice to always case a bore to such a depth that no part of the pump or column is exposed to open hole conditions. Considering the total investment in the bore and associated equipment, the generally small saving in the cost of additional casing is outweighed by the risks of bore failure that could result from the hole being left uncased. Figure 11.1 Example of open-hole bore construction

11.2 SLOTTED CASING

Often a water-bearing formation is reasonably stable but is tiered or layered and interspersed with friable or soft materials such as clays or sands. In time, these strata are likely to collapse and bridge the hole. This can result in jamming of the pump, restricting water entry to the pump or causing damage from pumping solids. Under these conditions it is necessary to provide some form of support for the strata, while at the same time allowing adequate entry of water into the bore. The cheaper method of construction is to fully case the hole and use slots cut into the casing opposite the water bearing zone(s) to allow water to enter the bore. Slots made in the casing can be cut on site using an oxyacetylene kit, in the case of steel casing, or

an electric drill or saw in the case of plastic casing. The preferred method is to use factory machine slotted, drilled or perforated casing with a regular series of fine or small perforations. A length of slotted casing which corresponds to the thickness of the aquifer is normally used. The use of numerous short, narrow slots located to maintain maximum compressive strength in the casing rather than a few large slots is preferable. Suitably placed perforations such as smalldiameter round holes may also be used. Examples of slotting are shown in Figure 11.2. A major problem in using slotted casing is finding the optimum size and shape of slot which will permit adequate flow but continue to retain the water-bearing strata over time. Slots alone may not be sufficient in relatively fine, loose formations in which case, the placing of a suitable graded well-rounded (not crushed) gravel envelope in the annulus between the casing and hole wall will assist in retaining the strata while allowing the free passage of water. This technique is called gravel packing. If gravel packing or gravel stabilisation is used, the bottom open end of the casing must be capped to prevent the entry of gravel into the casing.

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The slots should be narrow enough to hold out the gravel. The slotting of casing in low-yielding formations above the main aquifer is not good practice. Where gravel fill is to be placed in and above a slotted zone or screens, the annulus must be Figure 11.2

greater than four times the graded size of the gravel, that is for 6 mm gravel the hole size must be at least 48 mm larger than the largest outside diameter on the casing used, usually found to be at the joint, to avoid bridging.

Examples of perforated and slotted casing

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SLOTTED CASING

R11.1 The casing shall be slotted to maintain as much strength in the casing as possible. Numerous short narrow slots in a regular pattern with short sections left unslotted between are required rather than long, wide randomly placed slots. R11.2 Short horizonal slots or small round perforations shall be used for unreinforced plastic type casing. Vertical slots may be squeezed shut by external pressure and should not be used in this casing type. R11.3 Design the slots to suit the yield of the bore. For high-yield bores the total open area of the slots should be at least twice the cross-sectional open area of the casing to limit water entrance velocity through the slots. R11.4 The slots shall allow water to enter over the full circumference of the bore. R11.5 Slotted casing shall not be placed against any nonaquifer material to reduce the risk of silting and generally the slotted interval should finish within the top one metre of the aquifer.

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11.3 SCREENS
Many of the larger supplies of bore water are obtained from loose, unconsolidated formations such as sands or gravels, which must be supported if a bore constructed in them is to remain open. Generally, they are not suited to open hole or slotted casing methods of construction. In these cases a bore screen is used. Screens are normally manufactured from galvanised or stainless steel but are also available in plastic materials in a number of designs. Screens usually consist of wedge-shaped wires wound around a frame of axial rods of open cylindrical form. The gap or slot between adjacent turns of the winding is adjusted during manufacture to provide the desired aperture size. The screen is placed into the borehole within a string of casing and adjacent to the water-bearing formation. It provides support for the formation material and retains an open framework of sand or gravel particles naturally occurring in the formation or deliberately placed around the screen. This arrangement provides for maximum water entry and thus the most efficient bore. Careful sampling of the water-bearing formation must be carried out during drilling in order to determine the appropriate construction procedure, screen aperture or gravel pack size. It should be noted that any loss of fines to hole fluids can be deleterious to the accuracy of the sample test results. The samples should be checked and if necessary dried and sieved through a nest of sieves so that an accurate analysis of grain size of the formation can be made. This involves the stacked set of brass or stainless steel sieves of usually 200 mm diameter which are shaken. During the sieving process each sieve filters out a particular grain size. This represents a certain percentage of the entire sample, the finest material collecting in the bottom pan. A plot is then made of the percentage (weight) of each sample to the whole to provide an indication of the physical makeup of the sample. A stacked set of sieves is shown in Figure 11.3. An example of a grain distribution plot is shown in Figure 11.4. A hole drilled only slightly larger than the casing and screen diameter is satisfactory if the water bed is a reasonable mix of sand, coarse sand and gravels with no silt or clay layers and less than

Figure 11.3 Stacked set of sieves used to provide grain distribution curve

10 per cent fine sand. For this type of formation and construction it is usual to select a screen aperture size which will retain approximately 40 per cent to 60 per cent of the sieved water bed. Sometimes a screen is selected with a number of different aperture sizes to match finer or coarser layers in the water bed.

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Figure 11.4 Example of sieve analysis report

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This allows the fines within the formation, which slow and restrict water entry, to be flushed through the screen into the bore and be removed during subsequent development of the bore. This creates a zone of higher material permeability around the screen and increases the yield of water from the bore. Screens should always be sealed at the bottom. The screen diameter is either that which permits a slide fit inside the selected casing for a telescopic setting or the same outside diameter as the bore casing, where the hole can be drilled first and then the casing and screen run into the hole as a continuous string. When using telescopic screens care should be taken with all down-hole measurements as they are critical for the success of the bore. The hole bottom should be accurately measured and be

clean and proven to be stable enough to support the screen. The sealing tube on the screen should be designed to overlap into the casing by at least one metre. Overexposure of the screen seal tube can result in loss of the screen or loss of the bore. If the water bed is thick enough the screen length is calculated by checking the ability of the selected screen (diameter and aperture) to allow the desired water supply into the bore at a reasonable entrance velocity. The recommended design entrance velocity of water through the screen is 30 mm per second. The screen is usually set in the lower, more permeable sands but tests may be required to locate the most productive zones. Salinity may also be a factor in determining where screens are set.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SCREENS

R11.6 Material: The material commonly used for screen manufacture is stainless steel with screens manufactured from plastic materials also available. The material should be AS Type 304 stainless steel unless otherwise specified. R11.7 Design: Screens should be designed for each bore to minimise the possibility of damage during installation, development and use. A copy of the sieve analysis or screen design carried out on a bore should be attached to the drill log.

11.4 GRAVEL PACKING

A gravel filter pack is recommended where the water bed material is so fine, silty or layered that the aperture of a screen issued on its own would be so small that it would severely affect the flow of water into the bore or where additional support for the aquifer zone and strata above is needed. The grain size and gradation of the filter are selected to stabilise the aquifer material and to permit only the fine fractions to move into the bore during development (see Section 12). Thus after proper development, a correctly filtered bore should be sand-free, and the permeability of the narrow annulus of the formation adjacent to the filter greatly increased.

The filter pack (gravel pack) should consist of washed, well-rounded gravel of selected grain size and gradation which is uniformly placed in the annular space between the screen and the wall of the borehole. The filter should have a larger average grain size than the aquifer material. This permits use of a larger screen aperture size and consequent larger area of opening resulting in reduced entrance velocity and head losses in the bore. The filter has a considerably higher permeability than the formation so that the effective diameter of the bore is significantly increased. Both these factors tend to increase the efficiency and specific capacity of a bore and also tend to reduce the possibility of excess sand production.

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GRAVEL PACKING

R11.8 Material: Materials shall conform to the following: The gravel pack should consist of washed, well-rounded, pea-like alluvial gravel of selected grain size and gradation. Crushed stone or rock is not recommended. Non-round pieces. Thin, flat or elongated pieces, the maximum dimensions of which exceeds three times the minimum, shall not be in excess of two per cent by weight. Acid solubles. No more than five per cent of the gravel shall be soluble in hydrochloric acid. Washed material. The material shall be washed and free of shale, mica, clay, dirt, loam and free of organic impurities of any kind. R11.9 Gravel pack design: Selection of the gravel pack grain size and thickness surrounding the screen is dependent on the individual aquifer characteristics. Filter packs shall be 50120 mm thick although about 100 mm size is recommended as the minimum annular thickness to allow for proper placement of the gravel pack material for a high-yield, largediameter bore. From a practical viewpoint the maximum gravel pack annular thickness is about 100200 mm. The minimum hole diameter to maximum casing joint diameter difference shall not be less than eight times the nominal gravel pack size, to assist in the prevention of bridging during gravel packing. The grading of the gravel pack material must be correctly chosen in relation to the grain size of the aquifer sand. The pack must be much more permeable than the formation material and have a grain size uniformly larger than the aquifer grain size, but at the same time fine enough to control the sand. It must support the formation without sand movement at the maximum pumping rate. The pack must be developed after installation to allow some movement of grains from the aquifer into the pack material so that the change from the aquifer to the pack is gradual. Procedure for determining pack material grain size: 1. From the aquifer sieve analysis tabulation, note the sieve size (in millimetres) that retained the greatest mass (this is known as the modal size, and is often found to occur at the 7080 per cent progressive mass total of sand retained on the sieves. The modal size is the best comparison point for the selection of the artificial pack grain size). (Note: the test procedures for conducting a sieve analysis on an aquifer sand sample are detailed in the ADITC 'Drilling The Manual', and are covered in the ADITC 'Screens and Gravel Packs' course and the ADIA 'Wellscreens, Sieve Analysis and Gravel Packing' course.) 2. Multiply the modal value obtained above by 5, to obtain the desirable modal size of the pack material (in millimetres). A factor of 5 has been chosen because laboratory experiments and field practice have shown that the gravel pack material should be four to six times larger than the grain size of the formation sand. 3. From the sieve analysis results of the available packing sand or gravel, select a material that has a modal grain size close to the desired figure.

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GRAVEL PACKING (continued)

As gravel packs are generally used against uniformly graded fine sands, the grain size of the packing material should also be uniform, that is there should not be much material either smaller or larger than the pack modal value size. The screen to be run in an artificial packed bore must have a slot size designed to retain 80100 per cent of the pack material. R11.10 Gravel pack location: The gravel pack material shall be placed in the annular space slightly below and adjacent to the bore screens and shall extend above the screen to allow for settlement during development. A gravel pack top-up pipe may be incorporated into the annulus to provide annular sealing. R11.11 Centralisers: Centralisers shall be used on the screen assembly and be constructed of inert material or the same material as the screen. They shall be placed at the top and bottom of the screen and at not greater than six-metre intervals for long lengths so as to reasonably ensure that the screened area is covered by a uniform thickness of gravel pack. R11.12 Method of sampling: Methods of sampling shall be according to AS 1141. R11.13 Placement: Gravel shall be placed with care and without stoppages to ensure continuity of the gravel pack without bridging, voids or segregation.

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12.0

BORE DEVELOPMENT
ore development consists of the application of appropriate techniques which are designed to bring a bore to its maximum production capacity by optimising the bore efficiency, specific capacity, stabilisation of aquifer material, and control of suspended solids. The development usually involves the use of various chemical and/or mechanical agitation methods, the selection of which depends on the type of drill plant available, the mechanical construction of the bore and the aquifer type.

During development the fines drawn through the screen are periodically removed from within the screen assembly. A small increase in permeability in the vicinity of the screen can result in considerably less drawdown in the bore for the same pumping rate. In fact, twofold increases in yield as a result of development are not uncommon. The development process should involve techniques which progress from gentle to vigorous agitation using care to maintain hydraulic continuity between the bore and aquifer. Rapid dewatering of the bore should be avoided in the early stages of development as it may collapse the screen or casing or in the case of a telescopic screen, relocate the screen to a higher and undesirable location inside the casing. As well as increasing the production capacity of a bore, development also stabilises the formation which acts as a filter to prevent the pumping of sand which would otherwise result in serious damage to pumps and fittings. In most formations the application of appropriate development techniques will result in a virtually sand/silt-free bore. Where the aquifer material is very fine, a compromise may have to be reached in achieving an acceptable flow rate and a relatively sand-free supply.

Figure 12.1 Improving bore permeability through development

12.1 USE OF CHEMICALS

Chemical methods include the use of proprietary brand dispersants and detergents to wet, break down and carry clayey materials and fines out of the formation. Final development is usually by mechanical means. Figure 12.2 Commencing development of a bore

12.2 USE OF MECHANICAL METHODS

Mechanical methods applicable to a rotary drilling rig include the use of compressed air or an airwater mix to jet the screen and carry water from the bore and/or some form of pumping or bailing equipment. A cable tool plant can be used to bail and surge the bore. Whatever method is used, the aim is to remove from the annulus, between screen and hole wall, clays or compacted material resulting from the drilling operations as well as the fine material from the water bed itself. This results in a rearrangement of the remaining water-bearing material to form a coarser but stable filter which retains the aquifer.

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12.3 SAND CONTENT

The normal expectation of a client is that the water from a properly constructed bore should be sand-free.

However, this is not always attainable, especially from high-yield bores in unconsolidated formations. A more realistic statement would be sand-free within acceptable and practical limits.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPING BORES

R12.1 Development technique: The development process of a bore shall employ techniques which progress from gentle to vigorous agitation using care to maintain hydraulic continuity between the bore and aquifer. Rapid dewatering of the bore should be avoided in the early stages of development as it may collapse the screen or casing or move a telescopic screen. Note: records should be kept of observations during development work including any changes in standing water level, yield, sand content or water colour. Too much development or too harsh a technique in the early stages of development can result in reduced yield. R12.2 Sand content: The development of a high-yield bore shall not be concluded before a continuous clean, silt- and sand-free supply of water is obtainable at the full flow capability of the bore. After development, the bore shall be left clean and free of silt or sand and any other obstructions for the full depth. A sand-free supply can be regarded as having a sand content of no more than one teaspoon per 1000 litres. R12.3 Pump development: A test pump should be used for final development and test of a highyield bore. (a) The pump should have the capacity to pump the bore to maximum drawdown within a reasonable time (one hour). (b) The pump unit or its discharge control should permit adjustable pumping flow rates. (c) Pump discharge should be equipped with an orifice meter or other devices to accurately measure flow. (d) Water levels in the bore, static, drawdown and recovery levels shall be measured to one cm accuracy while pumping and after the pump has stopped in accord with Australian Standard AS 23681990. R12.4 Development test: Development shall be considered satisfactory when the following have been achieved: (a) Operation of the final mechanical development procedure being used that is either jetting of the screen assembly or mechanically surging in or just above the screen for a one hour period produces no further noticeable sand or silt. (b) Water is relatively clear when bailed or pumped from the bore. (c) There is no sand in the bottom of the screen sump after the one-hour development period. (d) There shall be no increase in specific capacity of the bore during a four-hour pump test. R12.5 Testing for sand content in bores: The sand content shall be determined by averaging the results of five water samples collected at the following times during the final pumping test. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 15 minutes after start. After one quarter of total planned test time. After half of total planned test time. After three quarters of total planned test time. Near the end of test.

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REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPING BORES (continued)

The minimum recommended volume of water sample collected for testing for sand content shall be the test pump rate of flow in litres per second multiplied by three with a maximum volume of 100 litres. The minimum volume required for bores tested at less than six litres per second shall be 20 litres. The sample shall be allowed to settle not less than ten minutes before liquid is decanted. A log or record shall be included with the test pumping results showing time, type of operation, specific volume sampled during pumping, pumping rate and sand content measured and recorded for each test.

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13.0

DISINFECTION OF WATER BORES

fter completing the construction and testing of a water bore and prior to supply commissioning of a bore, both the bore and equipment to be placed in the bore (that is pump and column) should be disinfected. This is necessary to remove the potential for contamination of the water supply as a result of bacteria being introduced to the bore and aquifer from the drilling and testing operation. Disinfection of all bores used for potable use (that is human consumption) is considered a minimum requirement. However, it is considered good practice to disinfect all water bores at the completion of drilling and testing operations. Disinfection is carried out with the aim of inactivating organisms such as bacteria, viruses and cysts which are pathogenic and transferable in water. Generally aquifers contain very limited numbers of such organisms. However, the drilling operation can create both a favourable environment for these limited numbers to expand by providing nutrient sources not normally available in the aquifer and by introducing organisms not normally found in groundwater. Various nutrient and bacterial sources can be introduced into a bore through the normal use of drilling fluids including air and mud, cement, tool oil, grease and simple physical manual contact of equipment placed into the bore. In some instances there are sufficient naturally occurring bacteria that the introduction of minor nutrient sources, such as make-up water with organic material (that is that drawn from ponded surface water, or small residual levels of drilling mud), will be sufficient to enable bacterial blooms to occur. These may lead to a range of public health and supply infrastructure problems. The best drilling approach would be to not introduce any foreign material to the bore or aquifer, thus minimising exposure of the completed bore to any other contamination pathway for organic organisms. But in practice, it is not always possible to avoid all contamination pathways. However, with careful bore siting and adherence to good drilling and construction practice (that is ensuring good surface and casing seat sealing together with water-tight casing joints) such potential can be minimised. There will always be some introduction of foreign material during any work over the bore, hence the need to ensure bore

disinfection and use of clean drilling equipment at all times. Even the most rigorous bore disinfection can be rendered useless if contaminated pumping equipment is installed. Generally, all pumping equipment should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilised prior to being installed in a bore. However, bore disinfection immediately following the installation of thoroughly cleaned pumping equipment should be considered as the minimum recommended practice. Chlorination should not be used to treat waters which have a high organic content because of the possible formation of organochlorides.

13.1 DISINFECTION PRACTICE

(a) Proprietary chemicals
A number of proprietary chemicals exist on the market which have been produced specifically for bore disinfection. The major benefits claimed for these chemicals over chlorine are that they are non-corrosive, safer to handle and more environmentally friendly. Manufacturers can assist you with technical data relating to their products.

(b) Chlorine
Chlorine is by far the most commonly used disinfectant in the world today. It exists in three main forms: gaseous chlorine, calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite is liquid chlorine and is readily available throughout Australia. It generally has 1012 per cent available chlorine and is relatively cheap and safe to use. However, it is somewhat unstable, and over time in storage may lose a significant percentage of its useful chlorine. For safety reasons, liquid chlorine is recommended for bore disinfection rather than gaseous chlorine or calcium hypochlorite. Disinfection may be achieved by dosing the bore with liquid chlorine to a level where there are 50 milligrams per litre (mg/L) of free chlorine in solution in the bore. As a guideline, to have

50 mg/L free chlorine in solution, assuming we are using 12.5 per cent sodium hypochlorite (swimming pool chlorine), one litre is mixed with 2500 litres of water. As chlorine is highly
corrosive to metals, care should be taken to avoid

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unnecessary contact with metallic fittings. When determining the size of the dose, allowance should be made for: dilution of the dose with the water in the aquifer chlorine being taken up by sediment in the newly completed bore. The actual groundwater chemistry will affect both the amount required of the disinfection agent to produce sufficient available chlorine and the type of agent required to achieve this. Therefore, reference should be made to the relevant licensing authority in the first instance. Once the disinfection solution is prepared in accordance with any specific handling instructions for the chemical agents, the solution is introduced into the bore from the surface via a pipe or tube seated on the bore base and is then well mixed, paying attention to the equipment and casing above the water level. The solution is then left standing in the bore for up to 12 hours after which it is then pumped from the bore until such time as the pumped water is free of any noticeable chlorine odour. Note: The pumped disinfection solution will require careful disposal as it may cause die-off of any vegetation with which it comes in contact. Should this inadvertently occur, the solution should be washed off thoroughly. In no instance should the solution be disposed of into surface water systems. In some areas, the disposal of the disinfection solution may require statutory clearance and advice.

(c) Iron bacteria

Drillers should make inquiries to determine whether an area in which they propose to work has an iron bacteria problem. In areas of known iron bacteria problems, bore and drilling equipment disinfection forms an important part of the overall management of the problem. However, disinfection cannot be regarded as a total solution on its own for treating bores which have become fouled with iron bacteria. This is because iron bacteria shield themselves with a film that needs to be broken down before the use of chlorine can be effective. Specific treatments of bores fouled by iron bacteria are best tailored to the groundwater chemistry, hydrogeology and pumping regimes. This often requires single bore or regional consideration. In all instances, reference should be made to the local water statutory agency prior to commencing any treatment of bores suspected of being fouled by iron bacteria. In areas of known iron bacterial infestation, specific instructions regarding bore and equipment disinfection exist. In these specific areas the disinfection is focused toward minimising the introduction of nutrient sources into bores and the spread of such a source from bore to bore.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DISINFECTING BORES

R13.1 Disinfection of drilling equipment: The driller shall ensure that his drilling tools are cleaned and disinfected before working on a new site. Equipment should be chlorine washed or steam cleaned after being used in an area where iron bacteria is known or suspected to occur. R13.2 Potable supplies: All bores constructed to supply water for potable use shall be disinfected. The complete bore and any equipment to be installed in the bore shall be disinfected by chlorine or proprietary chemical solution immersion or steam cleaning as appropriate. R13.3 Disposal of waste: Care shall be taken with any waste disposal of the disinfection agent from the bore on completion. The driller shall ensure that on completion, a bore is left in such a state that it is not harmful to users, pumps or the bore itself. R13.4 EPA requirements: The driller shall ensure that any bore disinfecting and disposal of waste complies with the requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency in the State or Territory in which they are carrying out the works.

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chapter

14.0

TEST PUMPING OF BORES

Test pumping of an irrigation bore

14.1 TESTING OF BORES BY DRILLERS

uch tests are usually conducted using the drilling equipment available and are not meant to replace formal long-term pump tests. In all cases the test involves removing a known volume of water from the bore whilst monitoring the effects it has on the water level. This is done on completion using drill stems and compressed air (air test), or bailing water from the bore (bailer test) or free-flowing an artesian bore and measuring the pressure using a pressure gauge.

duration of test discharge rate measured as accurately as possible at regular intervals throughout the test, particularly at the end water sample collected when water becomes clean and clear. Minimum volume required is one litre.

(b) Bail testing

More commonly used with cable tool drilling and involves lowering a 'bailer' into the water, allowing it to fill, withdrawing and emptying it at surface. The procedure is repeated for the duration of the test. The pump rate produced is then calculated by multiplying the number of bailers removed in one hour by the volume of the bailer. By dividing the bail rate by the metres of drawdown the yield of the bore can be calculated. Test results to be recorded are: standing water level prior to testing bail rate drawdown during bailing final drawdown water level test duration

(a) Air testing

This method is generally used in conjunction with rotary or air drilling and can be performed during drilling on the partly completed open hole but the final test must be on the fully completed, cased, slotted and screened production bore. The results of most air tests give an indication only of the available supply as there are many physical aspects of the method which can vary the results. Some are: hole and drill stem annulus size air volume and pressure available depth of drill stem submergence. Air lift pumping without sufficient submergence may not be efficient, therefore air testing may not always produce the full supply available in the bore. Test results to be recorded are: standing water level prior to testing depth to bottom drill stems air pressure to lift water air pressure during pumping after initial lift

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14.1.1

Required measuring equipment

Air testing: The water discharged should be impounded within an earth drain or similar and measured over a weir board of suitable dimensions to accept the discharge rate. If the flow can be diverted through a pipe or fluming, a measuring tank or bucket and stop watch may be used. Bailer testing: A baler of known volume with no valve leaks should be used. Test duration: This may vary depending on the type of bore, bore depth, available supply and intended use, but should be long enough to prove the bore is producing clear, clean, silt-free water. The water level should be monitored after the test to ensure the bore is recovering and the aquifer has not been de-watered.

It needs to be understood, however, that to predict the long-term effects of abstraction, other information will be required, particularly about factors affecting recharge to the groundwater system such as seasonal or long-term regional effects and possible interference from other bores. A pumping test provides a basis from which quantitative information on aquifer properties can be obtained and proper decisions can be made for equipping and using a bore as the source for a water supply. Wrong decisions can lead to the selection of incorrect pumps, lessthan-optimum pumping schedules, and in the extreme, failure of the bore to provide the expected quantity of water. Many bore owners tend to save costs by skimping on the pumping test, or even deciding not to have one carried out. This can be a risky and imprudent course of action. Expenditure on the test pumping will usually be a small proportion of the cost of constructing and equipping a bore, and will be small compared with the cost of failure to deliver at the expected rate after it has been put into production. Bore owners are encouraged to allocate sufficient funds for a comprehensive pumping test which can be used as a reliable basis for prediction of future performance. For low-yield bores a test to give some indication of supply available can be carried out by the driller after the bore is completed, using a bailer or an air compressor and string of pipe. In carrying out these tests flow measurement should be made using a flow measuring device for example bucket of known capacity and stopwatch or v-notch weir, or as appropriate. However, a properly conducted test using a pump is recommended. Tests may be carried out by pump consultants or water agencies on a contractual basis. Tests carried out before the bore is completed, for example uncased hole tests, are not acceptable for pump selection.

14.2 TEST PUMPING OF BORES

A pumping test is a means of obtaining quantitative information about groundwater systems and the bores which access the water within them. The test is based on a period of pumping and recovery during which the pumping rate, water level in the bore, and elapsed time are measured. The test can be used to: (a) assess the hydraulic behaviour of a bore and so determine its usefulness as a source of water, predict its performance under different pumping regimes, and enable determination of the most suitable pump and optimum intake depth (b) determine the hydraulic properties of the groundwater system penetrated by the bore, that is the transmissivity, storativity, and the presence, type and distance of any hydraulic boundaries. A pumping test also provides an opportunity to obtain information on water quality and its variation with time and perhaps with discharge rate.

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR TESTING OF BORES BY DRILLER

R 14.1 Testing of bores by driller: On completion of any production bore, adequate testing should be carried out by the driller to provide the client with a reasonable indication of the capacity of the bore. This test will also demonstrate to the client that the bore has been constructed properly and is therefore capable of producing clean water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR PUMP TESTING

R14.2 Pumping test standards: Pumping tests are recommended to determine pumped bore capacity and to obtain data from which to design a permanent production pump. Where tests are conducted they shall be performed according to AS 2368 1990 Test Pumping of Water Wells. The recorded results of any test shall be attached to the driller's log. R14.3 Duration of pumping test: The duration of the pumping test for specific purposes shall be as shown in Table 14.1 R14.4 In areas known to contain iron bacteria where a test pumping unit is transferred from bore to bore, the unit's components which come in contact with the borehole shall be disinfected to avoid the introduction of iron bacteria to uncontaminated bores. See Section 13 for methods of disinfection. Table 14.1 Type and duration of pumping test
Purpose of bore Type of test Duration of pumping (hours)
4 to 6 24 to 100 (See Note 2)

Duration of recovery (hours)

2 (See Note 1) 8 (See Note 1)

Low usage facility (for example general stock watering or household) Medium or high usage (capital intensive support, for example intense stock watering, mining, irrigation, industrial, municipal supply) Aquifer investigation

Constant discharge or variable discharge Step and constant discharge

Constant discharge (other tests may be appropriate)

Depends on nature of investigation

Depends on nature of investigation

Notes: 1. Recovery duration is until a trend is definitely established or to at least 80% of full recovery. 2. The reliability of the prediction of well performance will increase with the duration of the test. A test duration nearer the upper limit is recommended if the consequences of failure to perform as predicted are severe.

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58

chapter

15.0

RECORDING AND REPORTING DATA

n a continent as dry as Australia it is vital that water resources are utilised effectively and sustainably. By their nature of occurrence groundwater resources are costly to explore and develop. It is most important therefore that when bores are drilled an accurate and complete record be made of the drilling process even for abandoned test holes. These records must be submitted to the water authority to be added to other data so that knowledge of the nature and extent of the groundwater resource can be built up. The driller should keep a record of drilling observations in a field book while drilling progresses. These observations should include the following: accurate location of the bore site bore identification number unique identification of the bore site by number or name drill string inventory bit types and sizes strata details aquifer details and yield materials used

casing lengths and sizes penetration log drilling method over any particular zone hole behaviour observed drilling fluid changes and depth.

The information so obtained is of value not only to the client but to drillers and water authorities responsible for the development and management of the resource. It is for these reasons that water authorities require that accurate records and reports be made and submitted. Most water authorities have a Drill Log form they supply to drillers which details information required. As the details required to be submitted may vary between authorities, drillers should check on the requirements of the particular State or Territory in which they work.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RECORDING AND REPORTING

R15.1 Drilling logs: A drilling log shall be compiled from the field log for each bore drilled including test holes. The log shall quote identification number and give a complete and accurate description of the bores completed, construction details, location, type and location of strata passed through during drilling, and shall describe in particular all water supplies encountered even if such supplies are inadequate for the purpose for which the bore is required. An example of a drill log is shown on pages 63 and 64. Guidelines for soil and rock classifications and descriptions are shown in Tables 15.1 and 15.2. R15.2 Details to be provided: Complete construction details of the bore must be provided. These include: bore identification or licence number start and finish dates the name and address of the client the name of the driller type of drilling method used diameters and depth of hole drilled (continued next page)

59

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RECORDING AND REPORTING (continued)

complete strata details details of any water supplies casing type and diameter (OD), class of pipe and/or wall thickness, position within the hole and how it is secured and sealed cement grouting details water entry to the bore, for example length of slotted sections and locations, screen type, dimensions and location, gravel pack material and size any pump test details and water quality description geophysical logging tools that were run bore development procedure and record location sketch of the bore site showing a north point, distances from two adjacent property boundaries or other topographical features, and the real property description, including GPS coordinates bore disinfection procedures used. R15.3 Decommissioning report: A detailed report including diagram of bore shall be prepared by the driller on the decommissioning of any bore or test hole. R15.4 After completion of the bore the completed drill log shall be mailed or delivered direct to the relevant regional office of the water licensing authority within the time specified in the bore licence or in legislation.

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Table 15.1

Guidelines for soil classification and description

Soil types Texture Descriptive terms Select appropriate words Colour (washed sample) Examples: Consistency (drillability) Examples: 1) CLAYS black silty white grey sandy red brown orange yellow green blue gravelly (etc.) very soft soft puggy sticky firm stiff hard very hard

Small particle size

TOP SOIL CLAY (particles not visible to eye; can be moulded) SILT (0.1 mm) (cannot be moulded) FINE SAND (0.10.2 mm) MEDIUM SAND (0.20.5 mm) COARSE SAND (0.51.0 mm) VERY COARSE SAND (1.02.0 mm) FINE GRAVEL (2.04.0 mm) GRAVEL (4.08.0 mm) COARSE GRAVEL (8.063 mm)

Examples: clayey

2) SANDS very loose loose medium dense dense very dense

Large particle size

COBBLES (63200 mm) BOULDERS (> 200 mm) Example descriptions CLAY, sandy CLAY, sandy red/brown CLAY, sandy red/brown, stiff

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Table 15.2 Guidelines for rock classification and description

Rock types - Examples Sedimentary
(composed of cemented particles)

Example descriptive terms Weathering Strength

Metamorphic
(changed as a result of pressure or heat)

Igneous
(volcanic or plutonic origin)

Small grain/ crystal size

ACID LIMESTONE CLAYSTONE SHALE SILTSTONE MARBLE SLATE PHYLLITE SCHIST QUARTZITE GRANITE CONGLOMERATE GNEISS MICROGRANITE
(lightcoloured)

BASIC
(darkcoloured)

Extremely high Fresh High Slightly weathered Medium

RHYOLITE

BASALT

DOLERITE

Moderately weathered Low

Large grain/ crystal size

SANDSTONE

GABBRO

Extremely weathered Extremely low

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Figure 15.1(a) Example of a drilling log (front of form)

63

Figure 15.1(b) Example of a drilling log (back of form)

64

chapter

16.0

HEADWORKS AND COMPLETION OF BORE SITE

fter a bore has been drilled and tested as required it is most important that further works be carried out which ensure the satisfactory long-term operation of the bore and the protection of both the works and the aquifer and surrounding environment. These include: installation of headworks and controls which enable the flow from the bore to be adequately controlled (artesian bores) sealing and capping to protect the aquifer from the ingress of surface water which may contain pollutants (subartesian) protection of the bore from environmental conditions such as flooding or sunlight

disposal of waste or hazardous materials from the site restoration of the site.

16.1 HEADWORKS
All bores or wells should be positioned so that the headworks can be protected from normal flooding and surface water drainage. If the bore has to be located in an area of potential flooding, the casing should be raised above flood level or, if this is not feasible, completely sealed to prevent the entry of flood water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR HEADWORKS

R16.1 Bore identification: Before leaving the site the contractor, if required by the bore licence condition, shall ensure that the bore number as issued by the State regulatory agency is clearly and permanently displayed on the bore. R16.2 Non-flowing bores: At all times during the progress of the work, the contractor shall use reasonable precautions to prevent either tampering with the bore or the entrance of foreign material or surface water into the bore. R16.3 Height of casing above ground: The water-tight casing shall extend not less than 0.3 m above the natural ground surface unless otherwise authorised. R16.4 Sealing: The annular space between the casing and the borehole in all bores and wells and especially those to be used for domestic use shall be effectively sealed with grout from the surface to a depth deemed necessary by the water authority and/or driller with consideration of strata and water soakage areas penetrated. The minimum depth of the seal is five metres, although sealing to a greater depth may be required in some areas. The borehead construction must ensure that no surface runoff or potential subsurface contaminated soakage can enter the bore or bore annulus. The cement seal should be mounded around the casing to prevent water from ponding against the casing. Earth around the borehead should be levelled and sloped away from the bore. All holes or openings should be sealed in the headworks to prevent possible entry of foreign material or small animals or insects. Note that an airtight seal on a pumped bore may not be desirable. Venting to atmosphere could be screened or filtered. R16.5 Temporary capping of the bore: On completion of the bore, the contractor shall install a suitable threaded, flanged or welded cap or compression seal to prevent surface pollutants from entering the bore. R16.6 Protection of plastic casing: All plastic bore casing shall be protected at the surface with a steel cover pipe from the top of the bore casing and cemented to a depth not less than 0.5 m or unless otherwise approved.

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR HEADWORKS (continued)

R16.7 Water level measurement: To enable the measurement of static and pumping water levels an access should be provided by either airline or plug attachment to the side of the casing, which can be sealed when not in use. R16.8 Flowing bores: Headworks design: All flowing bores (artesian) shall be fitted with a headworks of an approved design and the bore equipped in such a way as to allow control of the natural pressure flow of water. Inert material may be used for headworks only when it has been approved by the licensing authority. Provision for testing: Provision must be made in the headworks for artesian bores to be tested, for both pressure and flow, without having to interfere with reticulation or pumping systems. Headworks construction: Headworks shall be of flange-jointed construction. Lead annular seals and screw-jointed headworks are not acceptable. All gate valves used in headworks shall be of first grade quality and shall be rated to handle the pressure and temperature of the bore. Screwed casing protectors shall not be used in any part of an artesian bore headworks. When water temperature exceeds 50C or flow exceeds 15 litres per second (1300 cubic metres per day), a main isolating valve of equivalent diameter to the inner casing shall be incorporated in the headworks between the bore casing proper and the distribution outlets from the headworks. An example of an approved headworks design is shown in Figure 1.4.

16.2 DISPOSAL OF WASTES AND MATERIALS FROM THE SITE

It is important both for health and safety reasons that any unused materials and waste products be disposed of carefully and responsibly and always in accordance with the manufacturer's data sheet. As soon as the work is completed the contractor shall, at his own expense, clear away all plant,

tools, machinery, utensils, board, fencing, rubbish, construction waste and any materials and things belonging to the contractor that may be lying about the site or on the property and shall do everything necessary to finish all work in a complete and businesslike manner. The site should be returned, as far as reasonably practicable, to the pre-drilling condition.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DISPOSAL OF WASTE MATERIALS

R16.9 Disposal of waste: All chemicals, cement or drilling additive containers or bags shall be disposed of in such a way as to cause minimum impact on the environment and in accordance with the requirements of the respective state or local authority and in accord with the relevant manufacturer's directions and specifications. Any well development chemicals shall be neutralised or otherwise disposed of in a safe manner. R16.10 EPA requirements: The driller shall ensure that any bore disinfecting and disposal of waste complies with the requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency in the State or Territory in which they are carrying out the works.

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Restoring a bore

16.3 RESTORATION OF DRILLING SITE

When all works are completed and the driller leaves the site, the only visible result the client can see for the large expenditure incurred is often a short length of casing protruding above the ground. The work below ground or out of sight may be excellent. However, the client could be expected to have concern if the work site is left with earthworks upheaval, flooding and rubbish lying about. Drillers have a responsibility to restore and tidy the drilling site. The visible remains of the work

should be left tidy and the casing, casing clamps, bed logs, temporary seal, headworks, annulus cement seal and ground immediately around the bore should be completed and finished off in a competent and professional manner.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RESTORING THE SITE AFTER BORE CONSTRUCTION

R16.11 Restoration of site: On completion of works, the driller shall ensure that drill and other fluids used in constructing a bore are disposed of safely and that the site is restored to a reasonable condition. Mud pits, if used, shall be drained and filled in or arrangements made for the work to be carried out. R16.12 Damage to property: Any damage during access to gates, fences or grids and any earthworks at the drill site that can be reasonably repaired shall be rectified as soon as possible after completion of works or arrangements made for the work to be carried out. R16.13 Site conditions: Any onsite drilling camp shall be kept clean and tidy and camp waste and rubbish stored in sealed bins and disposed of in pits, if allowed, or taken to local refuse tips.

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68

chapter

17.0

RECONDITIONING OF BORES
17.1 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

roblems often encountered with nonflowing bores include reduced supply, dirty water, pumping of sand and deteriorating water quality. Before any reconditioning work is carried out on a bore every effort should first be made to identify the cause of the problem. A lot of time and money can be wasted on rehabilitation works which do not target the cause of the problem. Broadly, problems encountered with bores fall into three categories: state of the resource physical condition of the bore condition of pumping equipment.

Pump impellers wear, inlets become blocked and holes form in pump casings. Any of these can lead to reduced or complete loss of supply.

17.2 CLEANING
In certain groundwater environments, encrustations of various types can occur on bore casings, screens and within pumps. The end result is a deterioration in performance of the bore as water entry to the bore or pump is restricted. Encrustations may be chemical deposits such as carbonates and manganese, or biological build-up such as iron bacteria. Chemical encrustations result from the precipitation of carbonates of calcium and magnesium or their sulphates and from chemical deposits of iron and manganese. Biological deposition is caused by iron and manganese bacteria. These produce slimes which foul screens or slot openings and pumps and piping. They form encrustations which can be difficult to remove. A third type of fouling that may occur is through clayey or finer particles blocking screens, slots and openings within the water-bearing formation. Most of the encrustations and blockages that form cannot successfully be cleaned up solely by mechanical means. Chemicals are needed, usually in conjunction with mechanical actions.

17.1.1 State of resource

If drought conditions exist or demands on the aquifer system are excessive, then a fall in water level can occur which is likely to result in a decrease in bore yield. A direct measure of an aquifers performance is the position of the water level if it is lower than normal, there is less water to pump and the supply will decrease. Where there is a large number of bores tapping an aquifer or there are nearby bores being pumped, a reduction in individual bore yields may result. Generally, if the supply has diminished but the standing water level is normal, the fault is likely to lie with the bore or pump.

17.1.2 Physical condition of bore

Many problems arise when the condition of a bore deteriorates. Corrosion of the bore casing or screens (or casing slots) can allow sediment to enter the bore; screens (or slots) can be blocked by chemical deposits or bacterial slime; and poor screen design or slot size may allow fines to enter the bore. Build-up of clayey particles adjacent to screens or slots can also occur. Any of these problems can reduce or stop the entry of water into the bore. Problems can also occur where corroded casing allows poor quality water from a previously untapped, higher aquifer to enter the bore.

17.2.1 Chemicals in use

The tabulation below shows various chemicals used in the treatment of bores and the type of problems they target. A number of proprietary products have been developed specifically to treat bores. They often contain one or more of the listed chemicals, although the particular formulation is often not publicised. Used in the correct manner at the right dosage, these chemicals should have little impact on the groundwater resources or the handler. Acids: All are corrosive, dangerous to handle and release toxic fumes, particularly on contact with water. Chlorine: Of the three forms of chlorine that are available (gaseous, granulated or liquid), liquid chlorine or sodium hypochlorite is the safest to use, due to its relatively low concentration of chlorine.

17.1.3 Condition of pumping equipment

A check should be made on the condition of the pump if water supply problems occur. As a first step, the pump, motor and delivery systems should be checked to see that they are operational.

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Table 17.1 Chemicals used in the treatment of bores

Chemical
Chlorine (derived from calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite) Hydrogen peroxide Copper sulphate Potassium permanganate Acid (hydrochloric, phosphoric, sulphamic) Polyphosphates Sodium hexametaphosphate (Calgon) Proprietary products* (usually acid-based with a disinfectant
* Proprietary products usually incorporate an inhibiting agent to lower corrosiveness and a wetting agent to assist infiltration of chemicals

Use
Disinfectant

Scale/encrustation removal Dispersing agent for treating clay

A number of products are available which target all of the above

Chlorine as a gas or in solution is very corrosive and toxic. Safe handling and storage practices should be strictly observed. Do not use or store chlorine near petroleum products. Do not mix chlorine with acids. Polyphosphates: These are safe to handle and are relatively mild compared to chlorine and acid. Phosphates require care in use as they can promote algal growth. Many groundwater resources are under pressure from rural, industrial and urban activities. Using chemicals to rehabilitate bores adds to this impact unless it is done responsibly. All the chemicals referred to above have the potential to affect neighbouring water supplies if left in the ground.

are a viable alternative to use in lieu of chlorine or acid. Have a water analysis carried out to determine if iron bacteria are present if this problem is suspected, but not obvious. Measure pH and conductivity of the water before any treatment is commenced. This is to ensure that there is little or no residual chemical remaining in the bore on completion of the work. Disconnect the supply from the reticulation system to ensure that water is not available for consumption during treatment.

17.2.3 Treatment
The following points are important to remember when a bore is being treated with chemicals. Ensure that the manufacturers directions are followed and that appropriate safety precautions are taken. They should be used only by experienced personnel, particularly where no directions for use in water bores are provided. On completion of treatment the quality of the discharge water should be tested and be similar to that tested prior to treatment. The pH should be within 0.5 units and conductivity within 10 per cent of pretreatment readings, before reconnection of the supply is made to the reticulation system. All discharged wastewater should be disposed of, away from stock watering areas.

17.2.2 Selection of correct chemicals for treatment

Before chemically treating a bore it is wise to determine the nature and cause of the problem in the first place. This allows the specific problem to be targeted and the appropriate treatment to be carried out. Treating a bore with the incorrect chemical is a waste of time and money. For example, using a disinfecting agent to treat an encrustation will not result in any improvement in the bores performance. Each of the chemicals listed above treats a particular problem. Proprietary products containing a combination of chemicals can be useful when the nature of the problem cannot be determined with any certainty. These products are also designed to inhibit corrosive effects where acid and chlorine have the potential to cause damage to pumps and steel casing. They

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17.3 REHABILITATION OF ARTESIAN BORES

At present many artesian bores flow uncontrolled. Some of these bores discharge large volumes of water into watercourses and swamps to be lost through evaporation and seepage. The Great Artesian Basin Sustainability Initiative is aimed at reconditioning some of these bores so that water flows can be controlled by gate and float valves to the actual level required and used only when needed. This will ensure the longterm viability of this vital resource. Many old bores in the basin have now reached the stage where casing collapse has occurred for one reason or another. Collapse is more prevalent in some areas because of the corrosive water that is present. The necessity for better construction methods and the use of noncorrosive materials is now generally recognised. Reconditioning by relining and cementing is more widely used. Reconditioning of old bores presents many more problems than in the drilling and cementing of new replacement bores due in part to uncertainties concerning the condition of the existing casing. Some bore reconditioning and cementing jobs can be undertaken without the use of a drill rig but in general, a rig is necessary especially if there are obstructions in the bore or a new liner has to be inserted. Provided that access for a drilling plant over the bore is available or can be constructed at reasonable cost, and unless total collapse has taken place, most old flowing bores can be reconditioned by relining with smaller casing and pressure cementing. This will result in reduced water flow from the bore and this may be unacceptable to the client. In some cases, it is also possible to recondition bores where the casing is not evident at the surface, but the water is just discharging from a crater. The first objective in this case is of course to find where the bore has been drilled. The above statements have to be balanced against cost. The remedial measures required to recondition a bore with a large crater, badly corroded casing and fluid communication between the different zones (or surface) are both difficult and

expensive. In many instances it would be cheaper to plug and fill the old bore with cement grout, redrill and complete a replacement rather than attempt rehabilitation. Landholders should always be advised of this fact. Accurate costing of a planned reconditioning is very difficult as there can be unpredictable factors. Large flows, hot water, no visible evidence of surface casing, craters around the borehole full of water all can be dealt with if tackled in a careful manner and with appropriate equipment. However, it must be remembered that when it comes to the cementing phase of a reconditioning program, completely new conditions and problems are presented from those encountered when cementing new bores. Seldom will it be found that any two jobs are alike. The first essential requirement is a thorough investigation of the bore, especially the casing or casings, before attempting any cementing. This investigation should also cover the past history of the bore and other bores in the vicinity. It is essential that the inner casing condition be thoroughly explored and any holes be determined and accurately located. (Geophysical logging, dye testing, down-hole camera exploration etc.) The production aquifer or water bed must be protected by mud or bridges before any cementing operations are undertaken. Provided the inner casing is sound or the bore can be relined, a satisfactory cementing job is usually practicable, regardless of the condition of the outer casings. Holes at a shallow depth in the casing may be overcome so the bore can be mudded off by the use of a short temporary liner and packer, but if holes in the inner casings occur at numerous levels extending to considerable depth, it becomes necessary to use an inner casing liner. In this case the new liner should be installed to a depth to cover all known saline water or other problem areas in the bore. Where the inner casing is sound or a new liner has been run, every effort should be made while cementing this casing to also seal any potential leakage paths and cavities outside the old casings. To do this the inner casing or liner is flanged or welded to the old casing and a socket welded on the old casing below the join so that discharge can be controlled.

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Cement calculations are made to allow for extra grout to be forced into any cavities. A normal cement job is then carried out with discharge control open. When grout returns to the surface in the casing annulus this control is restricted and pumping is continued forcing grout into any cavities. Unlike new bores, bores which are being reconditioned are generally old and because of the fact they need reconditioning they may also

have cavities adjacent to the casing. For these reasons, it is not always possible to determine accurately the volume of cement or mud required for any particular job. It is better to have to dispose of excess cement than to have the whole job fail as a result of an insufficiency. No attempt has been made to go into all the various methods of reconditioning bores as each reconditioning job should be considered on the basis of the particular conditions and circumstances.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RECONDITIONING BORES

R17.1 Prior information check: Before any actual work is done a thorough prior information check shall be carried out on the bore(s). All known details of the bore should be researched. R17.2 Diagnosis: A process of elimination by measurements and tests should be carried out so that the actual problem with the bore is defined, for example, a pump failure. A log shall be kept of all work done on a bore, record all operations and results obtained, any chemicals used and materials and tools removed or installed or lost down the hole.

A rehabilitated artesian bore with new stainless steel headworks

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chapter

18.0

DECOMMISSIONING OF BORES (ABANDONMENT)

nsealed abandoned test holes, bores and wells constitute a potential hazard to public health and safety, and to the preservation of the quantity and quality of the groundwater resource. The sealing of such boreholes presents a number of problems, the nature of which depends upon the construction of the bore, the geological formations encountered, and the hydrological conditions. To seal an abandoned water bore properly, several requirements must be met. These include the following: elimination of any physical hazard prevention of groundwater contamination

conservation of yield and maintenance of hydrostatic head of aquifers prevention of the intermingling of desirable and undesirable waters. The basic concept in decommissioning bores is the restoration, as far as feasible, of aquifer isolation that existed before the bore was drilled and constructed. An improperly abandoned bore hole might serve as an uncontrolled invasion point for contaminated and polluted water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DECOMMISSIONING BORES

R18.1 Sealing: Any bore that is to be permanently decommissioned shall be completely sealed and filled in such a manner that vertical movement of water within the bore, including water within the annular space surrounding the casing, is prevented and the water is permanently confined to the specific zone in which it originally occurred. All test holes, decommissioned water bores and wells should be sealed in such a way that will ensure protection of any aquifers penetrated. The sealing material should not have any potential health risk and should be more impervious than the material encountered during the drilling of the bore. Supervision of this work by the relevant water authority may be required in some areas. Figures 18.1, 18.2 and 18.3 show the arrangements which should be used to decommission the most common types of bore. Bores are to be filled, plugged and sealed. No part of the decommissioned bore shall remain as an open hole. R18.2 Sealing materials and placement: Concrete, cement grout, or bentonite grout shall be used as primary sealing materials and shall be placed from the bottom upward by methods that will avoid segregation or dilution of material and unnecessary contamination of the aquifer zone. R18.3 Fill materials and placement: Fill material should consist of clean or disinfected sand, coarse stone, clay or drill cuttings. R18.4 Flowing bores: Groundwater discharge from flowing bores must be controlled before sealing. Cement grout shall be used for sealing bores that encounter high groundwater pressures, that is bores with significant flow or significant head above the top of the aquifer zone(s). The length of grout plugs shall be of sufficient length to stop the discharge of groundwater and shall be not less than 20 metres unless the flow originates from less than 20 m. R18.5 Surface caps: All bores shall be sealed with concrete, cement grout or bentonite cement grout from a depth of five metres to the surface, or to 300 mm below the surface where a native soil topping is required. The soil topping shall be compacted and mounded to prevent ponding of surface water above the bore. R18.6 Grout bridges: Although it is preferable to completely grout bores, bridges may be used in bores where this is not practicable. A minimum of ten metres of cement grout plug (20 metres for flowing bores) shall be set for a bridge. Bridges, if approved by the water authority, shall be set in impermeable strata immediately above and below each aquifer formation in the bore.

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REQUIREMENTS FOR DECOMMISSIONING BORES (continued)

R18.7 Surface casing: Surface casing that has been pressure-cemented and appears or is tested sound shall be bridged in accord with requirement 18.6, with cement grout at the casing shoe and at the top of the casing. R18.8 Single rock type sites: Bores that intersect only one rock type shall be sealed to prevent entry of water and objects down the borehole. The bore shall be filled or sealed and surface capped in accord with requirement 18.1. R18.9 Multiple rock types: Sealing of single confined and multiple aquifer systems shall confine water to the aquifer in which it occurs. The bore shall be sealed over its entire length, or selectively sealed, plugged, filled and surface capped as per requirement 18.1. R18.10 Standards: Most water authorities have a standard for the decommissioning of bore holes and in those States or areas drillers should obtain a copy of the standard and ensure all decommissioning work meets the water authority standard. R18.11 Records: Complete and accurate records shall be kept of the entire decommissioning procedure for future reference and to verify that the hole was properly sealed. Details of bore cementing shall be recorded on a bore completion report.

Figure 18.1 Requirements for decommissioning a flowing bore

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Figure 18.2 Requirements for decommissioning a single aquifer non-flowing bore

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Figure 18.3 Requirements for decommissioning a multiple aquifer non-flowing bore

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chapter

19.0

MONITORING BORES

onitoring bores are important because they provide the data for regional groundwater management plans, catchment initiatives and site remediation action plans. These bores are the basis on which important decisions are made about aquifer characteristics, trends, likely human and ecological impacts and strategies for protection or clean up. As a consequence, these bores should be constructed to a high standard, protected during their life to ensure ongoing and reliable data, and be properly decommissioned when no longer required or being replaced.

Boreholes need to be constructed to minimise the cross-contamination of aquifers, to protect local ecosystems and to protect regional aquifer systems.

19.2 SCOPE
These requirements apply to the construction of bores for monitoring groundwater levels and groundwater quality. They apply where bores are being established prior to the development of a project for the collection of baseline data as well as for long-term monitoring purposes and for monitoring of contaminated sites.

19.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 19.1 MONITORING BORES

'Monitoring bore' has been used as the standard terminology through this chapter as it is this term that is in most common usage in environmental investigations throughout Australia. Other terms often substituted are monitoring, or observation well and piezometer. Tens of thousands of monitoring bores are constructed around Australia each year to monitor the impacts of development on groundwater systems. Other networks are installed to monitor regional aquifer characteristics, for example water level and water quality changes and specialised catchment attributes like salinity networks. Examples of land uses that can have a substantial impact on groundwater systems include landfills and other waste disposal areas, hydrocarbon and chemical storages, leaking pipelines and dams, various industrial sites, mine sites and intensive agricultural or livestock sites. Many of these bores are constructed into perched water bearing zones less than ten metres from surface, while others monitor the regional aquifer systems and can be in excess of 200 metres deep. Some bores are specifically constructed for just one monitoring event while others are expected to last for decades. When constructing a monitoring bore it is importantant to understand which part of the groundwater profile is being targeted with the bore. Exampes could include a perched aquifer, the water table and the top of the regional aquifer system. Other bores might target a semiconfined or confined aquifer or part of a multiple aquifer system. General considerations when planning the locations and construction of groundwater monitoring bores include: the geology and hydrogeology of the area the local beneficial uses of groundwater such as a town water supply the target aquifer depth and characteristics the purpose of the bore and expected life licensing requirements this includes registration of the bore or network, and the driller being appropriately licensed to carry out the work the contaminants of concern their physical properties and hazards associated with each site such as nutrients, bacterial, heavy metals, landfill gas, hydrocarbons and similar contaminants.

19.4 DRILLING TECHNIQUES

The drilling technique used to construct each monitoring bore must ensure that the monitoring bore upon completion is fit for its intended purpose and its life expectancy. The application of inappropriate drilling techniques can commonly result in reduced groundwater or contaminant flow to the bore, and the cross-contamination of aquifer zones. Drilling should be undertaken by appropriately licensed drillers who have undertaken adequate safety training in the conditions expected, especially for work on contaminated sites. The usual drilling techniques for unconsolidated soils are hollow flight auger, dual wall reverse circulation, cable tool, push tube, or similar low impact techniques. For hard rock areas, downhole hammer or rotary air techniques are usually required.

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Contamination of the borehole and its surrounds is to be avoided during drilling and completion of the bore. Water contaminant, lubricants, oil, grease, solvents, coatings and corrodible materials may affect the suitability of the bore for groundwater monitoring, especially when monitoring for contaminants. When monitoring for the presence of contaminants, all drilling and sampling equipment should be thoroughly cleaned before commencing drilling. Casing, drilling fluids and any material used in the bore also needs to be free of contaminants. Casing and screens should be kept in their protective covers until required for installation. Monitoring bores, depending on drilling technique, formation and depth drilled should have a sump to collect siltation material, and to ensure silt material does not interfere with the screened area. As a guideline the minimum sump length is one metre, with a desired length of between two and six metres. The length of the sump should increase for deeper bores and aquifers where siltation is considered a potential problem. Refer to Section 4 for further details.

19.6 MONITORING BORE DESIGNS

Screen and gravel pack intervals should not be installed across different geological units or water-bearing zones. Care should be taken with perched water zones to ensure that these zones are not directly connected via improperly constructed bores with the regional water table. Bore construction will vary according to the purpose of monitoring and the hydrogeology of the site. In fractured rock areas, it may be necessary to vary the drilling techniques and construction details where aquifer boundaries are not clearly defined. Refer to Section 1.3.1 and Appendix C for typical bore construction details.

19.7 DRILL CORE SAMPLES AND BORE LOGGING

An accurate bore log should be kept during drilling and a clean representative sample of the soil profiles collected when required by the bore permit or client. Refer to Section 6 for additional requirements.

19.8 BORE CASING 19.5 DRILLING FLUIDS

If drilling fluids are used, these must be selected to avoid any contamination or alteration of the groundwater or the soils surrounding the borehole. The preferred fluid for augering, cable tool and coring is clean water from the formation or local town water. Where drilling fluid is required, the type selected should be inert in respect to the aquifer chemistry or suspected contaminants. On contaminated sites, the compressor output must be free from oil contamination and no hydrocarbon lubricants should be used for hammers and other drill equipment. Refer to Section 7 for further details. Casing material will be determined by the required bore diameter, bore depth and monitoring requirements including the type of contaminants that may be monitored. uPVC, stainless steel and fibreglass are suitable for monitoring most organic substances. uPVC or fibreglass are suitable to monitor most inorganic substances, particularly in corrosive waters. Steel casing may be suitable for some applications. Where monitoring for organic material, bore casing should have mechanical joints to avoid contamination by solvents such as uPVC solvent cleaner and cement. Organic-based lubricants (such as hydrocarbons) should not be used on casing joints, drilling rods or equipment.

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All monitoring bores should have casing of at least 50 mm internal diameter. Bore casing of smaller diameter may be acceptable where used only for water level monitoring or suitably sized submersible sampling pump, or alternative sampling equipment is available. The bore casing should extend at least 500 mm above the ground surface, to prevent surface contaminants entering the bore. Alternative ground flush monitoring headworks should only be used where traffic or safety considerations require it. The bottom of the casing must be sealed with a cement grout or cap. Any overdrilling below the bottom of the casing should be backfilled with a sealing grout. Refer to Table 9.3 for further details.

down the annulus. Bentonite pellets should not be used above the water table, as they may not hydrate and seal the annulus. Refer to Section 10 for grouting details.

19.12 CENTRALISING CASING

The casing should be fitted with inert centralisers to ensure the casing remains centrally located in the borehole.

19.13 DEVELOPMENT
For monitoring bores, bore development is usually achieved by pumping, surging or airlifting. Generally, the following should be observed when developing bores: New monitoring bores should be developed once the bore has been completely installed and any bentonite plugs or grouting have cured. Prior to development, the depth to the bottom of the bore and the surface of the groundwater should be measured. During bore development, on-site measurements of water quality (including pH, temperature and conductivity) should be taken. Bore development should continue until: the water produced is free of turbidity, sand or silt a minimum of ten bore volumes of groundwater have been removed three consecutive field water quality readings produce similar results. Refer to Section 12 for further details.

19.9 SCREEN OR SLOTTED CASING

Screens should have the following properties: corrosion resistance to groundwater or expected contaminants screen aperture size suited to the monitoring purpose and aquifer type. Generally slotted uPVC will have at least 100 horizontal machine-cut slots every metre. Slot length should be about 50 mm. Slot aperture will vary according to the material size being screened, ranging from 0.2 to 1 mm. External filter socks may be used to exclude very fine soil from the casing. Refer to Section 11 for additional requirements.

19.10 GRAVEL PACKING

A gravel pack may be used to avoid siltation occurring when fine-grained aquifers are encountered. The bore annulus should be carefully and evenly filled to a level approximately one metre above the screened interval with a graded gravel pack. Refer to Section 11.4 for gravel pack design details.

19.14 DECOMMISSIONING BORES

The decommissioning of monitoring bores is important, especially in areas that may contain contaminants. The sealing process must ensure that there is no potential for cross-contamination between aquifers or from contaminants at the surface from entering the bore after decommissioning. Bores should be decommissioned in accordance with Section 18.

19.11 SEALING OF ANNULUS ABOVE OR BETWEEN MONITORED INTERVALS

A cement or bentonite seal at least one metre thick should be placed on top of the graded gravel pack to prevent water movement from the surface or between aquifers. A bentonite seal may be constructed using pellets slowly inserted

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MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR MONITORING BORE CONSTRUCTION

In addition to all other requirements in these specifications, the following are specific to monitoring bores. R19.1 Specification for construction and bore completion: The driller must be provided with a design or specification for borehole construction and monitoring bore completion in advance of the drilling program. This would include all the drilling techniques, material types and the development techniques. This should be supplied by either the client or the supervising consultant, or be stipulated in the bore licence approval to drill and construct the works. R19.2 Contaminants and likely depths: If the site is a contaminated site, the driller must be advised of the contaminants of concern, likely depth and concentrations in advance of the drilling program. This is a legal requirement under Duty of Care legislation. It is essential that the correct procedures are in place to optimise the drilling and bore completion and to protect workers and the local environment. This will be set out in the Site Safety Plan. R19.3 Unusual drilling results: If any unusual drilling results are obtained there should be immediate action to amend the drilling technique, specification or bore completion methodology to avoid human health or environmental impacts. R19.4 Cross-contamination: The cross-contamination of water-bearing zones must be avoided. This will apply to all types and depths of monitoring bores. It is particularly important where perched groundwater is present. It is critical that drilling does not allow any contaminants in shallow zones to percolate to deeper aquifers. R19.5 Decommissioning: All boreholes and monitoring bores should be properly abandoned once the project requirements are complete.

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APPENDIX
DEFINITIONS AND METRIC CONVERSIONS
The following definitions may be useful in understanding this document: ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Acidising The process of introducing acid into a bore or surrounding formations Air line A small-diameter pipe installed in the bore and charged with air for the purpose of measuring the water level Alignment The horizontal deviation between the actual bore centre-line and a straight line representing the ideal centre-line Annular space The ring-like space between the bore casing and the outer bore casing or borehole Aquifer A geological formation, group of formations, or part of a formation capable of transmitting and yielding significant quantities of water Aquitard A saturated, but relatively poorly permeable, bed, formation or group of formations that does not transmit or yield water freely Artesian bore A bore in an aquifer where the groundwater is confined under pressure, so that the water level in the bore will rise above the top of the aquifer and ground level (a flowing bore) Bailer A tube made from pipe with a valve in the bottom, used to remove cuttings or sediments from the hole Bore (well) A hole sunk into the ground and completed for the abstraction of water or for water observation purposes Bore efficiency (E) The formation loss (head loss required to produce flow) divided by the total drawdown observed in the bore. This quotient is expressed as a percentage (from Jacobs method) Cake thickness The thickness of filter cake deposited against porous media by the drilling fluid Capillarity The action by which the surface of a liquid, where it contacts a solid, is elevated or depressed because of the relative attraction of the molecules of the liquid for each other and for those of the solid Capillary fringe The zone immediately above the water table in which water is held by capillarity Casing A tube used as temporary or permanent lining for a bore Centraliser A tool used to centre the casing in the hole CO2 Carbon dioxide Coefficient of transmissivity See transmissivity Cone of depression (confined aquifers) The depression, roughly conical in shape produced in the pressure surface (piezometric surface) by a bore or bores pumping in a confined aquifer Cone of depression (water table) The depression, roughly conical in shape, produced in the water level by a bore or bores pumping in an unconfined aquifer

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Confined groundwater A completely saturated aquifer in which the upper and lower boundaries are relatively impermeable layers (aquitards or aquicludes). The groundwater is contained under sufficient pressure to cause it to rise above the aquifer if the top of the impermeable layer is breached. Confining bed A layer of relatively impermeable material underlying, overlying, or adjacent to one or more aquifers Consolidated formation Hard rock-material strata of sedimentary-igneous, or a metamorphic-type rock, which can be porous and permeable to provide an aquifer Contractor The party that enters into a contract or agreement with the purchaser to furnish the work and materials according to the provisions of this standard Decommissioned bore A bore, the purpose and use of which have been permanently discontinued Development The removal of sand and other fines (including drilling mud) from the aquifer immediately surrounding the bore and creating a filter zone around the bore that prevents further movement of aquifer particles into the bore Discharge The volume of water pumped or flowing from a bore per unit of time, expressed in litres per second. Drawdown The difference between the observed water level during pumping and the water level before pumping commenced Drilling fluid. A medium, typically composed of a mixture of bentonite clay and water, used to hydraulically remove the drill cuttings from the hole as drilling takes place Drive shoe A special steel collar, with a cutting edge, fastened onto the bottom of the steel casing to protect the lower edge of the casing as it is driven Effective size The sieve-size opening that will pass ten per cent of a representative sample of the filter material; for example, if the size distribution of the particles is such that ten per cent of a sample is finer than 0.45 mm, the filter material has an effective size of 0.45 mm Electrolyte A chemical that dissociates into positive and negative ions when dissolved in water, increasing the electrical conductivity of the water Filtration properties Ability of the drilling fluid to form a controlled filter cake on the wall of the hole under virtually static conditions Flowing bore A bore from which groundwater is discharged at the ground surface without the aid of pumping FRP Fibre reinforced plastic Gravel pack (filter pack). Granular material introduced into the annulus between the borehole and a casing or perforated lining to prevent or control the movement of finer particles from the aquifer into the bore Groundwater Subsurface water contained within the saturated zone Groundwater divide A line on a potentiometric surface on each side of which the potentiometric surface slopes downward in a direction away from the line

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Grout A fluid mixture of Portland cement and water of a consistency that can be forced through a pipe and placed as required. Various additives, such as bentonite, are included in the mixture to meet certain requirements GRP Glass fibre reinforced plastic Head Energy contained in a water mass, produced by elevation, pressure or velocity Heterogeneous Highly stratified materials consisting of non-uniform characteristics when interpreted on a vertical scale Homogeneous Materials having essentially uniform characteristics of composition, texture and appearance Hydraulic conductivity The rate at which water at the prevailing kinematic viscosity will move under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured perpendicular to the direction of flow, expressed in metres per day Note: This definition assumes medium in which the pores are completely filled with water. Hydraulic gradient The change in static head per unit of distance in a given direction Hydrogeological properties The properties of formations that control the movement and storage of groundwater Laminar flow Flow under conditions where forces due to viscosity are more significant than forces due to inertia Note: Laminar flow may be unsteady, but is completely free from turbulent mixing. Poiseuille flow is an example of steady laminar flow in a circular pipe. Liner A casing, screen or other device inserted into a larger casing, screen or open hole as a means of sealing off undesirable material or maintaining the structural integrity of the well O2 Oxygen Packer A device placed in a well that plugs or seals the well at a specific point. It is not acceptable to use materials, such as lead, that may be toxic Perched water Unconfined groundwater separated from an underlying body of groundwater by an unsaturated zone and supported by an aquitard or aquiclude Perforations A series of openings in a bore casing Permeability The capacity of a porous medium for transmitting water pH Index of acidity or alkalinity of water Piezometer A pipe in which the elevation of the water level or potentiometric surface can be determined. The pipe is sealed along its length and open to water flow at the bottom Plumbness The horizontal deviation (drift) of the bore centre-line from true vertical Potentiometric surface A surface which represents that standing or total hydraulic head Note: 1. In an aquifer system, it represents the levels to which water will rise in tightly cased bores. 2. The water table is the potentiometric surface of an unconfined aquifer Pumping level The water level in the bore when pumping is in progress

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Purchaser The party entering into a contract or agreement for the purchase of any materials or work to be performed in accordance with the provisions of this standard. A purchaser may or may not be the owner Recovery The difference between the observed water level during the recovery period after cessation of pumping and water level measured immediately before pumping stopped Safe yield The average annual amount of groundwater that could be extracted from a groundwater basin (or reservoir) over a long period of time without causing long-continuing reduction of groundwater quantity, quality and other undesirable bore effects Screen A special form of bore liner used to stabilise the aquifer or gravel pack while allowing the flow of water through the bore into the casing and permitting development of the screened formation by an appropriate process Semi-confined (or leaky) aquifer An aquifer confined by a layer of moderate permeability (aquitard) that allows vertical leakage of water into or out of the aquifer Sorting A measure of uniformity of grain sizes Spear point Generally a shallow bore drilled by simple methods (self-jetted, lowered in augured holes or driven) in unconsolidated sediments for groundwater extraction Specific capacity The ratio of the discharge to the drawdown it produces, measured inside the bore (L/min/m of drawdown) Specific gravity The weight of a given volume of material compared to the weight of an equal volume of water at a reference temperature under standard conditions Standing water level The level of groundwater standing in a bore uninfluenced by pumping in that bore Static head The height, relative to an arbitrary reference level, of a column of water that can be supported by the static pressure of the aquifer at a given point Storativity The volume of water an aquifer releases or takes into storage per unit surface area per unit change in head Note: 1. In an unconfined aquifer, it is normally referred to as specific yield. 2. In a confined aquifer, it may be referred to as storage coefficient. Telescoping A method of fitting or placing one casing inside another or introducing a screen through a casing diameter larger than the diameter of the screen Test hole Hole used only to obtain information on groundwater quality and/or geological and hydrological conditions Test bore Completed bore for pumping to obtain information on capacity, groundwater quality, geological and hydrological conditions, and related information Total dissolved salt The quantity of dissolved salts in a sample of water, expressed as mg/L Transmissivity The rate at which water of the prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient, expressed in square metres per day Note: Transmissivity is equal to the hydraulic conductivity times the thickness of the aquifer Tremie pipe A device or small diameter pipe that carries materials to a designated depth in the hole

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Unconfined aquifer An aquifer in which the upper boundary of the saturated zone is at atmospheric pressure Unconsolidated formation Loose, soft rock-material strata of sedimentary, igneous or metamorphictype rock, which includes sand, gravel and mixtures of sand and gravel. These formations are widely distributed and can possess good storage and water transmissivity characteristics. Uniformity coefficient A ratio of the sieve-size opening that will just pass 60 per cent of a representative sample of the filter material divided by the sieve-size opening that will just pass 10 per cent of the material. uPVC Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride Water table The surface of saturation in an unconfined aquifer at which the pressure of the water is equal to that of the atmosphere Zone of aeration The zone above the water table in which the interstices are partly filled with air, including the capillary fringe. Equivalent terms are 'vadose zone' or 'unsaturated zone'. Zone of saturation The zone below the water table in which all interstices are filled with groundwater (phreatic zone)

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

This standard uses the following conversion factors:
Unit
barrels US feet (ft) feet per second (ft/s) gallon (US gal) gallons per minute (gpm) gallons per second (gps) inch (in.) pound (lb) pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) pounds per square inch (psi)

Conversion Factor
x 158.9 x 0.305 x 0.305 x 3.785 x 4.55 x 4.55 x 25.4 x 0.45 x 16.02 x 6.89

Metric Equivalent
= litres = metres (m) = metres per second (m/s) = litre (L) = litres per minute (L/min) = litres per second (L/s) = millimetre (mm) = kilogram (kg) = kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) = kilopascals (kPa)

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APPENDIX
LIST OF REFERENCES
AS 15792001 Arc welded steel pipes and fittings for water and wastewater AS 13962000 Steel water bore casing AS 3518.1 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipes and fittings for pressure applications Pipes AS/NZS 1477 Unplasticised PVC (uPVC) pipes and fittings for pressure applications

AS/NZS 38791995 Solvent cements and priming fluids for use with unplasticised PVC (uPVC) pipes and fittings AS 39721997 Portland and blended cements AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing aggregates AS 23681990 Test pumping of water wells

Further information on drilling methods and applications, or on the design and construction of water bores, can be found in the following industry publications.

Drilling The Manual

Johnson's Groundwater and Wells

Available from:
Australian Drilling Industry Association PO Box 3020 FRANKSTON EAST VIC 3194 ph: (03) 9781 2229 fax: (03) 9781 2699 Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee PO Box 742 LANE COVE NSW 2066 ph: (02) 9428 3444 fax: (02) 9428 3555

Available from:
Australian Drilling Industry Association PO Box 3020 FRANKSTON EAST VIC 3194 ph: (03) 9781 2229 fax: (03) 9781 2699 Johnson Screens PO Box 85 VIRGINIA MAIL CENTRE QLD 4014 ph: (07) 3867 5555 fax: (07) 3265 2768

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APPENDIX
TYPICAL BORE TYPES

Figure C1 Monitoring bore with bentonite seal and backfill to surface

Figure C2 Gravel packed bore with casing cemented in place and gravel envelope terminated above the top of screen with gravel feed pipe

Figure C3 Gravel packed bore with telescoped screen, casing cemented in place and gravel envelope terminated above the top of screen

Figure C4 Naturally developed bore with telescoped screen, pumphousing casing driven or jacked into place, and the conductor sealed

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Figure C5 Naturally developed bore with inline screen

Figure C6 Naturally developed bore with telescoped screen, temporary casing driven or jacked into place, and the pumphousing casing sealed in to prevent contamination

Figure C7 Bore with open hole completion in consolidated rock and casing driven then either cemented or backfilled into place

Figure C8 Bore with telescoped slotted casing liner completion in consolidated rock and casing cemented in place either from shoe to surface or sealed at shoe

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Figure C9 Gravel packed bore completed in consolidated rock with casing cemented in place

Figure C10 Slotted casing or screened bore completion in an artesian aquifer where the piezometric level is above the ground elevation

Figure C11 Naturally developed non-flowing bore in unconsolidated formation where the hydraulic properties of the formations are different and need permanent separation

Figure C12 Naturally developed bore in unconsolidated formation where hydraulic and quality properties are similar and can be joined

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Figure C13 Permanent headworks for non-flowing bore with concrete pad and steel protecting pipe

Figure C14 Temporary headworks for non-flowing bore

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