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CHEMICAL SEPARATION OF INDUSTRIAL DUSTS
IN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
by
Omar Feroze Ali, B.Eng.
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graddate and Researh
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree'of
Master of Engineering_
McGill universirty,
/
DepartMent of Chemical Engineering,
.Montreal, Canada.
December, 1982.
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CHEl.fICAL SEPARATION OF INDUS TRIAL DUSTS lU ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
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ABSTRACT
This work the segregation of indus-
trial dusts in electrostatic precipita tors , The overall purpose was
to determine the minimum information needed on a dust and collection
, i
system to predici if segregation of components is possible and how
,
this could be enhanced, Bath laboratory nd industrial scale ESP's
were used.
,'f
The dusts studied were from a copper smelter, zinc smelter,
power plant and municipal incinerator, The dust was characterized using
an electron microscope withoanalysing capabilities, cascade impactor,
X-ray spectrometer and cyclone, Theoret1cal predictions of
component segregation were obta1ned with the Southern Research Institute
(SRI) computer model of ESP performance,
Sign1ficant se9regation was obtained only for the copper
smelter dust.
In aIl cases, however, the combined
wit:h the SRI predictions agreed weIl w1th the ESP results.

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RESUME
. ,
Ce travail porte sur la sparation chimique de
l'aide de prcipitateurs lectrostatiques. Le but
principal tait de dterminer minimale requise, sur la
poussire et le systme de collection, pour prdire si la sgrgation est
et comment elle peut tre amliore. Des lectro-
l'chelle de laboratoire et industrielle ont t utiliss.
Les poussires tudies provenaient du procd d'affinage
du cuivre et du zinc, d'une gnratrice de puissance et d'un incinrateur
Les poussires ont t caractrises l'aide d'un micros-
,cope lectronique, d'un contacteur en cascade, d'un spectromtre fluores-
cent rayon-x et d'un cyclone. Des prdictions thoriques sur la
sparation des composants ont t obtenues partir du modle SRI
(Southern Research Institute) pour l'valuation de la performance d'un
prcipitateur lectrostatique.
Une sparation significative a t 'obtenue, seule-
ment pour le cas de la poussire provenant de l'affinage du cuivre.
Cependant, dans tous les cas, la caractrisation des poussires combine
avec les prdictions du modle SRI , coincident avec les rsultats ob-
tenus pour les prcipitateurs lectrostatiques.
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Hi
e author has the greatest pleasure to acknowledge his
sincere and to Ilthe following people.
Pr fessor R.J. Munz for his advice, guidance and finan-
[
q
cial support thro ghout this research. He was very helpful.
g
oin
9
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Dr R. Salcedo whose help and advice got this research
1
1
MI M. Ross, MI. M. Harrigan, Mrs. M. and
Mr. M. Leroux, of the .McGill Institutf of Occupational lIealth and Safety.
for their help.
MI. J. Dumont who, as usual, .,-Ias always very helpful.
Mrs P. Hyland for typing the
<fi
My P rents and famiIy for their love, support and con-
tinuous encouragerne t.
My wife, Rani, for her love, and support
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ABSTRACT
RESUME
AClCNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIS T OF TABLES
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
..
1
l
II
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
III
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
\_ .. -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
" ..
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

Corona Generation
Particle Charging
Field Charging
Diffusion Charging
combined Field and Diffusion Charging
Particle Collection
Introduction
Theoretical Migration Velocity
Efficiency Equation
The SRI Electrostatic Precipitator
Performance Computer Model
General Description
Experimental Verification
,
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Observed Solid-Solid in ESP's
Power Plants
zinc and'Lead Smelters
Iron and Steel Industry
Cement Industry
Aluminium Production
Municipal Incinerator
Co
iv
i
Hi
iv
viii
xiii
1
4
4
4
5
5
7
9
11
11
11
13
14
14
17
21
21
21
21
25
25
(l 2B
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CHAPTER
CHAPTER
(
3.2 .1
3.2.8
.
3.3
3.4"
3.5
IV
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
v
5.1
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.2.1
5.2.2.2
5.2.3
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.4
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.6.3
5.6.4
5.7
5.7.1
5.7.2
5.7.3
5.7.4
5.8
5.8.1
5.8.Q
5.8.3
5.8.4
1
Petroleum Industry
Copper Smelters
Pu1p and Paper Industry
Separation Efficiencies
Mechanisrns of Solid-Solid Segregation in ESP's
Conclusions
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
General Description
Particle Feeding
Vibrating Screw Feeder
Wright Oust Feeder
Safety Precautions
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Introduction
Dust Sampling
General Considerations
Sampling Trains
Outlet Sarnpling Trains
Inlet Sampling Trains
Anderson Cascade Impacter
Chemical Analyses
Atomic Absorption Spectrephotometer
Sample Preparation
Instrument Conditions

Particle Collection Experiments
Procedure for Typical ESP Run
Treatment of Experimental Data
Electron Microscope: Hicro Analysis
Considerations
Energy Dispersive X-ray Analyser (EDAX 707A)
Specimen Preparation
Particle Analysis
X-ray Diffractometry
Principle of Operation of the X-ray
Diffractometer
Sample Preparation
Instrument Conditions
Identification of Chemical Compounds
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
Principle of Operation of the X-ray
Fluorescence Spectrometer
Sample Preparation
Instrument Conditions
Identification of the Elements
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Page
30
30
31
31
33
34
36
36
38
39
39
41
42
42
42
42
42
42
43
43
45
45
46
46
46
47
47
51
52
52
53
55
55
56
57
57
58
58
59
60
60
61
61
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CHAPTER
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CHAPTER
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VI
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3'.4
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.3.7
6.3.8
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5
6.4.6
6.4.7
6.4.8
6.4.9
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.5.7
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3
VII
7.1
7.2
OUST CHARACTERIZATION, LABORATORY SCALE
EXPERIMENTS AND SIMULATION
Introduction
Choice of OUst Used
Copper Smelter (Noranda) Dust
Introduction
Chemical Composition of the Bulk Sample
X-ray Diffraction
Precipitation of Noranda Oust:
Global Collection Efficiencies
Computer Simulations (SRI Model:
Lab Scale ESP)
Elemental Collection and Separation Effi-
ciency as a Function of ESP Length
Scanning Electron Microscope
Conclusions
lndustrial Zinc Smelter Dust

Chemical Analysis
X-ray Diffraction
Cyclone Analysis
Precipitation of the Overall OUst
Theoretical Prediction: SRI Model
Comparison of Theoretical and'Experimental
Collect!on Efficiencies .
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Conclusions
Hydro Power Plant Fly Ash

Cyclone Analysis
of the Overall Oust
X-ray F1uarascence
Scanning Microscope
with Values Reported by Curtis (1977)

Municipal Fly Ash
Introducti'on
X-ray Fluorescence
Conclusions
SRI MOOELLING OF THE NORANOA OUST
IN AN INDUSTRIAL ESP : COMPARISON
WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Introduction
Simulation Resu1ts for Present Operating
Conditions
vi .1
,
62
62
62
64
64
65
65
67
69
74
79
86
90
90
91
91
93
95
103
107
112
114
118 .
118
119
119
122
, 127
129
130
132
132
132
135
136
136
139
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CHAPTER
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
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7.3
7.4
7.5
VIII
8.1
8.2
A
B
"\;i.mulation Resu1 ts for Increased Dust Load-
ings: Loading Increases to 27.1 91m
3
and ~ 2 7 g/m
3
Effect of Varying Current on Collection
Efficiency
Comparison of Theoretical Predictions
and Industrial Data for the Noranda Dust
Conclusions
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
Recommendations for Future Work
TABLES
COMPUTER OUTPUT
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vii
145
154
155
161
164
164
168
169
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Figure
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

3.2
4.1
4.2
5.1
6.1
6.2
LIST OF FIGURES
field Unes for charged
particle in electnc field, McDonald et al
(1978)
Electrostatic tator system mode 1 ,
Nichols et 'al (1970)
flow diagram of tator nodel
computer program, Gooch et al (1977)
(a, b) measured and ldeal1y
.cula ted collecti on e ff
in the laboratory Goach et al
(1976 a, b)
size segregation of mataIs,
retort stack, Jacko et al (1975)
Inlet distnbution ta Baghouse from
arc furnace, Lee et al (1975)
diagram of facility,
Salcedo (1981)
Schematic of Wrlght dust
Salcedo (1981)
Schematic diagram of Minicyclone, Sa1ceda (1981)
OVerall size of Noranda dust at the
ESP inlet (Anderson Ml< III Cascade Impactor)
Elemental indi 'lJ'ldual size of the
Noranda dust at the ESP inlet (Anderson .MK III
Cascade Impactor)
viii
10
15
18
19
26
27
37
40
48
70
71
Figure
6.3
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6.4
6.5
6.7.
6.S'
6.9

6.10
, 6.12
6.13
(
E1ementa1 individua1 size distribution of the
dust at the ESP inlet (Anderson MK III
Cascade Impactor) " Salcedo (1981)
')
Cumulative e1emental collection and separation
efficiency of the Noranda dust as a function of
ESP length
Cumulative elemental collection and separation ef-
of the Noranda dust as a of
ESP Length, Salcedo (1981)
Scanning electron micrograph of a group of small
part1cles (X 10,000): Noranda dust
Scanning electron micrograph of a large particle
by srnall particles (X 5,000):
N9randa
Scanning electron micrograph of the particle shcwn
in Figure 6.7 .with the rnapping for Cu super-
imposed: Noranda dust
Scanning electron micrograph of the
in Figure 6. 7 wi th the mapping for
imposed: Noranda dust
!3ackground mapping fO'r Cu
(
pal.ticIe shown
Pb super-
Scanning micrograph of a group of small
particles (X 50,000): Mapping for Pb: Noranda dust
scanning electron micr9graph of the sarne particles as
in Figure 6.11: for Cu: Noranda dust
Energy ve analysis of X-rays ('EDAX) of a large
particIe: Noranda dust
ix
72
76
77
80
80
81
81
1
82
85
85
1
88
Figure
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
6.18
6.20
e'
6.21
6.22'
6.23
, ,
,. ,
Overall size distribution of the zinc smelter dust
at the ESP inlet (Anderson MK III Cascade Impac-
tor) Runs No. 2 and No. 3
Elemental size distribution of the zinc smelter
dust at the ESP inlet <tnderson MK III ascade
Impactor) Run No. 2 (i
Elemental size distribution of the zinc smelter
dust at the ESP inlet (Anderson MK III Cascade
Impactor) Run No. 3
Theoretically predicted collection efficiencies
versus dimensionless length for Zn at various
values of di-electric constant: Zinc smelter dust
Theoretically predicted colleltion efficienfies
versus dimensionless length for Fe at various
values of di-e1ectric constant: Zinc smelter dust
OVerall collection efficiency of zinc smelter dust
versus dimensionless length: Runs No. 2 . and
No. 3
Cumulative elemental collection and separation ef-
ficiencies as a function of ESP, length: Run No. 2
Cumulative elemental collection and separation ef-
\
ficiencies as a function of ESP length: Run No. 3
Scanning electron micrograph of a group of partic1es:
Mapping for irone zinc smelter dust
Scanning electtqn micrograph of the same particle as
in,Figure 6.20: Mapping for zinc. Zinc smelter dust
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97
100
101
106
108
109
ho
111
113
113

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Figure
6.24
,I
6.25
6.26
6.27
6.28
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
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o
Ertergy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDAXi of a
bunch of particles: Zinc smelter dust
Ove raIl distribution of the power plant
fly ash at the ESP (Anderson MK III as-
cade Impactor)
,.,
. .
Overall collection efficiency of power plant fly
ash versus d1mens10nless length
Scanning electron micrograph of a group of particles
(X 10,000): Power plant fly ash
Energy dspers1ve analys1s of X-rays (EDAX) of' a
large .and a smal1 particle super1mposed
Plots of collection and separation efficiency versus
3
length in Section 1: ,20.9 g/m
(3.04 gr/acf) 53kV, 170 mA
Plots of collection and 'separation efficiency versus
lengt? in Section Il: 20.9 g/m
3
[3.04 gr/acf) 44kV, 290'mA
Plots of collectJ.on, and separation efficiency versus
3
length in Section Ill: 20.9 g/m
[3 . 04 gr/acf) 42 kV, 390 mA
Plots of and separation efficiency versus
length for aIl three sections: 20.9 g/m
3
[3.04 gr/acf)
Plots of collection and separation effic1ency versus
3 '
length for aIl three sections: 27.1 g/m
[3.94 gr/acf)
Plots of collection and separatin efficiency versus
1ength for aIl thre sections: 62.7 g/m
3
(9.12 gr/acfJ
xi
115
123
124
128
128
140
141
,142
143
147
148
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Figure
'"
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
"
0
, .
..
Plots'of separation efficiencies versus
length for all three sections at different dust
loadings
Plots of efficiency versus
length 1n Sect10n l
voltage of 53 kV
(3.04 gr/acf]
for different currents at a
3
toad1ng is 20.9 g/m
Position of sampling points along the industrial ESP
of Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) versus
length for the indus trial data pnd theoretical pre-
dictions: Noranda dust
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156
157
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160
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Table
3.1 .
6.1
6.2
6.3
./
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
,
LIST OF TABLES
Comparison of the composition of some eLements in
samples of the precipitator and post-precipitator
fly ash: Ontario Hydro
Elemental composition of Noranda dust feed
Chemical forms of the elements: Noranda dust
Experimental conditions and global results for
Noranda dust
Size distribution of copper and (lead, zinc and cadmium):
% undersize
and SRI elemental collection efficiency
for Noranda dust
'Non-Cumulative collection efficiency for Noranda dust
Ratio of lead/copper concentration in large particles:
Noranda clust
Ratio of lead/copper concentration in smalt particles:
Norancla dust
Elemental composition of the zinc smelter dust
Chemical forms of the elements: zinc smelter dust
o
Results of cyclone analysis on zinc smelter dust
Experimental conditions and global results for
zinc smelter dust
Comparison of the elemental composition of the precipi-
tated zinc smelter along the plates of the ESP,
.with the feed composition
xiii
23
1
66
66
68
73
75
75
84
87
92
92
94
...
98
102
Table
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
6.18
\ 6.19
6.20
6.21
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
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Size distributions of copper, zinc and iron: Zinc
smelter dust: Cumulative % undersize
Values of di-electric constants simulated in SRI
mode1: Zinc sme1ter dust
Comparison of the concentration of iron/zinc in a

group of partic1es: Zinc smelter dust
Results of cyclone analysis on Ontario Hydro Fly Ash
Experimental conditions and global results for the
power plant fly ash
Non-Cumulative collection efficiency for the power plant
Uy ash
Ratio of peak heights (in1et/outlet) for different ele-
ments in the two dust samples: Ontario Hypro Fly Ash
Ratio of peak heights (inlet/outlet) for different ele-
ments in the two dust smples from the Nunicipal
Incinerator Electrostanic precipitator

Input data for computer modelling in industrial ESP:
Noranda dust
..
Particle Siz distribution of copper and (lead, zinc and
cadmiUm) entering and leaving Section 1: Noranda Dust
Comparison of dust layer-thickness (mm/min) at dif-
ferent dust loadings
Ratio of current carried by ions to particles for the
dust 27.1 g/m
3
and 62.7 g/m
3
xiv
104
116
116
120
121
121
125
134
137
144
150
153
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Table
7.5
7.6
A-l
A-2
A-3
A-4
)
A-5
Concentrations of copper at ~ h midpoints of the three
electrical sections! Noranda dust
Concentrations of lead, zinc and cadmium at the midpoints
of the three electrical sections: Noranda dust
Physical dimensions and operating conditions of the
laboratory and indus trial ESP needed for the SRI
computer simulation
Copper concentrations along length of the industrial ESP
Zinc concentrations along length of the indus trial ESP
Lead concentrations along length of the indus trial ESP
Cadmium concentrations along length of the indus trial ESP
..
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xv
159
159
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
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CAAPTIR l
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
The control of partlculate emisslons from large-scale
indus trial processes has been an lncreasingly important ptbblem sinee
the latter part of thlS century. In many cases, these emissions may
contaln valuable component(s) which, if recovered, can have signlfieant
process values.
Electrostatlc preclpitators (ESP)J whlch are high effi-
ciency gas-solid separation devlces, have been used ta control emissl0ns
from power plants and many processing lndustries as weIl as in the re-
covery of valuable materials like gold and silver from ffilnts and of eopper,
lead and Zlnc from non-ferrous smelters (White, 1963).
In most cases, when the precipitated dust lS collected in
bulk, lt has ta be subJected ta further enrichment (hydro or pyrometallur-
gical technlques) before lt can be of any Slgnlflcant process value.
Several cases have been reported, however, ln WhlCh segregation of different
\
chemlcal specles has occurred along lndustrlal ESP's. If the ESP lS
divlded up lnta sectlons and the enrlched dust collected separately,
further processlng mlght be less expenslve Slnce the quantity of dust
treated wl11 be smaller.
It was only recently, however, that the segregatlon
mechanisms ln ESP's were fully lnvestigated by Salcedo (1981). He con-
cluded that the dust praperties that affect solid-solld segregatl0n are
partlcle Slze dlstrlbution, electrlcal reslstivlty, and dlelectric constant

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and the ESP operating variables are air velocity, applied voltage and
corona current.
The overall purpose of this study to determine the
minimum information must be available on a dust and collection
system in order to the degree of segregation and how might
be enhanced. The may be a characterization
of the dust the may include full scale
trial experiments supplemented by computer
The specifie objectives of work were as follows:
(1) To identify dusts where
of valuable elements
(2 ) To several promising dusts and de-
termine if further 1n a laboratory
scale ESP worthwhile. f'
1
'.
(3) To measure the and effi-
ciencies of the chosen dusts Along the length of
the precipitator at room temperature.
1
(4) To compare the results obtained w1th
those uS1ng the Southern Research
tute (SRI) computer model.
Il
(5) To carry out industr1al scale experiments and simu-
.,
lations where possible.
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(6) To compare the simulation$ obtained in objective
(5) to actual results obtained by
and mass measurements in precipitators
where p'ossible.
./
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The ESP laboratory at McGil, is equipped with a laboratory
l
!
scale having a high voltage supply of 40 kV (maximum) and
i
1,
a air velocity through the of 5 rn/s.
,
was used to the segregation of the LndustrLal dusts
chosen.
Chapter II the fundamental theory of electro-
precLpitatLon and the Southern Research Institute (SRI) computer
... .)
!l'Odel. Chapter III is a literature review of solid-solid segregation in
ESP's. Chapter IV descrLbes the experimental and Chapter V
the experimental teqrniques used in this work. Chapter VI presents and
discusss experLmental results of dust characterLzation and laboratory
scale experiments and presents theoretical SRI predictions of collection
and separatLon effLciencLes of the dusts used, where applLcable
. Chapter VII the results by simulating the of
. ' the industrLal Noranda dust in an Lndustrial scale ESP, the SRI
model.
,
hapter VIII summarizes the conclusions of the work and
/ gives recommendations for future work.
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CHAPTER II
.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION
2.1 Introduction
The process of electrostatic precipitation can be divided
into three main steps:
1. Generation of a corona and associated electric
field.
2. Particle charging.
t
1
,.
3. Particle collection.
;
In industrial precipitators, a fourth step, partic1e removal
is'also of major
These processes have recent1y been reviewed in great detai1
1
by Sa1cedo (1981) and only the most important concepts are repeated here.
2.2 Corona Generation
White (1963), defines corona as the 1oca1ised breakdown of a
gas which does not propagat; ta form a streamer; a streamer i5 a 1uminou5
filament of heavi1y ionized gas extending from the electrode sur-
,
face. The breakdown strength of air, at standard conditions, is about
(
(
. (
5
..
If a high enough voltage is applied to a pair of electrodes,
with one having a short radius yf curvature, very high fields can exist
in the immediate of that electrode resulting in the formation of

a corona. Bath positive and negative coronas are possible.
The negative corona is used more often industry because
of its greater and current values at lower voltages.
The ions gQnerated by the corona are responsib1e for charg-
."
ing the dust
2.3 Partic1e charging
The mechanisms or particle charging by ions in ,an electric
.fie1d are field and diffusion charging and were discussed in
detail by Crawford (1976), Oglesby et al (1970, 1975,1978), Robinson (1971),
(1951,1963) and Sa1cedo (1981). Both field and diffusion charging
ac> simultaneously w1th field being dom1nant for part1cles with a
mean mass diameter (MMD) above about 1-2 and diffusion charging pre-
for MMD below 0.2 ; both mechanisms are important in the
..
intermediate range.
2.3.1 Field Charging
A brif review of the mechanism of field fo1lows
1
1
!
l
(
Where
(1. 602
" Q
[N eb. Q /4 E J [1 - Q/Q J2
o l. sos
(N) is free ion density, (e) is the elementary charge
o
-19
x 10 (Q) is parti91e charge after charging time
and (Qs) is saturation charge given by
=
3TI[K/K + 2] c E D
2
o avg
Where (E ) is the average field in,the interelectrode spacing.
av
7
(2.1)
(t)
(2.2)
For an initia11y uncharged particle, the above equation
/>'
integrates to
Q = Q t!(t+T)
s
(2.3)
Where 1 is the charging tlme constant, i.e., the time ta achieve 50%
saturation charge, given by
2.3 .2
4 E IN eb,
a 0 l
Diffuslon Charging
1
(2.4)
Oiffusl.on charging (MMD partl.c1es < 0.2 um) exists wlthout
the applicatlon of an electrl.c'fl.eld. are two mal.n theories re1ating
.
ta the chargl.ng of the partic1es by dl.ffusl.on: Liu et al (1977, 1978)
,
8

suggest that the charging occurs by a diffusion process, in which the ions
move continuously towards the particle along a concentration gradient.
Liu et al (1967, 1968), Murphy et al (1959), Smith et al (1975,1976) and
White (1951, 1963) consider charging as a probabi1istic process governed
by the kinetic theory of gases.
In the derivation of the c1assical diffusion charging
.
equation, the assumptions were made:
The particles are spherical,
the ions which reach the surface are re-
tained by induced charges with 100\ attachment
efficiency,
the externa1 field i8 only considered as a source of
ions and does not influence the charging process.
Whi te (1963) de ved the following quation uslng the above
assumptions:
.
dt
2 ...
[e rr D V N /4J Exp{-Q /2rr E D kT)
o e 0
(2.S)
For an initia11y uncharged particle, equation (2.5) integrates into the
fo1lowing
Q
2
p2n E D kT/e] tn(l + D V N e t/8 E kT)
o 0 0
(2.6)
l'
1
1
1
1 .
1

(}

..
!
j
'"
.

f
..
,
(
..
....
;
"'
9
where k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-
23
JK-l)
.;.tA'

(8 kT)1TM)1/2 V is the ion mean thermal velocity given by V ..
e-
where M is 'the mass of a singte ion,
e' ls the electronic charge ('1.602
x 10-
19
Coul)
olt'

D is the parti cIe diameter,
:
-
N ls the free ion dens:i!ty,
0
E is the permittivity of vacuum (8.85 x
10-
12
Fm-
l
)
.0
.. .
2.3.3 Combined Field and Diffusion Chtr9ing
In the intermediate range of particle sizes both charging
mechanisms contribute significant charges. The c1assical diffusion
charging shown above the charges acquired by the
,
fine particles (D < 1 - 2 by a factor of or three (Hewitt (1957),
Liu et al 1978), Penny et al (1957), Smith et al (1978) and Van
Bush et al (19BO,and it holds particles down to about 0.1 diameter.
Liu et al (1968) postulatd that the particle surface is
4ivided into two separate regions with charging regimes1 field
oceurs when the angle of approach of the incoming ions relative to
the undisturbed electric field (8) is less than a eritical value e
o
(Figure 2.J.).

,.
.
Saturation by field charging occurs when the external field
the presence of the di-electric partiele) equals the self .
. .
1
:
l
.1

t
i


j
J
d
f
,
...
"
10
(
/
..

:-
-

NEGATIVE IONS

9
0
..
0
,

..
"
f
e
,
1
f
NEGATIVEL y CHARGED PARTICLE
=
..
Figure 2.1. ,Electric field lines for partially h ~ g e ~ particle
in e1ectric field, McDonald et al (1978)
1
..
i'
,
,
(
, .
-
Il
field from the particle. In the particle surface defined beyond this
critical angle 8
o
diffusion charging allowed at a rate defined by
the classical diffusion charging equation.
2.4 Particle Collection
\
2.4.1 Introduction
1
The basic step that oocurs after particle charqing ia the
movement to and collection of the dust particles on the passive
electrdes. 1 These steps were reviewed in detail by Salcedo (1981)
\.
industrial precipitators are single stage units wher
the field for charging is the sarne as the collection field.
2.4.2 Theoretical Migration Velocitx'
If the charged particles are subjected to an eleotric fielp,
they migrate ta the collection plates;' the terminal velocity attained ls
....
referred to s the migration velocity.
To derive a theoretical expression for this velocity, the
following assumptions were made:
The fluid is quiescent,
the particle charge d,.oes not.
..
... 'i' .. --,".---.

"
!
1
1
t
i
1
1
1
1,

... )
12
negligible added mass, rotation and history
effects,
negligib1e gravit y and buoyancy effects,
the Reynolds number of the is very small
0.5) ,
the parti1es are spherical
\
..
Oglesby et al (1970, 1978) and (1963) derived the
fo11owing equation based on the above assumptions
where

M dw '" Q E - (3n )..1 0 w / c)
dt
M is the ma5S of the particle,

..
w is the particle ve1ocity' relative to the sta-
tiona:ry fluid,
E is the' e1ectric field strength,'
o is the partiele diameter,
C i5 the Cunningham correction factor and i5 given by
McDonald (1978a) and Theodore et al (1976) as
C - l + 2>"/D [-1.26 + 0.4 Exp(- 0.55 0/),,)]
r
where i8 the mo1ecu1ar mean free path in air given by Smith et al
(1977) as
(2.8)
(2.9)
. :
1
..
13

/
1
.2-.4.3 Collection Efficiency Equation
A collection effieiency equatlon, based on the followlng
assumptions', was derived by White (1963) and oglesby et al (1970, 1975,
1978):
'.
Turbulence causes the particles to be uniformly dis-
tributed in any cross-section (in industrial ESP's,
the gas flow is always
the gas velocity i5 uniform, except for a boundary
layer near the wall,
particle motion in the boundary layer at the
collection plates is governed by stokesian flow,
there are no multiparticle effects,
the particles are mono-disperse spheres,
the of partiele-gas and partie le-ion collisions
..
'\
can be ignored,
there are no disturbing effects sueh as erosion, re-
entrainment, uneven gas flow or baek-corona.
The following equation, which 15 the Deutsch-Anderson
(
collection equation, 15 then obtained.
14
fi .. 1 - Exp [- W L' 1 v SJ
o avg
(2.10)
where n i5 the collectlon efficiency of the ESP,
L i5 the length of the ESP,
V i5 the average gas velocity,
avg
S lS the Wlre to plate spacing,
,
"
'W saturation migration velocity.
0
2.5 The SRI Electrostatic Precipitator Performance Computer o d ~ l
2.5.1 General Description
A brief overview of the SRI computer model will be given
here. More details are given by Salcedo (1981).
The electrostatic precipitator 15 a complex system, in which
the various sub-systems (corona generation, electric field, particle charg-
ing and collectlon, dust properties and non-ideal effects) are closely lnter-
related. The systern's analysls of ESP's were first worked out by NichaIs
et al (1970) and Oglesby et al (1970) at the Southern Research Instltute
(SRI), Alabill1la; (Figure 2.2) At that tlme, a rellable theory of electrlc
fields ln parallel type ESP ,s with the presence of space charge was not yet,
available, and the model included the theoretlcal relatlonships derlved for
cylindrlcal (tubular) ESP's. No corrections were included in the original
model to acco,unt for non-ideal effects, which may either increase or decrease
,.
,
J
1
1
i
J
!
t
1
l,
1-
.........
..
IlIRE RADIUS
COlLECTOR RADlUS
III RE ROIJ6HHESS
SECOIIllARY ElII SS1 OH
AVAlAIICHE COfFFI C 1
RADIATIOH

ElECTIOEGA TI VE GAS
GAS VElOCITY
VElOCITY OISTRIBUTlOH
COLLECTION AREA
VOlIJ'{ FLOW
APPLIED VOlTAGE
GAS DEHSITY
10/1 lIlB lU TY
WHdJUmmOH
(Oum 1 011 ARa
VIRE RADIUS
COllECTOR RAD1 US
PARTICLE SIZE
DIELECTRIC COICSTAHT
TIl'{
TEIftRATURE
OUST LOO
GAS AND OOST
1011 VELOC ITY
-
-""
-
CORONA
6EHERATIClII
NEGATIVE
IOH
FORl'oATlOH
ELECTRI(
FIELD
PARTICLE
CHAR6ING
2.2
---" ........................ .. ..
. ....
RES 1 STlVIll
1-- VAl! 10 IIMlS. IQ.ECIUI
ElfCTIIC
GASVE OCITY
AIID ClIAf 1 CAl.
FIELD IN
DEPOSIT PARTICLE
IDAIRII;
FORCE
ELECTRI(
III ND
PARTlClf
COlLECTlOH
"
t
1--
PARTICLE
REENTRAIIt'EHT
OOST
1
l
1--
ROlIVAl
1-- SPACE CHARGE
:
GAS AND IJICOLLECTED IlUST
COllECTED DUST
OOST LOAD
1
1--
PlATE [{S16ft PARTlClf SIZE
HOPPER SIGN OUST PROPERTl[!
GAS VELOC III TEIl'ERA TURE
GAS DISTRIMUJ!
RAPl'IIKi FoRCE
RAPP1116 INTERYAl
E1ctrostatic precipitator system model, Nichols et al (1970)
;-..
"1
1-'
VI
\

(
the collection and charging was the only charging mechanism con-
r
sidered. The model was updated in 1978 to correct the above short-
comings.
The main characteristics of the model are as follows:
"
.'
The electric field at the plate, which influences the
migration veloclty of the charged particles, is esti-
mated by two methods: lf the current voltage charac-
terlstlcs are known, the numerical technlque of Leutert
et al (1972) lS usedi if t,he current voltage characteris-
tics are unknown, th en the numerical technique of Mc-
Donald et al (1977) is used.
The partlcle charges are either by the theory
of Smith et al (1975, 1976) or by summing the charges
acquired by field and diffusion charging (see Salcedo
(1981
The collection efflciency is estimated by using the
Deutscr equation. Since thls'equatlon is only valid
for single sized particles of cons tant charge, this
problem is overcome by applying the Deutsch equation to
small lncrements and to representative mean sizes
of Slze classes in the partlcle size distrlbution histo-
gram. The global efficiency is then calculated by
weight averaging the fractional efficiency over the en-
/
tire size distributions.
,
1.
1
t
\
1
..
,
1
i

f

(
(
17
Provisions are included in the model ta correct for
non-ideal effects such as gas sneakage, non-uniform
velocity distribution, re-entrainment and particle
near corona wires or particle concentration
gradients.
Figure 2.3 from Gooch et al (1977) shows a simplified flow
J
diagram of the computer program, which is given in by McDonald
(1978a) Baslcally the program is structured inta three major lOOpSi
the outermost converging on the global efficiency, the next loop runs over
each length increment while the inner loop runs over'each particle size.
Also shown in Figure 2.3 is the part of the program which introduces theore-
tical and empirical corrections for non-ide al effects but which was not
used in this work.
2.5.2 Experimental Verification
In order tp compare the theoretica1 predictions of their model
to actual data, SRI conducted a series of tests in a
laboratory-scale parallel plate ESP similar to the one used thlS work.
Non-ideal effects, such as re-entrainment, were absent although a small
amount of gas sneakage could not have been prevented.
theoretical
et

al (1976a, b), Figures 2.4 a, b reported that the
and experimental data show goOO agreement for a wire
,
i

l
.

{
(
Figure 2.3.
1
i
1 Read d.Ua J
t
no of part .n eaeh l'l! bandl

-'
1Ci""1C. no. 01 len!!th IOClements and 'la/inclement from est.mate r---
ICalc. spa,e chaIlle due to palt.culat! based on 'Ioest.m.te f--
. rcilc. reduced flJ! on d!ns.ty for pirt.cle challZlnli calc 1
+
ICompute average f.eld for charg.n!l
t
1 Cau E f.eld. compute field at olate 1
t
lOlIi chlrlll!. clile charllll! on uch s.le part. f--

for uell S'le f,om W fOI !.ch uzel
t
1 Clic. no 01 part remO'/ed .n uch s.ze]
t
1 Som _.ghl or pan.cles removed 1
t
sile dIstribution to s!!Ct.on l
r for nch part Slll
(Cale. MMC and _."hl coile<:ted lor th., Ineremenil
1 Repe.t for eaeh .ncrement
(Check overall compuled "0 Wlth "0 estolNte. repea! .f reQu.red 1
1 Repe,! t.1I conve,!!eS :!: 0 05$
LCalc cffe.:t.ve 'Ne for each S'le l
t
1 .lc:. rate parameter 1
,..- - - - 'f - - - --
l (;li:.: facter 'vr ias velccltv
t
IClIC. correct.on fllctor 101 reentlalOment-snelluge]
+
IJ,;!lc r.ducea effect.ve We
t
1 ClItc. r,,(juced eHIC.eiCYl
T Repea! fOI each part. Slze
; / 1 Clic reduced eff.c.eiiCYl
1 ___ _
non-fal Prin! resulls
effects
-,
f
1
1
1
_01
Simplifi.ed flow diagram of precipi tatar model
computer program, Gooch et al (1977)
la
..

f
!
1
1
_____ : l

-----
,,-
.......
"
"
( a)
99 9. i i i l '1 l 1 JI i i i
998
;1.99
)0-
u
Z
w
Q98
1::
w
z
0

u
w 950
J
J
0
U
900
800
100
600
01
o e 26 9 nQ/cm2 ,_ ;ll7 m/r.ec
1 1 1
(b)
l ' 8 M/cm2 ,_ 'll7m/$ec

a J' . 'mm'.K /
99.9 1 1
.
. 1 A . 1
S=6.35 cm ore
,
NEGA TIVE CORONA
, J 1/
99.8
GAS VElOCITY - 1 46 mlsle 1 -428.0
o EXPERIMENTAL.
1 - 107.5fJAlm
2

"<Il.
OEXPERIMENTAl. 24.0
1- 268.BpAlm
2
>-
.t t etteal
u
99
AEXPERIMENTAl..,
z
j - 4Jo,.tA1m
2
w 200
a'{fo
H
- THEORETICAl
D / u..
S=9.5 cm
. /
u..
.1 I;e
w 16.0
Z
0
95
././ 1 e 0

12.0 ./ 1 U
.!
w
90 ..J
..J
.-y 0
8.0
e'"
U
80
4
.-......
6Ot-

-14.0
30
-'\
100
PARTICLE OIAt.lETER. Ml,omtll,.
il.1 1.0 10.0
GEOMETRie MEAN DIAMETER, J,lm

2.4 (a, b)
Experirnentally rneasured and.ideally calculated fractional
collection efficiencies in the laboratory precipitator,
Gooch et al (1976 a, b)

-E
u
>-
....
u
0
..J
w
>
Z
0
....

a::
C!)

... '."1 ri ... ....... "' .. ....... -...
"-"l

...
J
r;.
20
to plate spacing of 6.35 cm at a current density around
-4 -2
5.4 x 10 Am
For both higher and 10wer current densities and higher wire to plate
spacing (9.5 cm), the agreement worsens, with the experimental efficiencies
being higher thar the theoret1cal predictions except ae the low current
density of
-4 1""2
1.1 x 10 AIn
McDonald (1978b) reported resu1ts with trends similar to
Figures 2.4 a, b; the conditions reported were a wire to plate spacing
of 12.7 cm, an average air velocity of
-1
0.976 ms and an average current
density of
-4 -2
2.58 x 10 Am'.
Salcedo (1981) also used the SRI model to predict the
collection and separation efficiencies of
(a) mixtures of pure compounds,
(b) an industrial copper smelter dust,
in a laboratory scale ESP. Good qualitat1ve agreement and fair to good
quantitative agreement was reported between the SRI predictions and the
experimental separat10n efficiencies, in the absence of re-entrainment,
for mixtures of pure compounds. For the industrial copper smelter dust he
reported that the model underpredicts the collection of the large particles
and overpredicts the collection of the small particles. However, if there
is no re-entrainment, the prediations are good.
On the basis of the above tliscussions, it may be said that
the model is useful for predict1ng collection and separation efficiencies in
the absence of re-entrainment and other non-idea1 effects.
1
1
t
1
21
(
CHAPTER III
LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Introduction
The segregation of in ESP's is the enrichment of
sorne component(s) (relative ta the other component(s) in the flue gas)
in the dust collected by the precipitator. Sorne major instances of
ESP's are examined. A more detailed review is given
by Salcedo (1981)
n
3.2 Observed SaUd-SaUd Segregation in ESP' s
3.2.1 Power Plants
The fly ash produced from coal and ail fired industrial
boilers accounts for about 60% of total ESP installed capacity (Petter-
sen, (1980 Typical major elements found in the fly ash fram, the mOFe
cotmnOn, coal flied plants are Al, Fe and Si while typical minor elements
are Ti, Mg, Mn, S, Ni, Cu, Na, K and unburned C.
..
The alumina in the fly asn (15 - 30% Al
2
03) is
,
by Eisele et al (1979) as a possible source for metallurgical grade alumina
and by Mehrotra et al (1974) as a source of aluminum and titanium. The
vanadium content of the fly ash, although SInall in most cases, can he of
major importance ta Canada steel industry if enriched.
,
22
(
The six generating stations at Ontari'o Hydro bum coal
for the production of power. Table 3.1 below compares the composition
of sorne elements in the precipitator and post-precipitator fly ash when
U.S. 'bit1.1rrUnillUS coal is burnt. The enriclunent ratio, defined as the
ratio of the composition of an element in the precipitator and post-
precipitator ash, i5 also shown.
lt is apparent from Table 3.1 that a little elemental segre-
gation occur within the ESP sinee the enrichment ratio is different fran
unit Y in all of the cases; calcium has the highest enrichment ratio and as ,
such segregates more than the other elements. Vanadium also shows seme
segregation the post-precipitator a5h having more vanadium.
The elemental weight percentages, uq,ed in the calculation
,
of the enrichment were obtained by analysing the tion of the
individual element in the bulk preeip1tated dust. Much higher values of
enrichment ratios are possible, if the dust is collected in sections, since
preferent1al precip1tation of elements can occur along the length of the
ESP No data on the segregation of elements wi th1n the ESP was ob-
tained from Ontario Hydro.
Ontario Hydro 1S now burning coal from other geographical
locations and appreciable quantities of two Western Canadian coals, Luscar
and Byron Creek, are now being mixed U.S. bituminous coal before be1ng
burnt. This could alter the compositions. No reports on the
combustion of thes'e coals were obtained from Ontario Hydro.
(
__ .J._,, __ _
1 1
------,-
1
,
1 Ci
1 \ "
!
1
l
, .
( ..
~
\
, ,
.
, .
\
TABLE 3.1
COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF SOME ELEMENTS IN SAMPLES OF THE
PRECIPLTATQR AND POST-PRECIPITATOR FLY ASH: ONTARIO HYDRO
/
. .
1

,
" {
"
-.----_._---_ .. -
23
,
1
1.,
1
1
,
1
1
1
.'
24 .
Mills tl966}' .report.ed that the fly ash produced' ftom the
combustion of coke (obtained from processing Venezuelan crude contaminated
with 130 ppm of V) at Petrofi'na in Montreal contained about 15\ by
This' vanadium rich fly ash was recovered by an electro-
static precipitator and the ash treated in bulk (method developed by
Petrofina) to vanadium pentoxide, of 99\ purity, at a rate of
455 to 545 kg/day (182.5 ta 219 tons/year). The capacity of the tret-
ment plant was 1354 kg/day (547.5 tans/year). No studies on segregation "
of vanad.iUIfl within the precipitator were reported.
At that time, the estimated Canadian need for vanadium was
135 tons/year of contaminated vanadium and which was weIl in reach of
Petrofinai Venezuelan crude is no longer being processed by Petrafina and
the process has been abandoned.
An alternative fuel for indus trial boilers is the bitumen
-residue of the Athabasca tar sands. Sirianni et al (1972), Stemerowicz et
al (1975) and Vezina et al (1965) showed that the ash produced after the
combust-ior of the bitumen fraction is rich in Ni('" 0.66%) and V('" 1.4\).
J
Petro1eurn coke, a by-product of the Suncor refinery at Fort
McMurray, fuels the coke-fired steam generator at the complexe Prokopuk
et al (1981) showed that the fly ash produced after the combustion of coke
contains 5i0
2
(14.3\), A1
2
0
3
(8.4\l, 1;'e
2
0
3
(2.7\), Ti0
2
(0.8\), P
2
0
5
(0.1\),
CaO (2.6%), MgO (0.7%), 50
3
(0.1\), Na
2
0 (0.5\), K
2
D (0.5\), NiD (0.4\) and
the are in weight percent at a 1imestone/fuel ratio
.
r'--'
"
1
.
, .
j
,
) ,
\.
"
,- f
25
: J
Qf 0.1. The most valuable element in the f1y ashiis is
produced at a rate of 2100 kg/day.
tion of the elements within the ESP
...
3.2.2 Zinc and Lead Smelters
No data are reported on the segrega-
.
"
'1
1
J,
Eatough et al (1974), jacko et al (1975) et al
(1970) reprt:!ed that the emissions are rich. ,in Zn and Pb with minor
"
>
'J
elernents being . Fe, Cd, Cu, Au and Ag A typical trace metal segrga-
tion by size is given by Jacko et al (197?) for particulate emissions from
a zinc facility and in F1gure '3.1; the more volatile
e1ements Pb, Zn and Cd are concentrated in the smaller particles and
the more refractory copper is evenly distributed with,particle'size. No
on elemerttal segregation has been reported.
3.2.3 Iron and Steel Industry
The gaseous effluents produeed from the 1ron and steel in-
dus tries are very rich in particulate iron oxides and account for about
10\ of the total

ESP instal1ed capacity (Pettersen (1980; other
meta11ic elements are Al, Zn, Pb, Mg and Mn.
-,
. '
" ,
r '
The size composition dependence ... fr.j,Jou,mL1l-.... a.un _______ _
electric arc furnace is given in Figure 3.2, Lee et al (1975) Only
Ni, Cu and Sb exhibit widely differing partiele size
,
1
, "
1
, j
1
r
!
J!
\
1
1
r
1
1
"
"
-:
'"
(
..
Figure 3.1
(
u1
1000
500
r"
200
Ir
100
!O
20
--\
.
..;
10
-
5.0

.;
2.0
J
1.0
/ .
0.5
CMlmlum \
D.2

-
0.1
0.05
"'<Coppet
--_.r'
0.2 0.4 0.6
l ' 2
"
6 10 20
diIIMw, mlCl'onl
Particle size segregation of metq1s, vertical
retort combUstion stack, jacko et al (1975)
<)
26
l
.1
,f
"
'.

1
J
1
1
l'
-.....-1It'"'''''T .. ....
, \
, ... _ ...... ...
-
'"

..
1 - Fe
- - - - - estmated
:2 - V
3 - Cr
4 - NI
.,nL-_ \...-
Il - Ml

Il - Cu
7 - Pb
--

- -
- Sb
Il:: 1 """-
-1. __
- -

l! 1
\.

--
-
-
- -..!..
\ - '\.'\"- 4
--
-
--
'\
"'
-
1
2
1
6.01 1 il sb 10 l '4I"S lia . =')l99
8
Figure 3.2. - Inlet distribution to baghouse from arc furnace,
Lee et al (1975t
--s:.
- ...__ ...--, ..............
...... .." ... c- ............ ___ ..
{"l

'" --..J
Ir

.-
\
28
Ni and Cu being smaller and Sb being larger. Since the size dis tri-
butions of Sb and were only estimates, it is unlikely that good
separation due to size i5 this dust.
Maczek et al (1980) report the recovery of Zn and Pb
(as oxides) by an ESP, downstream of baghouses, in
steel making fumaces. An enrichment of 2.5) in the concentration of
lead and zinc the precipitated dust that in the dust leaving the
electric furnaces was obtained.
3.2.4 Cement Industry
The atmospheric emissions from cement kilns account for
about 10% the total ESP installed capacity (1980. Re-
covery of the dust is important since its chemical composition is the same
as the kiln feed; 41% CaO, 19% Si0
2
, 10% Fe
2
0
3
, 10% (K
2
0 + MgO + Na
2
0)
with the balance being volatiles or combustiles (Oglesby et al (1970.
The are the most volatile components and concentrate

downstream from the other cement components, Oglesby et al (1970). A
possible for this dust collection size dif-
ferencesj the alkalis are the most volatile components and
of these followed by condensation results the formation of very fine
particles.
1
1
29
3.2.5 Aluminum Product10n
The alumina, used as feed in the reduction cells, is com-
posed of two S1ze fractions w1th the finer fractions contaminated with
Fe, T1, P, V, Zn and Ga, andDthe coarser useful fractlons rich in alumina.
Selective precipitation by the ESP (Bohm et al (1976)) a110ws the finer
fract10ns to be collected dmmstream of the COarser fractions; the finer
fractions, which a're enriched in the contaminants, may then be dlsposed of
without affecting the contaminant level in the reduction cells.
A similar segregation, due ta S1ze, was a1so reported by
Hanna et al (1972) who showed that the emissions from Soderberg reduction
cells show a segregation of par\iculate fLuqrides which are concentrated
in the larger particles.
'3.2.6 Municipal Incineratir
The effluents from a municipal incinerator plant can be rich
in Cu, Al, and Zn and even possibly V, Ag, and Au as reported by
GabIer (1979). In the Unlted States, approx1mately 9.3 million dry tons
of municlpal sewage sludge are generated annually of wh1ch 35% is inc1nerated.
ESP's are used ta control emisslons from munlclpal lncinerators. No
data are currently avallable in the literature on observed segregation in
this application.
\
\
,

1
1
l
1
l
1
30
3.2.7 Petroleum Industry
ESP's are widely used to recover catalysts dust from
discharge streams of catalyst regenerators; these dusts are produced by
the attrition of the catalyst (Oglesby et al (1979. No data are avail-
able in the literature on observed segregation in thlS application.
3.2.8 Copper Smelters
Emisslons fram copper smelters are rich in Fe, CU, Zn,
Pb ffild Cd with various other minor like As, Bi, Ag and
Au (Davis et al (1979), Eatough et al (1980), Tayler (1976) and Oglesby
et al (1970
Tayler (1976) showed that the dusts from bath a copper re-
verberatory fumace and copper converter consist of two size
"the coarser fractions (> 1 consist of the more refractory elements
while the more volatile elements 1 were concentrated in the finer
fractlons. Tayler attributed the existence of these two Slze r.anges ta
different mechanlsms of particle formatloni the coarser fractlon was most
probably formed by the dlsruptlOn of the melt by gas bubbles or mechanical
stirring while the finer fractlon was probably formed by volatilization
and subsequent condensation in the gas stream.
Salcedo (1981) conducted experiments on samples of a copper
reactor (Noranda) dust in a laboratory scale ESP. He also showed that
...


5
i[
1
"
C
,
(

"'
r

.'
(
i
j
31
there are two size distributions: the coarser particles were rich in
copper and the finer patticles were rich in lead, zinc and cadmium.
Selective precipitation was reported with the finer particles collect-
ing downstream of the coarser particles; a maximum separation efficiency
(difference in collection efficiencies) of about 30% was reported between
Cu apd (Pb + Zn + Cd) with the concentration of Cu in the collected
dust being higher than in the feed.
3.2.9 Pulp and Paper Industry
Emissions from this industry account for about 7% of, the
total ESP installed capacity (Pettersen (1980. The dust collected
downstream of the recovery boiler (Kraft process) is recycled to the pro-
cess without any (Oglesby et al (1970. Since the entire
dust stream is recycled, enrichment will have no process advantage.

Separation Efficiencies
Ta quantify the segregation of elements in industrial dusts,
an efficiency equation has to be developed. Schulz (1970) proposed that
a suitable efficiency equation should:
(1) be a function of feed and products amounts and
composition,
j
j
i
1
,
1
,
1
-
(
32
(2 ) be applicable to any physical separation
of one material from another and be adaptable
to multi-component systems,
(3) be, zero for mere sampling operations and 100%
for a perfect separation,
(4) . he independent of the means used to accomplish
the separation,
(5) be independent of economic considerations,
(6) be the same for tne separation of the first con-
stituent fram the second as for the separatiort of
the second from the first when a two compone nt
feed is treated in one operation,
(7) be physically
vay
that can he
visualized.
Schulz (1970) reviewed about 25 different commonly used
J
concentration and separation eff1ciency equations and concluded that the
separation efficiency (E) equation, defined by
s
E
s ..
1J
R.
1
R.
J
(3.1)
where R. and R. are collection efficiencies of components i and j ,
1 J
best obey aIl of the above criteria. This was used by Salcedo

(
i.
1
i
l
33
(1981J and was also used in this work to quantify the segregation of the
elements in the industrial dusts studied. It should be pointed out that
many other separat10n efficiencies could be calculated fram the raw data;
e.g., relative volatility defined as the ratio of the concentrat1on of
element X in the post-precipitator dust to its concentration in the pre-
cipitated dust.
3.4 Mechanisms of Solid-Solid Segregation in ESP's
Salcedo (19Bl), investigated the separation of of
pure compounds (CuO, MgO, Ti0
2
,AI
2
0
3
) in a laboratory scale ESP. The
following conclusions were reported:
(1) The dust properties that affect separation are
particle size distribution, di-electric constant
and resistiv1ty with parti cIe size being
most important.
(2) The ESP operating variables that affect component
segregation are air velocity, applied voltage and
corona current.
(3) The separation of mixtures of pure compounds can be
predicted fram the behaviour of the individual species,
when fed separately to the ESP only in the absence
of appreciable re-entrainment.
j
\
\
,
J
l'
1
1
1
(
34
3.5 Conclusions
The discussion on the solid-solid segregation of indus-
trial dusts can be into three categories:- (i) observed
segregation in ESP's, (li) Lndustrial dusts where segregation is
likely, and (111) industrLal dusts where segregation is unllkely.
(1) Observed in ESP's
Component segregation of the effluent dusts
cesslng industries has been observed in lndustrial ESP's.
of
Oglesby
al (1970) report the segregation of the alkalis from other cement consti-
1 tuents the dust fram the cements kilns and Bohm et al
(1976) report the collection of the finer contaminated particles down-
stream of the coarser alumina rich particles the aluminum reduction in-
dustry.
Salcedo (1981) reported the segregation af the coarser (Cu)
rith particles from the fLner (Pb + Zn + Cd) rich in the
Noranda copper srnelter dust with a laboratory scale ESP.
"
(ii) Industrial Dust where Segregation is likely
The emissions from a smelter are rich in (fine
particles) sorne other elements beLng iron, copper and cadmium. An
enrichment of zinc in the precipltated dust rnay have considerable process
value.
(

1
l'
,
35
The chemical compositions of the fly ash produced from
municipal incinerators depend on the nature of the materials burnti
recovery of valuable components i5 possible.
The fly ash from power plants has Al, Fe and Si as
major elements, with vanadium as a minor element. Upgrading the vanadium
cohtent may be of major importance.
(iii) Industrial Dust where Segregation 1s unlikely
The particle size distributions of the emissions from the
t
iron and steel industry indicate that component segregation due ta size
1s unlikely.
\;
,
..
v
\
,
1
1
}
1
.f
1
..
..
\
36
CHAPT ER IV

EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
4.1 General Description
K single stage, wire and plate type laboratory scale ESP,
designed and bui1t by Salcedo (1981) was used in this study.
A scnematic diagram of the ESP is shown in Figure 4.1
A blower (Canada Fans size 6Cl, SS wheel) with a 3 HP, 1750 rmp mator
and operating at 3590 rpm de1ivers 0.32 Nm
3 s-l
of air against
1950.9 N/m
2
(20 cm w.g.) The air then flows through the venturi meter,
a flexlble hose (to the propagation of vibration to the ESP)
and adjustab1e guiding vanes (to straighten the flow) before entering the
_.
ESP ,.
A plexiglass section, 36 cm long and housing a series of
sampling ports, is located in the ESP before the dis charge electrodes.
The plexiglass the ESP from the ductwork and allows
visual observation. Sampling was done from the central port, with a cas-
s
cade impactor, for particle'size distribution analysis.
The ESP itself consists of two stainless steel plates,
(1.25 m and 1.28 m long) in series and on each side, giving a total ESP
,
length of 2.53 mi the plate ta plate spacing is 16.2 cm. The fifteen
corona wires are straight and cylindrical with a'diameter of 1.57 mm.
The wires and collection plates are 38.5 cm high giving a total collec-
,/
1
\ .
'l
----,-- , --- ~ - - - - - - - - - - -
"
=: FLEXiBlE
?-HOSE
"
r
~
~
,.
SAMPLING
,PORTS \
PLEI\Uv1
CHAM3ER
o
o
o
o
o
MAI'OI.1ETERS
VENTURI
8>
, HV PONER
r---
..
COfO>JA
WIRES
r-------I
'
0 C0
HV DISTRIBUTION BAR
VALVE
...
OMPRESSOR
VACWM
PLMP

~
Figure 4.1. Schematic diagram of experimental facility, Salcedo (1981)
~ . _ - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
r1

y
...
MAf\Ov1ETER
"
lN
--J
,
~ I
1
1
, .
,
1
1
\
1
1
. -.
'1
(.
(
1 1

)
38
(
2
.
.
tion area of ]",,95 m and a total "discharge wire length of 5.78 m
The power supply to the ESP 15 a single OC source
(Del Electronics Corporation, Model 40 TC 5-1, Vernon, N.Y.) with
continuously variable output secondary voltage from 0 - 40 kV and a
#
. maximum rated secondary current at 5 mA The power supply is protected
from current transients with a fixed overload relay of 120\ of its rated
...
current. Two meters, with precisions of + 0.8 kV and + 0.1 mA indi-
, cate the values of the secondary voltage-current.
,
\
The ESP plates are fastened to the supporting tables by
hingesi this eliminates dust collection hoppers and the associated non-
ideal effects such as gas sneakage and dust re-entrainment fram the hoppers.
The plates are closed with 12 "c" clamps,' evenly spaced, on each side and
sealed with aluminum tape ta prevent air leakage.
The plates are cleaned by brushing the precipitated dust
into an appropriate receiver after each rune
The effluent air then passes into an aluminum converging

section, 31 cm long, .before aluminum piping 15.4 cm (1.0.) which
exi ts i t into the atmosphere.
4.2 Particle Feeding
The vibrating screw and the Wright dust used
in this work are described below.
1
______ __ ___________ __
c
-
!
(
..
1
J
39
4.2.1 Vibrating Screw Feeder
This feeder is used for feeding non-free frowing dust
,
with partic1e sizes larger than 5 in diameter.
The basic components of the screw feider are a brass dust
reservoir, a screw connected to a variable speed mator and a
!ine.
The dust flowrates fram the screw feeder can be varied by
controlling the screw rotational speed or by changing the screw itself
..
A small vibrator at the base of the dust reservoir prevents bridging of the
dust and al10ws for a more uniform feedrate. Dry compressed air i5 used
as the medium and static" charge build-up were reduced by grounding
the feeder and using copper conveying 1ines. The dust was fed to the
venturi throat to provide good dispersion.
4.2.2 Wright OUst Feeder
()
A Wright dust feeder (L. Adams, Minerva Road, London, England)
used t feed the industrial Noranda dust and the indus trial zinc smelter
dst the venturi throat.
3
The dust is packed carefully into a (40 cm of
effective volume) and scraped off by a blade at a rate controlled e
by a constant speeq and a variable gearing mechanism as shown in Figure
i
. 1
i
1
1

1
,
\
l ,
. 40
~

head
wheel
ln
constnctlon
Impact Ion plate
.ar + dust out
Figure 4.2. Schematic diagram of Wright dust feeder, Salcedo (19811
('
; .
~
l
:-
, ,
. '
,
1
1
,
1
1
, '
l-
i
"
!
!
1

i
1
<
t=-
"

l' . ,
41
4.2 Careful p'acking of the dust is necessary sfnce tao loose a pack:
ing will produce non-uniform feed rates while tao tight a packing will
prevent the scraping blade fram operating correctly causing the feeder
ta stop. The dust feed rate ls controlled by changing the gearing
ratio, the packed plug surface area or bulk density.
The operating instructions of the feeder (Adams (1964
...
were carefully followed.
4.3 Safety Precautions
Due ta the hign voltages of the power supply that energizes
the ESP, special attention had ta be taken (Salcedo (1981 ta ensure
proper and safe operation of the equipment. The ESP and power supply
shared a common ground with the building transformer which supplied the
primary current to the high-voltage power supply. AlI ground connections
, made v:i,a eight gauge stranded copper wire ta a conunon copper bus bar,
1
was the n' connected ta the ground at the building transformer. The
high voltage aluminum distribution bar was covered with a plxiglass shield,
which was in turn covered with grounded sheet metal. AlI sampling probes
were grounded.
During each experiment, the current measured at the ESP
plates was compared to that rneasured at the power supply.
,...
Any differences
between the two indicated an uncontrolled current leak through faulty in-
sulation and the experiment was discontinued until the was corrected.
i
1
f
,
,
1
, .
!.
1
(
1
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42
CHAPTER V
EXPERIMENTAL, TECHNIQUES
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the equipment and procedures used to
the industrial dusts studied in this work. A review of a
typical run using the ESP is also outlined.
5.2
5.2.1
Dust Sampling
General Considerations
Sampling of the dust was performed at both the inlet and
" out let of the ESP to provide information on partiele size distributions
and chemieal compositions from whieh the elemental and fractional efficien-
cies could be calcula ted.
5.2. 2 Sampling Trains
5.2. Outlet Samphng Train
..
The bas1e components of the outlet sampling train are a
6.35 cm (1.0.) samp11ng nozzle (Nutech Corporation, Durham, N.C.), a filter
holder and appropr1ate f11ters, a mercury manometer rotameter for pres-
and flow measurements and a vacuum pump prov1ded w1th a bleed valve
for flow control. Flow ontrol 1S 1mportant to ma1ntain isokinetic
sampling at the samp11ng po1nts.
1
,
1
,
,
.
The sarnpling nozzles are tapered for minimum flow distur-
banee and have a single 90
0
long radius bend; the probes were kept
as short as possible ta minirnize dust in the lines. The
filter holder has a domed inlet for un1form dust distribut10n and accom-
43
modates 47 mm d1ameter filters. Dur1ng the exper1mental runs, sorne dust
collects on the walls and it is essential that this dust
be brushed onto the filter paper to avoid serious errors sinee very small
mas,ses' ("1. mg) are measured.
5.2.2.2 InIet, Sampling Train
The basic eomponents of the in let sampling train are a
7.49 mm (I.D.) nozzle made of stainless steel with a tapered inlet and a
single 90
0
long radius bend, an Anderson MK III inertial cascade impactor
(Anderson 2000 Ine., Atlanta, Georgia), a manometer and rotameter for
pressure and {low measurements and a vacuum pump provided with a bleed
valve for flow control.
5.2.3 Anderson Cascade Impactor
An Anderson MK III cascade impactor was used ta rneasure
the size distribution of the particles entering the ESP.
This is a size fractionating device, Working on the principle
of inertial impaction described by Marple et al (1976), Newton et al (1977)
1
1
1
1
44
Ci
and Ranz et al (1952). It is cornposed of a series of nine perforated
stainless steel plates (stages) rnounted on a frarne. The stages are
arranged order of geornetrieally deereasing hole sizes, with the holes
in adjacent stages arranged off center. A sample of the airborne dust
is at a known flow rate and the particles report to different
stages aecording to their aerodynarnic size.
The first stage is only a jet stage and the la st stage only
a collection stage. Glass fiber collection substrates were used to reduce
taring weights and the probability of dust bounee-off and re-entrainrnent .
The glass fiber substrates and were dessicated overnight under
vacuum, prior ta weighing bath before and after an experirnental rune This
eliminates any error caused by differences in humidity.
o
The cascade impactor eut-points were calculated by the follow-
lng equation:
(5.1 )
Where (D, P, C, V) are respectively the values of impactor
cut point, partie le density, Cunningham correction factor and jet velocity
-.at_standard (1) andactual (2) Since the
__ fator_involves the particle diarneter, the above relation has to be solved
by trial and error. of the dust was rneasured by a
Pynorneter.
1
45
c
5.3 Chemical Analyses
Chemical analyses of the dusts collected in the ESP and.
in the sampling trains at bath the inlet and out let of the ESP were
performed bYe Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) ,
5.3.1 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
The basic components of the AAS are:
a li9ht source wh1ch emits the spectrum of the e1e-
ment of interest, usually a hollow cathode lamp.
An absorption ce Il in which the atoms of the sample
to be n l y ~ e d are formed by thermal dissociation,
usual1y in a flame.
A.monochromator with exit slit to select the appropriate
absorption 1ine.
A detector ta measure the intensity of radiation,
an amplifier with display instruments for the readout,
of the absorption values',
t
1
The AAS used was a Perkin-Elmer 403 dual beam AA
Spectrophotometer.
,
(
,
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1
r
1
1
"
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J
,

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,-
1


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1
1
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46
Sample Preparation
Small amounts of the dust mg) were first dissolved
"'-
in a acid medium and then diluted to the approprlate concentra-
I
tions: . The analyses were always dane at dllutlon levels at whlch Beer's
law is appliCable; above thlS level, absorbance becomes a non-llnear func-
tion of concentration. The maximum recommended concentrations for the
various elements at WhlCh Beer's law was valid were obtained from the AA
Spectrophotometer application manual. Precise welghings and dilutions are
very important since very small concentrations are used.
5.3.3 Instrument Conditions
The AA Spectrophotometer was operated with both air - C
2
H
2
.
flarne and N
2
0 - C
2
H
2
flame, depending the elements to be analysed.
The air-acetylene flame was much more convenient than the N
2
0 - C
2
H
2
flame since the latter can easiIy forrn explosive mixtures and cause build-
up of carbon at the burner tip. Selection of the approprlate flarne as
weIl as slit setting and wavelength for each element analysed wa9 obtained
from the lnstruction manuai.
..,.
5.4 Minicyclone
.This device was used to separa te bulk samples of dust
two Slze components due to differences in size and/or density.
'!.
J
,
j
1
L
c
..
47
Figure 5.1" shows a schematic diagrarn of the minicyclone.
The cyclone's cutpoint diarneter (dpso), is a function of its
as weIl as the particle density and air flowrate; for an air flowrate of
15 and a particle density of
3
3 g/cm , the cutpoint is 1.55
The dust was fed using extra dry compressed air (at a flowrate of 15
as the carrier gas. The dust-laden air stream enters the cyclone and
segregates by virtue of differences in particle S1ze, and/or density, into
the catch and overflow. Samples of both the catch and overflow were
chemically analysed (by AAS) to determine if enrichment of any elements
occurredi a higher conentration of any element 1n either catch or over-
flow over the feed composition is of elernental separation due
to size differences.
Since elernental segregation in the ESP occurs bath due ta
differences in size of the particles and electrical properties, it is
reasonable ta assume that elemental segregation in the ESP 1s possible if
segregation was observed in the cyclone
5.5 Particle Collection Experiments
5.5.1 Procedure for Typical ESP Run
The outlines the procedure carried out for a
typical experimental run using the ESP:
f
~ .. , ~
t
t
~
t
48
.. G
air a.rt
.0
2
1
1
1
r,
T
1
\
0-1.0 cm
1
1 ........ .L
20 1
1
QIa
1 1
l
L ___ -J
0:D
20
l
0-2 .. 54 cm
1
i
Figure 5.1
Schematic diagram of minicyc1one, Salcedo (1981)
1
l
\
,
,i
(l) The precipitator was thoroughly cleaned to remove
traces of dust from previous experiments. The
plates were then closed and sealed.
FI..
(2) The cascade impacter substrates (8), outlet filter
'\.
and backfilter were dessicated, weighed and then
IOOunted on the cascade impacter, filter
\
holder and backfilter holder respectively.
(3) The dust to be used was dried in an oven at 10SoC
(4)
for about 24 hours. The dried dust was then packed
into the container of the Wright feeder.
The blower was turned on and the equipment allowed
J
to run for 30 minutes, after which the high voltage
supply was turned on. The voltage, current and air
flow rate were recorded. The vacuum purnps at the
<ft
entl of the outlet and inlet sampling lines were turned
on.
(5) The compressed1air to the feeder was adjusted to the
correct flow rate. The feeder was allowed to run
for 5 minutes until the steady, after
which the outlet line of the feeder was connected to
the feeding port of the
./
49
1
t
t
f

,
1
1
(
(

".
1
(6) Sampling throughout the outlet duct was done by
moving the sampling nazzle ta another location
every 6 a complete traverse had 8
sampling locations. Isokinetic conditions were
maintained) by adjusting the autlet valve.
(7) At the end of the experimental, run (can be 96
- ,
minllltes for 2 traverses or 144 minutes for 3
traverses) the feeder was turned off followed by
switching off the vacuum pumps. The blower and
high voltage supply were then turned off simul-
taneously to prevent 105S of the dust collected
along the plates.
(8) The cascade impactor substrates, outlet and back-
filter were then dessicated and reweighed. The
dust was collected along the plates by dividing it
into four sections along the ESP length. The
dust collected from each section was weighed.
(9) Oust from the cascade impactor substrates, outlet
filter, backfilter and dust collected along the
" ..,;"
e plates of the precipitator ws ana.lysed using the AA
Spectrophotometer.
'.
"
..
. '.
. ,
50
/
t
1
....
o
. i
1\
)
, 1/
l ,
[
51
,
Treatment of Experimental Data
, The experi.mental data were analys1 as follows:
"
(1) The amount of dqst fed wag found by making a mass
(2)
balance on the, ESP
Input
(from feeder)
g dust collected
along the plates
and 'bottoms
+ dust leaving
precipitator
The dust leaving the precipitator was found by samplinq
the outlet gas stream.
..
The collection efficiency Along the plates was found
by d1viding the weight collected Along the by
(5.2)
the total weight of dust entering.
. '
This was plotted as
a function of the dimensionless length of the
. 'tor.
,
(3) The cumulative percentage of the inlet dust (by weight)
having a size less than the cutpoint Along each stage of
the impactor was found and plotted versus the cutpoint of
each stage. The mean mass diameter was found at the 50\
point of this plot.
(4) Chemical analyses of the dust ort the stages
.,
to a cumulative plot of elemental size distribution.
1
, .
,
___ -_ ........... _---
"

t

,
.... ___ ....... ___ _

....
(
(
(5)
52
"
The mean mass diameter Qf partiales could
be determined fram these plots.
The elemental collection and separation efficiencies
versus the dimensionless length
(!)
L
of the ESP
were plotted.
Elemental Collection
Mass of A Collected
X 100
:&
Mass of A Fed
efficiency (E ) of A (S.3)
!
c
.
Elemental Separation = Collection efficieftcy of A
efficiency of A from B Collection efficiency of B
(5.4)

(6) The SRI computer model was th en used to predict the
collection and efficiency by inputting the
elemental particle size distribution and other electfi-
cal properties of tpe dust, e.g., di-electric constant
etc., as well as the operating conditions of the ESP.
5.6 Electron Microscope: Micro Analysis
General Considerations
The industrial dusts were analysed a scanning electron

microscope (Model,No. JE OL CXlOO) in conjunction with an EDAX 707A
,energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyser to simultaneously de termine

.:.,.
1
..
c

..
the ll'Orphology and localized elemental analyses of the dust particles.'
The electron could be used either in the scanning or trans-
mission mode to provide magnification ranging from 90 to 200,000 in
the transmission mode and from 10 to 200, 000 in the s<;=anning mode.
The analyses were conducted by Mr. Mike Ross from the Instltute of Oc-
cupational"Health'and Safety of McGill
5.6.2
The operation of the EnAX is explained below.
\
Energy Dispersive X-ray Analyser (EDAX 707A)
When a concentrated bearn of high-energy
,
focussed on the surface of a specimen in the electron microscope, sorne
electrons are backsaattered while others penetrate the specimen. The
53
penetrating electrons excite atoms which, in turn, emit X-rays. The wave-
lengths of the X-rays are characteristic of the elements in the sample and
the nurnber of X-ray photons is proportional to the concentration of a speci-
fic element.
The energy dispersive analyser directly measures the energy
of X-rays in the following manner: x-rays from the specimen pass through
a collimator into a crystal of pure silicon, treated with lithium 50 that
there are no impurities or in the crystal structure that can
trap electrpns. As the X-rays enter the silicon, each one loses its energy
by creating photo electrons which ionize the silicon atoms. since each
- ,-- - ---_. __
d
l
1
Cl
E
1 .
,
1
\
54
c ionization takes 3.8 electron volts of energy, the final result is
a number of ionized silicon atoms (and the number of free electrons)
equal to the x-ray energy divided by 3.8 (and thus linearly proportional
to the energy of the X-rays). The electrons are then collected in 1ess
than a rnicrosecond by an applied bias voltage and integrated by a field
effect transistor prearnp1ifier before the next X-ray enters the detector.
The output of this amplifier i5 a series of steps, with the height of
l
"
each step proportional to the energy of the corresponding X-raYe Both
,.
the silicon wafer and the field effect transistor are cooled to liquid
f
!
ternperature to reduce electronic noise in, the output signal.
This signal is further and differentiated in a low noise arnpli-
fier to produce a string of pulses, each one corresponding to an X-ray and
with a height proportional to its energy.
These pulses are measured and counted by a multi-channel
1
analyser that functions by allowing each pulse to charge up a srnall
capacltor and rneasure the tirne required to dis charge lt again with constant
current. The resulting tirne is used as an address to store a count in a
spectrurn in the rnernory of the device. Since time is proportional to
pulse height and thus to X-ray energy, the result is the build-up of counts
\
versus X-ray energy. This spectrum is then presented for using
a video display unit. The energies at which peaks oceur in the spectrurn
are readily identified with the e1ernents that produce the x-rays, thus
giving an elemental analysis of the specimen. Relative peak heights can
be cornpared 50 as to give a quantitative deterrnination of the various e1e-
(
r
,
,
t
1
l
1
i
.
t
;
l
J
f
1
{
(
S5
mente present. Alternatively the X-ray intensity at a single wavelength
(and thus for one e1ement) may be mapped on the scren to give e1ernenta1
concentration as a function of location.
5.6.3 Specimen Preparation
technique.
Specimens were prepared by the P.V.A. - carbon extraction
Smal1 portions of powder specimens were placed in 15 cm
3
centrifuge tubes to which disti11ed water was added. The powders were
then dispersed, first by hand shaking and then by the use of an ultrasonic
bath. The concentration of the suspended material in the tubes was ad-
f '1
justed by eye, diluting ,lith distilled water.
The suspension,was then filtered using 0.1 nucleopore
f il ter paper. Slices of the filter paper were then carbon cated using
a Polonn vacuum evaporator (7100) These sampl.es were then mounted on
copper electron microscope grids
.
5.6.4 Particle Analysis
The particles were viewed under varying degrees of magni-
fication (maximum magnification is 2 x 105 on transmission). Chemical
analyses of the particles were performed as followsl

\
1
r
)
,/
(
,
56
)
(1) A specifie particle location was chosen and scanned
over a11 X-ray energies to determine the relative con-
centration of the various elements present by analys-
ing the X-rays emitted using the EDAX.
(2) The entire field of view was scanned at a given X-ray
energy to determine the concentration of that e1ement
as a funation of location.
The elemental composition of the different particles
obtained by using the above technique. The relative concentration of an
element in different partic'le sizes as weIl as different elements in the
same particles can be compared by comparing the peak heights obtained
f rom the EDAX.
Photographs of the particles were also superimposed on the
X-ray mapping. Hence,by looking at the different X-ray mappings for the
same particles, the relative proportion of the different elements was ob-
tained the higher the concentration of dots, the higher the elemental
compos i tion.
05.7 X-Ray'Dittractornetry
chemical compounds present in the dust were identified
using a diffractometer. Knowledge af the chem1cal foms was im-
(
.. _--.- -- -------
1
1
!
"
!
,
1
1
~ ~ 7
1
portant in order to obtain values of di-electric constants needed for
"
the SRI computer simulation. A brief review of the principle of
operation follow(

5.7.1 Principle of Operation of the X-Ray plffractometer
A beam of X-rays ls diffracted by the dust to forro a con-
vergent diffracted beam which enters a Geiger counter. During the
,
measurement, the counter turns at an angular velocity w, and the sample
at w/2 to maintain focussing conditions and a simple absorption geometry.
The counter generates a succession of current pulses which are amplified
and fed to a chart recorder. The paper chart on the recorder moves at a
,
constant speed, so that distances along the length of it are proportional o
to 28 angles. The result ls a record of diffracted X-ray intensity
versus diffracted angle 26 which aIIows the identifictidh of, specifie
compounds found in the sample from its crystalline structure as described
below.
5.7.2 Sample Preparation
samples were made as follows:
(1) A thin film of balsam in toluene was spread evenly over
appropriately sized microscope slldes.
l
1
\
1
1
.)
r, 1
1
1
1
r
i
,j
1
1
r
"
i
(
,1
58
..
(2) A small amount of dust (0.59> was then spread
evenly over the slide. The balsam helps tO,hold
the dust on the slide.
}
The sample was then inserted into the housin9 and
the cap of the housing Inserted to prevent leakage
of x-rays.
5.7.3 Instrument conditions
The instrument was operated at a voltage of 40 kV and
an amperage of 20 mA; the angular velocity of the counter was 1 rev.
A Mo lamp was used with a Zr filter to remove the Ka
line from the X-ray beam while transmitting the Ka line with a relatively
small loss in intensity.'
f'
5.71
Identification of Chemical campounds
The output of the strip chart recorder was' used to identify
the compounds of the elements pre senti the elements present in the dust
were already known fram atomic absorption analysis; a brief description
of the identification procedure follows:
(I} For the elements present, the most likely form for
the compound is selected.

1

l '
,
t
",
"
-.;;;
(
,
. '
.... - - - - , ~
59
\
'(2 ) The corresponding d lines are obtained from the
alphabetical index (McClune (1980
(3) The corresponding 26 angles are obtained from the
X-ray diffraction tables: X-rays are scattered at
values of 26 which are a unique property of the
crystal structure of the compound. '
(4) The 26 angles for the most prominent d spacing lines
the compound are matched with the output of the strip
chart recorder ta check if these peaks existe
(5) If the y do, and the relative intensity of these three
peaks compres with those listed for the chosen compound
then the chosen compound is present in the dust.
Lower intensity lines of compound were then eliminated
from the search procedure.
5.8 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
1
The X-ray fluorescence spectrometer was used ta compare the
elemental compositions of samples of dusts by comparing the peak heights.
'100
A brier review of the principle of operation follows.
..
' .
("
(
\
-----........ - ~ ,._- ... _- ...------
; 1
l
1"
1
1
1
,
, .
1
1
,
"
\
\
!
L

/
60
5.8.1
, ,-
Principle of Operation of the X-ray Fluorescence Spectrorneter
The specimen is irradiated with an unfiltered beam of
\
(
primary X-rays which causes the elements to emit their characteristic
f1uorescent lines, Wi11ard et al (1981). A portion of the scattered
fluorescence 15 collimated by the entrance slit of the goniometer and
directed onto the plane surface of the analysing crystal. The line
radiation is according ta Bragg condition and passes through
auxiliary collimator (exit slit) ta the detector where the energy of
the X-ray quanta is converted' into electrical impulses or counts. These
j.
1
impulses are then fed to a chart recorder. The output is a series of
peaks, corresponding to lines, above a background that arises
principally fram a general scattering of the primary X-rays,as a function
of the angular position, 2e, of the detector. The intensity (height)
of the peaks i8 related to elemental concentration.
1 Sample Preparation
1
li
SampI es were made as foilows:
(1) A sample of the dust was mixed into a paste with balsam
and poured in ta the sample holder cm in diameter).
(2) The sample was dried in an oven for about thirty minutes.
(3) The samp1e hoider was then inserted' into the housing of
t
the spectrometer.

1
t
l
f
!<

G
j

.
i
r
\.
(
61
,
5.8.3 Instrument Conditions
The instrument was operated at a voltage of 40 kV and
a current of 20 mA . A lithium fluor ide crystal was used.
5.8.4 Identification of the Elements
The method that was used to identily the elements and com-
pare their intensity ls outlined below.
.J
(l) The positions of aIL peaks (28 angles) are accurately
determind,from the chart.
(2) These are matched with the Ka
l
, Ka
2
, K8, etc. peaks
characterlstics of elements whlch may be in the sample and
which are listed in the X-ray fluorescence tables
(Powers)
(3) are positively identifled when the location of
the expected peaks matches those on the chart
..
(4 ) The relative concentration of an element in two samples
i5 obtained simply by camparing the peak heights; a
larger peak corresponds to a hlgher elemental concentra-
tion although the relationship may be non-linear.
1
1
1
62
CHAPTER VI
OUST CHARACTERIZATION, LABORATORY SCALE EXPERIMENTS
AND SIMULATION
6.1 IntroductioG
The selection ot the industrial dusts to he used in this
...
work is discussed; dust characterization, laboratory scale experiments
and theoretical predictions are also presented wherever applicable.
The results of the scanning electron microscope should
ideally precede the discussion of the laboratory scale experiments since
this analysis falls under the category of dust charaterization. How-
ever, since this equipment was only available'after laboratory scale
experiments were completed, this analysis was used to confirm theories
postulated from the experiments.
6.2 Choice of Oust used
The criteria used in selecting the dusts for study were
ideally as follows:
(1) The dust contains valuable element(s) 50 that en-
i
1
riching the dust in this element has potential
,
, economic benefit.
1
(
1
1
l
)

1)
t
"
,
t
C'

\
\
1
~ )
1
(
l
63
(2) The valuable element(s) should be present in
reasonably high concfj!ntrations, ~ > 5%) in the
dust.
(3) lThe dust should be readily available.
The dusts selected that best satisfied the above criteria
T
were:
(i) Noranda Copper reactor dust.
(ii) Canadian Electrolytic zinc smelter dust.
(iii) Ontario Hydro power plant fly ash.
(iv) Municipal incinerator fly ash.
Sarnples of the fly ash from t h ~ Sun cor refinery at Fort
McMurray were not available when this work was in progresse
The Ontario Hydro power plant fly ash (obtained from the
combustion of the new coals burnt) was chosen because it was the only
power plant fly ash available and because it may pe a good source for
"-
vanadium. The municipal incinerator fly ash was chosen because it can
"
contain valuable materials and was readily available.
,
.1
1
1
(.
1
f
6.l Copper Smelter (Noranda) Oust
6.3.1 Introduction

Sorne 1aboratory sca1e experiments on the copper reactor
dust were crried out by Salcedo (1981). In order to obtain more in-
formation on precipitation characteristics of this dust in bath
sca1e and industria1 scale ESP's, further analyses were

needed.
Preliminary experiments on the,labcratory scale ESP were
performed 50 as to become familiar with the equipment and experimental
techniques.
One run through the ESP was done at a high voltage of
'1
38 kV and a high air velocity of 5 mis and the results were compared
to those obtained by Salcedo (1981) to check reproducibility; no more
additiona1 information wou1d have been obtained by conducting more expe.ri-
ments at different conditions sinc for a pair of components, plots of
separation efficiency
')
versus collection efficien?y (E )
C,
1.
lie on
a curve with the position of the maxima depending on the experimental
conditions used (Salcedo (1981
The dust was fed 'by a Wright feeder and the partic1e size
measured by a cascade impactor at the inlet of the ESP.
The compounds of the elements present were identified using
an X-ray diffractometer. A semi-quantitative chemical analysis of,the
dust particles was obtained with a scanning elec;ron microscope and EDAX
{
,
:
1
.1
1

1
'" .
1.
1
1
1 ,. (
1
1
, l,
o
f .
65
..
The Southern Research nstitte (SRI) computer model
was also used to simulate the behaviour of the Noranda dust in bath a
laberatory scale and industrial scale ESP. The results of
done on the laboratory scale ESP are reported in this chapter.
,1
Chapter VII discusses the done uslng the scale
ESP
..
r
6.3.2 'Chemica1 Composition of the Bulk Sasvle
-.
Samp1es of the Noranda copper smelter dust were ana1ysed
with an atomic The composition
of the feed is given in Table 6.1 with a c.nfidence interval of + one
standard'deviation. The results from Salcedo (1981) are shawn for com-
.parison.

6-.3.3 X-LaY Diffraction
"
The chemical compounlis of the above elements were identified
using a Norelco diffractometer. Table 6.2 lists the compounds actually 1
identified in the feed dust.
The compounds were identified from tne output of the strip
chart recorder, discussed in Chapter V If it ia assumed that aIl of
the elements exist as sulphates, their combined weights account for 100.1\

j-
1
1
1
! '
.1
1
-
... --.......... _ ..... L ____ A
o
r
SAMPLE
1
2
3
Salcedo
(1981)
J .-
! ,

..
66
,
.TABLE 6.1
COMPOSITION OF NORANDA DUST FEED
Cu (%) . Pb (%)
6.7 32.8
6.9 28.5
6.8,' 25.2
6.80 + 0.08 28.83 :!:. 3.l1
6.90 + 0.20 27.6 + 2.90
CHEMICAL FORMS OF THE ELEMENTS:
ELEMENT
Cu
Pb
Zn
Cd
Zn (%) Cd(\)
10.1 Il.0
10.2 Il.8
10.8 Il.4
10.37 :t. 0.31 11.40 + 0.33
10.4 + 0.90 11. 70 + 0.6
NORANDA DUST
COMPOUND
CUS0
4

znS0
4
CdS0
4
, CdS, Cd
2
ASC1
2
(cadmium arsenic ch1oride)
)
----,.-----. - -- -- -----
[
!
1
1 v
!
1
1
..P.'l"' ..... li! , " r _______ .. __ _
(
1
61
to 112\ (calculated at + one standard deviation from the mean value
of the' elemental compositions given in Table 6.1 of the weight of the
dust).
6.3.4 Precipitation of Noranda Oust: Global Collection Efficiencies
Salcedo (1981) conducted experiments through the ESP at
three different conditions: 38 kV and 5 mis, 30 kV and 5 mis,
24 kV and 5 ml s The best conditions for segregation were at the highest
voltage (38 kV) and the high air velocity of 5 mis; these conditions
were used in the run reported in this section.
Table 6.3 lists th experimenta1 conditions and global
collection efficiencies for the experiment carried out with the Noranda
dust.

The experimental run was 96 minutes long, the temperature was'
302 K and the relative humidity was 44\
shows that the collection of 1ead,
zinc and,cadmium are very similar to each other but much different from

that of Copperi this indicates that lead, zinc and cadmium are either
present in the same particles or in different particles having the sarne
size distribution.
Samp1ing wi th the cascade impactor was performed at the
inlet of the ESP for the duration of the experimental rune Figure 6.1
"
RlJN \l(mls)
l 5
..,
-"
"l
1
\
_III
""
".
\
TABLE 6.3
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND GLOBAL RESULTS FOR
=::::=::::;>
V(kV)
4 -2
j x(lO Am ) Material MM (J.lm) r (ohm-cm)
38 12.6 overall dust 1.45
2 x 1010
CU 6.40
Pb 1.90
Zn 1.75
Cd 1.40
,
.
..
Il
75
95.1
72.4
71.6
69.8

..
o
..
0\
CD
j
-1
i
1
,
G
69
shows the overall size distribution of the Noranda dust; the MMD i5
1.45 ~ m the elemental size distributions are given in Figure 6.2
'l'hese distributions are similar to those obtained by Salcedo (1981),
Figure 6.3, for the Noranda dust. It is apparent fram Figures fi. 2 and
6.3 that two size distributions are present; the Pb, Zn and Cd dis-
tributions are very siml.lar to each other MMD '" 1.8 \llll, ' 1.75 J,.1IIl, '
1.4 \lm respectively), but different fram that of Copper, which is much
larger (MMD '" 6.4 \lm)
The Noranda dust can thus he considered to he composed of
two particle size distributions: the larger partic1es are copper rich and
the smal1er particles are rich in lead, zinc and cadmium. These resul:ts
agree with the results of the cyclone analysis done on the Noranda dust py
Salcedo (1981); he had reported that the catch (larger particles) were
rich in copper ana the overflow (smaller particles) were rich in lead, zinc
and cadmium. Further verification ls presented later.
6.3.5 Computer Simulation (SRI Model: Lab Scale ESP)
Simulations of the collection of the overall dust were per-
formed by simulating separately the collectin of the CU rich particles
..
and the (Pb + Zn + Cd) rl.ch particles. The cumulative size dis tribu-
tions used are shown in Table 6.4 below.
The Cu rich particles were assigned the relative di-electric
constant of cusa 4 (1\, 10) sinee Cu is present in this form in the duat.

... - _ . _ . ~ _ .. _._--:;---- ----- -. -.
-'--,....,........... .. ~ ,..,..,_........ ~ ,""'.... _ - - ~
. - ~
~
100.
")
.J
.Noranda dust:
Overall size distribution:



50
cl
?fi.

..;

4 3, 2 1
D. microns
CI
0-2
\
\
't: ....
, ...:
...,
o
Figure 6.1. OVerall size distribution of Noranda dust at the ESP inlet (Anderson MK III Cascade lmpactor).
J
1
!
1
:'
\
'\
.,
""" _ .... .... ... __ ... -......." .... _--_ ..
100
1
1 1 1 1 1

Noranda dust
1 Pb
,
... Zn

.Cd

OCu
1
0

"


40r
...
CI)
0
*-

0
0

...
0
'1 lur
8
it/
in Q 7 a. t::.
4 3 2 1 05 03 02
0, microns
Figure 6.2. Elemental individual size distribution of the Noranda dust at the ESP inlet
(Anderson MK III Cascade Impactor)
('!
....
....,
....
......... __ ........ .... .. ---io-
-
1;
---
)
D
'"

Rt.n Cu Pb Zn
4500\70
.,.
,46 ()06f)
()
_ 47 [> X

()
0

()
e;'
,

0
fi
""
"
.. -
1
0.2
D,lJ
m
Figure 6.3. Elemental individual size distribution of the Noranda dust at inlet
(Anderson MK III Cascade 1mpactor), Salcedo (19B1)
\

...... , ___
o
i
1


1 -
......


73
O.
.
TABLE 6.4,
j
SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER AND (LEAD, ZINC AND CADMlUM): % UNDERSrZE
r
i
,
D (lJm) Cu Pb + Zn + Cd
7 6 ~ 59.04 89.05
\
"-
4.75 ' 39.23 81.63
3.25 30.51 70.43
2.15 23.63 57.43
1.40 18.19 41.31
0.65 8.24 16.45
, 0.41 3,42 6.23
0.27 1.65 1.72
0.13 0 a
(
,
--- -_. -""";:;;-
1
1
;
1
!
J
74
The (Pb + Zn + Cd) ""re a.signed the relative di-el.etrie
2.9 (Salcedo (1981

The physical dimensions and operating conditions of the
lab scale ESP, used as part of the input data-to the SRI model,
..
are shown in Appendix A
Table 6.5 gives the elemental collection efficiency of
the Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) rich particles as weIL as the SRI pre-
dictions. The experimental and SRI values show tht the larger
particls, (Cu), are preferentially collected by the thls is
expected (Salcedo (1981
The SRI model underpredicts the collection efficiency of
both components; this will be discussed later
6.3.6
..
Elemental Collection and Separation Efficiency
as a Function of ESP Length
Table 6.6 lists the non-cumulative elemental collectin
efficiency as a function of incremental length; copper is concentrated
in the earlier subsections of the ESP and (Pb + Zn + Cd) show higher
values in the latter sections. The corresponding cumulative values are
shawn in Figure 6.4 along with the SRI predictions. The cumulative
collection efficiency of Cu was about 94\ and of (Pb + Zn + Cd) was
about 72%.
Figure 6.5 shows the results obtained by Sa1cedo (198l)
1
ft
1
1
1
1
1
-,_._._---
o
/'r
RUN
l'
RUN
1,
75
. TABLE 6.5
EXPERIMENTAL AND SRI ELEMENTAL COLLECTION
EFFICIENCY FOR NORANDA DU ST
EXPERIMENTAL PREDICTED
Cu Pb + Zn + Cd Cu Pb + Zn + Cd
95.2 71.6 80.3 52.4
TABLE 6.6
NON-CUMULATIVE COLLECTION EFFICIENC'l FOR NORANDA OUST
)
...
MATERIAL INCREMENT NUMBER
1+2 3+4 5+6 1+8 ~
- -
o ~ e r a l l dust 35.4 24.0 8.0 7.0
Cu 51.3 30.7 6.9 5.3
,.
pb
31.6 25.2 8.6 6.5
Zn 35.8 20.3 8.4 6.7
Cd 34.9 20.1 7.8 6.5
o.
f
j
r
i
t
M-">- __ ... __ "'_. ~ __
100
8
w(,)
*'
Noranda dust
38kV,5m/'
Pb+Zn+Cd
Cu
-SRI
Cu
.,.
Cu - Pb+Zn+Cd
-SRI
Cu- Pb+Zn+Cd

VIL
76



Figure 6.4. Cumulative elemental collection and separation efficiency
of the Noranda dust as a function of ESP length.
j
1
!
l
1
,
1
,
1
f
i,
1
1
,
1
c
(
,77
1 0 0 - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - ~ ~ ~
80
60
40
38 kV
o Pb+Zn
SR 1 average dlstnbut Ions, 3.2gail
3
-3
- - -3.2gan
-3
- -.-1.3gcm
.-'-a. -,-,_._ .
.. /':: -- .,- - -.- - --
~ / . .
./"
~
. Figure 6.5. Cumulative e1emental collection and separation efficiency
of the Noranda dust as a function of ESP length, Salcedo (198:
f
L
l
1
1
1
!
1
1..
-.
(
,
;:"
,
78
under similar conditions. Comparison of Figures 6.4 and 6. 5 shows
,
-
that the results are very reproducible (within '\. 5\) It can be seen
.
that the experimental collect:iJon e(ficiency is larger than predicted
for bath Cu rieh partic1es and the {Pb + Zn + Cd} rich particles.
A possible explanation .ts that the partiele densi ty and hence particle
size distribution used in this simulation is incorrect. The helium
pynometer measures the true dust densitYi the particles flow-
ing through the precipitator and thus through the cascade impactor may be
made up of agglomerates. This suggests that the densi ty used for the
cut point detenninations in the cascade impactor is too high resulting in
,
'the eut point diameters being too low. This re5ults in an underpredic-
o
tion of efficiency since larger particles are moDe easi1y caught in ESP's
Both the theoretical and experimental separation efficiencies
are shawn in Figures 6.4 and 6.5 (reproducible to wi thin '\. 5%) The
tJ .......
maximUlll separation efficiency i5 "-.25\ and was obtained in the middle sec-
, ,
tions of the ESP. h l
, , d ,,' t he '-
T e qua .ltatlve an quantltatlve agreemen tween
the theoretical and experimental separation efficiency is 900d in both
cases. This i8 due to a coopensation effect since th\ deviations of the
theoretieal collection efficiencies from the experimenUll collection ef-
are in the saroe direction for both components.
Separation of the components, Cu from (Pb + Zn + Cd),
of the Noranda dust is then possible by passiIlg the dust through an ESP
The application of this segregation to industrlal ESP's 18 discussed in
Chapter VII
"
J
, .,
f
l ,
1

\
79
( .
6.3.7

Scanning Electron Microscope
Representative samples of the Noranda dust were examined
with the scanning electron microscope; sorne of these results are shown
in Figures 6.6 to 6.13 Figure 6.6 shows a group of smal1 particles
(x 10,000) and F1gure 6.7 shows a large partic1e surrounded by srna1l
particles (x 5,000) The large particles are about 5 in diameter
and the small particles about 0.15 - 0.20 in diarneter.
An exarnination of rnany fields showed that the large parti-
cles are mostly These large particles were scanned for Cu
and Pb (Figures 6.8 and 6.9) In these figures, the white dots
indicate the elernents scanned for; a high concentration of white dots
indicates a high concentration of that element. However, the white dots
on the two figures give only serni-quant1tative measures of the relative
concentration of the two elements. Absolute values cannot be obtained
since these will depend on rnany factors like the angle of the electron
beam the orientation of the particles, and the surface roughness of the
particles. From these figures, it 15 evident that copper is more concen-
trated than lead 1n the large particles. The wh1te dots seen in the back-
ground in the m1crographs are due tG copper tubes and grids in'the electron
microscope. A background mapping for Cu 15 shawn in Figure 6.10 and
should be subtracted from the copper concentration results.
To obtain a quantitative mea5ure of the relative
of the two elements, the following procedure wa5 adopted. The large
particle was divided into 9 sampling points as shown below. The number
\
4
Figure 6.6.
Scannlng electron micrograph of a
group of small particles
(X 10,000): Noranda dust.
Figure 6.7.
,
1
scannin1 electron micrograph of a
large particle surrounded by small
particles (X 5,000): Noranda dust.
---
CD
o
/

",

, '
.' .
i .
'.' .... ::. ';-:'1'
... ;' :." '-,:
'. (" ___ , -;' : 1 , '
tif.
, .,.. -: ' ".,' .:

..
1.
.'
, ." . .",
,:.,'::-f
(.0/', .
'.
'Ii' , ,..;;
..
Jt '::.,
.1', .. Jo' ". .... : .. :<. ..
' ',' .... \' ., "1 ".-,'
..... ... ' . ," .. , . . ......
, C 'n: '.' .' .\. -; ..
. . If" .",
.':: .... '.,: .......
,,-' .. ...... ,)' ,
:_ ':l..:', .. ', ," ".
J - J. '.-. \ .. ;t , . ...' ",*.
',., -.' .

'"
.-
ft"
J r 11
[)
Figure 6.8.
Scanning electron rnicrograph of the
particle shown in.Figure 6.7 with
the mapping for Cu
Noranda dust.
..
,
Figure 6.9.
.--
-
(t
Scanning electron rnicrograph of the
particle shown in Pigure 6.7 with
the mapping for Pb superimposed:
Noranda dust
\\
00
....
\.


,.,
82
)
(
\
Figure 6.10 Backqround mapping for Cu
..
,

!
1
j
"
<
f
,
l
83
\
of dots in a 3 mm diameter cHcle were counted at the selected points
for both Pb and Cu The same on the were used when
both figures. To take into account the background copper,
ten were randornly chosen on the background rnapping and the number
of dots werc counted. The background copper was 3 dots
for every 3 mm diameter circle and this was subtracted from the value
for.the copper counts to obtain the true value. The results
are surnrnarized in Table 6.7 below.
A t test showed that for a 95% confidence
interval, there is a between the means and for the
J,.arge particles. (See Tble 6.7).
The sma110r partic1es were also scanned for Pb and Cu

Sorne resu1ts are shown ln Figures 6.11 6.12, (x 50,000) Figures
6.11 and 6.12 show a group of small particles w1th for Pb and
Cu respectively.
(
,
/
i
i
~
.-.
-"
TABLE 6:7
.,
RATIO OF LEAD!COPPER CONCENTRATION IN LARGE PARTICLE: NORANDA DUST
"
SAMPLING POINT NO. OF DOTS (Pb) NO. OF OOTS (Cu) Cu (NO. OF OOTS-BACKGROUND) Pb / Cu
/"
1 13 31 28 0.46
2 15
>'
32 29 0.52.
3 15 27 24 0.62
4 16 34 31 0.52
5 14 .. 35 32 0.43
,
6 17 32 29 0.58
1>
1 7 15 33 30 0.50
1
1
: '
8 16
V
31 28 0.57
9 16 32 29 0.55
Xl = 15.22
-
X
2
= 31.88 X
3
= 29.56 X = 0.53
avg
Q)
",.
",....... --
Figure 6.11.
t'tt .... ". .... -; .... ..

, ... \
"., ,. ...
'.. ..,., M"
+J. .. .. _,>
'10,.1
.....
Scanning electron micrograph of a
group of small particles
(X 50,000): Mapping for 'Pb:
Noranda dust.
.. J.

. "
04
.. \

,/
"
(,. ' ..
"
. ,
.. - .
T

.:t.
6.12. Scannrng e1ectron of the
same particles as in Figure 6.11
Mapping for Cu: Noranda dust.
.,.
al
VI
/
1
'.;
1
/
/
/
.;
\1
/
1
\1
86
JIl,
It is evident these pictures that lead is more con-
centrated than copper in the smaller particles. To obtain a semi-
ve meal?ure, the same pliocedure of counting the dots on the
j<
micrographs was fol10wed as out11ned before; the were,
not points were randomly taken aU over the agglomerates.
i<
1\
Table 6.8 gi ves the resul ts of
\i
A s t test shows that there a difference
.
between.tpe means Xl and X
3
at\the 95% confidence level.
A statistlcal test (t test) the null hypothesls also
shows that there is a difference b'etween the Pb/Cu ln the large
and small particles at the 95% From the raw data,
. it is seen that lead 15 about times more concentrated than copper in
the sma11er than in the 1arger partlcles. Figure 6.13 shows
the EDAX scan over aU elements for a large particle of the Noranda dust
.;
1
The Ka and Kf3 peaks for Cu' occur at 8.05 eV and 8.9 eV respectively,
and for zinc at 8.6 eV and 9.7 eV respecti vely as shawn. The LI3
edge for 1ead occurs at 12.65 eV and the ,La edge at 14.75 eV . The
peak for Zn and Pb are very..small compared ta Cu which lndi-
cates that copper the most abundant element in the large particles.
'1
J
6.3.8 Conclusions
\
From these electron micrographs of the Noranda dust, we can
cnclude the following:
1
.-
,
TABLE 6.8
."J-
RATIO OF LEADLCOPPER CONCENTRATION IN SMALL PARTICLES: NORANDA OUST
-
SAMPLING POINT NO. OF p::>TS (Pb) NO. OF DOTS (CU), CU (NO. OF DOTS - BACKGROUND) Pb 1 Cu

11 5 2 5.50
- --
of-
2 8 4 1 8.00
3 18 6 3 6.00
..
4 22 9 6 3.67
\
5 19 13 10 1. 90
/
6 12 8 5 2.40
.'.
7 16 12 9 1. 78
B 13 7 4 3.25
9 12 5 2 6.00
.0
...
-
Xl
= 14.56 X
2
7.67 X
3
4.67 X 4.28
avg
Cl)
-....1
,
,
88
Figure 6.13. Energy dispersive ana1ysis of ~ r a y s (EDAX)
of a large particle: Noranda dust.
\
"
89
(
(1)
There are two distinct size ranges of particles.
The larger particles are '" 5).lm in diameter and
discrete. The smaller particles are '" 0.15 -
f
0.2 in diameter and are agglomerates
..
(2) The large particles are more concentrated copper
than the smaller part1.cles.
(3) !l'he smaller part1.cles are more concentrated in lead,
zinc and cadmium.
(
results confirm the results of the cascade impactor
which indicated that there' are two distinct particle size distributions
.
in the Noranda dust, namely copper rich particles (large part1.cles) and
(Pb +Zn + Cd) rich particles (small particles). The MMD of the parti ....
cles as found by the cascade impactor are.larger than those measured by
,
"
the electron microscope; a PQssl.ble explanation for this 1.S that the dust
\
particles were not well dispersed by the feeder resulting in small agglame-
rates flow1.ng through the ESP and hence through the cascade impactor.
,
(4) X-ray diffraction studies show that the elements are
present mainly as sulphates.
(5) A maximum separation efficiency [Cu - (Pb + Zn + Cd)J
of 'V 25% was obtained in the middle sections- of the
lab-scale ESP. The cumulative collection efficiency
(
90
of Cu was '" 94% and of (Pb + Zn + Cd)
was r
'II 72\ at 38 kv and a veloci ty of ? mIs
(6) The SRI computer lOOdel predicts a maximum separa-
tion effJ..ciency of ' 32\ in the middle sections
of the ESP The predicted cwnulati ve collection
efficl.ency for Cu is 'V 80\ and of (Pb + Zn + Cd)
is 'V 53%
(7) The resul ts of the laboratory scale experiment agree
very well w i ~ h the results given by Salcedo (1981)
under similar experimental conditions.
6.4 Industrial Zinc Sme1te(' Oust
6.4.1 Int:roduction
Two experiments were performed on the zinc smelter dust
(obtained from. Canadian Electrolytic Z1nc) to investigate the precl.pita-
tian and segregation of the elements Fe t Zn, Cu and Cd. The dust
was fed to the ESP using a Wright dust feeder and the size distributions
measured at the ESP inlet with the Anderson cascade impactor. The bulk
3
density of the z i ~ smelter dust was found to be 3,6 g/cm as measured
with the helium pynometer.
91
Cyclone analyses were also carried out on the zinc
smelter dust to investigate the possibility of elemental segregati'On
"
due to size dl.fferences of the particles. Qualitative elemental compo-
sitions of the particles obtained wi th a scanning electron
m1croscope.
The size ,distributions obtained with the cascade impactor
were used as input data to the SRI computer Since the di-electric
constant of dust was not accurately known, several different values
of di-electrl.c constants ,"ere used to test how the predi.cted separation
efficl.ency wl.ll vary Wl.th this parameter.
".
6.4.2 Chemical Analysis
Several analyses of the zinc smelter dust were made by dis-
solving the bulk sample in concentrated HC.Q... Concentration measure-
ments were then obtained usi.ng an atomic absorption spectrophotometer after
the appropriate dilutions were carried out. 1 sUlllIllary of the values
obtained lS gl. ven be10w in Table 6.9 wi th a confidence limit of + l
standard deviation from the mean.
6.4.3 X-ray Diffraction
The chemical compounds of the above elements identified
\
( 1
r

( .
'TABLE 6.9
ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF THE ZINC SMELTER DUST
ANALYSIS Zn (%) Fe (%) Cu (%)
l
2
3

./
34.88 7.05
33.54 6.65
34.71 6.72
34.37 !. 0.59 6.8 + 0.17
, TABLE 6.10
0.68
0.69
0.70
0.69 ... 0.01
~
CHEMlCAL FORMS OF THE ELEMENTS: ZINC SMELTER OUST
;
ELEMENT COMPOUND
Zn ZnS / znS0
4
Fe Fe
3
0
4
"-
~
Cu CuSO 4
Cd" CdS0
4
~ .
. ,
1
-..,. ~ ___ s ~ . . .
- J
92
Cd (%)
0.74
0.68
0.72
0.71 + 0.02
r"
\
,
93
using a Norelco X-ray diffractometer (more details are given in Chapter
V). Table 6.10 gi ves the possible chemical forrns of the e1ements.
Between 81% to 85% of the weight of the dust (calculated at + one
standard deviation of the compositions given in Table 6.9) is accounted
for if the e1ements are assumed to be in the chernieal forms shawn previously
with Zn present as ZnS. If zinc is assumed ta be present as ZnS0
4
then between 114% to of the weight of the dust i5 accounted for.
lot is possible that zine is present in both .forms sinee roasting may not
be complete; this will give a value closer to 100% and hence fully
account for the dust.
Cyclone Analysis
The dust was fed to the mini cyclone with a Wright dust
feeder; the cyclone catch and cyclone overflow were then collected and
chemieally ana1ysed for Fe, Zn, Cu and Cd with the atomic
.
spectrophotometer.
'"
A summary of the results obtained is shown below in Table
6.11 with a confidence interval of + one standard deviation from the
mean.
By comparfng the values in Tables 6.9 and 6.11, it can
6e seen that there i5 no appreeiab1e difference in the ehemical composition
of the major elernents Zn (4%) and Fe (0.1%) between the catch and the
\.
,
(

. .
TABLE 6.11
RESULTS OF CYCLONE N L ~ S I S ON ZINC SMELTER DUST
!
RUN CATCH
i
;
f
Zn (%) Fe (%) Cu (%) Gd (%) Zn (%)
1 33.95 , 7.57 0.70 0.74 30.56
2 34.14 6.26 0.68 0.57 29.67
34.04 + 0.09 6.91 + 0.65 0.69 + 0.02 0.65 + 0.08 30.11 + 0.45

...
"
~
OVERFLOW
...
Fe (%) Cu (li)
7.19 0.75
6.14 0.78
6.8 + 0.39 0.76 + 0.02
... ..",..' ..............-.- .. ~
Cd (%)
1.25
0.90
1.07 + 0.17
10'
~
J
,
(
overflow. concentration of cadmium in the overflow is about 1.7
'times its concentration catch, indicating that cadmium is probably
in the smaller particles; this may not be of any significant value,
,
however, since the concentration of cadmium in the feed dust is very
small Hl .
, .
From the results of the minicyclone, can be concluded that
there are no differences in chemical compositions of the major elements,
zinc and iron, in different particle sizes. Possible explanations ta
"
account for these observed results are qiven below.
The elements are aIl in the same particle, hence
separation is not possible.
The elements are in different particles having the
same particle size distribution.
6.4.5 Precipitation of the Overall Dust
Although there was no separation of the elements,due ta
size there is still the of segregation due to the
differences in electrical properties of the dust.
Two experiments were performed at a high voltage of 38 kV
and a high air velocity of 5 mis (best elemental segrega-
---
,
\
\
\
r
(
/
1
.... '/
tion); the same conditions were used 50 that the results can be com-
96
pared and reproducibility checked. Table 6.12 lists the experimental
cohditions and the global results of the carried out with
the zinc smelter dust. The relative humidity of runs numbers 2 and
3 were 44% and 34% respectively and the corresponding ternperatures
were 296 K and 300 K these conditions were different since the runs
were conducted on different days.
The cumulative elernental collection efficiencies of the
major elernents Zn and Fe are very reproducible Th ele-
ments Cd and Cu show a slightly higher variation this rnay
be attributed to the srnaller concentration of these elernents 1%)'
which results in a slight drop the accuracy of the measurements.
The overall size distributions, as measured by the cascade
impactor, for bath runs of the zinc smelter dust are given in Figure
6.14 the MMD for both runs are very reproducible, 1.95 urn and
1.90 respectively, inspite of the very srnall masses collected
on the'cascade impactor substrates.
Cl
...
100
1
1

"


en
40
F-
Figure 6.14
1 ---,-------, '"
"
-
1
smelter dust
i
Overall size distribution
RUN Np2
"il RUN No3
v
'" .
v


'"
t!"
"il
.

v
4 2 . 1 05
D, microns
Overa11 size of the zinc sme1ter dust at the ESP in1et
(Anderson MK III Cascade Impactor) Runs No. 2 and No. 3
.--

...
ID

;-;..........
(
,
t
}
o
98
TABLE 6.12
,'"
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND GLOBAL RESULTS FOR ZINC SMELTER OOST
RUN u (m/s) v (kV) MATE RI AL MMD ~ m ) n (\)
2 5 38 .overall dust 1.95 85.34
Fe 2.10 93.73
Cd 1.50 77.50
Cu 2.00 85.80
Zn 2.10 91.49
3 5 38 overall dust 1.90 82.40
..
Fe 2.10 89.61
"
Cd 1.45 69.73
Cu 1.90 77.05
Zn 2.25 86.57
l
J
99
Figures 6.15 and 6.16 show the e1ementa1 size distribu-
tions (Zn, Fe, Cu, Cd) for both runs of the zinc sme1ter dust; the
corresponding rnean mass diameters (MMD) are given in Table 6.12
Comparlson of Figures 6.15 and 6.16 shows that the elernenta1 distribu-
tions for the two runs are very reproducible (wlthln 5%) Zinc has the
highest MMD and cadmium the lowest The
MMD of the two most elements, zinc and lron, are very sirni1ar
.
(MMD for Zn 2.17 vm and Fe 2.10 ThlS substantiates the
hypothesis made previously, from the cyclone analysls, that Zlnc and lrqp
are present in the same particles or in different partlcles having the same
size distributlon. The low MMD of cadmlUID also exp1ains why this ele-
ment concentrates in the overflow of the cyclone.
Table 6.13 shows a cornparison of the e1ementa1 composition
of the precipitated dust (ana1ysed at each of the four sub-sections along
the 1ength) and the feed for bath runs.
Q
Copper and iron
show a slight reductlon ln ind 0.75% respective-
1y) downstream of the ESP this is expected because coarser partlc1es
are caught in the earller sectibns of the ESP. CadmlUID shows a Sllght
increase in concentration downstream of the ESP WhlCh is ex-
pected since it has the srnal1est MMD . No deflnlte trend was observed
for zinc.
Further inspection of Table 6.13 reveals that the composition
of the major e1ements, Zn and Fe, in the precipitated dust along the
length of - ESP and in the feed ar very sirnilar to each other; thlS in-

"
1 i

Z i ne smelter dust
0
RUN n_2

o Cd
v
0 Zn
v
.. Fe
-1
vCu
,
0
v
v


0
...
cl


v

B
"
..

10
1 1 1 1
0_
10 8 7 6 f) 4. ?
1 0-5
D, microns
Figure 6.\15
E1emental size distribution of the zinc smelter dust at the ESP inlet
(Anderson MK III Cascade Impactor) Run No. 2
.............. ...... .. ,.,
\
\
\,
",.......
r-
a
a
o
cl
'*
.... ...... ....... " ,
", ..


'il
0

T
v
0
V
1
0
v
T

..
4 3
c
fi

zinc smelter C!tust
RUN N03
oCd
.Zn
T Fe
"lCu
\'!
o
;
o

1
D, microns
\
Figure 6.16. Elemental size distribution of the zinc smelter dust at the ESP inlet
(Anderson MK III Cascade Impactor) Run No. 3
--
'l.' .
.....
o
....
,
.,.
~
"
,.-


TABLE 6.13
COMPARISON OF THE ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF THE PRECIPITATED ZINC SMELTER DUST,
ALONG THE PLATES OF THE ESP WITH THE FEED COMPOSITION
"
PLATES
RUN ELEMENT FEED (%) (1+2) % (3+4) % (5+6) % (7+8) %
2 Cu 0.71 0.92 0.87 0:82 0.82
Fe 7.44 7.18 7.13 6.75 6.32
...r-
Zn 36.36 38.55 40.80 35.73 40.48
Cd 0.68 0.81 0.84 0.94 0.95
....
3 CU 0.70 0.85 0.80 0.79 0.79
Fe 6.95 6.80 6.75 6.40 6.J.5
Zn 34.30 36.10 35.50 35.10 36.10
Cd 0.67 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.85
..
>------

0
t..l
t . . ~ ____ ", ..... - p . . - ~ ..... ~ ,
,
103

dicates that no appreciable of any of these elements occurred

as the passed through the ESP.
Thus, it can be neither particle size dis-
tribution (results of cyclone analysis and ESP runs) nor the electrical
properties of the dust (results of ESP runs), influence segregation
of the maJor elements in the smelter dust. The differences in tem-
,
of the two experimental runs, aiso did not influence
segregation.
6.4.6
,
Theoretical Predictions: SRI Model
Theoreticai predictions of collection and separation effi-
ciencies were obtained for the zinc smelter dust by using the SRI computer
modl wLth the physical dimensions and operating cond1tions of the Iabora-
scale ESP , (Append1X A) Since runs numbers 2 and 3 for the
zinc smelter dust closely with each other, the elemental size dis tri-
butions for run number 2 were used and the results obtained were taken as
indicative of both runs. The size distributions used are shown in Tqple
6.14 below.
The di-electric constants are not precisely known and cannot
be experimentally tletermined since the elements are not in separate
particles. This parame ter (K) enters the charging equation in the form

104
(
TABLE 6.14
SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS OF COPPER[ ZINC AND IRON
CI
ZINC SMELTER DUST CUMULATIVE % UNDERSIZE
'"
D ~ m ) Cu (%) Zn (%) Fe (%)
7.10 78.05 92.90 91.95
4.20 74.80 87.10 89.36
..
3.00
. ,
62.70 64.65 77.86
2.06 54.00 47.23 67.00
"
1.31 32.53 24.64 46.40
0.60 23.83 6.51 21.80
"
0.37 6.63 1.50 0.00
0.20 3.43 0.70 0.00
0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00
r
"
105

thus for values of K > 10, the ratio changes little. To
simulate the effects of di-electric constant on the effi-
ciency of the zinc smelter dust, various values were used as shown in
Table 6.15 and the theoretical collection efficiencies The
value of di-electric constant 2.9 was chosen for zinc since its com-
pound form is zinc sulphate. (Salcedo' (1981) had measured the
di-electric constant of the small particles of the Noranda dust, which
contained zinc sulphate, to be 2.9)
The values chosen for Zn and Fe were aIl below K = 10
,The di-electric constant of Cu is taken as K = 10 since its chemical
composition the dust is cus0
4
{X-ray studies}.
Figure 6.17 shows the predicated collection efficiencies
versus dimensionless length for various values di-electric constant
for Zn, The maxLmum variation of collection efficiencies occurs at
;
the outlet of the ESP (10% between di-electric constant 1.9 and 7.0)
and the minimum varlation occurs at the inlet (4%' between K = 1.9 and
,
K 7,0) as seen in 6.17 The constant of ZnS is
'V 7.2 A value of 7 was used for comparison with experimental results
and this should result in little error since the collection efficiency
curve is relatlvely insensitive ta K at values between 5 and 10.
1
1
i
1
1
,
f
!
t
Zinc.smelterdust:
SRI model:Zn
,
.
.
Dlelectric (K) = -"0
conatant
0'5
viL
1
,.
'.
\
"
10
Figure 6.17.
Theoretically predicted collection
ciencies versus length for
Zn at various values'of di-electric
constant: Zinc smelter dust.
.... 1 , 'III '&lIt"""'- -_..-...... _ ......
..
106
( .
1
\
107
.'
Figure 6.18 .shows the theoretical collection efficiency
versus dimensionless length for iron at various values of di-electric
constant. The maximum variation in collection efficiency occurs at the
outlet of the ESP. (7 % between K = 3.0 and K = 9.0) and the minimum
variation occurs at the inlet (3% between K = 3.0 and K = 9.0)
X-ray diffraction studies that iron is present in the form Fe
3
04
(Table 6.10) The value of di-electric constant of this compound is lit
not reported but a very close approximation of the theoretical collection
,,-.
efficiency curve may be obtained at K = 5.0
6.4.7 Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Collection Efficiencies
The experimentally determined global cumu1ative collection
efficiencies versus dimensionless length of the ESP for both runs of
the zinc smelter dust are shawn in Figure 6.19 The results are re-
producible to within 5% , with a maximum cumulative collection effi-
ciency of 83% Figures 6.20 and show plots of the experimental
collection efficiencies (Cu, Zn, Fe and Cd) for both runs of
the zinc smelter dust.
The experimental elemental collection efficiencies of zinc
and iron are reproducible ta 3% while those of CU and Cd are
reproducible to within 10%; the larger errors for cadmium and copper
are again due to the very concentrations of these elements.
1 /

,
10
'J
Zinc smelter dust:
SRI model: Fe
Figure 6.18
Theoretically predicted collection effi-
ciencies versus length for
Fe at various values of
constant: Zinc smelter dust.
108
" , ,
1
1
. l
i
(
1
1
i _
1 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~
\
38kV, 5m/s
Zinc smelter dust
RUN No2
o RUN No3
t

o

o
F:Lgure 6.19
Overa11 collection efficiency of zinc
smelter dust versus dimensi-onless 1ength:
Runs N"o. 2 and No. 3
. -
(
\
..
'.
\
/
..
110
38kV, 5m/s
Zinc smelter dust

Cd RUN No.2
Cu

o Zn
T Fe

--SRI

---lE X PT
----SRI
2


--- ------/

o 0-5 1
Y/L
Figure 6.20
cumulati ve elemental collection and sepa-
ration efficiencies as a function of ESP
length: Run No. 2
(
(
100
8
wC)
*-
40
38kV,5m/s
~
Zinc smetter dust
.Cd RUN No3
Cu (5

oZn
'Y Fe
Il
--SRI (!)

.,

"",'
, .....
" -,'

'" -,-'
Zn
/ ~ . .
/
.JI"
'v"'/
;' "'-<-- Fe
e ".",/
. /
~
;1-
/
/
---EXPT
---:--SRI
Zn-Cd
Fe-Zn
_----.L---
05
VIL
1
Figure 6.21. Cumulative elemental collection and sepa-
ration efficiencies as a function of ESP
length: Run No. 3
..,
111
,.
j
1
, 1
/
The collection efficienCloes of zinc and iron, for both
runs, are very sllnJ.lar to each other but different from that of Cd
and Cu. This again substantiates the hypothesis stated earller that
zinc and lron are present in the sarne particles. Also shown in Figures
6.20 and 6.21 are plots of separation efficiencl.es of iron from zinc
/
and of zinc from cadmium. No appreclable segregatlon of 1.ron from
Z1.nc loS apparent from these plots, as expected. There is sorne segrega-
tion of zinc (the maJor element) from cadm1.umi a maximum of 't- 14% in
run nwnber 2 and 'v 18% J.n run number 3 since the concentration of
cadmloUIn is sa small, this segregation was not investigated further.
Plots of theoretical collectlon and separation efficiencies
of zinc and J.ron are also shown in Figures 6.20 and 6.21. The model
underpredicts the collection efficJ.enc1es for both elements; a posslble
explanation for this underpredictlon is that the particle size dlstribution
used ln the slmulatlon l.S lncorrect since the particles may be agglomerates
(see Section 6.3.6 for explanat1.on). The theoretlcal separatlon effl-
ciency lS very small and agrees with the experimental values; this l5
expected since the theorctical collection efficJ.encles of Zn and Fe are
very similar to each other.
6.4.8 Scanning Electron Microscopy
Scanning electron micrograph5 were also obtained for the
zinc smel ter dust. Figures 6.22 and 6.23 show a group of partic1es

i
(
<
.0..
Figure 6.22. Scanning electron rnicrograph of
group of particles: Mapping for
iron : Zinc smelter dust.
Figure 6.23.
--
\
......
......
w
Scanning electron rnicrograph of the
sarne particles as in Figure 6.20:
Mapping for zinc: zinc smelter dust.
\
114
(agglomerates) with X-ray scanning superimt;>osed for iron and zinc
respective1y. It is apparent fram these micrographs that the elements
iron and zinc are even1y distributed over the entire field scanned.
Sorne quantitative values were obtained fr?m Fi9ures 6.22
and 6.23 using the same procedure as that used for the Noranda dust.
The resu1ts are sununarised be10w in Table 6.16
A statistical t test (95% confidence level) shows that
-
.
there is no difference between the means Xl and Thus we can
say that lron and zinc are evenly distributed aver aIl the particles.
Figure 6.24 shows an EDAX of the z ~ n srne1 ter dust. The Ka and
Ki3 peaks of ~ r o n occur at (6.4 eV) and (7.1 eV) respectively
and the Ka and KB peaks of zinc occur at ru 8.6 eV and ru 9.7 eV
respectively, as shawn. From the peak heights, it is apparent that both
of these elements are present in high concentrations in the partic1es.
6.4.9 Conclusions
From the scanning electron microscope resul ts we conclude
the following:
(1) The particles of the zinc smelter dust are
agg lomer a tes.
1
, .
115
f
/
Figure 6.24 " Energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDAX)
of a bunch of partiales: Zinc SUIe l ter dust.
( 1
,
Il
1
\
..
116
(
TABLE 6.15
VALUES OF DI-ELECTRIC C O ~ S T N T S SIMULATED IN SRI COM-
-J
PUTER MODEL ZINC SMELTER DUST
ELEMENT DI-ELECTRIC CONSTANT
Zn 1.9 2.9 5.0 7.0
Fe 3.0 5.0 7.0, 9.0

TABLE 6.16
COMPARISON OF THE CONCENTRATION OF IRON/ZINC

IN A GROUP OF PARTICLES: ZINC SMELTER DUST
SAMPLING POINT NO. OF DOTS (Fe) NO. OF DOTS (Zn)

Fe / Zn
1 10 Il 0.91
2 13 Il 1.18
3 22 18
1.22 q
4
~ O
14
1.43
5 8 6 1.33
6 15 16 0.93
7 14 20 0.54
8 18 19 0.95
-
15 14.37 X = 1.06
Avg
117
(
(2) AlI the particles of the zinc srnel ter dust con-
tain -both zinc and Iron in approximately the
same ratio.
This confirms the results of the cascade impactor and
\
cyclone which indicated that the iron and zinc had the sarne particle size
distributions.
(3 ) X-ray diffraction studies showed that zinc is
present in the form ZnS;ZnSO 4' iron in the
form 1 Fe
3
0
4
and copper and cadmium as sulphates.
(4) No appreciable segregation of l.ron from z ine was ob-
tained by passlng the dust through the ESP.
Cadmlum showed sorne segregatl.on, h ~ e v e r the eon-
centration of thls element 1%) was tao smal1
for this segregation ta be useful.
(5) 'The theoretiea,l ,elemental collection effieiencies of
,
Zn and Fe are weak functions of di-electric con-
stant.
(61 The SRI model underp.tedicted the collection of the
Iron and zinc particles. The prediction of the
separation efficiency of iron from zinc, however,
(
agreed very closely with the experimental results.

(
118

6.5 Ontario Hydre Power ;plant Fly Ash
6.5.1 Introduction
Some experiments were carried out on samp1es of fly ash
obtained from Ontario Hydro coal fired power generating plant (November,
1981) to acquire sorne on the chemical composition, precipi-
tation a,nd possible segregation characteristics of the dust. The fly
ash obtained was different from that ana1ysed by Curtis (1977) (Table 3.1)
since it was produced from the combustion of different coals. The e1e-
ment of major interest was
Cyclone analyses were carried out to investigate elemental
segregation due to size differences; the elements ana1ysed for were ,V ,
Fe. and Ti. The densi ty of the fly ash was found ta be
measured by the Helium Pynometer.
3
2.58 g/cm as
One exper mental run thraugh the ESP was done at 38 kV
and 5 mis to investigate the collection efficiency of the dust; the
dust was fed by a screw feeder and the size distributions measured by a
cascade impactor. X-ray fluorescence analyses were done on samples of
the dust collected on the first and last subsections of the ESP ta deter-
mine if there was any in tht! concentrations of elements,
primarily Titanium and Iron. The dust was aiso examined wi th the elec-
tron micrdscope and EDAX
..
~ ..
RUN
1
2
\ -
.'
TABLE 6.17
RESULTS OF CYCLON& ANALYSIS ON ONTARIO HYDRO FLY ASH
V (\)
*
N.D
*
~
*
N.D
*
FEED
'Jii (\)
~
0.35
0.36
0.35
Not detected
Fe (ifl)
2.50
2.56
...
2.53
V (%)
*
N.D
1t
N.D
*
N.D
CATCH
Ti (%)
0.40
0.41
0.41
Fe (%)
2.32
2.28
2.30
)
V (%)
* -
N.D
*
N.D
* -
N.D
OVERFLOW
Ti (%)
3.83
3.89
3.96
---
Fe (%)
3.24
3.l2 -
3.18
.....
IV
o
l '

!
j
L
3'.J
.
"
.
1
(
....... '

121
\ -
l'ABLE 6.18
CONDITIONS AND GLOBAL
FOR THE POWER PLANT FLY ASH
RUN
-
u (m/S) v (kV) MATElUAL MMD (lJl11) Tl (Il)
4 5 38 overa11 dust 4.1 93.41
TABLE 6.19
NON-CUMULATIVE COLLECTION EFFICIENCY FOR THE POHER PLANT FLY ASH
:::=os 1
RUN MATERIAL INCREMENT NUMBER
(1+2) , (3+4) , (5+6) , , 17+8) ,
4 overall dust 46.47 31.19 10.24 5.51

,
. "
...
,
_ .. - ..
j
i
., 1
1
l'
1
i
1

(
,
...
122
The relative hoUlllidity was 28% and the temperature was
295 K
The overall size distribution, as measured by the cascade
ilnpactor, is shawn in Figure 6.25 i the mean mass diameter is rv 4.1 }lm
Figure 6.26 shows a plot of collection efficiency vrsus dimen-
sionless length of the precipitatori the cumulative overall collection
efficiency was 93.4%.
6.5.4 Fluorescence
Samples were taken in the first and last sections of the
ESP and analysed by X-ray fluorescence to determine if there was any
segregation of the elements (primarily Fe and Ti) in the fly ash along
the ESP length.
Table 6.20 the ratio of the peak heights (ratio
of concentrations) for the elements identified in both dust samples .
The ratio of the peak for Titanium was close to
unitYi this contradicts the results of the cyclone which showed that
titanium was concentrated the smaller particles and 50 sbould be selec-
tively precipitated the latter stages of tbe ESP. A
explanation is that there was interference when titanium was analysed
............---..,....- ..... -
()
'--

--/"
..

CI)
f2.
r
..
\
.-
:
.. l'
\
. '
100. i i i - 1 i
Powe; Plant flYash:
Ove rail size distribution:
r

,
i
- !
,
1


1
,.
i .-
'.
1
1
"/(u ....

101-


) ,
1
D, microns
Figure 6.25.
Overall distribution of the power-plant.fly
(Anderson MK III Impactor)
1
j.
.
"" .
-'
02
ash' at the
,.
('
.
..
,
'.
.. -,
:.
" .-
..
..
ESP
. -
,
:;-
,.-
.' '
inlet
,,-..
"
\
'.
"".
..
'.
-.,
.,

w
.-
(
"
, '
\
(
)
,,,,"
10
, "
38'-kV,5m/s
Power Plant flYash:
Overall collection
efficiencies :


"


...
L '
Figure 6.26.
Overall collection efficiency of power plant
fly -ash versus dimensionless length. ",
124
i
(
i .
1
1
-_. -
/""'"',
:"
,-..
TABLE 6.20
RATIO OF PEAK HEIGHTS (INLET!OUTLET) FOR DIFFRENT ELEMENTS
~
IN THE TWO OUST SAMPLES ONTARIO HYDRO FLY ASH
ELEMENT Ka , n=l
1
Ka
l
, n"'2
Ka 2' 1"''''1
Ka
2
, n=2 Ka
2
, n=3
K ~ l n=1
K8
3
, n=l
Ti 1.0. 1.0
,
Fe 0.73 0.69
Zn 0.71 0.73 0.71 ,
..
Cu 0.83 0.84
Cd 0.97 0.95
Sn 1.07 1.08 1.10
Sr 1.23
.,
1.28 1.23
Ni 1.03
.
3
n = order ot reflection.
1
....
N
Ut
- .. - - ~ - - ~ - - _ .... _...., ... - - ~ ..... - ~ . . . . . " ~ < ~ .............. ~ ~
(
\
126
using the atamic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Salcedo (1981 result-
ing in erroneous results.
Iron showed an enrichment in the latter stages of the ESP
which agreed with the cyclone results that iron is concentrated in smal1er
particles. >
Since titanlum is evenly distributed and lron shows sorne
concentration in the latter stages, segregation (although very small) lS
possible between these two elements; contamination of iron by titanium,
however, wlll be a problem lf the dust in the lat ter stages is recovered.
The other elements 1dentif1cd were z ~ Cu, Cd, Sn, Sr, and
Ni with the oncentrations of Cu, Cd and Ni bcing very small (small
peak heights) and the concentratlon of Zn, Sn and Sr bClng higher
(larger peak helghts) . zinc and copper showed enrlchrnent ln the latter
stages of the ESP Strontium showed enrlchrnent in the earlier stages 1n-
dicatlng that this element may be concentrated in the coarscr partisles.
1
The ratio for tin and nickel wcre close ta unlty (Sllghtly greater) lndi-
cating that these elements are eyenly distr1buted with partlclc Slze.
Segregatlon of lron from Zlnc then 1S not possible since
both of these elements concentrate in the latter sections of the ESP
Segregation of strontium from the rest of the components
(
,
___ -L--__ ~ __ _
(
seems likely since this element is preferentia11y deposited in the
earlier stages of the ESP.
6.5.5 Scanning Electron Microscope
127
microscope.
Samples of the f1y ash were under the electron
Figure 6.27 shows a typica1 group of particles ex l,OO}
the diameter of the largest partlcle was about 2.7 \lm and that of the
smallest was about 0.8 \lm . Thesc are much smal1er than the MMD found
by the cascade impactor indlcatlng that good disperslon was not obtalned
in the feeder. Figure 6.28 shows the EDAX of a large and a SIDall
partlc1e superimposed with the dots representing the large partLc1es.
7.1 eV
The Ka and KS peaks of lron occur at 6.4 eV and
respectlvely with the peak for sma11er particle belng about
1.6 tlmes hlgher than that for the larger partlcle. Thls agrees wlth the
results of the cyclone and ESP (X-ray fluorescence) which indicated that
iron is more concentrated in the smaller particles.
The Ka and KS peaks of tltanlum occur at 4.5 eV and
4.95 eV respetlvely wlth the Ku peak barely vlslble. The concentra-
tions of TltanlUffi ln the large and small partlcles arc equal since the peak
heights (Kr,) are the SaillC. ThlS conflrms the results of the ESP that
titanium is evenly dlstrlbuted with particle size.
\
J
..
Figure 6.27.
..... ,"J;.""'....
Scanning electran rnicrograph af a
group of particles (X 10,000)
Power fly ash.
".
Figure 6.28.
c
,..-...

Energy dispersjve analysis of
X-rays (EDAX) of a large and a
srnall partie le superimposed.
1-'
't0
<Xl
(
from Curtis (1977), *ith the values given in Table 6.20 for the three
common elements, Ti, Sr and Fe show very good agreement for the
first two and poor agreement for the In the case of iron,
Curtis reported that the was 1.28 (> 1)
130
that there was a preferentlal collectlon ln the sections of the
ESPi the enrlchment ratlo found ln study was 0.73 1) indlcating
that there was a preferential collectlon in,the latter sectlons.
Possible explanatlons that can account for this
are: (a) The two samples of fly ash were obtalned from the combustlon of
different coals and so may have elemental size dlstrlbutionsi
Iron is probably'concentrated the larger ln the fly ash
analysed by Curtls (1977) and so precipltate preferentlally ln the
earller sectlons the fly ash used ln thlS study has lron concentrated
in the smaller and sa precipitate preferentlally ln the latter
section; (b) Also the sampllng technlques used were dlfferent. Curtls
(1977) collected the precipitated dust ln bulk before analyslng for the
elements; thlS analysls was then compared to the analysis of the post-
ash. In thlS study, the dust was collected ln sections and
the elemental the flrst and last sectlons compared.
6.5.7 Conclusions
From the results of the experiments done on the sample of
fly ash received from Ontario Hydro, the following conclusions can be made.
\
(
1
..
(
(1) Vanadium was not detected in the fly ash, hence
its segregation characteristics cannot be
studied.
(2) From the results of the cyclone analyses, ESP
(X-ray fluorescence) and electron microscope,_ it
can be concluded that iron LS concentrated in the
smaller particles.
(3) From the results of the ESP (X-ray fluorescence)
and electron zinc and copper are con-
centrated in the smaller particles, cadmium, nickel
and titanium are evenly with particle
size and strontium is
particles.

in the larger
(4) Sorne segregation of iron from titanium is possible,
however, contamination of iron by titanium will be
high.
131
(5) ComparLson of the enrichmept ratios reported by Curtis"
(1977) to those obtained in this study showed good
agreement for tLtanium and strontium but poor agree-
ment for irone

(
132
'6.6 Incinerator Ely Ash
6.6.1 1 Introduction
Two samples of fly ash were taken from hoppers at the
inlet and outlet of the electrostatic preclpitator, at the Des carrires
InClnerator in Montreal.
a design efficiency of 95% .
The electrostatic precipltator has
The dust was by conducting X-ray fluorescence
analysis on both samples to whether any segregation of elements
occurred in the ESP No addltlonal dust characterlzation or laboratory
scale experiments or theoretical modelling were warranted.
6.6.2 X-ray Fluorescence Analysis
The two samples of Fly Ash were scanned over a range of
28 = 100
0
ta provlde a analysls of its major elemental
constituents.
The outputs of the strlp chart recorder were very
for both samples, ln both the posltlon and intensity of the peaks. This
indicates that there was no preferential deposltion of any of the elements
in the fly ash lt passes through the ESP.
1
{
"
<7
li
Analysis of the peaks, from both samples, reveal that
the fly ash is rich in the following elements:
(a) Zinc
(b) Iron
(e) Tin
strong Ka
l
and Ka
2
peaks lat an order
of reflection {n = 1)] and KCl
l
peak
(0 = 2) were identified.

strong Ka
l
(n = 1),
KaZ
(n == 2) and
Ka
1
(n = 1) peaks were identified.
strong Ka
1
(n = 3), KCl
I
(n = 2) and
KSI (n = Z) peaks were
\'
The following elements were present in smal1er concentrations (shorter
peak heights).
(d) Copper - a small Ka
l
(n = 1), a small K8
2
(n = 1)
(e)
and a very small KSI (n = 1) peaks were

Titanium - a small Ka
l
(n = 1) and smaller (n
and K8
3
(n = 1) peaks were identified.
133
1)
Table 6.21 compares the peak heights identified for both
dust samples. It is that the intensities are very similar sinee
the ratios, in aIl the cases, are close to unity.
(

(l'
ELEMENT
~ n c
Iron
Tin
Copper
Titanium
'"
-'
4

t
TABLE 6.21
RATIO QF PEAK HEIGHTS (INLET/OUTLEt) FOR DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
IN THE TWO DUST SAMPLES FROM THE MUNICIPAL INCINERATOR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Ka
l
, n=l Ka
2
, n=l Ka
l
..' n::;2 Ka
l
, n=3 Ka
2
, n=2 KS
l
, n=l KI\, n=2
0.97 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.92
0.96 0.96 0.88
0.88 0.95 1.00
0.97 1.1
0.93
C
0.99

" n order of reflection
,
,---.
K/32' n=l
0.97
....
w
~
. .)
....
\
135
(
...
6.6.3 Conclusions
From these X-ray fluorescence analyses, it can be concluded
that no preferential deposition of any element was obtained as the dust
passed through the ESP. Thus, no segregation of the elements in the
dust was possible and further experiments were not needed.
1
o
. "
()

/
(

..
\
(
(
1
...
136
CHAPTER
SRI MODELLING OF,THE DUST
IN AN INDUS TRIAL ESP: COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA
,
7.1 Introduction
SRI simulations of the collection of the overall dust
were performed by simulating separately the collection of the Cu rich
. ,
particles and the (Pb +-Zn + Cd) rich particles using the dimensions
and operating conditions of an industrial ESP (Noranda).
This ESP has three electrical sections operating at
\ 53 kV
and 170 mA, 44 kV and 290 mA and 42 kV and 390 mA re-
spectively ,from inlet to outlet. The physical dimensions ESP
needed for computer simulations are given in Appendix A, Table A-l
0
The temperature of operation is 312 C and the air velocity the
ESP is 0.85 mis The particle distribution is given
in Table 6.4 (sarne as for 1aboratory scale ESP) data
.
are given in Table 7.1
The elementa1 collection efficiencies for aIl
tions were determined in one simulation by entering the three
conditions into the input data (in the case of the laboratory
scale ESP, only one set of e1ectrical conditions is used). The output
from one section (particle size distribution, remaining dust loading) is

t
f
1
a;

.. 1
. ."
r ,
1
(
1
r
\
..
TABLE 7.1
INPUT DATA FOR COMPUTER MODELLING IN INDUSTRIAL ESP :
NORANbA DUST
Gas F10wrate
Pressure
Viscos;i.ty
Ion Mobility
Gas Velocity
Dust Bulk Resistivity
J
Temperature
(

3
46.7 m /5
1 Atm
-5
2.74 x la kg!m-s
0.854 mis
2 x 10
8
n m
585' K
/
137
\
~
'.
(
138
fed automatical1y into the next section as input data. A copy of the
computer output for a typical simulation is given in Appendix B
Several simulat10ns were done uS1ng d1fferent conditions:
(1) Simulatl.Ons were done using the above electrifJ:
(2)
candi tians and the present dust loading of
92.5 tons/day
3
(20.9 g/m )
, Oust loading was increased to
3
120 tons/day (27.1 g/m )
using the same electrical conditions.
(3) Oust loading was increased by three times the pre-
sent condit10ns to 277.5 tons/day
3
(62.7 g/m)
using the same electrical cond1t1ons.
(4) The effect of current on the collect;.on efficiency
was investigated by comparing three simulations
done on Section l for Cu at 100 mA, 170 mA
and 300 mA respectively.
The obJectives of the above simulations were ta de termine
the conditions at which the maximum segregation of Cu from (Pb + Zn + Cd)
can be obtained. Also, S1nce the smelter will saon be operating at 1n-
creased throughput, 1t was desired ta investigate the effect of increased
dust loading on both collection and separation efficiencies.
(
(
"
139
7.2' Simulation Results for Present Operating Conditions
were done wi th a dust loadlng of 92.5 tons/day
3
(20.9 g/m) uSlng the present operating conditions of the ESP

Figures 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 show plots of elemental collectlon and separa-
tion efficiencles versus dlmensionless lenyth for the three separate
electrlcal sectlons of the ESP i each electrical sectlon was dlvided
lnto eight subsections for the calculations. Figure 7.4 shows' plots of
elernental collection and separation efflciency versus length for the three
electrlcal sections comblned. A maximum separation efflclency,
Cu - (Pb + Zn + Cd), of 'V 31.5% occurs in the subsectlOn of the
first electrical sectlon and then the separation efficlency decreases
a,J.ong the length of the ESP Figures 7.1 and 7.4 show that the
separatlon efflclency obtained at the end of the electrlcal section 15
Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show that the separatlon efficiency in the
second and thlrd electrlcal sections very small: < 7% ln Sectlon II and
< 5% in Sectl0n III This can be attn.buted to the fact that most of
the Cu WhlCh is concentrated in the larger partlcles, lS coilected
in Sectl0n l (Av 90%) hence, the dust leaving Section l and entering
Section II has the remaining Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) wlth simllar partl-
cIe size dlstrlbutlons and these wlii have slffillar collectJ.on cfflciencles.
Verification of this was by simulating the collectlon efficiencies
of Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cdl only Section l to obtaln the particle
distributJ.on of the dust leaving. Table 7.2 below compares the
partie le size distributions of Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) entering and
leaving Section l The lnput dust Ioading was
3
20.9 g/m
,(
, (
"
....
(.)
w
.'
,
10 '-___ - ___ -_-y---r-"!'""l100
Noranda dust:
SRI Model:
Industrial conditions:
53kV.17OmA
Cu-(pb+ Zn+Cd)
('

-fi)
w
Figure 7.1. Plots of collection and separation effi-
'ciency versus dimension1ess 1ength in
Section l : 20.9 g/m
3

53 kV, 170 mA
L
140
(
'*-
(J
w
Figure 7 ~ .
1 0 0 ~ ~ - - - - - - ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 0 0
~ ~
4
Noranda dust:
SRI Model:
Industrial conditions:
44kV,290mA
Cu - Pb+Zn+Cd
Plots of collection and separation effi-
ciency versus dimensionless length in
Section Il : 20.9g!IQ3 13.04 gr!acfJ
44 kV, 290 mA
141
-

-
1/1
W
,
c
-

-(.,)
w
10
Figure 7.3
(

Noranda dust:
SRI Model:
Industrial conditions:
42kV,390mA
Cu--.
f--- Pb+Zn+Cd
Plots of collection and separation effi-
ciency versus dimensionless 1ength in
Section III : 20.9 g/rn
3
(3.04 gr/acf]
42 kV, 390 mA
142
*
-
en
W
,
...
1
\
,
l
{
1
l

l
1
"
(
0
-
-
* -
U
w
90
80
Noranda
du st
Pb+Zn+Cd
()
Cu- (Pbt-Zn+Cd)
143
90
80
70
60
if(
-
en
50
w
40.
,
0 2-4 6 -8 10 12 -14 16 18 20 22 24 - ---- l
LENGTH
Figure 7.4. Plots of collect10n and separatlon efficiency
versus length for an three
sections: 20.9 g/m
3
[3.04 gr/acf] . '
.t


---

,.
DIAMETER
0.13
0.27
0.41
0.65
1.40
2.15
3.25
4.75
7.65
60.0
. '
TABLE 7.2
,.
1
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS OF COPPER AND (LEAn, ZINC AND CADMIUM)
ENTE RING AND LEAVING SECTION l NORANDA DUST
Cu Pb + Zn + Cd
% S (ENTERING 1) % Sw (LEAVING 1) % S (ENTERING 1) % s-
w w w
0.0 0.0 0.0
1.65 8.51 1.72
3.42 24.05 6.23
8.24 53.1 16.45
18.19 83.3 41.31
23.63 95.6 57:43
30.51 99.3 70.43
39.23 100.0 81.63
59.04 100.0 89.05
100.0 l'bo.o
l'
lfLOO.O
(LEAVING 1)
0
5.06
22.12
36.50
58.96
83.79
96.13
99.75
100.0
100.0

....
....

.c:.
ib: 2 * ft' tetWf ...... _ .. .. f -_ ... ... ... , 'Jo"" ... _ '''"_ .... .."'- .. .. .. - .- ......... ...,. .... --
(
(
145
From Table 7.2, i t is apparent that the MMD of Cu
ente ring and leaving Section l is 'V 6.5 ~ and 0.6 ~ respectively,
and the MMD of (Pb + Zn + Cd) lS
'V
1.8 ).lm and
'V
1.1 Ilm respecti vely.
This demonstrates that most of the large part1cIes (Cu) are collected
in Section l and the MMD of Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) r1ch particles
entering Sect10n II ~ s similar (0.6]Jm and 1.1]Jm respect1vely), 50
.{,
similar collection efficienc1es are expected.
Figure 7.4 shows that the overall collection efficiencies
(all three sections) for Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) are 99.3% and 96.9%
respectively.
Simulat10ns predict that with the present operating condi-
tians, a segregation of above 20% is attainable by collect1ng aIl the
dust ln Sectlon l Even hlgher separat lons may be obtained lf only the
dust in the flrst half of Section l 15 collected separately. The follow-
ing sectlon descrlbes how overaii collectlon and separat10n efficlenc1es
vary by vary1ng dlfferent operatlng parameters.
)
7.3 Simulation Result5 for Increased Dust Loadings:
3 3
Load Increased to 27.1 g/m and 62.7 g/m
Simulations were done with the same electrical and operating
conditions above,with the exception that the dust loading was increased to
. 3
120 tons/day (27.1 g/m ), an increase of 30%.
L
Figure 7.5 shows plots of collection and separation
efficiencies versus dimensionless length for aIl three sections of the
ESP The plots for the lndividual sections are not shown as ln the
slffiulatlon Slnce aIl the information is obtalnablc from the
146
composite plot of Figure 7.5 The collection and separatlon efficien-
cies obtalned Wl th the lncreased dust loadlng is very Slmllar to those
obtained ln the precedlng section. The overall collectlon efflcieney
for (Pb + Zn + Cd) is 96.7% and for Cu lS 99.2%.
About 90% of the eurrent is earrled by ions in the ESP
inereasing the dust loading then will not alter the current appreciably
but may cause corona quenchlng, sinee as the dust loadlng gets higher,
there rnay not be enough lons ta charge aIl of the partieles.
The following paragraphs dlSCUSS the effect of a maJor in-
erease (3 times) in the dust loadlng on the overall and elemental collec-
tion efflcieneles whlle keeplng the eleetrical condltions unchanged.
Inereases in dust loadlng is lmportant sinee Noranda lS conslderlng
enrichrnent which will result ln increased dust loadlngs to the ESP.
Figure shows plots of eollectlon and separation ef-
ficiencies versus dirnensionless length. Here, the possibillty of corona
quenching is even greater sinee the number of dust partlcles has tripled
while the number OD ions has rernained the sarne.
f
~
CJ
(
LLl
-147
10orIIIJ,-r--:c:::!::::c======,100
40
SRlmodel
Noranda dust
Pb+Zn+Cd
Cu-(Pb+Zn+Cd)
60
50
40
O L L ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20}2 24
LENGTH
Figure 7.5. Plots of co11ectlon and separation efficiency
versus length for aU three
sections: 27.1 g/m
3
[3.94 gr/acf)
'2.
-U)
w
" l
1
-
*
()
w
(
148
90
1
80
Cu ---.1
70
60
j
50
40
Cu-(Pb+Zn+Cd)
o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
LENGTH
Figure 7.6. Plots of collee han and separjltion efficiency
versus length for aIl three -
sections: fIl.7 g/m
3
[9.12 gr/ac.f]
~
-ri)
w
(
,
1
.-
. ,
149
The maxj.mum separation efficiency in Section' l is 32%
It is apparent that separation of are obtainable by
collecting the dust the first six subsections of the first
cal section. The ovenUI collection efficiency for (Pb + Zn + Cd) i5
95.9% and for Cu is 98.9\.
With an increased dust loading, we expect a thicker dust
layer. for identical collection times. Table 7.3 below compares the dust
layer thiekness, for the simulations done on the first electrical section,
at three different values of dust loading. These values were obtained by
summing the predicted thicknes5 of the Cu layer and the (Pb + Zn + Cd)
layer at each subsection; the contribution of each eomponent depends on
its concentration in the dust. Because the dust would con-
tain some void, the actual dust thickness would be somewhat greater.
The thickness of the layer increases 'by about 2.7
(a.veraging the thickness in aIl the subsections) when the dust loading is
tripled; re-entra1.nment May then be a severe problem since most of the ,Cu
(large particles) are collected l.n the earlier sections. This can
be solved by increasing .the frequency of rapping.
Figure 7.7 shows plots of separation efficiencies versus
dimensionless length for the three different dust loadings simulated; it
\
is apparent that the separation maxima is shifted downstream as the load-
ing increases.
.
,
This ls expected sinee as the dust loading increases, the
'.
"
1
1
1
t
t
1
!
1
Cf
",'

If"
(
150
TABLE 7.3
1
'COMPARISON OF DUST LAYER THICKNESS (mm/min)
AT DIFFERENT OUST LOADINGS /
u
20.Q g(m
3
t.
.
SUBSECTIONS x.,10
2
1 1.405
2 1.399
1
3 1.109
4 0.920
S
0.786
6 0.669
7 0.565
8 0.476
i!:;:
- ... ---- ....
DUST LOADINGS
27.1 9/m
3
THICKNESS mmL':min
x 10
2
1.598
1.737
1.423
1,217
1.045
0 .. 895
0.760
0.643
,"
\
"
3
62.7 g(m
x 10
2
4.252
3.145
3.018
2.656
2.422
2.245
2.052
1.771
1
..
o. 1. 1 Mi
,
.
i
lUi'

(
152
charging field becomes poorer. A slightly greater segregation is also ,
obtained with the higher dust loading because of the poorer charging en-
vironment. This behaviour was observed in bath the simulations and
experimental work of Salcedo (1981)
Table 7.4 below compares the ratio of charges by
"\
ions and the particles for the dust loading
3
27.1 g/m and
3.
62.7 g/m
respectively. The ratio of .J (ion) 1 J (particle) very high at the
beginning of the first since most of the are
not yet charged (entrance effect) and as such most of the current
by By comparing the ratio for the two dust loadings,
it is obvious that the fraction of the current carried by the
/
greater with the lower loading; this is expected since there are less
.
particles to be charged. In aIl cases however, the fraction of current
.
carried by the ions larger than that carried by the
cles. An increase in dust loading then will not alter the current
but can cause corona It is apparent,that the
ratio J (ion) 1 J (particle) decreases along the first electrical section
and then increases along Secticms II and III for both Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd).
These results are expected since in II and III the amount of dust
diminishes, hence more 10ns are available to carry current. In
Section l, the concentration of dust particles is st111 high, hence more
ions will be used to charge particles resulting in less current by
1)
ions and more current carried by the particles.
153'

~
(
TABLE 7.4
.-
r,
t
/
RATIO OF CURRENT CARRIED BY IONS TO PARTICLES FOR
THE DUST LOADING 27.1 g(m
3
AND 62.7 g(m
3
RESPECTIVELY
LOADING 27.1 g(m
3
LOADING 62.7 g(m
3
SECTION Cu (Pb + Zn
+ Cd' Cu (Pb + Zn + Cd)
1 381 393 553
.'.
526
2 146 136 158 155
0-
3 97.3 80 80.6 -78.8
4 82.4 58.2 51.1 50.0
5 77 .1 50.5 37.6 35.8
6 77 .1 46.9 32.1 " 28.3
7 '80.0 45.9 30.0 1 24.2
8 85.0 46.3 29.6 22.7
9 170 86.8 55.6 38.4
10 181 89.3 57.4 37.4
11 198 94.3 60.6 38.2
12 218 100.5 65.1 39.9
13 241 108.2 70.7 42.4
14 ,268 117 78.0 45.4
15 299 127.8 86.0 48.9
16 336 140 95.3 53.1
17 500 204 140 76.9
18 564 222 156 84.0
19 636 247 175 91.8
20 720 272 196 102
21 817 302 220 112
22 929 337 250 125
23 1064 377 283 139
24 1213 422 322 154
1
1
-"
i
t
(
(
\
, 154
As stated earlier, an increase in the dust loading will
require an increase in the rapping frequency resulting in rapping puffs
being produced. This problem is easily solved since most of the dust
produced by the puffs in Section l can be collected in Sections II and
III it has been shawn above from Table 7.4 that many more free ions
")
are available in these sections than 1n Section l, hence more particle
charging and collection is possible.
7.4 Effect of Varying Current on Collection Efficiency
~ h preceding sections, the only parameter varied was
the inlet dust load1ng with the electrical conditions being the same in
aIl cases. Since the electrical conditions significantly affect the
collection efficiency, it was decided that this parameter should be varied'
also. The obJective is to ma1nta1n electrical conditions that will give
a high segregation of Cu from (Pb + Zn + Cd) in the earlier subsections
of the first electrical section and that will also provide an electric
field that will give a high collection efficiency.
The parametars of interest are the applied voltage and
curren't. Since the applied voltage provides the collecting field, it was
decided that this parameter could be changed to give different electrical
fields; the corresponding current is unknown, hence it was decided to do
sorne simulations to check if the changes in current affect the collection
efficiencies of the dust particles. If the collection efficiency isinde-
(
!
[
155
pendent of current, then simulations can be done using different voltages
(different electrical conditions) with a reasonable value of current to
achieve the objectives stated earlier.
The effect of current on collection efficiency was investi-
gated using only the first electrical section of the ESP (53 kV) with
an inlet dust loading of
3
20.9 g/m The input values of current were
350 mA, 170 mA and 100 mA respectively. Figure 7.8 shows plots of
collection e f f i ~ e n y versus dimensionless length (for Cu) for the above
stated three values of current. It is obvious that current does signifi-
cantly affect the collection efficiency of the Cu particles, hence the
electric field cannat be varied by only changing voltage but also the
current as weIl.
The portion of the SRI mdel that generates its own
,
voltage-current curve was not available when this work was being done,
hence no values of predicted collection efficiencies were obtained when
both'the voltage and current were unknown.
7.5 Camparison of Theoretical Predictions and Industrial Data
for the Noranda Dust
Chemical analyses of the dust were obtained fram Noranda
at various points along the ESP as shown in Figure 7.9 ~ sampling was
\
(,'
<J,
i
t
1
156
53kV
9
SRI Model
100mA
Figure 7.8. Plots of collection efficiency'versus dimension-
less length in Section l for differnt currents
at a voltage of 53 kV. Loading i5 20.9 g/m
3
[3.04 gr/acf] .
,
-_."---------
,
t-
'f
,

1

1
,
---
157
c
. '
" " . 1
1
!
t
1
1F 1M
1
18
1
1
0
1
Gas in

1
1
Gas out
1
2M
Figure 7.9. Position of sampling points a10ng the indus trial ESP.
,
(
!
l58
done at the rnidpoints of each of the three electrical sections (F i5
Section l, M is Section 2, B is Section 3) on bath sides of
ESP Sarnples were obtained simply by collecting the dust before it
entered the hoppers. Tables A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5 Appendix A show the
raw data for Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd respectively; four different set of
sarnples taken over a period of one rnonth. The Chauvenet's criterion
(Ho1man (1971)) was used to test the data for possible
and denote the rneans and standard for the raw data
and and denote the rneans and standard after applying
the Chauvenet's criterion. Tables 7.5 and 7.6 values of the rnean
concentration of Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) at the rnidpoints
of each of the three electrical sections. These values were obtained by
concentration of the elements both hoppers at the rnid-
points of the three sections.
Figure 7.10 shows plots.of concentration of Cu and
(Pb + Zn + Cd) versus length for the industrial dabp and computer
simulations; the concentrations for the were calculated by
assurning that the elernents are present in the sulphates. Ideally, plots
of collection versus distance should be cornpared; however,
no such data could be obtained frorn Noranda. Figure 7.10 shows that the
general trend the same concentrations for (Pb + Zn + Cd)
and decreasing concentrations for Cu) for both sets of data. This trend
agrees with the theory, p05tulated earlier, that Cu i5 preferentially
precipitated in the front sections of the ESP and (Pb + Zn + Cd) is
(
precipitated in the latter sections.
,
(:
TABLE 7.5
,
'.
- .
CONCENTRATIONS OF COPPER AT THE MIDPO!NTS OF THE THREE
ELECTRICAL) SECTIONS: (NORANDA DUST)
~ ~ !!..J!L
-
X 12.07 6.26 2.35
--- ----
(J
4.95
(
4.09 1.30
xia
2.44 1.53 1.95
TABLE 7.6
CONCENTRATIONS OF LEAn, ZINC AND CADMIUM AT THE MIDPO!NTS
OF THE THREE ELECTRICAL SECTIONS (NORANDA DUST)
, ,
~ ~ ~
-
X 36.61 48.38 48.64

-'
-----
0 7 ~ 8
------
6.*-
4.39
Xia
4.83 11.02 7.76

..t
<-
.i'

159
\
\
\
l
1
,
!
. !
~
'\J.'"
,
p. 0
(
1-
e:(
a:
1-
z
W
(J
Z
o
(J
60
50
40
,-
-,
Noranda dust
o Pb+Zn+Cd
Cu
--SRI
LENGTH
( .
./
F!gure 7.10. Concentration ot Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) versus
length for the industrial data and theoretical
predictions: Noranda dust.
160

161
Figure 7.10 also shows the 95% confidence interval for
the industrial data points. It can be seen that the theoretical predic-
tions fall within this confidence interval for (Pb + Zn + Cd) and
borders the lower limit for CU.
1
The deviation of the predicted concentration profiles fram
the mean, for copper, probably not due to re-entrainment since the ex-
perimental are larger than predicted in the earlier sections
of the ESP. Re-entrainment is not expected of the low velocities
of the gas in the industrial ESP (0.85 mis)
The predicted concentration profiles of lead, zinc and cad-
mium show a positive deviation from the mean throughout the ESP length.
This overprediction may be due to the larger parti cIe size distributions
used in the model since the dust was probably not weIl dispersed by the
feeder.
The deviations of bath Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) fram the
means may also be due to sampling errors in the industrial ESP.
7.6 Conclusions
1. With present operating conditions and input dust load-
ing, a maximum separation efficiency of 31.5\ i5
<-
1
;
1

1
. ;
1
, '.
.
2.
predicted in the third subsection of the first e1ec-
trica1 section. The separation efficiency drops
off downstream; separation efficiencies in the
second and third e1ectrical sections are < 7% and
< 5%
With present operating conditions, the separation ef-
of Cu from (Pb + Zn + Cd) is predicted
;;
to be 20% if aIl the dust in Section l is collec-
ted separately.
3. The collection and separation efficiencies obtained
with increased loading
3
(27.1 g/m ) and present
10ading
3
(20.9 g/m) are very similar: collection
efficiency for (Pb + Zn + Cd) is 96.7% and for Cu
99.2% for dust 10ading of
3
27.1 g/m When the
dust loading is tripled
3
(62.7 g/m ) the collection
162
of Cu is 98.9% and for (Pb + Zn + Cd)
is 95.9\.
'.
1
4. With an increased dust 1oading, the separation maximum
is shifted further downstream.
A slightly greater
segreqation of Cu from (Pb + Zn + Cd) is also pre-
dicted with a higher dust loading.
,
'-
/
(
, .
!/
5. The collection efficiency of the dust particles
6.
depends on bath the voltage and current. Hence,
investigation of the collection efficiency of the
..
Noranda dust as a function of changing electrical
conditions must be done by allowing the SRI
model to generate its own voltage-current curve.
Plots of concentratipns versus length fat the
dus trial data and the theoretical predictions
in-
follow the sam general pattern (increasing
concentrations for (Pb + Zn + Cd) and decreasing
concentrations for Cu downstream of the ESP)
This agrees with the theory postulated earlier that
Cu is present in the large particles and
(Pb + Zn + Cd) in the small part1cles. The quanti-
tative agreement 15 also good.
163
, \
\
1
(
..
"
!3.
l
..
164
CHAPTER VIII
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
The chemical segregation of indus trial du st in electro-
,
static precipitators was investigated with the objective of determining
how much experimental work is to predict the extent of segrega-
tion for any dust.
Many instances of observed in industrial ESP's
,
were examined. Four dusts were chas eh for study in this experimental
work. They were:
"
Noranda copper smelter dust.
(b) Canadian zinc smelter dust.
(cl. Ontario power plant fly ash.
(dl , Montreal municipal incinerator fly ash.
EXP EiRIMENTAL
(1) Results from cyclone analyses, cascade impactor analyses
,-
and electron microscopy indicated that there

were two components present in the copper
Cu and (Pb + Zn + Cd) These components have dif-
ferent size distributions and thus segregation is
possible. A maximum segregat:lpn of 32' was obtained
,
..
1
1 ;
'!
1
i
1
,
--
,.....;.'--
(.
t
.'
. .
-
'j
1 (.
1
Cl
" , 9
"
. )
(2)
(3)
(4)
165
.:
for these camponents in the laboratory scale ESP
used.
Results fram cyclone analyses, cascade impactor
and scanning electron mlcroscopy indlcated
(
that Fe and Zn, the major components in the
zinc smelter dust, were contained in the same
.
50 segregation of these elements was
not possible7 no segregation was obtained for these 1
elements in the ESP. There was segregation of
zinc fram cadmium, however, this was not investigated
further since the concenttation of cadmium was too
small l\) for this segregation to be useful.
Vanadium, the element of major interest, was not de-
the Ontario Hydro power plant fly ash.
Cyclone analyses and scanning electron microscopy
indicated that the concentration of iron was greater
in the smaller particles. Enrichment of this element
was obtained in the latter stages of the ESP (where J
#
small particles are captured) agreeing with the dust
"
characterization results.
, .
x-ray fluorescence analyses indicated that there was ,no
1
preferential of any elements in the municipal
-
1
i
,
!
1
l.
166
r
incinerator dust as it the ESP
Segregation was then not possible.
(5 ) It was discovered from this work that dust
terization techniques such as cyclone analyses,
cascade analyses and scanning electron
microscopy gave a good indication of the elemental
size distribution of the dust. X-ray
fluorescence or wet chemical analyses of representa-
tive dust samples,. taken fram the ESP, showed
whether there was any preferential elemental deposi-
tion along the length. These results gave good in-
dications if component segregation of the dust was
possible.
THEORETICAL
(6) In this work, SRI computer simulations were performed
on bath the Noranda copper smelter dust and zinc smelter
dust using the dimensions and operating conditions of a
laboratory scale ESP.
The model underpredlcted the collection efficiency
of both the copper rich particles and the (Pb + Zn + Cd)
rich particles }of the copper smel ter dust wi th the under-
predictions of the smaller particle (Pb + Zn + Cd) being
1
i
1
)
!
t
J
,.
. (
167
/
greater. The theoretical separation efficiencies
showed 900d qualitative and quantitative (maximum
and minimum differences were 12% and 5% respec-
j
tively) agreement with the experimental values.
The lOOdel also underpredicted the collection ef-
ficiency of both iron and zinc in the zinc smelter
dust. However, the qual1tative and quantitative
(about 3% difference) agreement between the theore-
tical and experimental separation efficiencies were
very good.
(7) Simulations were also done on the Norartda "dust using
the dimensions and operating conditions of an indus-
trial ESP. The predicted eoncentratl0n profiles
good qualitative and agreement with
those obtained by sampling in an industrial ESP
\
Comparisons of collection and separation efficieneies ..
were not posslble sinee these values could not be
..
measured. These simulations also indicated that, in
the case of the Noranda dust, segregation could be en-
hanced by removing the dust in sections. Higher dust
.loadings (three could also be used resulting in
very little change in the separation efficiencies
1
,.
i'
f
;,
(
'
~
'-
C
168
It can be concluded that a S,impIe characteriza-
tian of the dust (cyclone analysis, scanning electron
microscopy, X-ray fluorescence) can give a good in-
dication if elemental segregation in any dust is
possible and reasonably good predictions of this segre-
gation can be obtained by SRI modelling.
8.2 Recommendations for Future Work
(1) Suncor fly ash
-
This dust is considered to be a promis-
ing source of vanadium. Simple
characterization wou Id indicate if the
vanadium content can be enriched in an
ESP
~
This dust was unavailable when
tnis work was being done.
(2) Voltage-Current generation: The segregation characteristics
of a dust in an industrial ESP can be
studied at different,electrical conditions
by l l o ~ i n g the program ta generate its
own Voltage-Current CUrve. This section
of the program was not,available during
the course of this work.
,
c
169
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1
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\
1
i
,
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l
.(
\
+
170
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\
,
1
1
1 \
1
1
!
t
l
j
1
i-
l
t
1
171
(
(13) Gooch, J.P. and Francis, N.L. (1975): liA Theoretically Based
-
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,
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\

(14) and McDona1d, J.R. (1976a): "Conference on Partic1e
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\
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(
pp. 1058-1059.
!
1
)
1
1
i
1
i,
1
1
1
1
1
!
(
/
(,
1
r
~ f
,
1
,..
(20)
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i
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1
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/
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(
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"
;
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177
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,
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o
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-.
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..

,AJ:"PENDIX A
TABLES
. .
(
.'
Q
....
'1 0
1

TABLE A-l
PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS AND OPERATING CONDITIONS OP THE LABORATORY
AND INDUSTRIAL ESP NEEDED FOR THE SRI COMPUTER SIMULATION
PARAMETERS
No. of stages
Electrical conditions
Length
No. of baffled stages
Total collection plate area
Total effective wire length
Corona wire radius
Wire to plate spacing
No. of discharge electrodes
per electrical section
Wire to wire spacing
Gas vo1umeOf1owrate
Gas velocity
LABORATORY SCALE ESP
1
up to 40 kV
2.53 m
1
-2
1.95 x 10 m
2
5.78 m
-2
7.85 x 10 cm
8.1 cm
15
15.19 cm .
3
19.32 m /min
5 mis
,-
INDUSTRIAL ESP
3
53 kV, 170 mAi 44 kV, 290 mA;
42 kV, 390 mA; from inlet eto
outlet
3.60 m per stage
4
3 2
1.558 x 10 m
3
3.884 x 10 m
-1
1.27 x 10 cm
12.7 cm
18
20.32 cm
3 3
2.794 x 10 ID /min
mis
,:

..... .... ..... ...,dI
...... , .... _ ...
... !<" ....
r
:r
N
"'>"""'1--
"......
..
. i
IF (%)
11.34
16.10
18.96
*
28.6
x = '18 75
l , . .
al 7.28
x =
2
15.46
a -

TABLE 1\-2
\0
CONCENTRATIONS ALONG LENGTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL
lM (%)
*
2.08
8.'28
6.60
10.18
6.79
3.46
8.35
1. 79

11.68
2.38
2.03
3.58
4.92
4.56
r
2.66
0.81
c
"
"
*
2F (%) c 2M. (t)
7.94 1.90
12.44 1.04
22.10 8.26
5.66 11. 72
12.03 5.73
7.28 5.13
8.68 5.73
3.45 5.13
...
ESP
* -
Points de1eted after app1ying Chauvenet's criteriott.
..

2B (\)
1.07
0.93
*
9.40
4.12
3.88
3.96
2.04
1.80
" .... _tIoI ...... .."", '" ,,,.t ..... .o(.II:l....... ... ""<> ,--""''-'''',....--
,-

.)0
1
W
~
.............
IF (t)
*
4.50
4.54
6.64
6.62
-
Xl
= 5.57 ..
0'1
= 1.05
-
X
2
= 5.57
2
= 1.05
, 1
.... - - - - - ' . ~ . ~ - ~ - - - _ .... - ...
~ ~ ... -

q
TABLE A-3
ZINC CONCENTRATIONS ALONG LENGTH OF THE INDUS TRIAL ESP
lM (%) lB (%) 2F (%) 2M (t)
5.60 5.06 4.96 5.46
8.08 5.62 4.92 5.34
8.62 8J64 6.34 9.60
* * *
10.06 12.08 12.02 12.06
8.09 7.85 7.06 8.11

1.83 3.22 3.37 2.88
,.
8.92 6.44 5.41 6.80
'1.02 1.92 0.81 2.42
..
*
points deleted after applying Chauvenet's criterion.
" ,
*
"
,
" ,-
2B (%)
5.80
.5.30
8.38
12.30
7.92
3.20
6.46
1.59
<>
'---
~
r
~ ....... . . . - t ~ ......... ";t?c. ... ~ - ~ ........... -_ ... ~ ...
. -...
~
)II
1
Ill>


~ t ' -
1"""'"
('
Err;=; '
t
..
TABLE A-4
LEAD CONCENTRATIONS ALONG LENGTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL
._r - ~
~
-
ESP
-------'>
---
IF (%)
10.26
7.44
5.40
3.09
-
Xl
= 6.77
1
== 2.69
-
X
2
= 6.67
2
= 2.69
---------------.... ...
...
TABLE A-5
CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS ALONG LENGTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL ESP
lM- (%) lB (%) (%) 2M (%) 2B (%)
*
12.04 11.56 11.06 12.16 11.46
7.06 12.00 7.82 12!86 12.98
8.92 11.02 4.72 7.30 7.08
...
*
7.46 9.34
,
8.18 8.20 9.02
B.B7 10.98 7.94 10:12 10.13
l.
2.26 1.16 2.59 2.79 2.61
..
7.B1 11.53 7.94 10.12 10.13
0.98 0.49 2.59 2.79 2.61
V
*
Points deleted after applying Chauvenet's Criterion.
"l .. ..... -.....:...:=:.,;:::,... ...... _. ... ---.... -
...
fi
,
.,..
)il
1
0\
1 _;
,
i

\
,)" " __ . ____ .. ,_
o'
B-l

J

p
...
.....,
fa..


1
,
l
1
'\,
/

..


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t.F .R.L.-I:l.T.P. "NO C;O.p.t.
oFIIISlr:lNI, J""I.1 .1978 ,






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