Writing a History Paper

(Adapted from guides produced by Bowdoin College, the College of William and Mary, Dartmouth College, and the University of orth Carolina!

"n many ways, writing a history paper is no different from writing other #inds of papers$ %ou need to focus your topic, write a strong thesis sentence, settle on a structure, write clear and coherent paragraphs, and tend to matters of grammar and style$ "n other ways, however, writing a &istory paper re'uires some understanding of the conventions of the discipline$ A few tips are collected here( Be sure to argue as you narrate$ Whenever you relate an historical event, be sure that there is a purpose to your story$ What point are you trying to ma#e) What 'uestion are you trying to answer) *he details of your narrative should support that argument$ Details that are irrelevant need to be omitted$ Details that distract attention from your main point need to be dealt with in another paragraph$ Don+t ignore evidence that runs counter to your argument$ While this principle is important in all disciplines, it is particularly important in &istory$ %ou will need either to ac#nowledge, concede, or refute that evidence$ Be sure to provide your reader with an ade'uate sense of conte,t$ Considering conte,t is more than simply answering 'uestions of what, who, when, and where (though you must do this as well!$ When setting the conte,t of your argument, you must announce your scholarly position to your reader$ "s the essay about e,ploring the contradictions of republicanism) *hen you need to say so$ Accordingly, you must consider carefully the introductions to your papers$ -pening sentences such as ./ince the beginning of time$$$0 or .&umans have always$$$0 do nothing to provide your reader with an historical conte,t for your argument$ Do your best to understand and respect the integrity of the culture and time period that you are discussing$ Many times our position of hindsight has provided us with information that was not available to the inhabitants of the culture or time period that we are studying$ 1or e,ample, you cannot evaluate 2ictorian society+s approach to .race suicide0 using modern conceptions of demography$ Understand that .common #nowledge0 or .common values0 in any given time period are influenced by numerous factors and are never absolute$ Consider suitable organi3ational strategies$ 1or e,ample, if your paper is an analysis of a te,t, you should choose a structure that reflects the conceptual organi3ation of the piece$ "f, on the other hand, you are comparing two historical events or figures, you will first want to determine the basis of your comparison, and then organi3e your points so that they follow the typical compare4contrast pattern( aaabbb or ababab$ Use the past tense$ "n &istory, the past tense is the tense of choice5it permits you to place a person or event at a particular point in a chronology$ Avoid the sub6ective ."$0 %ou want your reader to feel that your point of view about a particular sub6ect comes from the available evidence, and not from your own personal response$

*his is not to say that your personal response is irrelevant7 rather, it is your 6ob as a scholar to figure out what evidence led to your position on a sub6ect, and then to e,plain fully why it led you there$ Watch your biases$ *hin# about the argument you are ma#ing, and why you are ma#ing it$ &ow does your upbringing4class4nationality4culture contribute to your point of view) Also, write from evidence, not from emotion$ Write about something you care about, but do it without using incendiary language or ad hominem attac#s$

Making a Claim/Developing a Thesis What is an argument) "n academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a .thesis statement,0 bac#ed up with evidence that supports the idea$ inety8nine percent of the time you will need to ma#e some sort of claim and use evidence to support it, and your ability to do this well will separate your papers from those of students who merely provide accumulations of fact and detail$ A good paper will sta#e out a position and prove why it is a good position for a thin#ing person to hold$ When beginning to write a paper, as# yourself, .What is my 'uestion)0 and .What is my point0) "f your papers do not see# to answer a 'uestion and thus have a main point, they cannot be arguing for anything$ As#ing yourself what your point is can help you avoid a mere .information dump$0 A thesis statement tells a reader how you will interpret the significance of the sub6ect matter under discussion$ ote that a thesis is an interpretation of a sub6ect, not the sub6ect itself$ *he subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War " or Moby Dick7 a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel that others might dispute$ A single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph is often a good way to present your thesis to the reader$ *he body of the essay gathers and organi3es evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation$ %our thesis statement gives the reader a preview of the essay+s purpose and goal$ A strong thesis not only grabs the interest of your reader, who now wants to see you support your uni'ue interpretation, it also provides a focus for your argument, one to which every part of your paper refers in the development of your position$ A thesis #eeps the writer centered on the matter at hand and reduces the ris# of intellectual wandering$ 9i#ewise, a thesis provides the reader with a .road map,0 clearly laying out the intellectual route ahead$ When attempting to determine whether your thesis statement is really an argument, as# yourself whether someone could contest what you are claiming$ "f so, then you have formulated a genuine argument$ -nce you have stated that argument at the paper+s beginning, you will spend the rest of the paper( (a! supporting your argument and, (b! rebutting possible attac#s against your argument$ :lay devil+s advocate$ "magine that you are your own worst enemy5 someone who is trying to disprove the argument that you have put forth$ What flaws in your argument will your opponents point out) Where are the lapses in your thesis) -nce you have determined the wea#nesses in your own argument, you can wor# on eradicating them$ Arguments in academic writing are usually comple, and ta#e time to develop$ %our argument will need to be more than a simple or obvious statement such as, .1ran# 9loyd Wright

was a great architect$0 /uch a statement might capture your initial impressions of Wright as you have studied him7 however, you need to loo# deeper and e,press specifically what caused that .greatness$0 %ou might claim, for e,ample, that .1ran# 9loyd Wright+s architecture combines elements of <uropean modernism, Asian aesthetic form, and locally found materials to create a uni'ue new style,0 or .*here are many strong similarities between Wright+s building designs and those of his mother, which suggests that he may have borrowed some of her ideas$0 *hen you would define your terms and prove your argument with evidence from Wright+s designs and those of the other architects you mentioned$

Formulating a Thesis %ou can+t 6ust pluc# a thesis out of thin air$ <ven if you have a terrific insight concerning a topic, it won+t be worth much unless you can logically and persuasively support it in the body of your essay$ A thesis is the evolutionary result of a thin#ing process, not a miraculous creation$ 1ormulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment$ 9et me repeat that( deciding on a thesis does not come first$ Before you can come up with an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organi3e evidence, loo# for possible relationships between #nown facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities!, and thin# about the beneath8the8surface significance of these relationships$ After this initial e,ploration of the material, you can formulate a 'uestion that you want to try and answer, and from there develop a .wor#ing thesis,0 an argument that you thin# will answer the 'uestion and ma#e sense of the evidence, but that may need ad6ustment along the way$ Writers use all #inds of techni'ues to stimulate their thin#ing and help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic$ 1or e,ample, freewriting gives you the license to write nonstop for => minutes about anything that pops into your head about a topic$ -nce the => minutes are up, you go bac# over what you+ve written to see what insights une,pectedly leapt out at you$ *his often gets the creative 6uices flowing$ "f you are comparing and contrasting two events, you might ma#e two columns on a piece of paper and write down everything you #now about each event in the columns$ *hen, loo# bac# and forth between the two columns and see if anything unusual or une,pected or 6ust plain interesting catches your attention$ Write down a 'uestion, then formulate a wor#ing thesis to answer it, and see where it ta#es you$ ?eassess and revise your 'uestion and thesis, then reassess and revise your essay$ ?epeat as necessary$ /ince the argument is one of the most important elements of your paper, you need to spend some time developing it$ -ne of the most valuable pieces of advice " can give you is this( dont try to tackle too many ideas in one essay@ %ou will only end up frustrated$ /imple identification of your argument can be a hard tas# if you have a myriad of thoughts in your head and are unsure as to which ones should be stressed in the paper$ *o gain some clarity, try the following e,ercise$ Aeeping in mind all of the ideas that you want the paper to cover, pretend that when your reader wal#s away from your paper, most of the writing will fade from her mind$ /he will, however, remember one ma6or point$ What do you want this point to be) *his point5

the one that you want your reader to recall, even if she forgets everything else5is your argument or thesis$ What if you have two or three ma6or ideas that you want your reader to remember) 1irst, " would encourage you to e,amine those ideas to see if you can place them in some sort of hierarchical order$ "s one idea slightly more important than the others are) Does one of the ideas serve as a bridge or connector between the others) "f not, can you thin# of a .higher,0 overarching idea that lin#s all of the ideas) "f you can answer any of these 'uestions affirmatively, you have identified your main idea, and it should be the focus of your thesis statement$ *he other ideas are important, but they are ideas that support, advance, or are connected to the main idea7 they do not need to be the focus of your argument$ %ou will indubitably run into situations where you have two or three main ideas and all of them are e'ually important$ ("f you have more than three main concepts you are trying to advance in your paper, you are trying to do too much, unless you are writing a boo# or an honors thesis$! *his means that your thesis is comprised of several sub8components7 due to this comple,ity, statement of the thesis might necessarily ta#e more than one sentence$

Some Examples of Constru ting Thesis Statements "$ %ou are as#ed to write on the Civil War, and as# yourself .Why did the North and South fight the Civil War ! %ou then turn on the computer and type out the following( "he North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons# some of which were the same and some different$ o #idding@ /o what) *his wea# thesis basically restates the 'uestion without providing any additional information$ "t is your 6ob to do this right away$ /ure, you will e,pand on this new information in the body of the essay, but it is important that the reader #now where you are heading$ ?emember5you are not writing a mystery novel$ /o, what #ind of new information should you provide) *he reader of this wea# thesis probably thin#s to herself, .What reasons) &ow are they the same) &ow are they different)0 As# yourself these same 'uestions$ *ry to characteri3e the reasons (." thin# slavery was the main reason Americans fought the Civil War,0 you might say to yourself!$ Begin to compare orthern and /outhern attitudes (.*he /outh believed slavery was right, and the orth thought slavery was wrong0!$ ow, push your comparison toward an interpretation5why did one side thin# slavery was right and the other thin# it was wrong) %ou loo# again at the evidence and you decide the orth believed slavery was immoral while the /outh believed it upheld their way of life$ At the computer, you write( While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery# the North fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions$ Now you have a wor#ing thesis@ "ncluded in this wor#ing thesis is a reason for the war and some idea of how the two sides disagreed over this reason$ As you write the essay, you will probably begin to characteri3e these differences more precisely$ /uddenly your wor#ing thesis seems ine,act or more vague than you had originally thought$ Maybe you decide that, actually, both sides fought for moral reasons, they 6ust saw morality in different conte,ts$

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%ou end up revising the wor#ing thesis into a final thesis that really captures the argument in your paper( While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and oppression# Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended their own rights to property and self%government$ Compare this to the original wea# thesis$ /ee the difference) *his final thesis presents a way of interpreting evidence that illuminates the significance of the issues raised by the 'uestion$ "f the essay supplies evidence and logical reasoning in support of this thesis, your instructor will be suitably impressed$ &eep in mind that this is one of many possible interpretations of the Civil War%%it is not the one and only right answer to the 'uestion$ *here isn+t a right answer( there are only strong and wea# thesis statements and strong and wea# uses of evidence$ ""$ Was the New Deal of the ()*+s a liberal plan to create a welfare state in ,merica# or was it a conservative defense of ,merican capitalism Duestions li#e this one often elicit 'uic# responses from writers based on gut feelings$ /tudents may feel 'uite strongly one way or the other, but they must remember that passion about a topic must be supported with critical thin#ing$ *o return to our e,ample, a student might turn on the computer after reading this 'uestion and write( "he New Deal was a conservative defense of ,merican capitalism$ What ma#es this a wea# thesis) Well, the author+s position is certainly clear, but why does she hold it) Aeep in mind that an assertion is not an argument@ *his wea# thesis 6ust repeats part of the 'uestion7 it adds nothing to our understanding of the issues involved in ma#ing this 6udgment$ A better, wor#ing thesis would include a reason for holding this position( .*he ew Deal was a conservative defense of American capitalism because it EEEEEEEEEE$0 :erhaps you reali3e that such 'uestions rarely have all8or8nothing answers, and your investigation of the evidence finds support for both positions$ "n this case, you might write the following( "he New Deal both defended capitalist economic principles and offered government assistance to needy ,mericans# making it conservative and liberal at the same time$ What ma#es this a wea# thesis) After all, it ta#es account of the evidence and ma#es an argument, doesn+t it) %es, it does, but it+s wishy8washy5it doesn+t sta#e out a position$ A critical thin#er assesses the evidence supporting both sides of a 'uestion, but must ultimately decide which way the balance of evidence tilts$ A strong thesis presents this final weighting of the data$ 1or e,ample( Despite its work relief elements# the New Deal is best understood as a defense of ,merican capitalism because its main programs attempted to create a stable environment for private enterprise$ "t+s all there( position, argument, and attention to conflicting evidence$ Again, this is not the .right answer,0 but if the essay that follows supports this statement with the logical use of pertinent evidence, it will be a persuasive answer and a successful essay$

Evi!en e

Do not stop with having a point$ %ou have to bac# up your point with evidence$ *he strength of your evidence, and your use of it, can ma#e or brea# your argument$ %ou already have the natural inclination for this type of thin#ing, if not in an academic setting$ *hin# about how you tal#ed your parents into letting you borrow the car$ Did you present them with lots of instances of trustworthiness on your part) Did you ma#e them feel guilty, because your friends+ parents all let them drive) Did you whine until they 6ust wanted you to shut up) Did you loo# up statistics on teen driving and use them to show how you didn+t fit the dangerous8driver profile) *hese are all types of argumentation, and they e,ist in academia in similar forms$ Be consistent with your evidence$ Unli#e negotiating for use of your parents+ car, an academic paper is not the place for an all8out blit3 of every type of argument$ %ou can often use more than one type of evidence within a paper, but ma#e sure that within each section you are providing the reader with evidence appropriate to each claim$ %ou cannot convince a confused person, so #eep things ordered$

Counterargument -ne way to strengthen your argument and show that you have a deep understanding of the issue you are discussing is to anticipate and address counterarguments or ob6ections$ By considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say about your argument, you show that you have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for re6ecting your claims$ %ou can generate counterarguments by as#ing yourself what someone who disagrees with you might say about each of the points you+ve made or about your position as a whole$ "f you can+t immediately imagine another position, here are some strategies to try( Do some research$ "t may seem to you that no one could possibly disagree with the position you are arguing, but someone probably has$ *al# about it with someone else$ Another person may be able to imagine counterarguments that haven+t occurred to you$ Consider the conclusion and the premises of your argument, and imagine someone who denies each of them$ *hen you can see which of these arguments are most worth considering$ -nce you have thought up some counterarguments, consider how you will respond to them5will you concede that your opponent has a point but e,plain why your audience should nonetheless accept your argument) Will you re6ect the counterargument and e,plain why it is mista#en) <ither way, you will want to leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing arguments$ When summari3ing opposing arguments, be charitable$ :resent each argument ob6ectively and fairly, rather than trying to ma#e it loo# foolish$ %ou want to show that you have seriously considered the many sides of the issue, and that you are not simply attac#ing or caricaturing your opponents$ "t is usually better to consider one or two serious counterarguments

in some depth, rather than to give a long but superficial list of many different counterarguments and replies$ Be sure that your reply is consistent with your original argument$ "f considering a counterargument changes your position, you will need to go bac# and revise your original argument accordingly$

"u!ien e Audience is a very important consideration in argument$ A lifetime of dealing with your parents has helped you figure out which arguments wor# in different situations$ Maybe whining wor#s with your dad, but your mom will only accept cold, hard statistics$ %our #id brother may listen only to the sound of money in his palm$ "t+s usually wise to thin# of your audience in an academic setting as someone who is intelligent, but who doesn+t already or necessarily agree with you$ %ou are not 6ust e,pressing your opinion in an argument (.it+s true because " said so0! 5and in most cases your audience is pretty #nowledgeable on the sub6ect at hand5so you will need sturdier proof$ At the same time, do not thin# of your audience as a genius clairvoyant$ %ou have to come out and state both your claim and your evidence clearly$ Do not assume that because the instructor #nows the material that he or she understands what part of it you are using, what you thin# about it, and why$

Criti al #ea!ing Critical reading is a big part of understanding argument$ Although some of the material you read will be very persuasive, do not fall under the spell of the printed word as authority$ ?emember that the author of every te,t has an agenda, something that they want you to believe$ *a#e notes either in the margins or on a separate sheet as you read$ :ut away that highlighter@ /imply highlighting a te,t is only good for memori3ing that te,t5it does not encourage critical reading$ :art of the goal is to put the author+s ideas in your own words$ *hen you can stop thin#ing of these ideas as facts and start thin#ing of them as arguments$ When you read, as# yourself 'uestions li#e .What is the author trying to prove)0 and .What is the author assuming " will agree with)0 Do you agree with the author) Does the author ade'uately defend her argument) What #ind of proof does she use) "s there something she leaves out) Does putting it in hurt her argument) As you get used to reading critically, you will see the sometimes hidden agendas of other writers, and you can use this s#ill to improve your own arguments$

$ntro!u tions "ntroductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of papers to write$ Usually when you sit down to respond to an assignment, you have at least some sense of what you want to say in the body of your paper$ %ou might have chosen a few e,amples you want to use or

have an idea that will help you answer the 'uestion( these sections, therefore, are not as hard to write$ But these middle parts of the paper can+t 6ust come out of thin air7 they need to be introduced and they need to be concluded in a way that ma#es sense to your reader$ *ry writing a tentative introduction first and then changing it later or writing your introduction last$ %ou may thin# that you have to write your introduction first, but that isn+t necessarily true, and it isn+t always the most effective way to craft a good introduction$ %ou may find that you don+t #now what you+re going to argue at the beginning of the writing process, and only through the e,perience of writing your paper do you discover your main argument$ "t is perfectly fine to start out trying to argue a particular point, but wind up arguing something slightly or even dramatically different by the time you+ve written most of the paper$ *he writing process can be an important way to organi3e your ideas, thin# through complicated issues, refine your thoughts, and develop a sophisticated argument$ &owever, an introduction written at the beginning of that discovery process will not necessarily reflect what you wind up with at the end$ %ou will need to revise your paper to ma#e sure that the introduction, all of the evidence, and the conclusion reflect the argument you intend$ -pen with an attention grabber$ /ometimes, especially if the topic of your paper is somewhat dry or technical, opening with something catchy can help$ Consider these options( an intriguing e,ample a provocative 'uotation a pu33ling scenario a thought8provo#ing 'uestion *hese attention8grabbing openers might get your reader interested and also help your reader connect to what might otherwise seem a pretty obscure topic$ <ssentially, you can use attention8 grabbers to help your readers see why your topic is relevant and begin to care about your findings and perspectives$ :ay special attention to your first sentence$ "f any sentence in your paper is going to be completely free of errors and vagueness, it should be your first one$ /tart off on the right foot with your readers by ma#ing sure that the first sentence actually says something useful and that it does so in an interesting and error8free way$ Be straightforward and confident$ Assert your main argument confidently$ After all, you can+t e,pect your reader to believe it if it doesn+t sound li#e you believe it@

%o!y of Paper Despite the large number of possible paper structures, " can confidently render the following piece of advice( discuss each idea in your paper fully and completely$ "n the course of determining your essay+s argument, you should have spent some time paring down the number of ideas that you plan to address in the paper$ 9imit yourself to e,ploring those ideas and sub8 topics that can be analy3ed in a comple,, multi8faceted manner given the assignment+s page and time constraints$ As " have repeatedly hinted, you are better off writing about fewer ideas in

great detail and with increased insight and depth than presenting the reader with a broad collection of undeveloped# unconnected thoughts$ Be sure that each paragraph is connected to your argument$ *hroughout the writing process, you should remain conscious of how each paragraph connects with your argument$ "n history papers, paragraphs can play a variety of functions$ *hey can( present new evidence to support your argument provide the reader with the bac#ground or conte,t necessary to fully understand your argument anticipate and address counter8arguments that might be launched at your argument elucidate or define how you are using a particular term in your argument e,plore the relationship between different parts of your argument, if your thesis is composed of various sub8ideas *here are few things more distracting than unnecessary paragraphs that don+t seem to serve any purpose in the paper$ /uch paragraphs disrupt the flow of the essay and shatter the reader+s concentration$ /o how do you avoid including useless paragraphs of clutter) At the end of each paragraph composed, as# yourself how the paragraph clarifies or furthers your argument7 if you have a difficult time figuring out a paragraph+s purpose, your reader will as well$ %ou also must ascertain that you have made perfectly e,plicit the paragraph+s relation to your argument$ -f course, since you have written the paper, you #now why you have included each particular paragraph7 the whole paper seems 'uite logical to you$ But will your rationale for including different paragraphs also be evident to a reader who hasn+t been inside of your head throughout the writing process) 1inally, when you finish the first draft of your paper, re8read your wor#$ As you wor# through each paragraph, as# yourself what would happen if you too# the paragraph out of the paper$ Would your argument still be as clear and strong) "f you can remove a paragraph without in any way harming your ability to prove your thesis, that paragraph might not be necessary$ %ou may be able to remove it and fill its space with significant material that is more relevant to your argument, and thus more important to your paper$

Con lusions :lay the ./o What0 Iame$ "f you+re stuc# and feel li#e your conclusion isn+t saying anything new or interesting, as# yourself ./o What)0 as you develop your ideas or your draft$ %ou can also as# a friend to read it with you$ Whenever you ma#e a statement from your conclusion, as#, ./o what)0 or .Why should anybody care)0 *hen ponder that 'uestion and answer it$ Don+t be discouraged if you initially answer, ." don+t #now$0 Aeep thin#ing$ "t+s o#ay if you don+t have a good answer for every ./o what)056ust #eep trying to develop the significance of your wor# further$ %ou might try free8writing your conclusion in the form of a letter or e8mail to a friend or family member$ "n your letter, e,plain what you wrote about and then try to tell your friend what

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you learned as a result of writing the paper, how the ideas in the paper might relate to their e,periences, or why the content of the paper matters in terms of .the big picture$0

When riti&uing your first !raft an! its 'orking thesis( ask yourself the follo'ing) -Do . answer the 'uestion ! *his might seem obvious, but it+s worth as#ing$ o matter how intriguing or da33ling, a thesis that doesn+t answer the 'uestion is not a good thesis@ "f you are being as#ed to .ta#e a stand,0 do you) "f you are being as#ed .what+s the most important event of the ;Kth century,0 do you 6ust state why your selection is important, or do you state why you thin# it+s the most important when compared to other important events) ?e8reading the 'uestion prompt after constructing a wor#ing thesis can help you fi, an argument that misses the focus of the 'uestion$ -/ave . taken a position that others might challenge or oppose ! "f not, then you probably do not have a strong argument$ *heses that are too vague often have this problem$ "f your thesis contains vague words li#e .good0 or .successful,0 see if you could be more specific( why is something .good07 what makes something .successful0) -Does my thesis pass the 0So What test ! Also #nown as the .What+s the Big Deal)0 test, the ./o What)0 test as#s whether your thesis presents a position or an interpretation worth pursuing$ "f a reader+s first response is, ./o what)0 then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue$ -nce a reader says, .Iee, this argument has the potential to broaden my understanding of the significance of this topic,0 then you have successfully passed this test$ -Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering ! Lust as a thesis that doesn+t answer the 'uestion ultimately fails, so does a thesis that isn+t properly supported with evidence and reasoning$ "f your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change$ Ienerally, this means revising your thesis to capture more precisely the argument in your paper$ ?emember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary$

Evaluation of Essay %ou will be evaluated on the 'uality of critical thin#ing you demonstrate in the essay$ &ave you ta#en account of the evidence) Do you forge relationships between facts that broaden their significance) Do you persuade the reader of the logic of your argument instead of merely assuming it+s obvious) Accomplishing these tas#s in your essay is what will impress your instructor$

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$mportant Tips for Writing History Papers

1. Write in the simple past tense. By definition, history is concerned with the past, and since you+re writing about the past, you need to write in the past tense$ 2. Avoid excessive use of the passive voice. *he passive voice often fails to identify who or what is performing the actions you are describing$ Also, the passive voice tends to result in e,cessive use of various forms of the verb .to be,0 which leads to wordiness$ :hrasing sentences in the active voice allows you to use active verbs that are more descriptive and that enliven your writing$ :assive voice( Many programs were created to put Argentineans bac# to wor#$ Active voice( "he government created many programs to put Argentineans bac# to wor#$ 3. Avoid the use of the pronoun I. Avoid the use of ."0 in college writing, as it is too informal$ /tructure your essay so that your ideas come across clearly without having to state that they are your ideas$ 4. Vary sentence structure. Blend brief, direct statements with longer, more comple, sentences$ *his improves the flow of your paper and ma#es it more readable$ *oo many short sentences ma#e your paper choppy and difficult to read$ An endless string of long sentences confuses the reader$ . Avoid slan!. Unless 'uoting directly, don+t use slang$ "t can ruin the tone of your paper$ ". #mit needless $ords. /tate your ideas as directly as possible$ <,cessive use of adverbs, ad6ectives, and prepositional phrases can clutter a sentence, obscuring rather than amplifying your points$ Many students load their papers with .filler0 words in order to meet a minimum length re'uirement$ *his is obvious to the reader, and does more harm than good$ "t+s better to use additional evidence rather than additional words$ %. &no$ your audience. "dentifying your audience helps you determine what information and how much of it you will include in your essay$ Write your paper so that a general reader unfamiliar with the topic would be able to read and understand the essay$ %ou might as# a friend who fits this description to act as your .ideal reader0 and point out areas in your paper that are not clear or have other problems$ '. (ead your draft aloud. &earing your own words, or having someone else listen to them, can help you identify run8on sentences, aw#ward phrasing, and other problems that might otherwise escape your attention$ *his is one of the most effective ways to proofread your wor# before turning it in$

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). *ite sources properly.