How Earthquakes Work

by Tom Harris

Introduction to How Earthquakes Work An earthquake is one of the most terrifying phenomena that nature can dish up. We generally think of the ground we stand on as "rock-solid" and completely stable. An earthquake can shatter that perception instantly and often with e!treme "iolence. #p until relati"ely recently scientists only had unsubstantiated guesses as to what actually caused earthquakes. E"en today there is still a certain amount of mystery surrounding them but scientists ha"e a much clearer understanding. Earthquake Image Gallery

A section of Interstate 880 in Oakland, alifornia, damaged !y the magnitude "#$ earthquake that shook the %an &rancisco area in $'8'# %ee more earthquake (ictures#

$hoto courtesy #%&%

There has been enormous progress in the past century' %cientists ha"e identified the forces that cause earthquakes and de"eloped technology that can tell us an earthquake(s magnitude and origin. The ne!t hurdle is to find a way of predicting earthquakes so they don(t catch people by surprise. )n this article we(ll find out what causes earthquakes and we(ll also find out why they can ha"e such a de"astating effect on us.

*our +rowser ,oes -ot %upport i.rames %haking Ground An earthquake is a )i!ration that tra"els through the earth(s crust. Technically a large truck that rumbles down the street is causing a mini-earthquake if you feel your house shaking as it goes by but we tend to think of earthquakes as e"ents that affect a fairly large area such as an entire city. All kinds of things can cause earthquakes' "olcanic eruptions

meteor impacts underground e!plosions /an underground nuclear test for e!ample0 collapsing structures /such as a collapsing mine0 +ut the ma1ority of naturally-occurring earthquakes are caused by mo"ements of the earth(s (lates as we(ll see in the ne!t section. We only hear about earthquakes in the news e"ery once in a while but they are actually an e"eryday occurrence on our planet. According to the #nited %tates &eological %ur"ey more than three million earthquakes occur e"ery year. That(s about 2 333 a day or one e"ery 44 seconds5

$hoto courtesy .E6A

*esidential damage caused !y the $''+ earthquake in ,orthridge, alifornia#

The "ast ma1ority of these 7 million quakes are e!tremely weak. The law of probability also causes a good number of stronger quakes to happen in uninhabited places where no one feels them. )t is the big quakes that occur in highly populated areas that get our attention. Earthquakes ha"e caused a great deal of property damage o"er the years and they ha"e claimed many li"es. )n the last hundred years alone there ha"e been more than 4.8 million earthquake-related fatalities. #sually it(s not the shaking ground itself that claims li"es -- it(s the associated destruction of manmade structures and the instigation of other natural disasters such as tsunamis a"alanches and landslides.

$hoto courtesy -&,9

*esidential damage in -rince William %ound, Alaska, due to liquefaction caused !y a $'.+ '#/0magnitude earthquake#

$hoto courtesy #%&% One of the !est known faults is the %an Andreas fault in alifornia# 1he fault, which marks the (late !oundary !etween the -acific oceanic (late and the ,orth American continental (late, e2tends o)er .30 miles 4$,030 km5 of land#

)n the ne!t section we(ll e!amine the powerful forces that cause this intense trembling and find out why earthquakes occur much more often in certain regions. -late 1ectonics The biggest scientific breakthrough in the history of seismology -- the study of earthquakes -- came in the middle of the :3th century with the de"elopment of the theory of (late tectonics. %cientists proposed the idea of plate tectonics to e!plain a number of peculiar phenomenon on earth such as the apparent mo"ement of continents

o"er time the clustering of "olcanic acti"ity in certain areas and the presence of huge ridges at the bottom of the ocean. The basic theory is that the surface layer of the earth -- the lithos(here -- is comprised of many (lates that slide o"er the lubricating athenos(here layer. At the boundaries between these huge plates of soil and rock three different things can happen' -lates can mo)e a(art - )f two plates are mo"ing apart from each other hot molten rock flows up from the layers of mantle below the lithosphere. This magma comes out on the surface /mostly at the bottom of the ocean0 where it is called la"a. As the la"a cools it hardens to form new lithosphere material filling in the gap. This is called a di)ergent (late !oundary. -lates can (ush together - )f the two plates are mo"ing toward each other one plate typically pushes under the other one. This su!ducting plate sinks into the lower mantle layers where it melts. At some boundaries where two plates meet neither plate is in a position to subduct under the other so they both push against each other to form mountains. The lines where plates push toward each other are called con)ergent (late !oundaries. -lates slide against each other - At other boundaries plates simply slide by each other -- one mo"es north and one mo"es south for e!ample. While the plates don(t drift directly into each other at these transform !oundaries they are pushed tightly together. A great deal of tension builds at the boundary. %ee the (late0!oundary diagram# Where these plates meet you(ll find faults -- breaks in the earth(s crust where the blocks of rock on each side are mo"ing in different directions. Earthquakes are much more common along fault lines than they are anywhere else on the planet. )n the ne!t section we(ll look at some different types of faults and see how their mo"ement creates earthquakes. &aults %cientists identify four types of faults characteri;ed by the position of the fault (lane the break in the rock and the mo"ement of the two rock blocks' )n a normal fault /see animation below0 the fault plane is nearly "ertical. The hanging wall the block of rock positioned abo"e the plane pushes down across the footwall which is the block of rock below the plane. The footwall in turn pushes up against the hanging wall. These faults occur where the crust is being pulled apart due to the pull of a di"ergent plate boundary.

6our !rowser does not su((ort 7a)a%cri(t or it is disa!led#

,ormal fault The fault plane in a re)erse fault is also nearly "ertical but the hanging wall pushes up and the footwall pushes down. This sort of fault forms where a plate is being compressed. A thrust fault mo"es the same way as a re"erse fault but the fault line is nearly hori;ontal. )n these faults which are also caused by compression the rock of the hanging wall is actually pushed up on top of the footwall. This is the sort of fault that occurs in a con"erging plate boundary.

6our !rowser does not su((ort 7a)a%cri(t or it is disa!led#

*e)erse fault )n a strike0sli( fault the blocks of rock mo"e in opposite hori;ontal directions. These faults form when the crust pieces are sliding against each other as in a transform plate boundary

6our !rowser does not su((ort 7a)a%cri(t or it is disa!led#

%trike0sli( fault

)n all of these types of faults the different blocks of rock push "ery tightly together creating a good deal of friction as they mo"e. )f this friction le"el is high enough the two blocks become locked -- the friction keeps them from sliding against each other. When this happens the forces in the plates continue to push the rock increasing the pressure applied at the fault. )f the pressure increases to a high enough le"el then it will o"ercome the force of the friction and the blocks will suddenly snap forward. To put it another way as the tectonic forces push on the "locked" blocks potential energy builds. When the plates are finally mo"ed this built-up energy becomes kinetic. %ome fault shifts create "isible changes at the earth(s surface but other shifts occur in rock well under the surface and so don(t create a surface rupture.

ro( rows offset !y a lateral strike sli( fault shifting in the $'". earthquake that shook El -rogresso, Guatemala#

$hoto courtesy #%&%

The initial break that creates a fault along with these sudden intense shifts along already formed faults are the main sources of earthquakes. 6ost earthquakes occur around plate boundaries because this is where the strain from the plate mo"ements is felt most intensely creating fault 8ones groups of interconnected faults. )n a fault ;one the release of kinetic energy at one fault may increase the stress -- the potential energy -- in a nearby fault leading to other earthquakes. This is one of the reasons that se"eral earthquakes may occur in an area in a short period of time.

$hoto courtesy #%&%

*ailroad tracks shifted !y the $'". Guatemala earthquake

E"ery now and then earthquakes do occur in the middle of plates. )n fact one of the most powerful series of earthquakes e"er recorded in the #nited %tates occurred in the middle of the -orth American continental plate. These earthquakes which shook se"eral states in 4244 and 424: originated in 6issouri. )n the 4<=3s scientists found the likely source of this earthquake' a >33-million-year-old fault ;one buried under many layers of rock. The "ibrations of one earthquake in this series were so powerful that they actually rang church bells as far away as +oston5 )n the ne!t section we(ll e!amine earthquake "ibrations and see how they tra"el through the ground. %eismic Wa)es When a sudden break or shift occurs in the earth(s crust the energy radiates out as seismic wa)es 1ust as the energy from a disturbance in a body of water radiates out in wa"e form. )n e"ery earthquake there are se"eral different types of seismic wa"es.

$hoto courtesy #%&%

%tructural damage caused !y )i!rations from the $'.+ Alaska earthquake

9ody wa)es mo"e through the inner part of the earth while surface wa)es tra"el o"er the surface of the earth. %urface wa"es -- sometimes called long wa"es or simply ? wa"es -are responsible for most of the damage associated with earthquakes because they cause the most intense "ibrations. %urface wa"es stem from body wa"es that reach the surface. There are two main types of body wa"es.

-rimary wa)es also called - wa)es or com(ressional wa)es tra"el about 4 to 8 miles per second /4.> to 2 kps0 depending on the material they(re mo"ing through. This speed is greater than the speed of other wa"es so $ wa"es arri"e first at any surface location. They can tra"el through solid liquid and gas and so will pass completely through the body of the earth. As they tra"el through rock the wa"es mo"e tiny rock particles back and forth -- pushing them apart and then back together -- in line with the direction the wa"e is tra"eling. These wa"es typically arri"e at the surface as an abrupt thud. %econdary wa)es also called % wa)es or shear wa)es lag a little behind the $ wa"es. As these wa"es mo"e they displace rock particles outward pushing them perpendicular to the path of the wa"es. This results in the first period of rolling associated with earthquakes. #nlike $ wa"es % wa"es don(t mo"e straight

through the earth. They only tra"el through solid material and so are stopped at the liquid layer in the earth(s core.

6our !rowser does not su((ort 7a)a%cri(t or it is disa!led#

lick the (lay !utton to start the earthquake# When - and % wa)es reach the earth:s surface, they form ; wa)es# 1he most intense ; wa)es radiate out from the e(icenter#

+oth sorts of body wa"es do tra"el around the earth howe"er and can be detected on the opposite side of the planet from the point where the earthquake began. At any gi"en moment there are a number of "ery faint seismic wa"es mo"ing all around the planet. %urface wa"es are something like the wa"es in a body of water -- they mo"e the surface of the earth up and down. This generally causes the worst damage because the wa"e motion rocks the foundations of manmade structures. ? wa"es are the slowest mo"ing of all wa"es so the most intense shaking usually comes at the end of an earthquake. )n the ne!t section we(ll see how scientists can calculate the origin of an earthquake by detecting these different wa"es. %eismology

We saw in the last section that there are three different types of seismic wa"es and that these wa"es tra"el at different speeds. While the e!act speed of $ and % wa"es "aries depending on the composition of the material they(re tra"eling through the ratio between the speeds of the two wa"es will remain relati"ely constant in any earthquake. $ wa"es generally tra"el 4.= times faster than % wa"es.

A fence along a strike sli( fault that shifted in the $'0. %an &rancisco earthquake#

$hoto courtesy #%&%

#sing this ratio scientists can calculate the distance between any point on the earth(s surface and the earthquake(s focus the breaking point where the "ibrations originated. They do this with a seismograph a machine that registers the different wa"es. To find the distance between the seismograph and the focus scientists also need to know the time the "ibrations arri"ed. With this information they simply note how much time passed between the arri"al of both wa"es and then check a special chart that tells them the distance the wa"es must ha"e tra"eled based on that delay. )f you gather this information from three or more points you can figure out the location of the focus through the process of trilateration. +asically you draw an imaginary sphere around each seismograph location with the point of measurement as the center and the measured distance /let(s call it @0 from that point to the focus as the radius. The surface of the circle describes all the points that are @ miles away from the seismograph. The focus then must be somewhere along this sphere. )f you come up with two spheres based on e"idence from two different seismographs you(ll get a two-dimensional circle where they meet. %ince the focus must be along the surface of both spheres all of the possible focus points are located on the circle formed by the intersection of these two spheres. A third sphere will intersect only twice with this circle gi"ing you two possible focus points. And because the center of each sphere is on the earth(s surface one of these possible points will be in the air lea"ing only one logical focus location. .or a more thorough discussion of trilateral calculation check out How &$% Aecei"ers Work. *ichter %cale Whene"er a ma1or earthquake is in the news you(ll probably hear about its Aichter %cale rating. *ou might also hear about its <ercalli %cale rating though this isn(t discussed as often. These two ratings describe the power of the earthquake from two different perspecti"es.

$hoto courtesy -&,9

=estruction caused !y a 4*ichter5 magnitude .#. earthquake in aracas, >ene8uela# 1he $'." earthquake took /+0 li)es and caused more than ?30 million worth of (ro(erty damage#

The Aichter %cale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake -- the amount of energy it released. This is calculated using information gathered by a seismograph. The Aichter %cale is logarithmic meaning that whole-number 1umps indicate a tenfold increase. )n this case the increase is in wa"e amplitude. That is the wa"e amplitude in a le"el > earthquake is 43 times greater than in a le"el 8 earthquake and the amplitude increases 433 times between a le"el = earthquake and a le"el < earthquake. The amount of energy released increases 74.= times between whole number "alues. The largest earthquake on record registered an <.8 on the currently used Aichter %cale though there ha"e certainly been stronger quakes in Earth(s history. The ma1ority of earthquakes register less than 7 on the Aichter %cale. These tremors which aren(t usually felt by humans are called microquakes. &enerally you won(t see much damage from earthquakes that rate below B on the Aichter %cale. 6a1or earthquakes generally register at = or abo"e.

=amage to a school in Anchorage, Alaska, caused !y the $'.+

$hoto courtesy -&,9

-rince William %ound earthquake# 1he earthquake, which killed $@$ (eo(le and caused ?3@8 million of (ro(erty damage, registered an '#/ on the *ichter %cale#

Aichter ratings only gi"e you a rough idea of the actual impact of an earthquake. As we("e seen an earthquake(s destructi"e power "aries depending on the composition of the ground in an area and the design and placement of manmade structures. The e!tent of damage is rated on the <ercalli %cale. 6ercalli ratings which are gi"en as Aoman numerals are based on largely sub1ecti"e interpretations. A low intensity earthquake one in which only some people feel the "ibration and there is no significant property damage is rated as a )). The highest rating a @)) is applied only to earthquakes in which structures are destroyed the ground is cracked and other natural disasters such as landslides or Tsunamis are initiated.

$hoto courtesy -&,9

=amage from a magnitude "#+ earthquake that hit ,iigata, 7a(an, in $'.+#

Aichter %cale ratings are determined soon after an earthquake once scientists can compare the data from different seismograph stations. 6ercalli ratings on the other hand can(t be determined until in"estigators ha"e had time to talk to many eyewitnesses to find out what occurred during the earthquake. Cnce they ha"e a good idea of the range of damage they use the 6ercalli criteria to decide on an appropriate rating.

;iquefaction
)n some areas se"ere earthquake damage is the result of liquefaction of soil. )n the right conditions the "iolent shaking from an earthquake will make loosely packed sediments and soil beha"e like a liquid. When a building or house is built on this type of sediment liquefaction will cause the structure to collapse more easily. Highly de"eloped areas built on loose ground material can suffer se"ere damage from e"en a relati"ely mild earthquake. ?iquefaction can also cause se"ere mudslides like the ones that took so many li"es in the recent earthquake that shook 9entral America. )n this case in fact mudslides were the most significant destructi"e force claiming hundreds of li"es.

Earthquake -redictions We understand earthquakes a lot better than we did e"en 83 years ago but we still can(t do much about them. They are caused by fundamental powerful geological processes that are far beyond our control. These processes are also fairly unpredictable so it(s not possible at this time to tell people e!actly when an earthquake is going to occur. The first detected seismic wa"es will tell us that more powerful "ibrations are on their way but this only gi"es us a few minutes warning at most.

=amage in downtown Anchorage, Alaska, caused !y the $'.+ -rince William %ound earthquake#

$hoto courtesy #%&%

%cientists can say where ma1or earthquakes are likely to occur based on the mo"ement of the plates in the earth and the location of fault ;ones. They can also make general guesses of when they might occur in a certain area by looking at the history of earthquakes in the region and detecting where pressure is building along fault lines. These predictions are e!tremely "ague howe"er -- typically on the order of decades. %cientists ha"e had more success predicting aftershocks additional quakes following an initial earthquake. These predictions are based on e!tensi"e research of aftershock patterns. %eismologists can make a good guess of how an earthquake originating along one fault will cause additional earthquakes in connected faults. Another area of study is the relationship between magnetic and electrical charges in rock material and earthquakes. %ome scientists ha"e hypothesi;ed that these electromagnetic fields change in a certain way 1ust before an earthquake. %eismologists are also studying gas seepage and the tilting of the ground as warning signs of earthquakes. .or the most part howe"er they can(t reliably predict earthquakes with any precision. %o what can we do about earthquakesD The ma1or ad"ances o"er the past 83 years ha"e been in preparedness -- particularly in the field of construction engineering. )n 4<=7 the #niform +uilding 9ode an international set of standards for building construction added specifications to fortify buildings against the force of seismic wa"es. This includes strengthening support material as well as designing buildings so they are fle!ible enough to absorb "ibrations without falling or deteriorating. )t(s "ery important to design structures that can take this sort of punch particularly in earthquake-prone areas. %ee this article on How %mart %tructures Will Work for more on how scientists are creating new ways to protect buildings from seismic acti"ity.

$hoto courtesy #%&%

9ridge columns cracked !y the ;oma -rieta, alif# earthquake of $'8'#

Another component of preparedness is educating the public. The #nited %tates &eological %ur"ey /#%&%0 and other go"ernment agencies ha"e produced se"eral brochures e!plaining the processes in"ol"ed in an earthquake and gi"ing instructions on how to prepare your house for a possible earthquake as well as what to do when a quake hits.

$hoto courtesy #%&%

1he great %an &rancisco fire of $'0. was initiated !y a (owerful earthquake# 1he earthquake )i!rations and catastro(hic fire destroyed most of the city, lea)ing /30,000 (eo(le homeless#

)n the future impro"ements in prediction and preparedness should further minimi;e the loss of life and property associated with earthquakes. +ut it will be a long time if e"er before we(ll be ready for e"ery substantial earthquake that might occur. Eust like se"ere weather and disease earthquakes are an una"oidable force generated by the powerful natural processes that shape our planet. All we can do is increase our understanding of the phenomenon and de"elop better ways to deal with it. To learn more about earthquakes check out the #%&% Web site or any of the other sites listed in the ?inks section. Earthquake -ictures

Earthquakes can !e caused !y underground e2(losions or colla(sing structures as well as !y natural mo)ements of the earth:s (lates#

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An earthquake can shatter our (ers(ecti)e of the ground we walk on as Arock solid#A

%AEEA, IA**#6HA.$H&etty )mages

An earthquake:s destructi)e (ower )aries de(ending on the com(osition of the ground in an area and the design and (lacement of manmade structures#

Highly de)elo(ed areas !uilt on loose ground material can suffer se)ere damage from e)en a relati)ely mild earthquake#

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Earthquakes can (reci(itate other natural disasters, such as a)alanches and landslides#

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%urface wa)es are res(onsi!le for most of the damage associated with earthquakes, !ecause they cause the most intense )i!rations#

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Earthquakes that cause (ro(erty damage are usually rated 3 or higher on the *ichter %cale#

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It:s im(ortant to design structures that can withstand the force of an earthquake, es(ecially in quake0(rone areas#

%eismologists ha)e had more success (redicting locations of aftershocks than of initial earthquakes#

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1he loss of home and !elongings in an earthquake can !e catastro(hic for quake sur)i)ors#

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%ee more earthquake pictures. ;ots <ore Information

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6ore &reat ?inks

#%&% earthquake information #%&% Earthquakes for Fids %ite -ational &eophysical ,ata 9enter 9enter for Earthquake Aesearch and )nformation The Worldwide Earthquake ?ocator American Aed 9ross ,isaster &uide