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Kirk Woodruff
October 7, 2009

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this assignment is an attempt to explain the Vygotskyian approach to

special education and the needs of the special education student. I will briefly discuss
the Vygotskyian theory of dysontogenesis and the role of inclusive education that
emphasizes the social and environmental aspects of the special needs student and the
practical application of Vygotskyian theory, assisted with artificial intelligence based
technologies within the classroom environment.

Special education is defined as a “specially designed individualized or group

instruction or special services or programs, and special transportation, provided at no

cost to the parent, to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities”

(http://www.onedoanta.edu/academics/ed/edpsych2). Lev Vygotsky’s social

constructionist perspective upon dys-ontogenesis which is the theory of disability upon

learning, is critical in the practical applications and understanding of developmental

learning upon the learning disabled student.

Prior to 1975, student with learning disabilities were infrequently allowed into

mainstream, integrated classrooms. Educators were primarily focused upon the disability

of the learner. The theory of dysontogenesis proposed the belief that in order for the

disabled learner to become empowered, society must first, hold a favorable view of the

disabled learner and moreover, social preferences that involve empowering and

strengthening skills must take precedence over the traditional emphasis of perceived

weaknesses (Rodina, 2007).

The theory of dysontogenesis is related to another environmental theory that links

social environment to developmental learning is known as the Cultural Historical

Activity Theory (CHAT). CHAT proposes that an individual never reacts directly to
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environment. Cultural means, tools and signs mediate the relationship between human

agent and objects within the environment. Human action has a triangular arrangement.

The triangulated social structure is contingent upon behaviors and learning that are the

outcome of a close pairing between the agent i.e. individual, mediation, and the

environment. Vygotsky distinguishes between elementary and higher cognitive functions.

In elementary cognitive functions, Vygotsky proposes that the elementary cognition

comprises of basic memory, perception, and attention, which are controlled by

recognition of stimuli within the environment (Linblom & Ziemke, 2003). The link

between the environmental stimuli and the response is called signalization. In higher

mental functions, the stimuli-response differs slightly in that mediation in this case

involves an intermediate link, which involves a psychological tool, which is incorporated

into cognitive processes to fulfill a specific function; hence learning. To explain further,

mediated learning involves methods that individuals construct to facilitate learning

environments, tasks, and identities.

Vygotsky placed a premium upon the function of language and its relationship to

learning. According to Vygotsky, language is a device for interpersonal communication,

social contracts, and influencing other people; thinking and language are inter-related

because comprehension and language production transforms the processes of thinking.

Vygotsky showed that language is first used in the interaction between adult and child as

a means of communication and shared actions.

Gradually language is internalized into a means of child's thought and control of

his/her activity. Vygotsky formulated "the genetic law of cultural development"

according to which the child's cultural development appears twice or on two planes. First
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it appears inter-psychologically, in interaction between people, and secondly within the

child as an intra-psychological achievement (Rodina, 2007). Vygotsky promoted the

notion of social aberration. Social aberration asserts that a child’s learning disability

stems from the dynamics of a changing social environment that contributes to social

disturbances in behavior. Vygotsky distinguishes between primary organic impairment

i.e. CNS disorders and etc., and secondary and tertiary disabilities which, are defined as

cultural distortions of socially conditioned higher mental functions. As cited earlier, by

teachers placing sole emphasis upon the primary defect consequently ignores any

developmental processes in the child (Rodina, 2007). Moreover, the traditional approach

of tending to the primary disorder or any perceived weaknesses positively reinforces

social attitudes in regard to the cognitive processes of the disabled learner. Accordingly,

primary impairments are the least resistant to elimination while secondary disabilities

may be prevented or eliminated via educational means. In response to the co-occurring

effects of primary and secondary disabilities among children with learning disabilities,

Vygotsky developed research and practice on studies of children with learning disabilities

known as Defectologia; the study of defect. Defectology is the study of the learning

disabled and the methods, evaluations, education, and upbringing that are employed.

Moreover, Defectology has no equivalent in the West however, its serves a similar

amount and population of children with learning disabilities in the West (Gindis, 1995).

Defectology serves children with severe health problems and those with

psychiatric disorders. Children with intact functioning brains and sensory systems are

integrated to the mainstream education system.

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Indeed, as a consequence of Vygotskyian studies of Defectologia, Vygotsky

stressed the importance of inclusive education. The methodology of inclusive education

emphasizes the enhancement of health and not of disorders. The approach to health

enhancement is known as salutogenesis. Salutogenesis is a mental health movement that

was introduced in 1984 by a medical sociologist, Aaron Antonovsky (Lindstrom &

Eriksson, 2005). The goal of salutogenesis is to emphasize the individual’s ability, in

conjunction with resources, to create and maintain health rather than focus upon illness,

health risks, and disease. The capacity to use resources and understand the totality of

health situations is called a sense of coherence. Salutogenesis has since established

applications beyond the realm psychiatric sciences and has become an interdisciplinary

study (Lindstrom & Eriksson, 2005).

With these methodologies established, how does this affect students with learning

disabilities? First, what is the definition of a student with learning disabilities? According

to Woolfolk, a student with learning disabilities is classified as an “exceptional student

who possesses abilities or problems so significant that they require special education or

other services to reach their potential” (Woolfolk, 2007). By definition, the exceptional

student fits the criteria for the Vygotskyian approach to inclusive education.

As was cited earlier, when parents and teachers address the primary disorder of

the exceptional student, this contributes not to learning development but its serves to

impede it, particularly when exceptional students are segregated from the mainstream of

education. This is particularly valid in light of labels i.e. handicapped, disabled, and etc.,

because they serve to reinforce stereotypes in regard to individuals who may need the use

of assistive technologies (Woolfolk, 2007). Again, Vygotsky criticized parents and

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teachers for not focusing upon the capabilities of the student but emphasizing the

disability (Rodina, 2007). The success of the inclusive learning model is contingent upon

external cultural activities and studies that are internalized by the exceptional student via

psychological tools and mediated learning. Vygotsky’s approach to educational inclusion

was heavily reliant upon social interaction. Vygotsky maintained that rather than a need

for social interaction for its own sake, social interaction with capable adults and peers

was important because it reinforced a child’s development and strengthened learning via

zones of proximal development (ZPD). Within the ZPD, children are allowed to progress

and learn with assistance from interaction and support from knowledgeable adults.

Accordingly, social interaction provides the necessary ingredients for enculturation

(Rodina, 2007). Interaction among peers fosters role-play. Researchers have identified

five typologies:

• Director based socio-dramatic role play

• Producer-based socio-dramatic role play
• Plot-based role play
• Symbolic play, rule-based play
• Quantitative-plot based role play

During each stage of the child-system society, mastering of each stage is

important prior to a child’s progression to the next stage. Accordingly, role-play creates

the foundations of novel development and ZPD (Rodina, 2007). Vygotsky regarded

peer collectives as a type of mediation for socio-cultural and educational development

among children with learning disabilities. Vygotsky maintains that the personalities of

children with disablities are determined by their social interaction with their immediate

environment/culture rather than by their disability.

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Moreover, the social environment is a developmental resource in itself. The

Resource-Oriented Approach places emphasis upon children’s intact abilities. Within the

context of the ROA, Vygotsky focused upon salutogenesis; the maintenance of health.

Salutogenesis provides support for intact functioning abilities among exceptional

students, which enables a realization of their intact resources.

Inclusive learning in the US was accomplished not only by empirical study but

also by law. In 1975, the Federal Government passed the Education for All Handicapped

Children Act; AAHCH. In 1997, the AAHCH was renamed the Individuals with

Disabilities Act. Both required schools to deliver education and services to millions of

children with disabilities. Criticisms of inclusive learning are far and wide. Critics of

inclusive learning, mainly parents, maintain that classroom curricula that accommodate

exceptional students are watered down, exceptional children may impede the progression

of education of children without disabilities, and teachers find it impossible to teach to

effectively deliver two different types of services to children in the same classroom.

Despite the criticisms, teachers have been able to deliver quality educational

services to exceptional students via process known as differentiated instruction.

Differentiated instruction is based upon the idea that teachers must be competent and

knowledgeable of the curricula and most importantly, teachers must be aware of who

they are teaching. Differentiated instruction is based upon diversity (Woolfolk, 2007).

Exceptional students could benefit from small classes and the use of adaptive

technologies, particularly artificial intelligent robotic technologies that simulate virtual

students.
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Since the 1990’s, researchers in the computer sciences have a renewed interest in

the theory of cognitive development and have attempted to apply the theory to robotics

and artificial intelligence, AI. Cognitive development when applied to AI is based upon

physical situatedness and social interaction with human caregivers. Is the mind

dependent upon the body? If so, how do researchers attempt to place a mind within a

body? Robotics must be constructed to resemble human-like bodies equipped with

sensory-motor capabilities. Projects such as Cog, Kismet, and Infanoid attempt to

replicate human cognitive features.

The Cog Project and the Kismet Project, also known as the Sociable Machines

Project, was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with the

intent of developing robots with human-like interactive intelligence. Hideki Kozima

developed the Infanoid Project with the purpose of also communicating with people.

Robotic models have stereovision heads, arms, and hands, which simulates human

movements. The goal of both projects was to have models acquire or develop sensory-

motor and cognitive capabilities and ultimately, develop a goal-oriented mind.

Researcher, Jordan Zlatev, maintains that a human-like robot with some human

cognitive attributes such as perception, action, and learning could develop a mind within

the human context. Zlatev continues that a robotic mind must:

• Possess the ability to engage in acts of communication

• Possess bodily structures that support sensory functions and perception;
organs
• Develop physical, social, and linguistic skills

While far from accomplishing their goals, the Infanoid program was capable of

recognizing human faces and the Cog system replicated basic social gestures such as
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pointing to objects, attention, and initiating nods and regulating interaction of expressive

feedback. Kismet displayed interpreted responses that ranged from boredom to fear.

What had confounded any significant progress in the Cog, Kismet, and Infanoid models,

is that these have not transitioned into prolonged ontogenetic development becoming

self-sustaining structures i.e. auto-poietic. Moreover, they lack the biological factors to

support any ontogenetic development. Some of the responses from these robotic models

are said to have been built in intelligence, and not developed over time as in humans.

The argument proposed by John Searle in his counter-argument against AI, the Chinese

Room Argument, is that roboto-genesis is possible only if there ontogenesis to support it.

Supportive structures as such are referred to as strong AI. Strong AI is based upon the

belief that computer programs could actually possess minds rather than programs, which

resemble tools that model the mind. The latter is referred to as weak AI

(www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/chineser.htm). Research continues to assert that computer

programs lacked causal powers such as perception, action, and learning for purposive

behavior. The ultimate goal in these robotic projects is to enable people to effectively

interact with technology.

The practical applications in this model could be employed as a virtual student for

those who experience difficulty with domain specific studies such as math. Moreover,

interactive robotic models could help those students who lack the perseverance to

complete difficult class assignments. Currently, there is an interactive computer program

known as Brainology. Brainology is an interactive computer program that consists of six

nodules that presents users with a virtual model of the brain and its functions of various

regions of the brain. Users can advise virtual students who experience problems; the
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purpose of the virtual exercise is to enable students to effectively manage real life school-

related problems.

Consequently, the virtual environment becomes bi-directional and reciprocal.

Robotic models such as Cog and Kismet could learn the behaviors of particular students

and address their deficiencies upon and individual level thus freeing up resources for the

primary teacher.

The robotic teacher, Saya, was recently developed in Japan in 2009 by Professor

Hirohi Kobayashi , could serve as an interactive model to free resources for the primary

instructor. Moreover, robotic technologies could help students who lack perseverance or

primary academic supports, to complete difficult assignments.

(http://www.nydailynews.com/news/us_world/2009/03/11/2009-03-

11_saya_japans_robot_teacher_can_smile_and_-2.html)

Computer models which are based upon the brain, could act as virtual students or

teachers. There is an interactive computer program, known as Brainlogy that was

developed by Carol Dweck and her colleague, Lisa Sorich Blackwell; which consists of

six nodules that presents users with a virtual model of the brain and its functions of

various regions of the brain.

User can advise virtual students who experience problems; the purpose of the

virtual exercise is to enable students to effectively manage real life school-related

problems. Poor or low level of functioning students can use the virtual student as form of

scaffolding; educational support, to correct mistakes upon in-class assignments such as

math. Teachers who are tasked with this responsibility should embrace the differentiated

instruction model and must be technologically competent.

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Primary Source:

Rodina, Katrina (2007) Vygotsky’s Social Constructionist View on Disability:

A Methodology of Inclusion, Department of Special Needs Education,
University of Olso, Olso, Norway

Secondary Sources:

Gindis, Boris (1995) The social/cultural implication of disability: Vygotsky’s

paradigm for special education, Educational Psychologist, Vol. 30, #2, p. 77-81.

Overview of Kismet (www.ai.mit.edu/project/sociable/overview.html)

Sociable Machine Project Members

(www.ai.mit.edu/project/sociable/people.html)

The motivation behind Cog is the hypothesis that: Humanoid intelligence requires
humanoid interactions with the world (www.ai.mit.edu/projects/humanoid-
robotics-group/cog/overview.html)

Mechanism and Driving Method for Robot Lips p.134-135; Journal of the
National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Vol. 53, No.
2 (2006)

Lindstrom, B. & Eriksson, M. (2005) Salutogenesis, Journal of Epidemiology and

Community Health, 59; p. 440-442

The Chinese Room Argument (www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/chineser.htm)

Lindblom, J. & Ziemke (2003) Social Situatedness of Natural and Artificial

Intelligence: Vygotsky and Beyond, Adaptive Behavior, Vol. 11; No. 2; p.79-96
University of Skovde, Skovde, Sweden

Woolfolk, Anita (2007) Introduction to Educational Psychology, Tenth Edition,

Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA

Saya, Japan's robot teacher, can smile and scold, but don't fire those
substitutes yet; Associate Press;
http://www.nydailynews.com/news/us_world/2009/03/11/2009-03-
11_saya_japans_robot_teacher_can_smile_and_-2.html
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