Handy Electronic Formulas

Transformers & Coupling

Important- voltage is multiplied or divided directly by the transformer ratio, but impedance is multiplied or divided by the ratio squared. Remember that transformers are frequency and level sensitive, and that measurement conditions should match operating conditions for accurate results. For mutual inductance, measure the inductance of the primary and secondary in series, and then interchange the connections of one winding for a second reading. Apply the equation below:

M =

( Lseries + Lseries )

For coupling, measure the primary and secondary separately then apply the equation below: M k = L p Ls " is the coefficient of coupling, #ero to one. $he primary lea"age inductance is given by: L pleak = '! k & % L p If the secondary is shorted, the resulting primary inductance '(pss& is said to be given by:

L pss = '! k ) & % Lp

$he formula does not ta"e into account the resistance of the secondary. It is appro*imate and should not be rearranged to determine ". +se the first two formulas instead. ,ote that ( pss is not the primary lea"age inductance as sometimes claimed. $he non-lea"age portion of the primary or secondary inductance is obtained by multiplying the measured inductance by ". $he above two formulas can also be applied to the secondary. In general, that which is not mutual inductance must be lea"age inductance, but resistive losses and capacitive effects will prevent perfect agreement between the formulas. Refer to a te*t containing the general coupling solution for more e*act results.

Inductors
$o use the A( value for toroids, pot cores, or other commercial cores, the value must be e*pressed in units matching the equations below, i.e., if the A( value is e*pressed in -.!// turns, use the center equation. ( is the inductance, , is the number of turns.

N=

LnH AL

N = !// %

LuH AL

N = !/// %

LmH AL

Q=

Lseries Rseries
! & Q) = Rseries '! + Q ) &

L parallel = Lseries '! +

R parallel
L=

V where ( is the inductance in henries and 0 is the applied voltage. amps . sec

For single layer solenoid wound inductors where a is the coil radius in inches, b is the length in inches, and , is the number of turns, apply the formula below:

LuH =

a) N ) 1a + !/b

Impedance & Loss

) Z = Rseries + ( Xcseries Xlseries ) where, Xlseries = )FLseries and, )

Xcseries =
2hase angle

! )FCseries

= tan !
(oss factor

X series Rseries
Rseries ! ! = RseriesCseries = also, D = Q X series C parallel R parallel

D = tan = abs
3eries to parallel

! C parallel = Cseries ) ! + D
2arallel to series

Cseries = C parallel ! + D )

,ote that if 4 is less than /./!, the difference between series and parallel values will be negligible. If , identical capacitors are paralleled, the capacitance will be !/, and 4 will be unchanged. -ere are the full formulas for paralleled capacitors with significant dissipation factors:

DT =

) C! D! '! + D) & + C) D) '! + D!) & ) C! '! + D) & + C ) '! + D!) &

C ) C! ' D! D) & ) CTS = C ) + C! C! '! + D)) & + C ) '! + D!) &

For more than two capacitors, convert from series to parallel form, and then to 53R at any frequency. 6ombine the components in the usual fashion, convert from parallel to series, and compute the dissipation factor. +se the following formula for capacitance between the plates where 578.89 !8*!/-!), A is the area in meters), 0 is the voltage, and 3 is the distance between the plates in meters. :ultiply 5 by the dielectric constant of the dielectric material.

C=

AE Farads S Q farads V Q amps t ! amps t

:iscellaneous relationships where 6 is in farads, ; is coulombs, 0 is volts, and < is energy. ,ote that these formulas apply to static conditions, or to vanishingly small time periods only:

C=

I =

V =

volts

I =C

= ! CV ) )

=oules

Force between the two capacitor plates:

AEV ) ,ewtons F= )S )

RC = RC

VC ( t ) = E ! e t . charging
VC ( t ) = Ee
t .

discharging Rule of thumb for oscilloscope performance:

Trisetime '!/? 1/?& % #

>"#

= /.>9

Series Resonance
For reasonably high values of ;, the same formulas can be used for both series and parallel tan"s. 6onsult other references for low ; parallel tan"s. If the coil resistance is held constant, sharpness of resonance will increase by ma"ing the ratio of ( to 6 large. If the ; of the coil remains constant, the ratio of ( to 6 will have no effect on the sharpness of resonance. I@<, with good 'low 4& capacitors the ; of the coil is usually the controlling factor.

FR =

! ) LC

$o convert 6 to ( or ( to 6 with the e*act same impedance at a given frequency 'resonance&:

L=

For inductively coupled tan"s, ma*imum selectivity occurs with the least possible coupling. :a*imum voltage output occurs when:
M = RpRs or for capacitively coupled tan"s,

! )C

C=

) L

For Rp AA (p, the response at resonance is:

! = RpRs C

V%lta&e B acr%ss B Sec%n"ar$ M = % Ls V%lta&e B applie" B t% B 2r imar$ RpRs + ' M & )

and,

E''ecti!e B Q B %' B Ampli'icati%n B Cur!e ! = ) Actual B Q B %' BTune" B Circuit ' M & . Rs !+ Rp
Amplifiers
A linear push-pull power amplifier can be C8? efficient at best, 91? or lower at worst. $he power dissipation is ma*imum at intermediate levels. 2ower dissipation is given below, where Iout is pea", and 0cc is one supply rail or 0total.). 3ymmetrical supplies are assumed.

,ote that the formula is nothing more than power in minus power out.

) R *" = ' % VCC % I ()T & ' L % I ()T D )& )

RMS Currents for Various

a!eforms

All waveforms e*cept the simple sine wave are unipolar above 'or below& ground. $he formulas yield R:3 current for pea" current value inputs, where f is the frequency in -# and $ is the duration of the pulse in seconds. 3ine wave: 3inewave, rectified, full wave:

I pk )
I pk )

3inewave, rectified, half wave:

I pk )

3inewave, offset by 46 current: -alf-sinusoids 'unipolar&, $ duration: 3quarewaves, $ duration: 3awtooth 'unipolar&, $ duration: $rape#oid 'unipolar&, $ duration, 7rise7fall:

I DC ! +
I pk
I pk

I pk )

'Idc A Ip"&

'T )
'T

I pk

'T >

'use for 3:23 design&

I pk

' ' ) + >T & >

AC Coupled True RMS Meters

For true R:3 results that include a 46 component, measure the A6 true R:3 value, the 46 value average over many cycles and combine using:
TRMS = ac ) + "c )

"oise
<hen uncorrelated noise sources are added together, the total power is equal to the sum of the individual powers. $herefore uncorrelated noise voltages can be added by ta"ing the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual noise voltages.

Vt%tal = V!) +V)) .

$wo correlated noise sources can be added by using:

Vt%tal = V!) +V)) + )V!V) where is a correlation coefficient that can have any value from E! to -!. <hen equals /, the voltages are uncorrelatedF when equals !, the voltages are totally correlated.
R:3-to-Average Ratios for Gaussian noise: RMS = = !.)9 or !.1H dI a!era&e ) 5*pected ,umber of Jero-a*is 6rossings For KwhiteK random noise with upper and lower frequency limits of f) and f!, respectively, the e*pected number of #ero crossings per second of either positive-going or negative-going sense is:

N=

' )> '!> ! ) = ' ' ) + '! ' ) + '!) & >' ' ) '! & >

5*pected ,umber of :a*ima For KwhiteK random noise with upper and lower frequency limits as above, the e*pected number of ma*ima per second is:

>' ' )9 '!9 & M= 9' ' )> '!> &

If f! 7 / 'low pass filter&, : 7 /.CC9 f). For narrow band noise 'f!f)&, :'f!Ef)&.). $he number of ma*ima per second of the absolute value is double the values of : given above.

Circuit La# Re!ie#

$he algebraic sum of currents into a node at any instant is #ero. 'LirchoffMs 6urrent (aw, L6(& From the above, $he sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the node. $he algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop at any instant is #ero. 'LirchoffMs 0oltage (aw, L60& From the above, the sum of voltage rises around a closed loop at any instant is equal to the sum of voltage drops around the loop at the same instant.

Miscellaneous Relations$ips% Constants and Con!ersions = )F radians per second

3lew rate at any given point on a sine wave, with the ma*imum at #ero phase angle 'cosine7!&: Sle+ = V*EA, % % C(S ' & 0olts.3econd For e*ponential growth or decay, positive " gives growth, negative " gives decay. t is time. For the case where the value doubles every !/ units, say F5$ op-amp input current vs. temperature, "7/./H1>! C:

Q 't & = Q/ e kt e = ).C!8)8!8)8 H

V()T = V()T

R) % VIN for unloaded voltage dividers 'R! is the upper resistor& R! + R) R) = % V IN for voltage dividers with a resistive load R! + R) + R! % R) . RL(AD

! =oule 7 ! wattsecond 7 ! ,ewton-meter 7 .///)CC8 watthour ! amp-hour 7 >H// coulombs ! pascal 7 ! ,.m) 7 !. 9/>85- 23I . 8)) ,ewtons 7 ! lb. 1.8/HH9 ,ewtons 7 ! "g force /.)) 8/1 lbs. 7 ! ,ewton ! :pa 7 !/.!1CH)! "gf.cmD) 5/78.89 !8C8!*!/-!) F.m

References&
Instrument ,otes, General Radio 6orp., I,-!/>, Nune !1H> ,oise Reduction $echniques in 5lectronic 3ystems, @tt, I3I, /- C!-89/H8-> Radio 5ngineersO -andboo", $erman, !1 > ,ess 5ngineering technical data 0arious standard engineering P math te*tboo"s