Acoustic and Optical Methods For Measuring

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrcs ad Electrical Insulation Vol. 6 No.
5, Odober 1999 519

WHITEHEAD MEMORIAL LECTURE 1999
Acoustic and Optical Methods for Measuring
Electric Charge Distributions in Dielectrics
Tatsuo Takada
Musashi Institute of Technology
Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Much progress had been made during the last two decades in acoustic and optical methods for
measuring charge distributions in dielectrics. A review on this topic is given, which mainly
covers the past research activities associated with that at our laboratory. For acoustic methods,
we will discuss and compare the pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) and pressure wave propagation
(pwP) methods and present some of the results that enabled us to gain physical insights into
the charge dynamics within solid plate samples and coaxial cables. For optical methods, we
will discuss the Pockels effect technique that is used for the dynamic measurement of surface
charge distributions, and the Kerr effect technique that is developed for measuring electric feld
distributions within liquid dielectrics.
1 INTRODUCTION
J
Poynting vector represents a flow of electric power equivalent
to EXH [W 1m2], where E [V 1m] represents electric field inten
sity and H [Aim] the magnetic field intensity To facilitate the trans
mission of large amounts of electric energy, which has its equivalent in
a large Poynting vector, researchers must strive to incease either the
magnetic field j or the electric field E. An increase of H can be ac
complished by using superconducting transmission lines, while that of
i can be achieved by increasing the transmission Yoltg+ However, at
present, the develpment of a practical, usable superconducting trans
mission system has not been fully realized. Therefore, we have to con
tinue our efforts in obtaining high E throlgh a HV transmission system.
. To this end, much research on the properties of dielectric and insulat-
ing materials will have to be conducted. This is one of the goals of the
present work
The advancement of excellent leLtric insulating materials, in which
electric power flows in the form of a Poynting vector, has made a sig
nificant contribution to the development of electric power engineer
ing, electronics engineering and electronic communication systems in
present everyday life, Many researches have been conducted on de
voltage-current characteristics by electric conductivity (r [S/m]) mea
surement, and on ac voltagecurrent characte1istics by permittivity
(c [F/m]) measurement in the past years. However, that research con
sidered only the case where the current fowing through the materials
had reached the steady state and the electric field across thematerial
was uniform and independent of time.
During the last 20 years, because electric power apparatus has be
come more compact, and electronic devices have become much smaller,
the insulating materials used are highly stressed to > 1 MV I cm, which
is near the breakdown strength of the insulating materials. Under such
high electric field application, electric charges may be injected fromelec
trodes or be dissociated from impurities that occur in the materialy These
electric charges accumulated in the insulating material distort the orig
inal internal electric field distribution. The process may cause the insu
lating material to degrade and sometimes leads to electrical breakdown
of the materiaL For this reason, it is diffcult to design an insulation sys
tem under high electric stress if we only consider the conventional elec
trical properties of the insulating materials that was obtained under a
assumption of constant conduction condition, Therefore, studies on the
direct observation of the electric charge and electric field distributions
became of intense interest in the 1970 decade [1-3) .
1.1 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATERIALS
After a de voltage is applied to an electrical insulating material, a
curent flows through the material. This current decreases slowly and
takes a long time to reach equilibrium. The decay current generally in
cludes the components of electric charges injected from the electrodes
andlor dissociated from impurities in the bulk The decqy time depends
on the intrinsic properties of the materials, and may be of the order of
hours or days, As shown in Figure 1, the electric field is uniform, and
given by Eo Vl d for a voltage V across thickness d when no vol
ume charge has accumulated i the materiaL However, assuming ho
mocharge is injeLted from both electrodes as shown in Figure l(a), the
electric field at the interface of the electrodes becomes lower than the
uniform field Eo, whereas the field in the bulk becomes higher. In the
107o9S7S/99/ $3.00 1999 IEEE
520 Takada: Methods lor Measuring DieJectric Char
g
e Distributions
Table 1. List of Symbols.
Symbol Description
I
Unit
Acoustic measurements
AU)
Amplitude of pie-amplifier
b Tikness of piezoelectric transducer m
Cp capacitance of the piezoelectric transducer F/ml
d Thickness of sample m
D(f)
RC differential circuit
AT Sampling time s
E(f)
Pulse electric field Vim
Bp(t) Pulse electric field Vim
G(f)
Piezoelectric constant for generating transducer Clm'
H(f)
Piezoelectric cOnstant for detecting transducer mlV
I(f)
Signal Current A
p(z)
Volume charge density C/m3
S(f)
System function Vm3/C
a(O) Electrode surface charge density at x = 0 C/m'
a(d) Elettrode surface charge density at: " d elm'
'9
Acoustic velocity in piezoelectic transducer g mis
'h
Acoustic velocity in piezOlectric transducer h mis
a Acoustic velocity in sample mls
V(f)
Signal voltage V
w(f)
Signal detecting circuit
J Young modulus of the sample Nlm'
A|
Acoustic impedance of AI electrode kglm's
z_ Acoustic impedance of piezoelectric transducer kg/ms
Z Acoustic impedance of sample km2s
Optical measurements
I Kerr constant m/Vl
18(:'Y)
Birefringence fast-axis direct distribution rad
< Angle of transmission axis of the polarizer rad
-
,
.
Distribution of light transmission ratio
P
Pockels constant mlV
l(:,y)
Lght intensity distribution of images W/m'
lo(x,y) Maximum light intensity distribution of incident W/m2
light
I,f(:,Y)
dc offset component of light W/m!
IM(X,y) System function of optical system W/m!
L Otical length inside the dielectric m
>0
Wavelength of light in space
Rq,R_ Refractive index of the dielectric materials
O(x,y),O,(x,y) Optical phase retardation in specimen rad
e,,(x,y) Natural optical phase retardation rad
O=(t) Optical phase modulation rad
OB
Bias of optical phase retardation rad
1-P2 Principal stresses i the compressive and tensile N/m2
direction
((x,y)
Intrinsic function 01 specimen
case of charge polarization as shown in Figure 1 (b), heterochargefrom
the impurities in the material accumulates near the electrodes. The ac
cumulation of heterocharge causes the electric field to be enhanced at
the interfaces of both electrodes and be decreased in the bulk. For this
reason, the electric field distribution under high electric stress is not al
ways non-uniform. The traditional methods for cakulating the electric
conductivity [S/ml,by measuring the voltage over the material and
the current through the material, became irrelevant in this case. In order
to understand the basic electrical characteristics of the insulating materi
als, one must see through the materials, i.e. measure the electric charge
and field distribution i the materials directly know the time depen
dency of these physical facts at any necessary period, and calculate the
charge trap energy distribution.
The internal diagnosis of the electrical characteristics for insulating
l(t g
(b)

Z d
1(1 v,
Figure 1. Space charge distortion of the electic field distribution be
tween parallel electrodes with spacing d and voltage V so that the average
electriC field is Eo " Void. (a) Bipolar homocharge injection so that te
field is reduced at both electrodes and enhanced in the cental region. (b)
Bipolar heterocharge distribution where the feld is enhanced at both elec
trodes and depressed in the central region.
Characteristics
of
p (Z,t [elm;] V (z,t) [
E (Z,t) [Im} r (z) leV
" [S/m]
e [F/mJ
Figure 2. The internal diagnosis of the electric characteristics for insu
lating materials by using optical and acoustic advanced measurement tech-
niqVeo
.
materials is to know the electriL charge distribution p(z, t), electri
field distribution E(z, t) and potential distribution V(z, 0, where all
of these are time and pobitio dependent. As shown in Figure 2, o
p
tical and acoustic measurement technologies have been developed to

carry out the time dependence of space charge distribution p(z, t), and
the position dependence of chrge trap energy ( z). These technolo
gies carry out measurement of the charge trapped in the material; the
measurement of space charge distribution in solid dielectrics by using
an acoustic pressure pulse with width of the order of nanoseconds [1];
and the measurement of electric field in liquid dielectrics by using the
electro-optic effect method [2]. Themeasurement technologies and pub"
lished articles for the charge p(z, t) and electric field E(z, t) distribu
Hons are given in Tables 2 and 3.
1.2 INTERNAL OBSERVATIONS
1.2. 1 ACOUSTIC METHODS
Several measurement methods of space charge distribution in solid
insulating materials are based on the acoustic propagation through th$
materials. Table 2 shows the research achievements for space chargCdis
tribution by using the acoustic method. The two most commonly used
methods to measure space charge distribution directly are the pressure
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrcal Insulaton
Table 2. List of references for space chargemeasurement by using cous
tic methods.
Geometry
p
Experimental results Reference
Film and Plate Depth Distribution Measurement 4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,
p(z)
technology 12,13,14,15,16,17
Additives and 18,19,20,21,22,23,
byproducts 24,25,26
Multi-layers 27, 28, 29, 30,31, 33
Breakdown field 3
3,34
,35
E-beam and ' ray 8,36,37,43,44
irradiation
Organic photo 15,38,39,40,41
conductor
Circuit print-board 42
Three Dimensional PEA method 43
p(x, y, z)
pwpmethod 45
3D water tree 45,46,49
Tme Dependence Frequency 47,48,49
p(z, t) dependence
C water tree 49
Polarity reversal 18, 20,31,50
Transient charge 20,50
behavior
Temperature TSC 51, 52,53, 55,56
Dependence .
p(z,T)
Net conduction 51, 52
current
Mobility 54,57
Trapped energy 54
level
Cable Radial Distribution Measurement 58,59
per)
technology
Short cable 60, 61, 62, 63
Long cable 64, 65, 66, 67
Plane electrode 68
Water tree 69,70
Angular Short cable 71,72
Distribution
p(r,<p)
Tme Dependence Long cable 64,65
per. t)
Temperature Short cable 63
Dependence
p(r.<p. T)
wave propagation (pwP) method [4-71 and pulsed electro acoustic (PEA)
method [8.9]. Equipment for both methods is now available commer
cially.
The principle of the PEA method is as follows. When a voltage pulse
is applied to a dielectric in which space charge is distributed, the electric
field due to the pulse acts on each charge, causing a displacement from
its original position. The displacement generates an acoustic wave. The
density and polarity of the space charge can be obtained from the phys
ical characteristics of the acoustic wave. In the pWP method, a voltage
pulse is first applied to a piezo-transducer, in whiCh an acoustic wave.is
generated. When this acoustic wave is incident on a dielectric in which
space charge is located, the charges move slightly from their original
positions. This movement causes a displacement current. The density
and polarity of the space charge can be obtained from the displacement
current. Details on the principle of the two methods ate given inSec
tion 2.1.
Vol. 6 No.5, October1999 521
Specimen used for the two methods can either be films (50 to 500 ;m),
plates (0.5 to 20 mm), or coaxial shape cables. Generally the position res
olution for space charge measurement is 2 to 5%. For plate specimens,
time dependence and temperature dependence of space charge distri
butions along the thickness direction are measured. Typical results ob
tained shown in Table 2 are as follows. Space charge formation caused
by crosslinking agent residues [181 or additives [19], space charge accu
mulation at the interface of two-layer materials [29,30,321, charge be
havior near the field of electric breakdown [33-35], charge behavior in
the material after electron-beam [36] and '-beam irradiation [37], space
charges in organic photoconductive materials used in electronic photo
copy machines [38-41], also in print circuits [42] etc.
Technologies for three-dimensional space charge measurement were
developed both for the PEA and PWP methods [43,44], and by these
methods the three-dimensional space charges at tree tips and roots in a
water-treed crosslinked polyethylene were observed [46]. Space charge
behavior at polarization reversal [18], and ac voltage application [47, 48]
are also reported. Furthermore, when the simultaneous measurement of
thermally stimulated current (rse) and space charge distribution was
developed, the displacement current due to the charge movement and
the conductivity current were separated [51,52]. By this technology, the
relationship of carrier mobility and space distribution of trap energy
was discussed [53,54]. The discussion of the basic internal character
istics of the material became possible.
For cable specimens, measurements on either short length cable
(<1 m) [58-63] or for long length cable (>20 m) [64-67] are possible.
Space charge distribution measurement along the radial direction under
HV application and around the surface of the radius [71,721i the time
dependence and temperature dependence [63] of space charges were
carried out.
1.2.2 OPTICAL METHODS
The existence of an interal mechanical stress distribution inside a
solid material [118] or an electric field distribution inside a liquid mate
rial [73-78] may cause the appearance of a birefringence distribution due
to the photo-elastic effect or the electro-optical Kerr effect respectively
and thus modify the optical property of a dielectric material. As summa
rized in Table 3, both the photo-elastic effect and the electro-optical Kerr
effect have been employed for direct investigating of the interal distri
bution of a mechanical stress feld inside a solid materiat or an electric
field inside a liquid material. Besides the Kerr effect, the Pockels effect
is an electro-optical effect that is usually observed in crystalline mate
rials. However, the limited existence of the Pockels effect in crystalline
materials has limited its use as an optical voltage sensor or for sensing
the electric field within a discharging air gap [73, 92,93]. Recently it was
employed for investigating surface discharge phenomena [97-104]. The
Kerr effect also may exist in some solid materials such as polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA). However, the charge distribution inside a solid
material also may induce an internal mechanical sfress distribution, and
both Kerr effect and the photo-elastic effect work simultaneously [106].
The fringe pattern measurement method is an early method that was
performed for measuring electric feld distributions inside liquid mate
rials based on the Kerr effect [74-77]. By introducing an optical phase
ac modulation technique and a lock-in amplifer, the measurement sen
sitivity was vastly improved for measurement of the magnitude [83-87)
522 Takada: Methods for Measurng Dielectric Charge Distributions
Table 3. List of articles for birefringence measurement by using electro-optical methods.
Optical Fringe pattern Birefringence Lockin technique
Birefringence Method Ref Methd Ref Method Rei
Kerr Effect [21 Nitrobenzene 74,75 Transformer Oil 78 Electric Field 82
Distribution
Purified Water 76,77 3-D Electric Field 79,80,81
Vector
E-field Modulation 79,80,81
and
Optical Phse Bias 86,87
2-D Electric Field 88,89,90,91
Vector
Pockels Effect [731 Efield in air 92,93 Surface Discharge 99,100,101
Surface Discharge 94,
9
5 Surface Charge 102,103,104
LC
BSO 96,97
BGO 98 Surface E-field 105
Photoelastics Fundamental 105 Phase Modulation 107,108,109,111 Thermal Stress 112
Distributions
Mechanical Stress 113
Distributions
E-beam !%NP 106 Residual Stress 110 Birefringence 114,115
and 2-dimensional vector [88-91]of the electric field distribution. How
ever, because of the use of a photodeteetor for optical detection, these
measurements are only point measurements, and the two-dimensional
results were obtained by simple grouping of the point data. For ob
serving the dynamic surface charging phenomena using the electro
optic Pockels effect, a digital electronic camera was employed instead
of the photo detector for optical detection [96, 971. However, the non
uniformity became a problem for accurate, two-dimensional measure
ments. The use of a digital camera provides a boost of the digital mea
surement and allows for accurate calculation from the measured to
dimensional data. For this purpose, a square pulse modulation tech
nique and an image lock-in processing technique have been developed
and employed in measurement systems using the Kerr effect [82], Pock
els effect [101-104] and the photo-elastic effect [112-115]. In Section 3,
we will discuss in detail the two-dimensional measurement tedmiques.
2 ACOUSTIC SPACE CHARGE
MEASUREMENTS
2.1 SPACE CHARGE DISTRIBUT[ON
MEASUREMENTS
The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method [8, 9] and the pressure wave
propagation (pwP) method [4-7] are common for investigating space
charge behavior i solid dielectrics. According to the generation prin
ciples of narrow acoustic waves, the PWP method is classified into to
methods. One is the piezoelectric induced pressure wave propagation
(PIPWP) method [7] in which the narrow pressure wave is generated by
a piezoelectric device, and the other is the laser induced pressure prop
agation (LlPP) method [5.6] in which the pressure wave is generated by
pulsed laser irradiation. The principle of space charge measurements for
PIPWP and LlPP methods is the same. In ts Section, attention is drawn
to these methods only and their characteristics are compared [16, 17].
Vector
2.1. 1 PULSED ELECTROACOUST[C
METHOD
The principle of the PEA method is shown in Figure 3. Consider a
plate sample with thickness d and space charge distribution p( <) . An
externally applied pulsed electric feld ep( t) is applied to the sample
and induces a perturbation force on each charge. This force causes the
charge to move slightly. Ths movement launches an acoustic wave that
is proportional to the charge distribution in the sample. A piezoelectric
transducer is used to detect the acoustic wave and transform the acoustic
wave into an electric signal.
piezo devic
0 0C
a(d
|
backg
2 d
maletial
charged specimen
Figure 3. Block diagram of te PEA method for measuring space charge
distributions in solid dielectrics.
GENERATION OF PULSED ACOUSTIC WAVE
FROM SPACE CHARGES
Let us consider the process of the acoustic wave generated in a
charged sample when an electric pulse voltage is applied to the sam
ple. Suppose a dc voltage is applied to a sample of thickness d. Space
charge p( z) is accumulated in the sample if the amplitude of the applied
de voltage 'c is high enough and the applied period is long enough.
At the same time, surface charges a(O) and a(d) are induced by both
the dc voltage and the space charge p( <) .
When an electric pulse t_( t) is applied to the sample through a cou
pling capacitor CJ the pulsed acoustic wave related with the charge
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
distribution is generated. As described in the following, the acoustic
wave component p( t) propagating through the ground electrode which
is proportional to the space charge distribution p(z) is given by
p(t) =
Z
8+ Al
(1)
+u. ,p(T)C,(t - + o(d)c.(t -
if the following conditions are satisfed. The first condition for obtain"
ing the approximate space charge distribution is that the width 6T@ of
the HV pulse is much shorter than the transit time 6Ts = (diu.) of
acoustic waves across the sample, i. . .T g 6Ts. The second condi"
tion is the acoustic impedance match between the HV electrode and the
sample. To satisfy the condition Zs = Zb, where Z. and Zb are acous
tic impedance of sample and electrode respectively a piece of conduct"
ing impedance matching material is placed between the high dc voltage
electrode and the sample.
When the acoustic wave propagates through the ground electrode,
the acoustic pressure wave given by Equation (1) includes three compo"
nents, surface charge 0(0) on the ground electrode, space charge p(z)
in the sample, and surface charge 0( on the HV electrode. In Equa
tion (1), because the acoustic matching material between the HV elec
trode and the sample has the same acoustic impedance, Zs * Zb, the
total ratio for each acoustic wave component, for the surface charges or
the space charge, is ZAI/(Zs + ZAI). In other words, by detecting
the acoustic wavep(t), charge components 0"(0), O(z) and O(d) are
obtained.
DETECTION OF PULSED ACOUSTIC SIGNAL
WAVE
Equation (1) shows the acoustic wave which includes the informa
tion of space charge and surface charges. Attaching a piezoelectric trans"
ducer to the back of the ground electrode, the acoustic wave signal p( t)
is detected, and converted into a charge signal q( t) which is propor"
tional to space charge distribution. Suppose the transfer function of
the piezoelectric transducer is h(z @) In order to prevent the
refection at the interface of the piezoelectric transducer and the rear
electrode, it is necessary to match te acoustic impedance between the
piezoelectric transducer and the rear electrode.
SIGNAL OF SPACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
The acoustic wave with information of space charge distribution
is transmitted into a charge signal by a piezoelectriC transducer. The
charge signal is then amplified by using a pre-amplifier with high im
pedance input. In the frequency domain, the amplified voltage signal is
expressed as Equation (2)
V(f
)
=S(f)
+
R(f)
+
O .T us.T T
(2)
The first component is the surface charge at the ground electrode
(z 0), the second component is the accumulated space charge in the
sample (0 <z < 4 the third component is the surface charge at the
HV electrode (z = d. The time delay of the acoustic wave propagating
through the sample is d/ u . Here, the component S(f) in Equation (2)
Vol. 6 No.5
,
October 1999 523
is the system function which is given in
S
(
f
)
=
A(f)W(f)H(f) 2Zp ZAI ,.:-
E
(
f
)
Cp ZAI + ZZs + ZAI b
(3)
If the system function S .is known, the component in round brackets
of the charge distribution in Equation (2) is obtained. By inverse Fourier
transform, the space charge distribution in the time domain or position
domain p(z = u.r) is obtained.
2.1.2 PRESSURE WAVE PROPAGATION
METHOD
The principle of the pwp method [16,17J is shown in Figure 2. The
acoustic wave acts as a charge probe. The charge moves as the acoustic
wave propagates it. This. movement causes a change of surface charge
on the electrodes. The time signal of displacement current indicates the
charge distribution in the sample. By measuring the qisplacement cur
rent between the electrodes, the charge distribution is obtained.
c
y-
"
+
,
P
)
"H
*
*
((d
.-,
piezo device
--Z d
materal
charged specimen
Figure 4. Block diagram of the lYY methods for measuring the space
charge distribution in solid dielectrics.
GENERATION OF PULSE ACOUSTIC WAVE
An acoustic wave p( t) is generated when a pulsed electric field
is applied to a piezoelectric transducer g(z = UgT). The single pres"
sure wave incident into the ground electrode is obtained, if the follow
ing conditions are satisfied. In order to obtain an acoustic impedance
match (Zb " .between the piezoelectric transducer and the volt
age electrode, a conducting sheet with acoustic impedance Zb is set be
teen the piezoelectric transducer with acoustic impedance Zp and the
voltage electrodes. Consequently, a single pulsed acoustic wave without
reflection is generated. A thin piezoelectric transducer is chosen to gen
erate the pulsed acoustic wave. Suppose the pulse width .of the
HV pulse is much longer than the transit time ATt of acoustic waves
across the piezoelectric transducer, i.e. 6Tp .Tt. In this case, the
width of the generated acoustic wave is the same as the transit time of
acoustic wave across the piezoelectric device (.Tt = b/ug). In this
situation, when a large electric energy is applied to the thin film trans"
ducer, a strong pulsed acoustic wave is generated.
SIGNAL OF SPACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
When the acoustic wave mentioned above propagates through the
charged sample, the charge position will change, and the movement of
the charge will induce ta change of surface charge on the electrodes.
The time dependence of surface charge dq( t) / dt, causes a displacement
current i( t) in the external circuit. Equation (4) shows the displacement
current in the time domain and Equation (5) in the frequency domain.
. dq(t) AU) 2Z. d
z(t) A(J)T

- ZAl + Z. dt
+ p(
r)
plt - r)dr
+
ald)p(t - (4)
1U) S
(j) + RU) +
exp -
(
5
)
r lr
In these Equations, the first component is due to the surface charge
0(0) at z 0 and the third component is due to the surface charge
O(d) change at z = d. The second component is due to the space
charge p(z * usr) at any position z. The signal current is given by
the convolution form of the space charge p(z = usr) and the pulsed
acoustic wave pet). Furthermore, 8(j) shown in Equation (6) is the
system fuction.
S
U)
A(f)D(f)G(f) 2Zs x
Y AAI + Zs
ZAl
Us
u
p.r2
ECf)
Zp + ZAl U
(6)
If the system function SCf) is known, the coponent of charge dis
tribution in the round brackets in Equation (5) is obtained. By inverse
Fourier transform, the space charge distribution in the time or position
domain p(z = u.r) is obtained.
2. 1 .3 CALIBRATION OF CHARGE
DENS/TY
The method to obtain the system function S(f) of Equations (3) and
(6) is as follows. A de voltage \e is applied to the sample first to induce
surface charges. The dc voltage is low and short enough to avoid space
charge formation in the sample during the dc voltage application. When
a pulse voltage is applied to the sample, the surface charge signal corre
sponding to surface charge 0(0) and
(
d) is obtained. Only the surface
charge signal corresponding to 00(0) is used as the calibration signal.
By transferring this bignal to the frequency domain, Va (f) for the PEA
method is obtained. In the same way, 10 (J) for the pWP method is also
obtained. The surface charge Q(0) in Equations (7) or (8) is calculated
using Equation (9). If the applied dc voltage Vc, the permittivity "C;
and thickness of the sample d are known, the system function S(f) is
obtained by Equtons (7) or (8).
Vo(f) S(f)
ao(O)
(7)
T.r
IoU) S(f)
co(O)
(8)
u .r
00(0) cC}
(9)
Inserting the system function S(f) into Equations (2) and (5), the charge
calibration for the PEA method
0"(0) + R(J) + od) exp .
u .r us.r Us
Ve 1 V(f)
=
cacr(
u
s.r Va(j)
(10)
and for the PWP method are obtained
a(O) + R(J)
+
O
(
d) exp -i21j
u .r u .r
.
'8
Vc 1 1(f)
cocr
(
.r Io(f)
(11)
The left side of both Equations shows the space charge distribution
R(f}, in the sample and the amount of surfce charge density u(O)
and 0( d), at each electrode. The V (j) IV (f) and 1(f) 110 (f) of the
right-hand item in both equations shows the profile of the charge distri
bution. The com
p
onent (
c
olr Vocl d)(l/
u
sr) can be obtained from
calculation. Because the components V (j) I Va (f) and I (j) 110 (1)
show the charge distribution in the frequency domain, the charge dis
tribution p(z = usr) as fuction of position is obtained by inverse
Fourier transform. Consequently the charge density calibration for the
PEA and the pwp method are given i Equations (10) and (11)
Comparing the two equations, one finds that only V (j) IVa (j) and
I (f) 110 (f) differ on the right side of the equation, and the rest is the
same. In other words, for the PEA method the output signal is voltage,
while for the pWP method the output signal is current.
2.1.4 COMPARISON OF
MEASUREMENTS
A PMMA sample (thickness 500 rm) is measured using both PEA and
pwp methods for comparison. The sample is irradiated by electon beam
(200 keY and 1.0 nAI cm2 for 3 h) and is expected to contain space charge.
The short circuited space charge distributions of the sample are shown
i Figures 5(a) and 6(a) for the PEA and pWP methods, respectively. The
results for both methods are almost the same. A valley at x 160 }m
is foud because irradiated electrons concentrate there. The maximum
penetration depth of irradiated electrons is "400 j.tm. Due to induced
surface charges, two peaks are found at z = 0 and 500 rm.
In principle, the surface charge density IC/m2l should be a { fnc
tion if one expresses it as function of volume space charge density p
[C/m3]. However, due to the finite resolution of the detecting device and
the fnite width of the generated pulse, it is not possible to obtain this
ideal result. Consequently, the induced surface charges of unit C/m2 are
expressed as a peak and a valley in space coordinates and charge density
of unit C/m3 as shown in Figures 5{a) and 6(a). The widths of the peak
and valley reflect the resolution of the measurement system. The nar
rower the width, the higher the resolution. The full width at half height
for both systems is 16 rm, indicating that the resolutions of both PEA
and PWP systems are almost the same.
The distributions of the electric feld E(z) and potential V(z) are
demonstrated in Figures 5() and (c) and Figures 6(b) and (c) for PEA
and pWP. The distributions of electric field E(z) along the X direction
are calculted by inte
g
rdting p( z) I cC_. The scale of surface charge 0
[C/m2] is put on the right side in Figures 5(b) and 6(b) by using the re
lations 0(0) = cocrE(O) and O(d) = cocrE(d). The distributions
of electric potential V (<) are obtained from the integration of :().
The electric field vanishes at z = 190 rm in the sample. The distribu
tion of electric potential in the sample looks like an inverse triangle as
illustrated in Figures 5(c) and 6(c). On both surfaces of the sample, the
electric potential approaches zero, as expected. The peak of the inverse
s
O
V
.:
L'
';

'
,
L
%
0
+
O
S
20
(.) Charge distribution
0
-20
Electron beam
0
-200
O-
-2
(e) POle al
distribution
Position [1m]
Figure 5. Space charge measurement results in e-beam irradiated PMMA
obtained by using the PEA method.
Table 4. Characteristic comparison of the PE A and the PWP methods. In
the PEA method HV Circuit and signal electric circuit are separated, in the
PWP methods a coupling capacitor is used. Te PEA metod cart be used
when corona discharge LCUlb, not so for the Pwr methods.
Characteristics PEA method pwpmethod Unit
\\Y 1\\
|
Thickess of 0.11 20 0.1 ~1.C 0.05 20 mm
samples
Relative resolution 2-5% 2 .5% 2_5%
min. space 5 5 2 ]D
resoluton
U Very quick varying Possible Possible No report until HDW
space charge
distribution
measurement
triangle locates at i = 190 ",m, corresponding to the position where
E(z) = O.
2. 1. 5 COMPARISON OF THE METHODS
As described above, the two methods are used to obtain space charge
distribution. The characteristics of the two methods are summarized in
Table 4.
RESOLUTION
As shown in Table 4, the typical thickness of the samples used in this
analysis is 50 "m to 20 mm. The relative resolution for both methods
is 2 to 5%. In principle, the resolution for both the PEA method and the
PWP method are the same because two convolutions are necessary for
both methods. In other words, for the PEA method, the first convolu
tion is for acoustic wave generation and the second convolution is for
acoustic wave detection. For the pWP method, the first convolution is
Vol. 6 No. 5, October 1999
t
20
.
0

O
r
e
-20
W
;;

W
'
0
+
l
ZO
0
]
.
-2
8
-4
l -6
j.
.
(aJ Charge distribution
Jleclon 0+M
l
(b) Field dislnbutlon f
40
J
!
'- + --.40 )
(c) POlentlsl
distribution
0 500
Position [Im]
525
Figure 6. Space charge measurement results in e-beam irradiated PMMA
obtained by using the PWP method.
for acoustic wave generation and the second convolution is for electric
signal detection. Due to these effects, the resolution becomes low. The
resolution can be improved by mathematical deconvolution.
ELECTRIC SHIELD
As indicated in Figure 3, the PEA method is safe, because the de HV
circuit and the signal detection circuit are completely separated. There
fore, the output signal of the PEA method is shielded easily and less elec
tric noise enters the detection circuit. For this reason, the detection sys
tem will not be damaged even if an electric breakdown takes place.
On te other hand, as indicated by Figure 4 for the pWP method, the
HV circuit and the signal detecting circuit are only separated by a cou
pling capacitor. This construction makes the signal output to be sensi
tive to the corona discharge or external electric noise. Furthermore, a
noise shield is very difficult to construct for the detection circuit. The
worst case is when an electric breakdown takes place, the signal detec
tion circuit often is destroyed. Generally it is necessary to add some
protection to the circuit.
VERY QUICK VARYING SPACE CHARGE
DISTRIBUTION MEASUREMENT
Recently, both PEA [31J and PWP [161 methods were developed to
measure very quick varying space charge distributions. In the PEA
method, high pulse voltages are utilized to drive the charges in the sam
ple while in the PWP method very high intensity pressure waves are
applied to the sample. Consequently, the measurement time can be re
duced to enable us to obtain very quick varying space charge distribu
tions.
526 Takada: Methods for Measuring Dielectric Charge Distributions
2.2 DYNAMIC ELECTRIC CHARGE
BEHAVI OR
The experimental setup of the PEA method as shown in Figure 7 was
improved to synchronously measure the space charge distribution in a
plate sample under any shape of application voltage, such as stp volt
age, lamp voltge and any frequency ac voltage at any phase angles. The
voltage form data of any kind of application voltage are first supp
lied by
the computer program and are then changed into the application volt
age form through a digital-analog converter. The output of the digital
analog converter is transformed to HV to 20 kV by a HV amplifier. An
electric pulse of duration 10 ns and amplitude +2 kV is applied to the
sample to stimulate the space charge and to generate the acoustic sig
nal. A piezoelectric PVDF film transducer (9 !m) is used to detect the
acoustic signal and then change it into an electric signal. The detected
electric signal is then amplified and processed to yield the space charge
profe.
t ri gger
luls
gene rat v
1=2kV
T=I Ons
campu ter
GP-ID Control ler
D(A Conver l er
V" =20kV
Apl i l i er
t ransducer (PVDY: 9 /1)
shi el d hOI
da t a
command
Figure 7. Diagram of space charge measurement system for short inter"
val and various voltage PEA method.
2.2. 1 SHORT INTERVAL
MEASUREMENT OF SPACE
CHARGE
SPACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION IN
ACETOPHENONE COATED LDPE
Acetophenone is one of by-product residues of a cross-linking agent
for crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE). It is said that the residue helps
causing letero [18] and/or homo space char
g
e in XLPE. Muramoto et
al. reported the effect of acetophenone on the charging current [24].
Tey found that the current peak a
pp
eared when de voltage was ap
plied to the acetophenone coated LDPE on one surface_ and expected that
acetophenone enhanced the charge injection. However, as the peak ap
peared within 1 min after voltage application, it was difficult to observe
the injected space charge using ordinary space charge measurement sys
tems. Therefore, te short interval measurement was attempted to ob
serve the effect of acetophenone on space charge formation, using an
improved PEA system within the interval of 1 s during the de voltage
application and its polarity reversal.
Figure 8 shows the space charge distribution in acetophenone coated
low-density polyethylene (LDPE) of 300 !m thickness. 'e positive 8ig-
Aode i
Cathode
O see. shor
2 SCC.
4 bU.
6 scc.'
Ssce.
10 C
30 se,.
1 min.
2 min,
3 min.
4 min.
5 min.
6 min.
7 min.
8 min.
9 min.
10 min. shor
o 320
Acetophenone J Position Z [\m]
coating
Figure 8. Dynamic observation of space charge distribution i acetophe
none coated LDPE.
nal C and negative @ show the induced charges at anode and cath
ode respectively by the applied dc voltage. f is observed that the large
amount of positive charge @ is injected from the anode at 2 s after volt
age application, and the charge drifted towards the cathode side. After
the top of positive charge reached the cathode at 2 min, a large amount
of positive charge distributes through the bulk. A small amount of neg
ative charge @ injection from the cathode is also observed after 30 s.
Judging from the results shown in Figure 8, the amount of injected
positive charge is larger than that observed in LDPE without acetophe
none coating. The negative charge injection is also observed inacetophe
none coated LOPE. The aceto
p
henone coating reduces the injection bar
rier and enhances the charge injection. From the above results, the short
interval ("3 s) and continuous (>4 h) space charge measurement can
observe charge dynamics in solid dielectrics under electric stress.
I NTERFACIAL SPACE CHARGE
ACCUMULATI ON
Figure 9 shows the space charge accumulation at the LOPE/EVA in
terface obtained after positive voltage application to the eth
y
lene vinyl
acetate (EVA) side. Figure 9(a) shows the accumulation characteristics of
the space charge distribution during de voltage application. Figure 9(b)
shows the decay characteristics of space charge distribution obtained
under the short circuit condition. As shown in Figure 9(a); the positive
charges are accumulated only at the LDPE and EVA interface. The posi
tive charges induced at the anode decrease with increasing voltage ap"
plication duration, Furthermore, the positive charge gradually moves
into the LOPE layer from EVA. From Figure 9(b), it can be seen that the
interfacial charge decreases with time after the circuit is shorted, Focus
ing on the charge decay around the interface shown in Figure 9(b), the
decay speed of charges in the LOPE layer seems to be slower than that
in the EVA layer,
"-.
40
z.
'
' 0
.f

Q -20

"-
40
20
'

0
.
W
-20

j
-40
U
.|+-
l
o
.+-
i
l
o
LPE EVA
l
228
Position 2 [!m)
LDPE
)
EVA
I

I I
i
!
..:-
".
( a ) .
47
..+-
( b )
. . 228 447
PosItion Z [!]
Figure 9. Space charge accumulation at LOPE/EVA interface after dc
voltage application.
SPACE CHARGE UNDER AC VOLTAGE IN
WATER TREE
The periodic motion of space charge under ac voltage in a water tree
degraded cable can be measured by the PEA method, which is able to
control the phase angle of the probing pulses. Figure 10 shows a typical
space charge distribution obtained at phase angles of 0 to 3600 with 180
steps, under application of 50 Hz voltage 149]. The sample tested was a
laboratory-aged XLPE sheet that was 1.0 mm in thickness and was deteri
orated by water trees. The lef and right electrodes were positioned on
the water-treed side and the non-degraded side of the sample respec
tively. From 0 to 180, the left electrode was ,positively biased, while
from 180 to 3600 it was negatively biased. The most important feature
of this Figure is that the location of the maximum space charge is near
the tip of the water trees. The space char
g
e in this area changes in mag
nitude roughly proportionally to the instantaneous voltage,
Vol. 6 No. 5, October 1999 527
*1
.
J
I
U .
e|m
.
`
Id
4q
J+
`
H
108'
0`
-
qZ`
@
-
1
0
&
7`
4
Jb`
`
32'
J
M
L A 0U
\
I
@....
M|

=-.-
_ . , c
"
/

\
A
... ,\v
..
\1
..
\V
\V
.
V
.
.
..
.
..
.
..
j\
--
..
.
Jl0k0M d [m]
Figure 1 D, Space charge
p
rofiles with 50 Hz ac voltage applied to the
water-treed sample.
.
2. 2.2 SPACE CHARGE BEHAVIOR
UNDER AC ELECTRICAL STRESS
In fact, power cables work under high ae voltages and due to capac
ity limitations of test transformers in field testing, de voltage tests have
taken the place of ae voltages applied in the withstand test and degra
dation diagnosiS, However, it is known that dc testing of service-aged
cables with XLPE dielectric insulation at the recommended de voltage
levels can cause the cable to fail after the cables are returned to service
due to the accumulation of space charge,
Alternative test techniques are therefore needed in order to overcome
the disadvantages of dc HV tests. A very low-frequency voltage between
power frequency and dc, such as 0.1 Hz, is often used in HV testing of
power cables, However, the frequency dependence of space charge un
der 0.1 Hz ac voltage is not yet clear. Therefore, it is necessary to in
vestigate the characteristics of space charge accumulation and distribu
tion under ac voltages so that the formation of space charge in XLPE un
der various frequencies can be experimentally observed. The frequency
varies from power frequency (50 Hz) to very low (0,0002 Hz) as well as
528 Takada: Methods for Measuring Dielectrc Charge Distributions
dc, The PEA method shown i Figure 7 is improved to meet the needs
of measurement under ac voltage, The frequency and phase angle de
pendencies of space charge are studied by means of phase locking and
frequency-converting techniques,
PHASE ANGLE DEPENDENCE OF SPACE
CHARGE
Figures 11 and 12 show the space charge profes in XLPE of 500 p,m
thickness under various frequencies, f * 0,0002 and 50 Hz respec
tively (corresponding to periods T = 80 min and 20 ms).
20kVpk
_0
o
S 0
T::80min, f=O,0002H
Phase
180 0
360
"
0 -.
01 XLE 0.5
Position z r mm 1
Figure 1 1 . Phase dependence oj space charge distribution under
0.0002 Hz voltage.
Figure 11 (0.0002 Hz ac voltage) shows that at a phase angle of 450
both positive and negative charges, i.e. heterocharges, begin to develop
in the sample. Around phase angles 900 and 1350 the heterocharges ap
pear to be the largest. Even though the electric stress is zero at phase
angles 1800 and 360, some space charges still exist in the sample. After
180, the voltage polarity reverts from the positive half cycle to the neg
ative one, and there will be a charge redistribution process i the bulk. It
is interesting that homoLharges and heterocharges coexist in the sample,
As shown in Figure 12, (50 Hz ac voltage), no space charge is observed
in the samples.
FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF SPACE
CHARGE
T2U01S,
45
E
0

0
+
0 >
YO
1
1-1 ' --
P
0
0

0
J 8U "
&
L
(J
!
-
l
-r-----
U
0
1- g
|
0
0
361)
o XLPE 0. 5
Position z I nunl
Fi gure 1 2. Phase dependence of space charge distribution under 50 Hz
voltage.
charge can develop and accumulate in XLPE under a low frequency ac
stress. Wit increasing frequency, the space chdrge density decreases.
When the frequVncy is >0.02 Hz, the development and accumulation of
space charge in XLPE is more dificult. The characteristics of the space
charge profile under a low frequency ac voltage are very similar to those
obtained under a dc voltage.
The PEA method has been improved to investigate space harge char
acteristics in XLPE \nder various ac voltages from power frequency
(50 Hz) to low frequency (0.0002 Hz), The phase angle dependency of
space charge has been studied by means of phase-locking and frequency"
converting techniques. Test results show that space charge can develop
and accumulate in XLPE at very low frequences. The critical frequency
on which space charge creation depends is <0.02 Hz. The coexistence of
homocharges and heterocharges in a dielectric is a critical experimental
phenomenon between states of high and low electric stress.
2. 3 SPACE CHARGE
MEASUREMENT AT
BREAKDOWN FIELD
Figur 13 shows the total charges in the bulk of the XLPE at various As indicated in Figure 3, the PEA method is safe for measuring the
frequencies, Both positive and negative space charges in one period of space charge behavior under the breakdown electric field, because the
ac voltage were intCgrated and shown in Figure 13, It is clear that space HV circuit and the signal detection circuit are electrically se
p
arated. The
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Eectrical Insulation
4
4 mn.
U 100
.
Of

C
-
b
1
r
!V>
1
Period 1
1S I8 20.
~ ^!lL
! IoI|vccha@
cg1!|r0h8|g
...... Oc_a88cd LL
P0II|YtNargc
+ Nog|vc cIia@
SO
Frequency ![Hz)
Figure 13. Relationship bejween frequency of the ipplied electric stress
and the total space charge in the bulk of XLPE. The total charges are derived
from the space charge profiles such as in Figures 11 and 12 in one period of
ac voltage by an integration process.
output signal voltage of the PEA method is from the shielded ground
electrode, because the piezoelectric tran,ucer is attached to the ground
electrode to detect the acoustic wave.
Figure 1 4. Reproduced space charge distributionto electric breakdown,
(a) the sphere eleCtrode at positive polarity and (b) the sphere electrode at
negative polarity.
Fukuma [34, 35] used the PEA method to investigate the relationship
between the space charge behavior and the electric feld intensity at elec
trode surfaces under the breakdown electric field. Figure 14(a) and ()
show the space charge distribution of p( z) as function of applied aver
age electric field of Edc for the plane to s
p
here electrode configuration,
(a) for the sphere electrode at positive polarity and (b) at negative po
larity,
Figure 15 shows the relationship between the electric feld at the
Vol. 6 No. 5; October 1999 529
` Z `
t-\ 26'0
e(+}
"'.. 1 '
.\(
_ _ . '
;-
E.(-}
.
,
. ,"/'
i 1000
,'*
.. . '
,
.
r
!
b
" v 0

5
00

: :
_
O fO2T34r'
5
Te'8T91
Applied ol.atria f61d Eda (MV/om)
Figure 1 5. Relationship between applied electric feld Ed, and elec
tic field at anode and cathode. The change of the feld at both electrodes
caused by space charge accumulation.
ground electrode surface of Eo( +) and Eo ,-) and the ap
plied av
erage electric field of Edc . Eo ,+) is the electric field intensity at the
ground electrode for positive sphere, and Ea ( -) that for negative
sphere. The electric breakdown occurred at an average electric field of
7 MV/cm. When the applied feld Edc > 3. 5 MV/cm, Eo(+) in
creases because of the heterocharge accumulation near the ground elec
trode injected from the positive s
p
here electrode. When the local elec
tric field at the ground electrode reaches 9.3 MV/em, the breakdown
occurred, The increment in electric field due to the accumulated het
erospace chage is estimated at "2,3 MV /em,
I case of negative sphere electrode, the electric field Eo ( -), at the
ground electode was always smaller than the average electric field Edc ,
below 4.0 MV / em, because the homocharge from the positive ground
electrode accumulated in the bulk of the sample. However, the electric
field Eo ,-) was quickly increased above 4.5 MV / Lbecause of nega
tive heterocharge drifted from the negative sphere electrode. When the
local electric field at the ground electrode reaches 8.6 MV /Cl, break
down occurred. The increment in electric field due to the accumulated
heterocharge is estimated at "" 1 . 9 MV / em. As. mentioned above, the
PEA method can be applied to observe the space charge behavior under
the breakdown electric field without any problem.
2.4 SPACE CHARGE
ACCUMULATI ON I N CABLE
The first attempt to measure the space charge distribution in a coax
ial cable by the PEA method was carried out by Fukunaga et al. [601.
As shown i Figue 16, the cable sample electrode is of a coaxial struc
ture, maintaining dose contact between the cable and the electrode. A
piezoelectric transducer of PVDF flm is tightly wound around the coax
ial shaped electrode in order to prevent acoustic wave reflection at the
interface between the electrode and the transducer. As a result, the space
charge distribution in the coaxial cable was obtained through the use of
this systeq, Liu et al. [58] analyzed the relationship between the de
tected signal vs(t) and the space charge distribution per
)
.
2. 4, 1 EXPERIMEN TAL SETUP FOR HV
CABLE
Following the successful space charge measurement in the coaxial ca
bles, it was necessary to carry out the measurement by applying HV to
cables. The cable length should be longer than >20 m, because large
C: Capacitanc
l ie McSllg Point
Zo: Characteristic Impeadance
of Cable
Rg: Resistace of
te Epse Semicon
Figure 16. Space charge measurement system fo long cable specimen
with the PEA metod.
HV terminations have to be attached. If the pulse voltage used in the
PEA method is applied at termination, it travels thrugh the cable. In
this case, the cable spedmen is not considered to be a Jumped capaci
tance. The waveform of the voltage at the measuring point would not
be a proper single pulse, due to the distortion and! or refection of the
injected pulse.
Hozumi et al. [64] designed an experimental system that can solve
this problemv As shown in Figure 16, the measuring point is fixed at
the center of the exposed semiconducting part to apply a pulsed volt
age between this p\int and ground. A typical pulse `olta
g
e is 2 kV with
a width of 60 ns. rf the impedance of the capacitance at the measuring
point in the frequency range of the pulse voltage is much higher than the
characteristic impedance of the cable, most of the pulse voltage is ap
plied at that point (see the equivalent circuit i Figure 16), Te acoustic
wave is measured using a PVDF film that is typically 110 }tm in thick
ness, and is amplified inside the shielded box. The shielded box is elec
trically isolated, because a HV pulse is applied there. The Signal is trans
fred by an optical fiber. This method made it possible to carry out in
situ measurements with the application of HV to the cable, and to clar
ify the space Lhdge behavior in thick insulation under extremely high
fields.
2. 4.2 SPACE CHARGE EVOLUTION
UNDER DC FiELDS
Measurement of space chdrge in XLPE cable has been performed pi
marily in the development of de polymeric cables. The field distribution
under de voltage is determined by many factors, such as carrier mobil
ity carrier dety and trap dnbity and is not easy to estimate from the
fundamental data of the material. Direct measurement of space charge
in Lable is therefore effective.
Figure 17(a) shows the space charge evolution in an XLPE Lable with
3.0 mm thick insulation when +70 k de was applied to the conductor
at foam temperature [64]. Hetero-char
g
es accumulated in the NiLinity
Location Imml
o
Locallon (mml
Figure 17. Space charge evolution in XLPE cable with 3 thick insula
tion under dc voltages. (a) When +70 kV de was applied to the conductor,
heterocharge accumulates in the vicinity of both electrodes and (b) when
+350 kV de was applied,
p
acket charges appear intemtittentI
y
and
toward the counter electrOde.
of both electrodes, and the space charge tends to saturate in 150 mi.
Te heterocharges are influenced strongly by impurities in the insula
tion, such as crosslinking byproducts, anti-oxidants, etc.
When the average field is as high as 1 .2 MV fer, packet charges ap
pear intermittently and move toward the counter electrode as shown
in Figure 17 (). A similar result for fm specimens has been reported
by Kon et al., who used the laser induced pressure propagation (LIPP)
metod [33]. This phenomenon is believed to be due to the local ion
ization of impurities under a high field. The relationship between the
generation of packet charges and the insulation performance under de
voltages has not yet been clarified. However, the generation of packet
charges leads to instability in the insulation and would not be preferable
in designing dc cables.
A material that does not form these space charges can maintam a uni
form electric field, and is necessary in the development of a de cable.
XLPE with filler is a promising material for dc cable insulation, because
it suppresses the movement of LarierO. Some materials of this type have
been applied to the development of 250 kV de cables. Their excellent
performance has been verified throu
g
h lon
g
-term test and direct space
charge measurement in the full-scale cable [66, 67].
2. 5 3-D SPACE CHARGE
MEASUREMENT
Much of the recent effort in the field of space charge measurement
has been directed at the analysis of the space charge through the thick
ness of the dielectric. In fact there has been an implicit assumption that
the space charge is uniform across the sample. However, in some cases
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and ElectricaHnsulation
this assumption is not valid. For example, in XLPE field-aged cable, the
generation of water trees usually starts from the surface of the semicon
ducting layer and gradually develos to the center of the cable. In this
kind of samples, the charge distribution is not uniform in the x-v plane.
Imaizumi et al. developed a scanning system for three-dimensional
space charge distribution measuremet using the PEA method [43]. A
small electrode, with a typical diameter of 1 m, is used to generate lo
cal pulsed electric fields on a small area of the measured sample. Con
sequently the charge distribution along the z-direction of this piece of
sample is measured By moving the sample on the x-y plane, the three
dimensional charge distribution of the sample can be obtained. Due to
the small electrode size, the generated signal is very small and it needs
to be averaged over 1000 runs to increase the signal to noise ratio. As a
result, it takes " 1 min to measure a scanned measuring point. It lasts
"7 h if 21x21 scanned points are measured on a 20x20 mm2 sample.
An acoustic lens is a well-established device, which is used in acous
tical imaging for many years. Using an acoustic lens, it is possible to
produce intense acoustic beams on a omll area. In the pWP method, if
an acoustic lens is utilized to generate a focused pressure wave, then it
is possible to measure on a small area of the sample. Consequently the
detected signal will reflect the charge distribution in the 7 direction of
this piece of sample only. In principle, by moving the foells point of the
acoustic lens along the x-v plane, the three-dimensional space charge
distribution of the sample can be measured using this method [44].
2. 5. 1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The schematic diagram of three-dimensional space charge distribu
tion measuring system using acoustic lens and pWP method is shown in
Figure 18. The essential parts of this system are the piezoelectric trans
ducer, the acoustic lens and the x-v stage. The piezoelectric transducer,
resonant frequency 50 MHz, is used to generate the pressure wave.
Voltage pulses with 500 V amplitude and 400 ns duration are used to
drive the transducer. The pressure wave generated by the transducer
is focused to the full thickness of the sample, of which the thickness
is 500 Mm, by the acoustic lens. The diameter of the pressure wave at
the focus point is "0. 8 mm. This determines that the resolution of x-v
plane of the system is also ",0. 8 mm. A commer.ial x-y stage is used
to move the acoustic lens along the x-y plane in an area of 20x20 mm
The output signal from the sample i s amplified and then averaged by a
digital oscilloscope over 100 scans. It takes ",0. 5 s for moving the acous
tic lens, and 2.5 s for sampling data. Consequently, it costs "3 s for one
sampling position. This sampling time is much less than that of the sys
tem using the PEA method [43].
2. 5.2 RESULTS AND DI SCUSSIONS
A PMMA plate (20x20xO.5 mm3) which is irradiated by an electron
beam is used as specimen. Aluminum layers are evaporated on both
surfaces of the specimen as electrodes. As illustrated in Figure 19, there
is a lead plate, on which a character '7' is carved, covering the specimen
when it is irradiated by the electron beam.
The results of charge distribution in the x-y plane are illustrated in
Figure 20. In order to compare the results, the same axis scales are used.
In Figure 20(c) with 210 Mm, the character '/'can be distinguished
from the background although it is ambiguous. In Figure 20(b) with
195 Mm, the character '7' can be recognized easily In position
x-y Scan
Acoustic Beam
Sample r-'
531
Sigal
Amplifer
Figure 1 8. Schematic diagram for three-dimensional space charge dis
. tribution measurement system.
Electon Boam
PMMA Plate
o x 20mm
Lead Plate
PUm0UR Layet
PMMA
20mm
Fi gure 1 9. Specimen preparation by electron beam irradiation.
(a) with z = 170 Mm, where the peak locates, the character '/'can be
clearly seen in Figure 20(b). However, the character '7' almost cannot
be identified from Figure 20(d) because there are almost no irradiated
electrons at that layer.
Using the acoustic lens, x-y stage and pWP method, a three-dimensional
space charge measurement system is developed. It takes 3 s for each
sample position and 130 min for 51x51 positions on the x-v plane
on a 20x20 mm2 specimen. This speed is much higher that of the
three-dimensional space charge measurement system using the PEA
method. Although the resolution on the x-y plane of this system is on! y
",0.8 and the resolution in the < direction is not high, the three
dimensional charge profile of electron beam irradiated PMMA specimen
is successfully constructed.
2. 6 SIMULTANEOUS
MEASUREMENT OF TSC AND
CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
2.6. 1 TSC TERMINAL CURRENT AND
NET CONDUCTION CURRENT
The thermally stimulated current (rsc) has been used to character
ize partially the space charge formed within insulating materials. Using
(a) z=1 70lm
06fH X(m")
(0) z=21 0).m PBln M (mm)
(d) .=3.1 0lm P$1Hx[mm)
Fig u re 20. The charge distribution of the specimen on x-y plane by elec
tron beam irradiation, 200 keV At position (a), Wher the negative peak is
located, the character "7" can be seen clearly. In (b), the Character '7' can
be recognized easily. In (c), te character '7' can be distinguished from the
background, although it is ambiguous. However, the character '7' almost
cannot be identified fom (d) because there are almost electrons from the
irradiation in that layer.
TSC, however, the net conduction current within the bulk ofthe insulator
cannot be dltermined and does not reflect the behavior of charge move
ment within insulators. Only in the case that the electric field distribu
tion in the bulk of the dielectrics is constant with time, can we regard the
external current as the net conduction current. Many measurements of
space charge distribution, however, have proved that the electric field
depends on position and time. Therefore, the external current measure
ment alone is insufficient, if we want to study the conduction mecha
nism in the dielectrics.
From Poisson's equation and the conservation of charge, the exter
nal current density of TSC Jrsc (t) is described using the net conduction
current
J
c (x, t) and displacement current h(x, t) flow in the sample
with the following equations
Jrsc (t) = Jc (x, t) + h(x, t) (12)
Jc
(x, t) : p(x, t)fJJx, t)E(x, t) (13)
J
( )
aE(x, t)
(1
4) _ x, t C
at
The equations are given as a one-dimensional function of distance
through the sample.
The net conduction current Jc (x, t), can be obtained, however, by
subtracting the position dependent displacement current J d (x, t) from
the external TSC current JTSC ( t ). The displacement current of Equa
tion (14) is proportional to the time differential of the electric field, which
is easily determined from the measurement of dynamic space charge
distribution.
A procedure to analyze the conduction current as a function of po
sition using the results obtained from simultaneous measurements of
the external TSC current and tme dependent space charge distribution
have been proposed [51, 52]. The most important deference between an
external current and a net conduction current is that the latter depends
on both position and time, while the former depends only on time. To
show the typical example for an analysis of the net conduction current,
the temperature dependence of the conduction current in e-beam irra
diated PMMA is calculated.
2. 6. 2 EXPERI MENTAL PROCEDURE
AND RESULTS
The sample used in this measurement is commercially available
PMMA with a thickness of 500 p. The e-beam irradiation is carried out
using transmission electron microscope (TEM) with energy of 200 keY
and current density of 1. 0 nAf cm2 for 3 h. The change of space charge
distribution is measured using the PEA system shown in Figure 21. This
system has been developed for the measurement at high temperature
[51, 52].
pulse
generalor
Icmpcrture
H88$0I00l
L
Figure 21 . Schematic diagram for the simultaneous measurement sys
tem TSC and space harge distribution.
TSC SPECTRUM
The TSC is measured by increasing the temperature under short cir
cuit condition from room temperature to llOO at a rate of 1 "/min. Fig
ure 22 shows the TSC spectrum. In this Figure, negative current density
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulaton
is observed when electrons move towards the e-beam irradiated elec
trode (right side electrode in Figure 23). A peak is observed near 60".
2 -
O -
-6
-8
20 w 80 1 00
Temperature T [t]
1 20
Fi gure 22. TSC spectrum of PMMA specimen irradiated electron beam.
SPACE CHARGE DISTRI BUTI ON
MEASUREMENTS
Figure 23 shows the change of the space charge distribution with
increasing temperature. Negative charges (peak A), electrons, and in
duced positive charges (peaks B and C) are observed. Te electrons are
located in a region between the irradiated surface (x 500 {m) and
a position at x 125 pm. Therefore, the region between J ~ 0 and
125 {tm has not been damaged by the e-beam irradiation. From the Fig
ure 23, it is clear that the negative charge disappears with increasing
temperature.
~

f
<
M
2
M
6
10
5
0
-5
non-damaged
area e-beam irradiation

o 125 250 375 500
Position A r!m
1
Fi gure 23. Temperature dependence ot space charge profile.
POSITION AND TI ME DEPENDENT ELECTRI C
FIELD
As shown in Figure 24, E(x; t) was obtained by the integration of
the measured p( x, t), using the Poisson equation. With increase of tem
perature, the absolute value of the electric field E(x, t) decreases in
every position and temperature as function of time. From the results
of temperature dependencies of E(x, T(t) ), the time dependence of
E(x, t) at three points at 0, Xl 125 {tm, @ J@ 250 /tm and
@ J[ 375 {tm were obtained. By calculating the time differential
of the field E(x, t)1 the displacement current density caE(x, t)/at is
obtained at each point.
20
e
:
e
0
@
I
f
1 100d
I
I
I
I
t
125 250 375
Posil ion : ljm 1
Figure 24. Temperature dependence of electric field distribution.
NET CONDUCTION CURRENT AS FUNCTION
OF POSITION
In order to investigate the charge behavior, the net conduction cur
rent density in the sample is calculated at position 0, @ and @. Fig
ure 25 shows JT5C (t), Jd(XI , t) and J,(XI , t) at the position of C,
d_ = 125 p.m. At the position of Xl " 125 /tm shown in Figure 25,
Jc(XI ' t) is nearly equal to zero from room temperature to almost 60".
In spite of the JTSC (t) being large in this temperature range (29 to 60"),
almost no net conduction current flows at this position. Above 60",
Jc (Xl , t) is positive and increases rapidly with the maximum of Jc be
coming larger than that of JTSC' The large positive net conduction cur
rent Jc means a large amount of electron flow toward the left-side elec
trode, which is on the opposite side of the ecbeam irradiated surface.
This result dearly. shows that JTse
(t) does not reflect the behavior of
the carrier movement at this position.
Temperature T [oC
Fi gu re 25. Tem
perature dependence of terminal current TSC, net con
duction current and displacement current at the position of J 125 jm.
At the position of X2 250 {m, the value of the conduction cur
rent density, Jc(x, t) was similar to JTSc (t) at all temperatures. At the
position of @ X3 " 375 {tm, d negative large value of Jc(xs , t) was
observed throughout the temperature range [51, 52]. Below 60", elec
trons move only towards the e-beam irradiated surface. Above 60",
534 Takada: Metods for Measuring Dielectric Charge Distributions
however, the electrons start to move towards both surfaces. Judging
from the above results, it is plausible that the mobility at J_ is signif
icantly smaller than that at J_ at temperatures below 60". The dif
ference of mobility may be caused by the difference in damage due to
ebeam irradiation. From the above analysis, it is dear that the external
current, such as in T5C, is not always equal to the net conduction current
NET MOBI LITY AS FUNCTI ON OF POSITION
Te trap depth in insulation materials is one of the important aspects
for analysis of space charge accumulation in the material. We can es
timate mobility and trap energy distribution as function of position in
ebeam PMMA using the temperature dependence of the distribution of
net conduction current [54J. Usuallythe mobility dependence on tem
perature is assumed to follow
p(x, t) = Po exp (15)
where ( x) is the trap depth as function of position, k is the Boltzmann
constant and T the absolute temperature. If we obtain the temperature
dependent mobility, we can estimate the depth of trqp ( J) using Equa
tion (15). As described in Equation (13), the mobility p( x) can be ob
tained by dividing the net conduction current Jc (x, t) by charge den
sity p(x, t), and electric field distribution E(x, t). It is difficult to ob
tain the mobility where the charge or electric field distribution is nearly
zero. Therefore, we calculated the mobility distribution at the point of
200 to 400 ;.tm as shown in Figure 26. In this Figure, the mobility value
at room temperature is 0.1 to 1.0xlO-1
4
m
2
/Vs. At 60 to 70", mobility
increases to 1.2 to 2.8xlO-14 m2;Vs. From these results, it seems that
the mobility is not uniform but distributed in the bulk.
)10,14 r-
i
D
_w
5
-40'
50t
--60t
"70'
0
A
PMA
-5 O----
500
Position X [f]
Figure 26. Mobility distribution in the irradiated region of specimen.
NET TRAP DEPTH AS FUNCTION OF
POSI TI ON
An Arrhenius plot is obtained from the result of temperature depen
dence of mobility by using Equation (15). The trap depth is calculated
from the slope of the Arrhenius plot at each temperature range [54]. The
depth of the traps at various positions is shown in Figure 27. The trap
depth in a temperature range 30 to 65" is "0.6 eV and almost iden
tical with that obtained from the TSC method. In a higher temperature
range 65 to 90", the trap depth is deeper than at lower temperature. The
simultaneous measurement of T5C and time-dependent space charge
distribution make it possible to estimate the mobility and the depth of
traps.
, ~
o 250 42, 500 [!m]

2 -r
-30'-66'
-65'-90'
... Obtined fm TSC
(30'-65')
O J

250 300 350 400
Position [Jm]
Figure 27. Tra
p
energy distribution in the irradiated re
g
ion of specimen.
3 OPTICAL ELECTRI C CHARGE
DISTRI BUTION
I addition to acoustic detection, optical detection is another means
for noncontact and nondestructive information sensing of dielectric
materials. The measurements that are to be discussed here are based
on the analysis of light polarization that is altered after li
g
ht is passing
through a dielectric material. Via one of the electro optical effects or the
photo-elastic effect, the electric field or the mechanical stress inside a di
electric material modifies the optical property of the material and thus
produces an additional optical phase retardation (or difference) between
the two perpendicular components of the electric field of the transmitted
light. Unlike the acoustic methods discussed in the previous Section, in
which there is the problem of spatial resolution that is imposed by both
the probing acoustic wave and the measurement system. On the other
hand, the measurement of such an optical phase difference exhibits the
likely advantage of sensing the electric field or the mechanical stress in
side a dielectric material, free from the infuence of the optical measure
ment system.
However, because of the difficulty of direct measurement of the pro
duced optical phase retardation, the optical measurement method is
relatively undeveloped and is not yet commonly used, compared to
the acoustic measurement method. The fringe pattern measurements,
which were made to measure the mechanical stress distribution in a
solid material based on the photoelastic effect [118] or the electric field
distribution inside 0 purified water based on the electrooptical Kerr
effect [76, 77], were the pioneering work in the optical measurement.
However, the fringe patterns recorded on a film by use of a film camera
only allow for an approximate visual estimation of the magnitude and
the direction distribution of the internal stress or the electric field. Later,
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrcs and Electrical Insulation
much more sensitive techniques for measurements of the field magni
tude [83] or the two-dimensional field vector [90, 91] were developed
by introducing an electrical or optical modulation and a lock-in ampli
fier. Recently more efforts were made on three-dimensional field vector
measurements [79-81].
However, because of the use of a photo detector for the light detec
tion, these measurements belonged to point-measurements and the two
dimensional measurement results were obtained by simple grouping
of the point-measurement results. For the two-dimensional distribu
tion measurements, these techniques exhibited the disadvantage of be
ing time consuming due to the mechanical scanning of the samples and
of relative lower spatial resolution. For high-speed and high-resolution
two-dimensional measurements, it is more convenient to introduce a
computer-controlled digital camera for the light detection instead of the
photo detector and the film camera, In this case, however, the two
dimensional system non-uniformity resulting from the optical compo
nents and the camera's sensing matrix appears and may impose its in
fuence on the measured optical retardation distribution,
In the fringe pattern measurement method, since the magnitude of
the produced optical retardation distribution must distribute over a
wide range of integral multiples of ? to produce the bright and dark
fringes, the problem of the system non-uniformity can be ignored, ln
the point measurement methods, since the spatial resolution is relatively
poor, the influence of the system non-uniformity is difficult to be rec
ognized. In the following, we will mainly discuss the two-dimensional
measurement systems using different optical effects that are uniquely
developed in our laboratory and we will pay more attention on how to
eliminate the influence of the system non-uniformity on the measured
optical retardation distribution.
3. 1 FUNDAMENTALS
The electric field distribution or the mechanical stress distribution in
side a dielectric material may cause a change of the optical property of
the dielectric material, and thus produce an optical phase retardation
distribution of the light passing through it. In the following, we will
discuss briefly how such an optical phase retardation distribution is pro
duced when light is passing through a dielectric material.
3. 1 . 1 DI ELECTRI C ANI SOTROPY
The velocity of light in air is usually considered constant and nearly
equals that in the free space C 3x1Q8 m/s. However, in a dl!lec
tric material other than air, the propagating velocity 1 of light becomes
slower and is related with the dielectric permittiNity Lq (at the light fre
quency) of the material byv c/n. The factor n =
(r ) 1/2
usually is
defined as the index of refraction of the dielectric material and indicates
the ability of d dielectric material to slow down the propagating veloc
ity 1 of light. In an isotropic dielectric, since the dielectric permittivity
~)
has no directional dependence, the index n of refraCtion is uniform
in all directions, and thus the propagating velocity ! of light is uniform
and has no directional dependence. However, in an anisotropic dielec
tric, since the dielectric permittivity cq has a directional dependence, 7
depends on the propagating direction.
As shown in Figure 28(a), the dielectric permittivity can be described
in the refraction index space by its three components at the principal
(a) (h)
Figure 28. Dielectric anisotrop
y
in the dielectric permittivity space. (a)
A sphere for an isotropic dielectric and (b) an ellipsoid for an anisotropic
dielectric,
axes. For an isotropic dielectric, the dielectric permittivity (c,.(), 11
cro) having three equal components, is independent of the direction and
thus appears as a sphere, As shown in Figure 28(b), for an anisotropic
dielectric, the permittivity has three unequal components and thus de
pends on the direction and becomes an ellipsoid; Since light is an elec
tromagnetic wave, the electric field vector component of the light vi
brates in the plane orthogonal to the direction of light propagation.
As shown in Figure 29(a), when a light beam. propagates through an
anisotropic dielectric, the cross-section of the dielectric. ellipsoid with
the plane passing through the origin (0,0,0) and orthogonal to the light
propagation, is an ellipse.
Fast axis
--t-
y
Fi gure 29. The effective birefringence. (aJ A light beam propagating
through an anisotropic dielectric in the direction, (b) The ellipse of the
effective birefringence.
Since the propagating velocities of the electric field vector compo
nents are determined by the two principal refractive indices at the major
and minor axes of the ellipse as shown in Figure 29(), the two veloci
ties are different at these two axes. This double refraction is called 'bire
fringence' and the minor axis of the ellipse is called the 'fast' axis of the
birefringence, while the major axis is called the 'slow' axis. The effec
tive birefringence depends on the light propagation direction and the
struCture of the dielectric material. For an isotropic dielectric, the cross
section is always a circle, and thus no effective birefringence would ap
pear,
Most dielectric materials usually are isotropic and exhibit no birefrin
gence. However, when subjected to an external force, e.g. an electric
stress or a mechanical stress, most of these materials become anisotropic
and exhibit birefringence, because the external force causes the reorien
tation of their molecular dipoles and thereby changes the dielectric per
mittivity.
536 , Takada: Methods for Measurng Dielectic Charge Distributons
3. 1 .2 OPTICAL PHASE RETARDATION POCKELS EFFECT
As shown in Figure 30, for a linearly polarized incident light prop
gating along the z direction, an anisotropic dielectric exhibits birefrin
gence (no > n
y
) with , .,
and @ .,`along the x and

y directions, where J is the slow axis and y is the fast axis. Because
of the birefringence, the x and y electric field components (L_ and
C@_ ) of light propagate at slightly different velocities _ .,
,
c/(ero) 1/2 and V

y
" c/ny = c/(ery)1/2 and thus, an optical phase
retardation e is produced between these two components (t_ and ey2)
after light has passed through the dielectric material.
Exteral forc
Etrnal forc
Fi gure 30. Optical
p
hase retardation ( caused by a birefringence.
For the case when the direction of the fast axis of the birefringence
keeps constant along the light path, the produced optical phase retar
dation e is given as
e ' ;(nx - T@) dz (16)
where A
o is the wavelength of light in space and L is the optical length
inside the dielectric. If the amount of the birefringence also keeps con
stant along the path, Equation (18) for the optical phase retardation e
reduces to
27
( 6nL
Ao
(17)
That is, after light passes through a dielectric material with length L
along the light propagation direction, an optical phase retardation (is
produced between the electric field components of light parallel and
perpendicular to te fast axis, and is linearly proportional to the dif
ference of the refractive indices 1g and ny, at the slow and fast
axes. This simple case is the basis for most of the applications. How
ever, for the case when the dielectric anisotropy induced by an external
force varies with position along the light propagation (the z direction),
the analysis of the produced optical phase retardation ( requires a vec
tor integration along te optical path and a simple analytical formula
cannot be obtained. As a result, it is also difficult to recover correctly
the information of the external force from the measured retardation e.
Such a case would oLcur in the measurement of. the three-dimensional
electric field vector distribution based on the Kerr effect [81].
3, 1 .3 OPTI CAL EFFECTS
Some dielectric materials may become birefringent when subjected to
an external force. Under an electric field, some dielectric materials may
exhibit a liear electro-optic effect called the Pockels effect, while others
may exhibit a quadratic electro-optical effect called Kerr effect. If there
exists a mechanical stress distribution inside a dielectric material, it also
exhibits the appearance of birefringence because of the photo-elastic ef
fect.
The Pockels effect is a linear electro-optic effect, often observed in
crystalline materials. Under an applied electric field, the induced bire
fringence difference 6n is linearly proportional to the field magnitude
and given as
:= ,: (18)
where no is the refractive index for normal light, and 'p is the Pockels
constant of the crystal material. The fast axis (or the slow axis) of the
induced birefringence is usually fixed at a certain angle, which is deter
mined by the crystal structure of the Pockels sensor and is independent
of the applied electric field. In practical applications, Pockels sensors
can be classified into the lon
g
itudinal mode and thetrierse mode sen
sors. For a traverse mode Pockels sensor, the effective electric field is
perpendicular to the light propagation, while for a longitudinal mode
Pockels sensor, the effective electric field is parallel to the light propa
gation.
KERR EFFECT
The Kerr effect is a quadratic electro-optical effect and usually occurs
in liquid dielectrics. This effect has been used to measure the electric
field distribution in liqUids. Without an applied electric field, a liquid
dielectric usually is isotropic and exhibits no birefringence. Under an
applied electric field, the difference 6n in the induced refractive indices
at the directions parallel and perpendicular to the electric field is pro
portionaito the mgnitude squared of the electric feld component (EX)'
in the plane perpendicular to the direction of light propagation and is
given as
tn = AoBEY (19)
where B is the Kerr constant. The slow and fast axes of the induced
birefringence are parallel and perpendicular to the electric field vector
components on the plane perpendicular to the direction of light propa
gation, whereas the electric field component along the optical path has
no effect on the induced birefringence. For prctical measurements, the
electrodes are designed such that the electric field vector keeps constant
along the optical path and the field magnitude is measured according
to the optical phase retardation e in Equation (19), While the field direc
tion is measured by the measurement of the angle of the fast axis or the
slow axis.
Some solid materials, e.g. PMMA, also exhibit the Kerr effect [1061.
However, the internal stress (Maxwell stress) caused by the electric field
also contributes simultaneously to the birefringence due to the photo
elastic effect. Because the birefringence components caused by these
two optical effects canot be separated, the use of the Kerr effect for the
field measurement in solid materials are limited.
PHOTO-ELASTI C EFFECT
When there exists an internal stress distribution in a solid dielec
tric material, it induces dielectric anisotropy in the permittivity of the
material and changes the optical properties of the materiaL This effect
is called the photo-elastic effect. The induced birefringence difference
6n( ,-.,,,inside the material is linearly related to the interal
stress by
.n = C6c
6c = _ - O|
(7J)
7)
where C is the constant of optical elasticity of the material, | and _
are the principal stresses on the plane perpendicular to the light propa
gation direction, and 6a is the principal-stress difference. The fast axis
(the axis of the compressive stress 01 ) and the slow axis (the axis of the
tensile stress _) of the material are parallel and perpendicular to the di
rection . (from J axis) of the principal stress where 02>01 holds.
The relationship among -
.60 and s is shown in Figure 31.

Figure 31 . Relationship amon
g
O], Ug,ba and c
The internal stress may be a residual stress from manufacturing, or
produced by external forces. For example, it may be induced by a ther
mal stress or by a mechanical stress. When a temperature gradient is
produced in a material by heating, the difference in thermal expansion
at different positions inside the material distorts the material and thus
generates an internal stress distribution.
3. 2 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OPTICAL
MEASUREMENTS
For rapid, two-dimensional measurements, using each of the three
basic optical effects, a digital electronic camera is introduced instead of
the photodetector and the flm camera for the light detection. Unlike
the point-measurement methods, the two-dimensional non-unformity
resulting from the optical components and the camera's sensing matrix
appears, and its effect should be taken into account for accurate mea
surement. To overcome this problem, we have uniquely developed an
image lock-in processing technique, which has enabled us to simplify
the two-dimensional mathematical analysis. In this Section, the mea
surement principles of the systems using the three optical effects are de
scribed briefly together with some of the typical measurement results.
The common problems and the techniques used will be discussed in Sec
tion 3.3. The system functions and the intrinsic functions, which are con
sidered important for the two-dimensional measurement systems, are
summarized in Section 3.4.
3. 2. 1 DYNAMI C MEASUREMENT OF
SURFACE CHARGE
. DISTRI BUTI ON
A Bi12Si020 (BSO) crystal, which exhibits the electro-optic Pockels ef
fect, is used as an electro-oplical sensor. Surface charge distribution
(x, y) deposited on the B so sensor builds up an internal electric field
distribution and induces a birefringence distribution. Because the fast
axis of the induced birefringence distribution has a constant direction
determined by the crystal structure, the follOWig system is developed
for measuring the optical retardation distribution 88 (x, y), which is lin
early proportional to the surface charge distribution 0( x, y) [l01].
MEASUREMENTS USI NG THE POCKELS
EFFECT
537
Figure 32 shows the optical measurement system arranged for mea
suring the retardation distribution e. (x, y) linearly related with the
surface charge distribution ( Jy) deposited on a BSO Pockels crys
tal [102]. It basically consists of a polarized beam splitter (PBS), an op
tical phase modulator (OPM), a half-wavelength plate (./2) and the
BSO Pockels sensor. The light beam, expanded in diameter to 50 mm,
passes through the PBS to become linearly polarized in the direction of
p = 0. Both the fast axis of the OPM and the BSO crystal are set at
an angle of
45. The ,/2 wave-plate is used here to compensate for the
rotation effect of the OPM. The light is reflected at the charged surface of
the B SO crystal and returns back to the PBS. Because of the cross effect of
the PBS, only the component at the direction of A * 90 is reflected
through a pinhole into the CCD camera. The light intensity distribution
I (x, y) of images recorded at the camera is expressed as
I(
x
, y) = '(x, y)lo (
x
, y)
[8(x, y) + rm(t)] + loff (x,

y
)
(22)
where r( x, y) is the totalretardation distribution in the optical system,
10 (x, y
)
is the maximum light intensity distribution of the incident light
and Ioff(X, y) is the de offset component caused by the dark current i
the camera and the leakage light intensity of PBS, and '(x, y) is the to
tal effect of the transmission and reflection ratio distribution of the opti
cal devices and the sensitivity distribution of the CCD Lameras imaging
sensor matrix.
U8m
LXp8n4r
?ul8:[,d
Uam
bl!Ict
Opl|ca1
m
muuu|8loi
UU
Lll
Figu re 32. The optical measurement setup for surface charge distribu
tion measurement using the Pockels effect.
As illustrated in Figure 33, at every period of the pulse modulation,
two usable images, 1.+(x, y) fOf em(t) = +e
M and Is(x, y
) for
8m(t) " -8M, are obtained at the stable positive and negative half cy
des of the pulse modulation waveform. The light intensity distribution
61 (x, y) of the difference between these two images can be calculated
as
61s (X, y) 1.+(x, y) - 1. _ (x, y)
1M(x, y) sin[28(x, y)]
(23)
1M
(x, y) '(x,
y
)lo (x, y) sin(2BM) (2
4)
where 1M (x, y) is the system 'function, which characterizes the sensi
tivity and non-uniformity of the measurement system.
Before surface charge deposition on the BSO crystal, three images
i.e., 1a (x, y) for 8m(t) = 0 without the modulation, h(x, y) for
8m(t) = +8M and l(x, y) for 8m(t) = -8M with the modula
tion, are measured and then used for the experimental determination of
538 Takada: Methods for Measuring Dielectric Chare Distributions
Ligt 0IvlI]
l( y)
Modulited Ligll1 [n(ensit}
( )

0ladliun
\ 6('.1) : "

.
(i+l)T
.6(" y)6 m ' 8(x,y) +8m
Puls MOdulation Waveform DeteC d lm
Figure 33, Relationship between the pulse modulation of optical phase
retardation and outlet light intensity
lhesyslemlunction1M(x, y) usIngEqu+tIon(25).
1M(x, y) ~ .1(x, y
)
2
+ [1+ x, y) + L(x, y
) 2Ia ( x,
y
)]2 x
(25)
1
sin2(20m)
(1 LC 20_)
lromIqu+lion/`),lhesyslemnon-uniIormilyislwodimensioraI|y
c+nceledand the lol+retarJaliondstribul|on0 x, y) isdelermined+s

O
(x,
y)
= 2 '''
1M(
X
,
y)
/c}
SInceeachollheoplIcadevIces,includinglhe|:,lhearM, the J?
w+vep+leanJlIel0lestcelI,h+s+sm+llamounloInaluralbire|rin
genceduelolhercsdualmecIanIcal slressJIslr|bulionInlhem,their
to|ale|leclresullsinlhen+luralrel+rd+lIonOn ( y) o|the lransmilled
Iighl 1hetot+lretarda|ionO(x, y) consislsoIlhenaluralrelarJalon
On(x, y) andderelardalionOs (x, y
)
c+usedbylhedeposiledsurlace
ch+tgedslr|buliona(x, y) duetolheIo:kelseIlecl,lhatIs
O(x, y) = en(x, y) + Os (x, y)
7J
ihen+tur+Irel+rdaIondistribution On (x, y
)
+lsoisdelerm|neJexper
Imerl+lylroulheim+gedat+me+suredbeIoresurI+cecI+rgedepos
lion(0. (J y) * 0), +ndsublr+cted|romluelot+lret+rdal|onO(x, y)
loy|ed 0_ r, y), whI:hIsIine+rIyrclalcdwitllhedepostedsurl+ce
chargedislribulion( J y) bylhe?ockeseIIecl
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
A voIl+geoloneeccyclew|luJur+liono|00ms+nJvollagepeakol
8 k\is+ppliedloaneedIeeleclrodewith r+dluso|curvalureol50jtm,
whichis:elperpendicularIyincontaclwIlhlhea-OIockelscrysl+l,lo
JeposIlsurl+cechargesonlhe|>0crysl+l[lJJ, 01]
As shcwn|nFIgureJ4+J,whenlhe+pplIeJvolla
[
eslartsIrom+pos
liveh+l|cycIe, Juringtherisingslopeolthe |rslh+lIcycle, posIlIve
slrc+merchannelsbursloulintermt|enllyinradiaIJirectionsromlhe
needleeectrodeframe4),resulting |n+spokeliIesurIacechargeds-
triIulIonpallemr+me:+llheposil|vepe+kJ. UilIerenlnumbersoI
positIvebranchch+nneIsareobserved lo1 dIerentburstsoIpositive
{lllccm1
.(
1M
LJ
) 4 l l$ tl t l 4 1 t w @ 8$
(a)
(b)
funBeMt
Figu re 34, Dynamic surface charge observation with Z gap spac
ing. Selected frames of surface charge distribution and voltage waveform
applied to the needle electrode with symbols indicating the phases corre
sponding to the frame numbers. (a) For the case of applied voltage stating
from positive half cycle, (b) for the case of applied voltage stating from pos
itive half cycle.
slfeamers Ihesebranch:h+nnelsburstoutin averyshorlime+boul
JJnsIc,I/|+nJexuibilchargedcns|teswitIwidthslhat+reaImosl
conslanlalonglhech+nresexceplallhecommonslem+roundlhelo-
c+l|onotthe needIee|eclrode. 5omeoIlheposilivcstre+mcrch+nneIs
bIlurc+leInlolwosub-br+nches durngthe|rprop+g+lion. Duringlhe
l+IlIngslopeolthe|irsthallcycle,sur|acechargedensily+roundlhenee
Jle||pdecreases+ndevenbecomesnegal|veduelolheonsetolneg+tive
b+ck-dscharges,th+tis,negalivep+rli+Idisch+rgeslhaloccurbelorelhe
zerocrosIngo|lIevoIl+geIr+meJaIlerlhezero-crossingJ. Dur|ng
lherisingsIopeoIlhelJllowIngneg+livehallcycle,lhecenlr+Inegatve
ch+rgedensilyconlinuesloincre+seandexp+ndr+dalIyIlIseenlh+t,
+slheneg+livech+rgeisdeposiledandbeg|nstospre+d,ilueulr+lizes
thccentralparlsotheresidu+lpositivestre+merchanuelsne+rthenee-
JleeleclroJe(rame25+l|henegat|vepeak).Duringlheris|rgslopeoI
thenegalIveh+l|cyclc,po:It|vebr+nchchannelslorm+gan.However,
inlhsc+se,thech+nnelsdonotprop+gale|nr+dialdireclonsasseen
inIr+meJ.
For+ppliedvol+gest+rlingtrom+negalveh+lcyce+sshownin
Figure34(), neg+live ch+rges+reobseived toexp+ndcontnuousIy
(frame 5) and almost uniformly in all radial directions from the center
resulting in a circular surface charge distribution pattern (frame 10 at
the negative peak), During the rising slope of the first half cycle, pos
itive streamer channels are observed to develop due to positive back
discharges between the needle electrode and the negativel y charged sur-
face (frame 19 after the zero-crossing), These positive back-discharges
are further enhanced during the following positive half cycle, In this
case, positive streamer channels propagate with a complicated asym
metric curvature, i,e, unlike the case shown in Figure 34(a), the positive
streamer channels do not exhibit a spoke-like radial pattern (frame 26 at
the positive peak), Some streamer channels also bifurcate into two sub
branches or become forked into three sub-branches, Furthermore, dur
ing the successive bursts of positive streamer channels, negative charges
are observed to contract toward the needle electrode and evidently be
come completely neutralized, As a result, unipolar surface charge or
only positive charge is found to reside on the surface both before and af
ter the voltage peak in the positive half cycle, During the positive falling
slope, negative back-discharges occur again around the needle electrode
(frame 34 at the end of voltage application),
3, 2, 2 MEASUREMENTS I N A
DI ELECTRIC LI QUI D
Measurement of electric field distribution i n a dielectric liquid using
the Kerr effect is relatively more difficult than the surface charge dis
tribution measurement using the Pockels effect. As the applied elec
tric field strength is increased, the noise component resulting from the
electro-hydrodynamic motion of the dielectric liquid becomes increas
ingly prominent. To simplify the two-dimensional analysis, a relatively
simple, parallel electrode system is used and thus the electric field di
rection is aligned along the electrode gap direction. As a result, double
modulation techniques and an on"line diagnosis technique are devel
oped to ensure the reliability of the two-dimensional measurement.
MEASUREMENTS USI NG THE KERR EFFECT
In the optical measurement system shown in Figure 35, a laser light
from a He-Ne (632,8 nm) laser source is converted into an elliptically po
larized incident light by a polarizer P and a quarter-wave plate (QwP),
For two-dimensional measurement, the diameter of the light beam is
then expanded from 1 to 50 mm by a beam expander. After passing
through the test cell, an analyzer and a lens, the expanded light beam
is detected as light intensity images at a computer controlled, electronic
camera with a framing frequency of 50 Hz, For accurate measurement,
both optical and electrical modulations are employed.
Figure 35, Schematic diagram of the Kerr effect optical measurement
system with optical and electrical modulation,
de biased light in tensity images I ( J
y
)
The two plate electrodes are set vertically and parallel. The electrode
gap direction, i,e, the electric field direction, is designated as 0 and the
fast axis of the QWP is set fixed at -45, while the transmission axis
of the analyzer A is set at 45. The transmission axis of the polarizer P
is set at an angle < with respect to the fast axis of the QWP to produce
a biased optical phase retardation en (x, V), The total, optical phase
retardation distribution 8(x, y) of the light transmitted from the opti
cal system consists of the non-electrically induced ones, e _(x, y) and
Bn(x,
y
), and the electrically induced one Bg(x, y), and is given as
e(x, y) = Bn(x,
y)
+ Bn(x, y) + Bg(x, y)
(28)
where
,(x,
y)
is again the natural retardation distribution resulting
from the optical components and is mostly contributed by the mechan
ical stress distributions in the to window glasses of the test cell due to
the photo-elastic effect.
Without any modulation, the biased light intensity distribution I (x,
y)
of images detected at the electronic camera is given as
IB(x, y) (x, y)lo (x, y)
'
y
)
+ lo/(x, y) (29)
where lo(x, y) is the maximum light intensity distribution of the inci
dent light and
Ioff(
x, y) is the de offset component caused by the dark
current in the camera and the leakage light intensity from the analyzer
A. '( J, y) is the total effect of the transmission ratio distributions of the
optical components (e,g, the beam expander, the lens) and the sensitivity
distribution of the electronic camera's image sensing matrix,
During every measurement, the optical phase retardation distribu
tion of light is alternatively modulated by electrical and optical mo
ulations, A square pulse signal with a frequency of 12, 5 Hz (a quarter
of the framing frequency) synchronized with the electronic camera is
alteratively sent to an OPM driver and a voltage amplifier to perform
both modulations, The waveform of the modulated light intensities is
schematically shown in Figure 36.
9n(x,y) 7e.(x,y)
Ip+(X,y)
Ist(x,y) U
` - - - -
ls_(x,y)
I_(x,y)
e(x,y) "
moa _""
"",.," .
Figure 36. Alternative modulations of optical phase retardation by elec"
trical and optical modulation.
Electrical modulation
A square pulsed voltage signal with amplitude of 100 \from the volt
age amplifier is applied via a capacitor to the electrodes to perform the
electrical modulation, With the electrical modulation, i,e, Em " 0 and
8m 0, the light intensity distributions 18+ (x,
y
) and 18- (x, y) of
540
Takada: Methods for Measurng Dielectrc Charge Distrbutions
iges detected respectively at the positive and negative modulation
half cycles are given as
Is+(x, y) {(x, y)lo (x, y) sin2{[8(x, y)
+ 2fE(x, y)Eml /2} +
I
of
(x,
y)
Is- (x, y) {(x, y) Io (x, y) sin2{ [8(x, y)
- 2fE(x, y)Eml /2} + Iof(X, y)
(30)
(31)
where Em is te feld amplitude of the electric modulation and treated
as two-dimensionally constant for the parallel plate electrode configura
ton. The lighl intensity distribution 11. (x, y) of the difference image
between the above two ima
g
es is calculated as
6Is (x, y) IM(x, y) sin(2fE(x, y)
Em) (32)
J
M
(X
,
y) {(x, y)Io(x, y) sin[B(x, y)]
(
3
3)
where IM(x
, y) is the system fnction and refects the system non
uniformity resultin
g
from the icdent light, the optical components and
the electronic camera.
Optical modulation
Another square pulsed voltage signal with amplitude of 200 V from
the aPM driver is applied to the aPM to perform the optical modulation.
The fast axis of the aPM is set at Jaligned with the electric feld. With
the optical modulation, i.e. Bm ' a and Em " a, the li
g
ht intensity
distributions Ip+(x, y) and I
p_ (x, y)
ofimages detected respectively
at the positive and negative modulation half cycles are given as
_ . . + Bm
Ip+(x, Y) = '(x, y)Io (x, y
) sm
2
+
Iof(X, Y)
_ B(X,
y) - Bm
Ip_ (x, y) {(x, y)Io(x, y) sin
2
+ Ioll(X, y)
(34)
(35)
while the light intensity distribution 11 p( x, y) of the difference image
between the above two images is calculated as
1Ip (x
, y)
'(x, y)Io(x, y) sin[8(x, y)] sin(Bm)
(36)
IM(x, y) sin
(
Bm)
where em is the amount of the optical phse, modulated due to the
Pockels effect of the OPM. Its exact value is known from Equations
(17) and (19), Bm ~ 0. 16 , for Vp 200 V Te optical modula
tion is performed to determine, using Equation (36), the system func
lion 1M (x,
y
), which characterizes the system non-uniformity result
ing from the system components.
Determination offeld magnitude E(x, y)
From Equations (32) and (36), the field magnitude E(x, y
) is deter
mined as
E(x,
y)
* arcsin [. Is (x, y) sin(Om).(x, y)] 2fEm (37
Using the above equation, the infuence of the system non-uniformity
resulting from the incident light, the optical components (e.g. the beam
expander and lens), and the camera, is two-dimensionally canceled.
Meanw hk the infuence of the non-uniform, natural retardation distri
bution en (x, y), which is treated as one part of the biased optical phase
retardation distribution e( x, y ), is also canceled two-dimensionally.
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
Figure 37 shows the feld distributions in a nitrobenzene specimen,
measured at various applied de voltages lc.
At lower applied voltage,
the feld magnitude near the positive electrode is slightly larger than that
at the negative electrode. The endncement of the electric field magni
tude near the positive electrode is caused by the accumulation of nega
tive charge dissociated from contaminants in the nitrobenzene. With an
increase of the applied voltage Y<, the feld magnitude near the positive
electrode is further increased. On the contrary, the field magnitude near
the negative electrode is suppressed, resulting in an asymmetric electric
field distribution. This as
y
mmetry of the electric feld distribution indi
cates the negative, homocharge injection from the ne
g
ative electrode.
3.2.3 BIREFRINGENCE VECTOR
MEASUREMENT
To measure the birefringence vector distribution induced by an elec
tric field i a dielectric liquid due to the Kerr effect, or induced by an
internal stress in a dielectric solid due to the photo-elastic effect, the
optical system becomes relatively complicted because of light polar
ization. It is necessary to rotate the polarization by using
either a ro
tation method or a two-beam separation method. The following anal
ysis shows that the measured vector is a bidirectional vector, with an
angle of either . (x, y
)
or <s (x,
y
) + 180. The measurement has
been performed on the birefringence vector distribution induced due to
the photo-elastic effect by an internal stress distribution inside d PMMA
plate.
MEASUREMENT BY THE PHOTO-ELASTIC
EFFECT
The simplified schemtic digram of the optial system is shown in
Figure 38. The angle < ] of the transmission axis of the polarizer P is
desigated to be 0 and the fast axis of the QPM is set at 45, while the
angle of the transmission axis of the analyzer A is denoted as < A. To
be measured are the components of a birefringence vector distribution
<" (x, y), Bs (x, y)
, of which <8 (x,
y
) is the birefringence fast-axis di
rection distribution and B (x, y) the optical retardation distribution, i.e,
the amount of optical phase by which the fast axis is retarded from the
slow axis, and is linearly proportional to the birefrin
g
ence difference in
the smple. A perodic voltage signal of a stepped square pulse is ap
plied to the aPM to perform the modulation of the optical retardation.
The e
q
uations for the light intensity I
(
x,
y
) of imges detected at the
electronic camera are
I
(
x, y) ;e
x, y)Io(x, y) [l + 1](X, y) cos em(t)
(38)
+ ((x, v) sin , (t)] + Ioff(x, y)
1] (x, y)
~
cDs(2<A) - 2 sin[2s(x, y)] x
(39)
sin 2[<.(x, y) - iAJ sin1 [ !Bs (x, y)]
((x, y) sin 2[s(x, y) - <Al sin B. (x, y) (40)
where '( X, y) is the tota" non-uniform, effect of the transmission ra
tio distribution of the optic components (e.g. the analyzer A, the lens)
and the sensitivity of the electronic camera's image sensing matrix;
I
o
(x, y) is the maximum light intensity of the expanded incident li
g
ht;
Jof( x, y) is the de offset component caused by both the dark current i
the camera and the leakage light intensity from the analyzer A; em (t)
is the optical phase retardation modulated by the OPM; and (x,
y
)
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrcs and Electrical Insulation
E(x,y)
(a) 200 V
(e)600 V
(c) 130 V
(a)1800 V
Figure 37. The .electric field distribution i nitrobenzene, measured at
various applied de voltages.
is the intrinsic fLtion that dependb only on the birefringence vector
f. (x, v) , as (x, V), with the constant angle < _ ofthe transmissionaxis
of the aly(er A as a reference angle.
To measure the intrisiL vector (T(X, V) , (R(X, y), the two angles
<AR 1 12.5 and <AT " 67.5, are set alternatively for the
transmission axis U _ of the analyzer A. At each angle of < _one set of
light intensity images, 1+ (x, V) , I (x, V) , JO(x, y), is detected, and
one component of the intrinsic vector (T(X, y), (R(X, y) is calculated.
The difference image II(x, y) between the two images J+(x, y) and
A U0> ?|n-hc|
(<. b.J
<'1 y 1 lY.J
541
Fi gure 38. SiHplfdd schematic diagram of the optical system for bire
fingence measurements.
I (x, y
)
, is calculated as
II(x
, y
) = J+(x,
y
) - r
(
x,
y
) = IM
(
x,
y
)
x, y)
(41)
IM
(
X,
y
) = ,)(x, y)Io(x, y) sin 8M (42)
where 8 M is the amount of optical phase retardation modulated by the
OPM and 1M (x, y) is the system function, which is the total effect of the
non-uniform intesity distribution 10 (x, y) of the incidet light and the
non-uniform parameter 1( x, y) Jesuting from the system components.
Its exact distribution is experimentally determined from the set of the
measured images J+(x, V) , J-(x, V) , JD(X, y), and given as
IM(x,
Y
) [I+(x, Y) + I (x, y) - 2IO (x, y) 8M] (43)
tan(8M/2)
From the calculated images of IJ(x, y) and JM(X, y), the influ
ence of the system non.uniformity hI (x, y), on the measurement is
elininated by calculating the itrinbic function ( x, y)
r
)
_ IJ(x, y
)

X
,
y
- hf (X, y)
(
4
4
)
Since the two angles AR = 1 12. 5 and <AT 67.5, for the ref
erence angle < A of the transmission axis of the analyzer A, are set Yith
the following restriction
2(<AR - <AT) = 90
we have from Equation (42)
(T(X, y) =sina
s
(
x
, y) sin 2[f . (x, y) - <AT)
(R(X, y) =sin
Os(x, y) cos 2[s (x
,
y
) - <AT]
(45)
(46)
i.e. the two values of the intrinsic function x, y) cosist of a new vec
lor (T(X, V) , (R(X, y), which can be used for the mathematical sep
aration of the two components of the birefringence veLto distribution
s(x, y) , 8s (x, y) given as
sin
2
Bs(x, y) = (i(x, y) + ((x, y)
(47
I ( ( )
- (r(X, y)
(48) tan 2 Cs x
, Y - ATJ
(
) (R X, Y
Since the defnition of the birefringnce vector _(x, y) , f s
(
x, y),
states that f. (x, y) is the fast-axis di1ction of the birefringence and
O. (x, y) is the optical retardation by which the tletric feld compo
nent of ligt in the fast-axis direction is retarded from that in the slow
axis directio, it can be reveled [115] that the retardation distribution
Os (x, y) is always a non-negative amount, while the fast-axis direction
distribution fs(x, y) always directs to the fast axis, and, wherever nec
essary it reorients to the perpendicular direction, and thus, in some
cases its distribution may not necessarily be continuous. Since the re
tardation distribution B.(x, y) is a non-negative amount, it Ldbe ob-
542 Takada: Methods for Measuring Dielectric Char
g
e Distributions
tained from Equation (47) as
1
88 (x, y) = arcsin[r(x, y) + (h(x, y)] 2
(49)
Because a tangent function has a period of 180, the tangent term in
Equation (48) is a periodic function of rs (. y) with a period of 90. If
the angular range of an arctangent function is restricted to [0! 1800 [,
then the fastaxis direction distribution Cs (x, y) can be obtained from
Equations (46) and (48)! depending on the polarity of (T(.T, y)! and
given as

8 (X, y) .....
(
.
, ) (n : , y
{+o (T(X, V 0
+ "I'
+90
0
('I' (x, y) < 0
(50)
The combined full range width of s(x, y) in Equation (50) becomes
180! and within (0, 360)! we have two solutions of c., (x, y) and
., (x, y) + 1800 for the fast-axis direction distribution. Thus, the re
sultant birefringence vector becomes a bidirectional vector! which con
sists of ., (x, 11) , (s (X, lI) and . (x, U) + 1 80, es (x, y) and directs
to a direction at an angle of either s (x, y) or ., (x, y) + 180.
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
Figure 39 shows the measured birefringence q)" (:r, y) , e. (x, U
)
vec
tor distribution induced due to the photo-elastic effect inside a PMMA
plate. The PMMA plate used is 3 mm in thickness! 120 mm in length and
30 mm in height. As indicated in Figure 39, each end of the lower side is
supported on a sharp point, and a weight of 3.45 kg is uniformly loaded
on the central,upper area of 5 mm width. The thus produced internal
stress induces a birefringence due to the photo. elastic effect.
6. [rad]

()
Fi gure 39. The measured birefringence f, (x, V) , 8s(x, y) in a PMMA
plate with experimental condition indicated. (a) The measured retardation
ls(J; , y) and (b) the measured fast axis direction ., (x, V) .
Figure 39(a) shows the measured retardation e" (x, y) over the whole
sample! while Figure 39(b) shows the bidirectional distribution of the
measured fast-axis cs (x, y). It is not surprising that there are concen
trated distributed areas of optical retardation immediately above each
of the lower sharp points. However, it is unexpected that there is no
concentrated area of optical retardation immediately under the applied
weight! but there are to concentrated areas of optical retardation under
both sides of the applied weight and also that there is d border area of
optical retardation on the central lower side opposite the applied weight
where it is seemingly free from any external force. To clarify the correct
ness of the measurement results! a comparison has been made between
the measured data and that calculated using a finite-element analysis
[115J. As a result, it is confirmed that the measured data only resemble
the calculated data in the pattern of the magnitude distribution but also
has the same general tendency in the twodimensional direction distri
bution as that of the calculated data.
3. 3 COMMON CHARACTERI STI CS
I N TWO-DI MENSI ONAL
MEASUREMENTS
On the one hand, a system setp is built up and employed for the
purpose of two-dimensional measurement by using different optical ef
fects, while on the other hand, the system components may impose the
influence of their non-uniformity to the amount that is to be measured.
The common problem of system non-uniformity and the common tech
niques for ensuring the system reliability of two-dimensional measure
ments are discussed in this Section, while the concepts that are deduced
to overcome the problem of the system non-uniformity are discussed in
the Section 3. 3. 1.
3. 3. 1 SYSTEM NON-UNI FORMITY
A two-dimensional measurement is quite different from a point
measurement. The most significant difference lies in the fact that the
system non-uniformity is an inevitable problem for d two-dimensional
measurement. The origins for the two-dimensional system non-uniformit)
can be analyzed as follows.
A two-dimensional optical measurement system usually consists of
the following three parts, namely (1) an expanded light beam for the
optical illumination! (2) an optical setup for information sensing and
(3) a video camera for the two-dimensional optic to electric image con
version. Even for an ideally collimated incident light from d beam ex
pander, the light intensity distribution possesses a Gaussian intensity
profile, and thus deviates from the uniform distribution, In the opt!
cal setup, accidental dust on the surfaces of the optical components and
the optical transmission characteristics of these components (e.g. that of
the sample)! both contribute to the non-uniform transmission ratio dis
tribution. The image sensing matrix of an electronic camera, although
usually unrecognizable for human eyes, has a nonuniform sensitivity
distribution. The total effect of the three parts may result in a consider
able system non-uniformity which cannot be neglected in an accurate
two-dimensional measurement On the other hand! a slight, residual
mechanical stress distribution may exist in each of the optical compo
nents and induce a birefringence vector distribution in each component
due to the photo elastic effect. Although their total non-uniform effect is
not included in the system non-uniformity! they contribute to the mea
sured retardation distribution in each optical measurement system.
In the birefringence vector distribution measurement system dis
cussed in Section 3.2.3, the light polarization is rotated by using either a
rotation method [113] or a two-beam separation method [112]. Because
of the rotation of the light polarization! the optical system equivalently
consists of two sub-systems! each of which corresponds to a light polar
ization either before or after the rotation. Consequently! the problem of
different system non-uniformity arises for the two sub-systems.
3. 3. 2 MODULATI ON AND LOCK- I N
PROCESSI NG
Optical noise, e.g. from the laser source, and the electric noise from
the optical sensors will exist in the measurement system. For improv
ing the measurement sensitivit techniques of both ac modulation and
a lock-in amplifier were commonly used in point-measurement meth
ods [83-85]. However, for a two-dimensional measurement, it was
found that ac modulation was not suitable because the amount of op
tical phase modulation varies within a given image [101, 102l, and thus
makes the two-dimensional mathematical analysis quite complicated.
As an improvement, techniques of square pulsed modulation and an
image lock-in process are developed for the two-dimensional measure
ment and their use also simplifies the two-dimensional mathematical
analysis [114, 115].
A longitudinal mode Pockels device made of a BSO crystal with thick
ness of 1 mm is used as OPM and a square pulsed modulating voltage
is applied across it. For a square pulsed modulation, the optical phase
modulation can be treated mathematically as two-dimensionally uni
form at each of the stable modulation half cycles. The optical phase of
light is modulated at a higher frequency, to avoid the lower frequency
domain noise. During every modulation cycle, e.g. cycle i, two us
able images I+(x, y, i) and L (x, y, i), are detected respectively at
the stable positive and negative modulation half cycles. The modulated
light images are then image lock-in processed to obtain the image signal
61 m (x, y) of the modulating frequency component. The algorithm for
the image lock-in process is given as
1 N
6Im(x, y)
N
. , - L
(x
, y, i)]
1 N
N ..
6I(x, y, i)
(51)
where N is the total number of cycles processed, The difference op
eration can be viewed as the processing of a high-pass filter, while the
average operation is the equivalent of a low-pass filter. Their combined
use results in the average addition processing of the difference images
detected at the subsequent cyLles.
3. 3. 3 ON-LI NE DI AGNOSI S OF
DEFECTS
The existence of the 'system non-uniformity' may also imply that
the two-dimensional measurement system has a non-uniform sensitiv
ity distribution. In the measurement system, there may exist some un
wanted defects. The sample to be measured may be an optical com
ponent or even a non-optical plate. Defects, e.g. dust or contaminants,
attached on the surfaces of the system components and/or the sample
surface, most likely on the surface of a non-optical plate sample, may
be sem-transparent or even totally non-transparent. Those defects will
lower the localized transmission ratio, and thus the corresponding sen
sitivity. Some of them may even lower the S / N (signal-to-noise) ratio
at the corresponding positions to an unacceptable level.
Other defects may cause diffuse-refection (scattering) of the detect
ing light and will in turn make the measurement principle no longer
valid at the corresponding positions, and thus the resultant data at those
positions will lose their reliability.
Vol 6 No. 5, October 1999 543
Table 5. Comparison of non-uniform functions.
Optical System Intrinsic
effcts IM(X, y)
((x, y)
Pockels efect 1(X, y)lo( x, y) sinlem] sinl18(x,y)]
Kerr effect 1(" y)lo(x, y) sinIGCx. y)1 sin[2,E(x) Emi
Photoelastic effed 1(X,y)lo(x, y) sill[Gm}
sin[2( 'P. (x,Y)+oAi sin[O,(x,y)i
To ensure the stability and reliability of the two-dimensional mea
surement, an online diagnosis technique is develoed based on the mea
surement principle. The commonly used diagnostic criteria to find those
abnormal, defective positions are given as
IM(x, y) > It (52)
I 6I(x,
y)
1 < IM(X, Y) (53)
where I _(x, y) is the equivalent, maximum li
g
ht intensity distribu
tion and 61 (x, y) is the light intensity distribution of the difference
image obtained at each of the square pulsed modulation cycles. The
criterion of Equation (52) is used to find the low S / N ratio positions
and the threshold value of It is set at the level of 30% of the average
of 1M (J y), while the criterion of Equation (53) is used to find out the
abnormal, defective positions. That is, the defective positions of the ab
normal data in both the system function I M (x, ,,and the difference
image 61 (x, y) are found out wherever either ofthe diagnosis crite
ria is not satisfied. Other diagnosis criteria, which are specific to each
of the measurement systems using different optical effects, may also be
deduced. For an ideal perfect measurement system, it is expected that
no defective position at all would be found.
3.4 SYSTEM AND I NTRI NSI C
FUNCTI ONS
It has been shown that the problem of the two-dimensional non
uniformity resulting from the system components is the most signifi
cant difference between a two-dimensional measurement and a point
measurement. The square pulsed modulation of the optical phase retar
dation allows the calculation of the difference image between the two
images detected respectively during the positive and negative modu
lation half cycles. The difference image 6h (x, y) can be expressed
as
(
54
)
where IM(x, y) is the system function and ((x, y) is the intrinsic func
tion of the samples, and their analytical expressions in each of the mea
surement techniques using different optical effects are summarized in
Table 5,
3. 4.1 SYSTEM FUNCTI ON
As can be seen from Table 5, the system function IM(x, y) is de
termined by the non-uniform parameter ,(x, y), the non-uniform in
tensity Io (x, y) of the incident light and the amount of optical re
tardation 8m (Pockels effect system) or the biased optical retardation
8(X, y) (Kerr effect system) or 8m (photoelastic effect system). The
non-uniform parameter ,(x, y) is the total effect of the transmission
and reflection ratio (Pockels effect system) of the optical components
and the sensitivity of the camera's ima
g
in
g
sensor matrix. The system
function 1M (x, y) is the total non-uniform effect of the system com
ponents, reflects the experiment condition of the measurement system,
and determines the sensitivity of the measurement system. Its exact dis
tributions are experimentally determined from the detected images, e.g.
using Equation (25) or Equation (36) or Equation (4
3).
3. 4. 2 I NTRI NSI C FUNCTION
As shown Table 5, the intrinsic fUnction (( x, y) is related with the in
trinsic property of the samples and irrelevant with the two-dimensional
non-uniformity of the measurement system. By measuring the system
function 1M (x, y) and calculating the intrinsic function (( x, y) of the
sample, the influence of the system non-uniformity is eliminated iwo
dimensional! y.
3. 5 COMPARI SON AND
DI SCUSSI ON
In the Pockels effect system of Section 3. 2. 1, since the direction of
the fast axis of the Pockels sensor is fixed at 45 and irrelevant to the
electric field vector distribution induced by the surface charge distribu
tion u(x, y), the measured amount is a scalar. In the Kerr effect sys
tem of Section 3.2.2, because the mathematical analysis is restricted for
the parallel-plate electrode system where the electric field directions are
aligned perpendicular to the plate electrodes, the measured amount also
is a scalar, but in the photo-elastic effect system of Section 3.2.3, the mea
sured amount is a vector.
As indicated in Equation (54), the measurement sensitivity is deter
mined by the system function ht (x, y) . As summarized in Table 5,
both the Pockels effect system and the photo-elastic effect system have a
sensitivity distribution that is unchanged with the physical amount to be
measured. On the contrary, the Kerr effect system has a sensitivity that
may vary with the electric field magnitude as indicated in Equation (28),
and thus in some situations, the sensitivity may become extremely non
uniform because of the electric field is distorted by charges accumulated
near the electrodes,
Although the measurement system in Section 3.2.3 initially was de
veloped for the purpose of measuring a birefringence vector distribution
induced by the internal stress in a solid sample due to the photo-elastic
effect, future efforts are expected to employ the system for measuring
the non-uniform electric field vector distribution inside a dielectric liq
uid.
4 CONCLUSIONS
J
use of acoustic and optical methods has enabled us to perform
fast and accurate, non-destructive measurements on the electrical
properties of a dielectric insulating material. It is fortunate that tech
niques in computer, electronic devices, digital oscilloscope, laser optics
nd many other fields have been advanced significantly during the past
fIfteen years. The development of the acoustic and optical measurement
techniques has gained much benefit in such a rapidly advanced scien
tiic envirnment. The advent of the highspeed digital oscilloscope, the
hlgh-quahty electro-acoustic transducer and the wide-band amplifier,
eic., has greatly facilitated the development of the acoustic measurement
techniques. The technical progress in laser devices, high-speed digital
cameras, high-quality optical elements and data processing technques,
etc . . als
?
has made it possible to improve the accuracy and rapidity in
the optical measurement systems. It is expected that new techniques
will be introduced continuously in the acoustic and optical measure
ment systems and applied to the field of dielectric materials.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, I would like to express my appreciation to the late Japan
ese honored professor, Masayuki Ieda, who was awarded the Whitehead
M
morial Lecture in 1986 and passed away on 3 March 1999, for his
gUIdance throughout my scientific work, and also to the former DEIS
PresidenC Reuben Hackam, for his invitation to deliver the Whitehead
Memorial Lecture in 1999. I further thank my co-workers, Dr. Yasuhiro
Tanaka and Prof. Yoshihiro Murooka of the Musashi Institute of Tech
nology for their appreciated cooperation.
Since 1982, when I announced a new method detecting charge distri
bution in the insulating materials, which is called the PEA method, at
the CEIDB many foreign scholars who were interested in my devised
method supported me. So I would like to show my appreciation to
them. Jacques Lewiner of Ecole Superieure de Physique et de Chimie
Industrielles, Markus Zahn of the Massachusetts Institute of Technol
ogy Robert Hill of King's College of London University, Tony Davies
of Southampton, Tu DeMin of Xi' an Jiaotong University and K wang. S.
Suh of Korea University, and also Uno Gafvert, Christer Torkvist and
Rongsheng Liu of ABB, John M. Alison of King's College London Univ.,
Guanghui Chen of Southampton, Marc Jeroense of TU Delft and Qin Xi
aokui of Tonji University
I would like to express my thanks to many Japanese scholars and
industrial people, especially Dr. Toshikatu Tanaka of CRIEPt and
also professors Masamitsu Kosaki of Gifu National College of Technol
ogy, Teruyoshi Mizutani of Nagoya Univeristy and Yoshimichi Ohki of
Waseda. I want to thank my PhD students Takashi Maeno, Toshiyuki
Kawasaki, Ying Li and Yongchang Zhu, and other students at the
Musashi Institute of Technology for their collaboration throughout the
present work, and to express my thanks to my wife Kayoko Takada and
my daughters Michiko and Yumiko for their continuous encouragement
and patience through my work.
Fin
lIy I would like to record my gratitude to Dr. A. van Roggen, be

cause It would have been very hard to complete the present paper with
out his excellent support.
REFERENCES
[11 Y. i ad T Tak:da, "Progress in Space Charge Measurement of Slid Insulating Ma
tenals )HJapan , IEEE EI Magazine, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 704-716 1 994.
12J T Takada, Y. Zhu and T Maeno, Progress in Ja
p
an of ElectriLal Field Measurement
Teclmology for Liquid Dielectrics", IEEE EI Magazine, Vol. 12, pp, 8-20 1996.
[3] . Zahn, "Optical, Electric'l and Electromechanical measurement Methodologies of
Field, Charge and Polarization in Dielectrics", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 5, No, 5, pp,
6276S0 1998,
141 P Laurence, G. Dreyfus and J. Lewiner, "New Principle for the Determination oEPo
tentia! Distribution in Dielectrics", Phys. Rev. Lett., Vol. 38, pp. 46-9 1977.
[51 C. Alquie and G. Dreyfus and J. Lewiner, "Stress Wave Probing of Electric Field Dis
tributions in Dielectrics", Phys. Rev., Lett., Vol. 47, pp, 1483-1487 1981.
[6] G. M .
.
Sessler, J. E. West and R. GerhardMulthaupt and H. von Seggern, "Nonde
5lUCVQ Laser Method for Measuring Charge Profiles in Irradiated Polymer Films"
IEEE Trans., Nnc!. Sd., Vol. 29, pp. 1644-1649 1982,
l
(71 W. Eisenmenger and M. Haarrdt, "Observation of Charge Compensated Polarization
Zones in Polyvinylendenfluoride (PVDF) Films by Piezoelectric Acoustic Stepwave
Response", Solid State Comunications, Vol. 41, No. 12, pp. 917-920 1982.
[8] T. Mama, 1 Futami, H. Kusibe, T. Takada and C. M. Cooke, "Measurement of Spatial
Charge Distribution in Thick Dielectrics using the Pulsed Electroacoustie Method",
IEEE Trans. on EI, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 433-9 1988.
[9] Y L, M. Yasuda and T Takada, "Pulsed Electroacoustic Method for Measurement
of Charge Accumulation in Solid Dielectric", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.
188-195 1994.
[10] K Murata, Y Li, Y. Tanaka and T Takada, "Measurement of Acoustic Attenuation
and Dispersion in Low-density Polyethylene by Pulsed Electro-acoustic Method",
Trans. lEE) Vol. 115-A, No. 4, pp. 344 348 1995.
[11] K. Murata, Y. Li, Y. Tanaka and T Takada, "Recovery of Acoustic Sigual Distorted
with Attenuation and Dispersion in Pulbed Electro-acoustic Method", Trans. IEEj,
Vol. US-A, No. 5, pp. 418-422 1995.
[12] Y Li, M. Aihara, K. Murata, Y. Tanaka and T. Takada, "Space Charge Measurement
in Tick Dielectric Materials by Pulsed Electro-acoustic Method, Rev. Sci. Istrum.
Vol. 60, No. 7, pp. 3909-916 1995.
[13] T Maeno, K. Fukunaga, Y. Tanaka and r Takada, "Signal P1\cessing of the High
resolution PEA Charge Measurement System" Trans. lEE japan, Vol. 11S-A, No. 5,
pp. 405-410 1995.
[14] r Maeno and K. Fukunaga, "High-resolution PEA Charge Distribution Measllte
ment System", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 754-757 1996.
[15] Y Satoh, Y Tanaka and T Takada, "Improvement of Piezo-electrically Induced PWP
Method and its Comparison with PEA Method", Trans. lEE japan, Vol. 117-A, No. 4,
pp. 257-262 1997.
116] N. Adachi, Y. Tanaka and T Takada, Comparison between PIPWP Method and PEA
Method for Space Charge Measurement and their Charge Calibration, Trans. lEE
Japan, Vol. 118-A, No. 11, pp. 1284-1290 1998,
[17] T Takada Y. Tanaka, N. Adachi and X. Qin, "Comparison between the PWP Method
and the PEA Method for Space Charge Measurement in Solid Dielectrics", IEEE
Trans. on DEI, Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 944-951 1998.
[18J Y. Li and T Takada, "Experimental Observation of Charge Transport and Injection in
XLPE at Polarity Reversal", j. Phys. 0: AppL Phys, Vol . 25, pp. 704-716 1992.
[19] K. S. Suh, S. J. Hwang, Jin S. Noh and T Takada, " Effects of Constituents of XLPE
on the Formation of Space Charge", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 1077-1083
1994.
[20] T Doi, Y Tanaka and T. Takada, "Measurements of Space Charge Distribution in Ace
tophenone Coated Low-denSity Polyethylene", IEEE Annual Report of CEIDP, pp.
32-35 1997.
[21] T, Takeda, N. Hozumi and H. Suzuki and T Okamoto;, "Factor of Space Charge Gen
erationin XLPE under DC Electric Field of20 kV fmm", Proc. 01 ICPADM"97 (Soul),
pp. 137-141 1997.
[22] T Takeda, N, Hozumi, H. Suzuki and T Okamoto, "Factor of Hereto Space Charge
Generation i XLPE under DC Electric Field of 20 kV fmm", Trans. lEE japan, Vol.
117-A, No. 9, pp. 915-921 1997.
[23] A. Yokoyama, H. Miyata and T Takahashi, "Effect of Minute Amount ofImpurities
on Conductivity and Space Charge Formation in Polyethylene", Trans. lEE Japan_
VoL 117-A, No. 7, pp. 754-760 1997.
[24] S. Muramoto, K. Tanaka, M. Fukuma, M. Nagao and M, Kosaki, "Effect of Acetophe
none on Electric Breakdown and Space Charge Formation in Low-density Polyeth
ylene Film", Trans. lEE japan, Vol. 118-A, No. 6, pp. 654-659 1998.
[25] K. Fukunaga and T Maeno, "Measurement of the Interal Space Charge Distribution
of an Anti*elect\static Discharge Polymer", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol . 2, No, 1, pp.
36- 39 1995.
[26] U. Nillson, A. Campus, A. Gusta/sson, P Carsstensen, C. Tomkvisst and F Ruter,
"Space Charge Behavior of Highly Polar Polyolefins" Proc. of IEEE 6th Int. Coni. on
CBSD {asteras), pp. 36-39 1 998.
[27) Y Li, T Takada, H. Miyata and T. Niwa, "Obseration 01 Charge Behavior in Multi
ply Low Density Polyethylene, J. App!. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, pp. 2725-2730 1993.
[28] Y. Tanaka, Y Li, T Takada and M. Ikeda, Space Charge Distribution in Low-density
PolyethylEne with Charge-injection Suppression Layers, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys, Vol.
28, pp, 1232-1238 1995.
[29] K. S. Suh, J. Y. Kim, H. S. Noh and Co R. Lee, "Interfacial Charge in Polyethylene/
Ethylene Vinylacetate Laminates", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 758-7764
1996.
[30] M. Sakata, T. Ohishl, M, Uchiumi and T, Tamb,. "Characteristics of Formation and
Decay of Interfacial Charge near the Interface between PE and EVA", Trans. lEE
japn, Vol. 117-A, No. 7, pp. 767-772 1997.
[31] A. Omori, T. Miyazaki, Y. Tanaka, 1 Tnkada and T Maeno, "Time Dependence 01
Interface Charge in Polypropylene Laminated Paper under DC Voltage", Trans. lEE
Japan, Vol. 119-A, No. 1, pp. 10D-105 1999.
[32] T. lto, Y. Tanaka, r Takada and T Tanaka, "Characteristics of Accumulation and De
cay of Space Charge in LOPE/EVA Laminated, Technical Meeting of lEE Japan,
DEI -99-30, pp. 5H8 1999 . .
[33] H. Kon, Y Suzuokiy T Mizutani, M. leda and N. Yoshifuji, "Packet-like Space
Charges and Conduction Current in Polyethylene Cable Insulation", IEEE Trans- on
DEI, VoL 3, No. 3, pp. 38D-385 1996.
[34] M. Fukuma, M. Nagao and M. Kosakiy "Measurements of Pressure Wave at Electrical
Breakdown in PP Film", Trans. lEE Japan, Vol. 117-A, No. 4, pp. 365-370 1997.
[35] M. Fukuma, M. Nagao and M. Kosaki, "Measurements of Bre<kdown Pressure Wave
and Cathode and Anode Electric Field up to Electrical Breakdown l nPP Film", IEEE
Annual Report of CElDp pp. 18H85 1997.
[36] T. Macno, T. Futami, H. Kushibe and T. Takada, "Measurement and Simulation of the
Spatial Charge Distribution in Electron Beam Irradiated Polymers", J. Appl. Phys.,
Vol. 65, pp. 1147-1151 1989.
l37J M. KOjima, Y Tanaka, T Tkada and y, Oi1ki, "Measurement of Space Charge Ac
.
cumulation in Gamma-irradiated Polyethylene with DC Voltage, Trans. lEE Japan,
Vol. 115-A, No. 2, pp. 93-98 1995.
[38) A Tanaka, M. Maeda, T. Takada and K. Sakai, "Measurement of Charge Distribu
tion in Organic Photoconductcr using Pressure-wave Propagation Method", Electro
Photography, VoL 31, No. 3, pp. 40I06 1992.
[39J A. Tanaka, M. Maeda and T Takada, "Observation of Charge Behavior in Organic
Photoconducter using Pressure-wave Propagation Method"_ IEEE Trans. on EI, Vol.
27, No. 3, pp. 44D-444 1992.
[40] Y Satah, Y. Tanaka and T. Takada, "Improvement ofPiezo-electrically Induced PWP
Method and its Comprison with PEA Method, Trans. lEE lapan, Vol. 117-A, No. 3,
pp. 257-262 1997.
[41J K. Fukunaga, T. Maeno and Y Hashimoto, "Space Charge Distribution in a Charge
Transport Layer of an Organic Photoconductor", Trans. lEE japan, Vol. 117-A, No.
7, pp. 711-715 1997.
[42) K. Fukunagay T Maeno, K. Okamoto and K. Haga, "Space Charge Observation of a
Metal Base Printed Wiring Board", Trans. lEE japan Vol. U8-A, No. 6, pp. 718-722
1998.
[43J Y Imaizumi_ K. Suzuki, Y. Tanaka and T. Takada, "Three-Dimensional Space Charge
Distribution Measurement in Electron Ueam Irradiated PMMA", Trans. IEEJ, Vol.
116-A, No. 8, pp. 684-689 1996.
[44J X. Qin, K. Suzuki) Y. Tanaka and T. Takada, "Tree-dimensional Space Charge Mea"
surementin a Dielectric using the Aoustic Lens and PWPMethod", J. Phys. D: Appl.
Phys, Vol. 32, pp. 156-160 1999.
[45] U. Rengel:, "Space Charge Distribution in Single Water-tree Measured by Laser
induced Pressure Pulse Method", Proc. of 4th In!'l Conf. on Insulated Power Cables
(Versailles, France), pp. 175-178 1995,
146] Y Li, j, Kawai, Y Ebinuma; '. lmaizumi, K. Suzuki, Y. Tanaka and T Takada, "Three
Dimensional Space Charge Distribution in Water Tree TIp using the Pulsed Electro
acoustic Method", Proc. of 9th [SE IEEE, (Shanghai) pp. 217-222 1996.
[47] K Murata, Y. Tanaka and T Takada, "Space Charge Formation in Cross-linked Pol
yethylene under AC Voltage" , Trans. lEE japan Vol. 116-A, No. 12, pp. 1095-1000
1996.
[48] X. Wang, N. Yoshimura, Y. Tanaka K. Murata and T. Takada, "Space Charge Charac
teristics in Cros5"linked Polyethylene under Electrical Stress from de to Power Fre
quency", j. Phys. D: Appl. Phys, Vol. 31, pp. 2057-2064 1998.
[49] Y Li, J. Kawai, y, Ebinuma, Y Fujiwara, Y. Ohki. Y Tnaka and T. TRkada, "Space
Charge Behal'ior under ac Voltage in Watertreed PE observed by the PEA Method
IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 52-57 1997,
[50] T. Macno and K. Fukunaga, "Transient Phenomena of Space Charge Distribution in
Polypropylene Laminated Paper, Trans. lEE Japan Vol. l17-A, No. 7, pp. 722-726
1997.
151] H. Kitajima, M. Kodaka Y. Tanaka and T. Takeda, Themally Stimulated Current
and Thermally Stimulated Space Chage Distribution in Electron Beam Irradiated
PMMA", Trans. lEE Japan, Vol. 117-A, No. 10, pp. 1058-1062 1997.
[52] Y> Tanaka H. Kitajima, M. Kodaka and T. Takeda, "Analysis and Discussion on Con
duction Current based on Simultaneous Measurement ofTSC and Space Charge Dis
tribution", IEEE Trans. on DEI Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 952-956 1998.
[53J j. M. Alison, "A High Field Pulsed Electro-acoustic Apparatus for Space Charge and
External Circuit Current Measurement with in Solid Insulators, Meas. Sci. Technol.
Vol. 7, pp. 1737-1750 1998.
[54] M, Kodaka, S. Ueda, T Takada and y, Tanaka, "Temperature Dependence of Mobility
in E-beam Irradiated PMMA", IEEE Annual Report of CElOF pp. 621-624 1998.
[55] E. j. Kim, T Takeda and Y. Ohki, "Origins 0/ Thermally Stimulated Current in
Polyethersulfone", IEEE Trans. on DE[, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 386-391 1996.
[56] Y Ohki, E. j. Kim and T Takeda, "Thermally Stimulated Current and Electrical Con
duction in Polyethersulfone", Trans. lEE japan, Vol. 116-A, No. 4, pp. 357-363 1996.
(57] Y Zhang, J. Lewiner, C. Alquie and N. Hampton, "Space Charge of Different Mobil
ity: A NoVel Data Processing Method", j. AppL Phys., VoL 77, No. 10, pp. 5195-5200
1995.
[58J R. Liu, T Takad< and N. Takasu, "Pulsed Electcoi(Oustk Method for Me<surement
of Charge Distribution in Power Cables under both dc and AC Electric Fields", J.
Phys. D: App!. Phys., Vol. 26, pp. 986-993 1993.
[59] K. Nagashima, X. Qin, Y. Tanaka and T Takada, "Calibration of Accumulated Space
Charge in Power Cable using PEA Measurement", Proc. of IEEE 6th I!. Conf. on
CBSD (Vasteras), pp. 60-63 1998.
[60] K. Fukunaga, H. Miyata, M. Sugimori and T. Takada, "Measurement of Charge Dis
tribution in the Insulation of Cables using Pulsed Electroacoustic Method", Trans.
lEE japan, Vol. UO-A, No. 9, pp. 647-648 1990.
[61] E Chapeau, C. Alquie, j. Lewiner, H. Aculair and Y. Petet and R. jocteur, "The Pres
sure Wave Propagation Method for the Analysis of Insulating Materials: Application
to LDPE used in HV Cables", IEEE Trans. on EI, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 405-410 1986.
[62] C. Shinoda, M. Halla, T Hashizume, T Tani, Y Tanaka and T. Takada, "Study on the
Peak in DC Leakage Current Characteristics of XLPE Cables", Trans. lEE japan, Vol.
U5-A, No. 5, pp. 398-404 1995.
[63] X. Wang, D. Tu, Y. Tanaka, T Muronab, T Tabda, C. Shinoda and T Hashizume,
"Space Charge in XLPE Power Cable under de Electrical Stress and Heat Treatment",
IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 467-474 1995.
[64] N. Hozumi, H. Suzuki, T Okamoto, K. Wakanabe and A. Watanabe, "Direct Obser
vation of Time-dependent Space Charge Profiles in XLPE Cable under High Electric
Field", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 1068-1076 1994.
[65] N. Hozumi, T Takeda, H. Suzuki and T Okamoto, "Space Charge Behavior Polyeth
ylene under DC High Electric Fields", Trans. lEE Japan, Vol. 117-A, No. 4, pp. 355-
364 1997.
[66J N. Hozumi, T. Takeda, H. Suzuki, K. Fujii, K. Terashima, M. Ham, Y Murata, K
Watanabe and M. Yoshida, "Space Charge Behavior in Full Scale 20 kV DC XLPE
Cables", Trans> lEE Japan, Vol. 1l7-A, No. 1, pp. 13-21 1997.
[67J T Takeda, n Hozumi, H. Suzuki, K Fujii, K Terashima, M. Hara, 1 Mrata, K.
Watanabe and M. Yoshida:, "Space Charge MeasLrement i n Full Scale 250 kV DC
XLPE Cables", IEEE Trans. on Power DeliYery, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 28-39 1 998.
[68j T MUronaka, N. Niiya, Y Tanab, T> Takada, S. Maruyama and H. Muta, "Measure
ment System of Space Charge Distribution in CV Cable using PEA Method with Flat
Eledrode", Trans. lEE Japan, Vol. 11B-A, No. 2, pp. 164-168 199B.
[69] N. Hozumi, T. Okamoto and Y Ikeda, "Space Charge Behavior i Watr Tree De
graded XLPE Cable Insulation", Trans. lEE lapan, Vol. 115-A, No. 5, pr. 411-4171995.
[70] Y. Zhang, J. Lewiner, C. Alqui and N. Hampton, "Evidence of Strong Correlation
between Space-charge Buildp and Breakdown in Cable Insulation", lEEE Trans. on
DEI, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 778-783 1996.
[71] I> M, Fourmigue, C. Alquie and J. Berdala, "Materi"1 Anisotropy Effe{(s on Space
Charge Distribution in HV Cable", Proc. of IEEE 8th [SE (Paris), pp. 922-927 1994.
[72] K. Suzuki, Y. Tanaka, T> T<k<da, 1 Ohki and C. Takeya, "Detection of Water TreePosi
tion in Cable InsUlation Wall by using PEA method", Technical Meeting of lEE japan,
DEI-99-43, pp. 73-78 1999.
[73] K. Hidaka, "Progress in Japan of Space Charge Field Measurement i n Gaseous Di
electrics using dPockels Sensor", IEEE El Magazine, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 17-28 1996.
[74] R. E. Hebner, R. A. Malewaki and E. C. Cassidy, "Optical Methods of Electrical Mea
surement at HV Level", Proc. of the IEEE, Vol. 65, No. 11, pp. 1524-1548 1977.
[75] E. C. Cassidy, R. E. Hebner, M. Zahn and R. J. Sojka, "Kerr-effect Studies of an In
sulating Liquid under Varied HV Conditions", IEEE Trans. on E[, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.
43-56 1976.
[76] M. Zah", T Takada and S. Voldman, "Kerr Electrooptic Field Mapping Measure
ment in Water using Parallel Cylindrical Electrodes", J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 54, pp.
4749-4761 1983.
[77] M. Zahn and T Takada, "HV Electric Field and Space-charge Distributions in Highly
Purified Water", J. AppL Phys., Vol. 54, pp. 4762-4775 1983.
(78) E. E. Kelly and R. E> Hebner, "Electro-optic Measurement of the Electric Field and
Space Charge Distribution in Trans/orm Oil", lEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 102, pp. 2092-
2097 1983.
[79] H. Ihori, 5> Uto, K. Takechi and K. Arii, "Three-dimensional Electric Field Vector
Measurements in Nitrobenzene llsing Kerr Effect", jan. J> App!. Phys., Vol. 33, No. 4
A, pp, 2066-2071 1993.
[80] R. Shimizu, M. Matsuoka, K. Kato, N. Hayakawa, M. Hikita and H. Okubo, "Three
dimensional Electric Field Vector Measurements in Transformer Oil using Kerr Ef
fect", lEE Japan, Tech. Report, DEI-94-75, pp. 77-85 1994.
181] M. Zahn, " Transform Relationship beteen Kerr-effect Optical Phase Shift and Non
uniform Electric Field Distributions", IEEE Trans. on DEI Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 503-508
1994.
[82] Y. Zhu and T. Takada, "A 2-Dimensional Kerr-effect Technique for Electric Field Dis
tribution in Liquid Dielectrics" IEEE Trans. on DE[, Vol. 4, No. 6, pp. 748-757 1997.
[83] T Maeno and T. Takada, "Electric Field Measurement in Liquid Dielectrics using
A Combination (f AC Voltage Modulation and A Small Retardation Angle", IEEE
Trans. on EI, Vo!. 22, No. 4, pp. 503-508 1987.
[84] T Maeno, Y. Nonaka and T Takada, "Determination of Electric Field Distribution in
Oil using the Kerr-effect Technique after Application of de Voltage", IEEE Trans. on
El, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 475-480 1 990.
[85] 1 Nonaka, H. Sato, T Maeno and T Takada, "Electric Field in Transformer Oil Mea
sured With te Kerr-effect Technique", IEEE Trans. on EI, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 210-216
1991.
[86] A. Tomeand U. Gafrt, "Measurement of the Electric Ficld in Transformer Oil using
Kerr Technique Wi th Optical and Electrical Modulation", Proc. of 1st lCPADM, pp.
61-64 (Xi'an) 1985.
[87] M, Hikata, M. Matsuoka, R. Shimizu, K. Kata, N, HayakaWa and H. Okubo, "Kerr
Electrooptic Field Mapping and Charge Dynamics in Impurity-doped Transformer
Oil", IEEE Trans, on DEI, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp> 80-86 1996.
[88] U. CafVert, A. Jaksts, C. Tornkvist and L. Walfridsson, "Electrcal Field Distribtttlon
in Transformer Oil", IEEE Trans. on EI, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp, 647-660 1992.
[89] R. Liu, A. Satoh, T. Kawasaki, K. Tanaka and T. Takada, "High-sensitivity Kerr-effect
Technique for Determination of 2-dimensional Electric Fields", IEEE Trans. on EI,
Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 245-254 1992.
[90] K. Tanaka and T Takada, "Measurement of Two-dimensional Electric Field Vector in
Dielectric Liquids", Trans. lEE Japan, Vol. 1l3-A, No. 10, pp, 712-718 1993.
[91] K. Tanaka and T Takada, "Measurement System for the 2-dimensional Electric Field
Vector in Dielectric Liquids", IEEE Trans. on DEI, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 747-753 1994.
[92] K. Hidaka and H. Fujita, "A New Method of Electric Field Measurements in Corona
Discharge using Pockels Device", J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 53, No. 9, pp. 5999-60033 1982.
[93] K. Hidaka T. Kouno and I. Hayashi, "Simultaneous Measurement of TWo Orthogonal
Comporments of Electric Field using Pockls DeVices", Rew. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 60,
No. 7 pp. 1252-127 1 989.
[94] T Takada and T. Kawasaki, "Simultaneous Observation of Electrical Charge Image
and its Quantity by TN Liquid Crystal Cell", Sensor and Materials, Va. 1, No. 2, pp.
57-64 1988.
[95] T Takada, 1 Arai and T Kawasaki, "High Resolution Observation of Surf ace Charge
Distribution Profiles by Electro-optic Effect on TWisted Nematic Liquid Crystal",
Sensorand Materials, Vo. 2, No. 5, pp. 299 3081991.
[96] T. Kawasaki, Y> Arai and T, Takada, "Two-dimensional Measurement of Electrical
Surface Charge Distribution on Insulating Material by Electro-optical Pockels Ef
fect", japan. J- Appl Phys., Vol. 30, pp. 1262-1265 1991.
[97] T Kawasaki, T Terashima, S. SUzUki and T Takada, "Measurement Method for AC
Surface Discharge Distribution and its Charge Density on PET Film using Pockels
Ccll", Trans. lEE japan, Vol. 112-A, No. 11, pp. 938-944 1992.
[98] A. Kumada, M. Chiba and K. Hidaka, "Potential Distribution Measurement 0/ Sur
face Discharge by Pockels Sensing TechniqUe", J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 84, No. 6, pp.
3059-3065 1998.
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrcal Insulation
199] T Kawasaki, Y Hirata, T Takada nnd T, Mneno, "Visualization and Quantifica
tion Technique of Latent Electric Charge Image using Pockels Effect-High-sensitive
Measurement using Iage Lock-in Amplifier", Trans. lEE!, Vol. 113-(, No. 12, pp.
1114-1120 1993.
1100] T. Kawasaki, T. Terashima, S. Suzuki and T. Takada, "AC Surface Discharge on Di
electric Materials Observed by Advanced Pockels Effect Technique", J. Appl. Phys.,
Vol. 76, No. 6, pp. 3724-3729 1994.
1101] T Kawasaki, T. Terashima, Y. Zhu and T Takada, "Highly Sensitive Measurement
of Surface Charge Distribution using the Pockels Effect and an [mage lock-in Ampli-
fier", J, Phys. D: AppJ. Phys., Vol. 27, pp. 1646-1652 1994.
.
11021 Y. Zhu, T Takada and D. Tu, "An Optical Measurement Technique for Studying
Residual Surface Charge Distribution", J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., Vol. 28, pp. 1468-
1477 1995.
1103] y, Zhu, T Takada K. Saki and D. Tu, "The Dynamic Measurement of Surface
Charge Distribution Deposited from Partial Disharge in Air by Pockels Effect Tech
nique", J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., Vol. 29, pp. 2892-2900 1996.
[104] Y. zhu, T Takada Y. Inoue and D. Tl, "Dynamic Observation of Needle-plane Sur
face Discharge using the Electro-optical Pockels Effect", IEEE Trans. on DEl, Vol. 3,
No. 3, pp. 460-468 1996.
1105] N. O'Flaherty, N. Kiyomoto, I. Srahama and Y. Machida, "A System for High Sen
sitive Measurement of Birefringence using a Photo-elastic Modulator and its Appli
cations", Electro-optk and Magneto-optic Material I, the Society of Photo Optical
Instrumentation Engineers, Washington, USA, Vol. 1274, pp. 1 22-131 1990.
1106] M. Zahn, M. Hikita, K. A. Wright, c. M. Cooke and J. Brennan, "Kerr Electro
optical Field Mapping Measurements in Electron Beam Irradiated Polymethylmeth
acrylate", lEEE Trans. on EI, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 181-185 1987.
1107] H. Salo, M. Yamaguchi, A Yoshimoto and T. Takada, "High Sensitive Measurement
System of Birefringence using Optical Phqse Modulator and Two Faraday Rotat(rs",
Japanese Journal of the Society of Materials Engineering for Resources, Vol. 4, pp.
22-34 1991.
1108] M. Ohmi, M. Akatsuka, K. Ishikawa, K Naito, Y Yonezawa, Y. Nishida, M, Ya
manaka, Y. Izawa and S. Nakai, "High-sensitivity Two-dimensional Thermal- and
Mcchankal-stressinduced Birefringence Measurements in a Nd: YAG Rod", Ap
plied Optics, Vol. 33, pp. 6368-6372 1994.
Vol. 6 No, 5/ October 1999 547
[109] Y Otani, T Shimada, T. Yoshiawa nd N. Umeda, "Two-dimensional Birefringene
Measurement using the Phase Shifting Technique", Optical Engineering, Vol. 33, pp.
1604-1609 1994.
[1101 M. Takayama, T. Takada and T Yoshino, "Stress Distribution using High Sensitive
Birefringence Measurement System", Japanese Journal of Non-destructive Tests, Vol.
44, pp. 249-252 1995.
[111] T. Maeno, A Nishikata, T. ltabe, N. Hiromoto and T Takada, "Two-dimensional
Lock-in Amplifier System: A New Technique for Improving the Depth Resolution
in Microscope Imaging", Trans. lEE Japan, Vol. 112-C, No. 8, pp. 474-479 1992.
[112] K. Itoh, Y. Tanaka, T. Takada and T. Maeno, "Measurement of Birefringence Distri
bution using Optical-Phase Modulation and a Two-dimensional Lock-in Amplifier
System", Trans. lEE) Vol. 117-B, No, 12, pp. 581-587 1997.
[113] T. Koyama, Y. Zhu, T Takada, Y Murooka and T. Otsuka, "Discussion on System
Nonuniform and Sensitivity Improvement for 2-dimensional Birefringence Vector
Distribution Measurement", Trans. lEE), Vol. U8-E, No. 10, pp. 467-474 1998.
[114] Y. Zh11, T. Koyama, T Takada and Y. Muraoka, "A Two-dimensional Measurement
Technique for Iirefringenc Welor Distributions: Measurement Principle", Applied
Optics, Vol. 38, No. 11, pp. 2225-2231 1999,
[115] Y. Zhu, T Koyama, T Takada, Y Muraoka and T. Otsuka, "A Two-dimensianaI Mea
surcment Technique for Birefringence Vector Distributions: Data Processing and Ex
periment Verification", Applied Optics, Vol. 38, No. 11, pp. 2216-2224 1999.
[1161 y, Muraoka and S. Koyama, "A Nanosecond Surface Discharge Study in Low Pres
sures", J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 50, pp. 6200-6206, 1979.
[117] K. Hidaka, Y. Muraoka and "3. O-ns Surface Discharge Development", ]. Appl.
Phys., Vol. 59, pp. 87-92, 1985.
1118] R. M. A Azzam and N. M. Bashora, "Ellipsometry and Polarized Light", Chapter 2
Propagation ofPolarized Liglll tllrougll Polarizing Optical Systems, North-Holland Pub
lishing Company, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 66-152 1977
.
Thisreview isbased on the 1999 Whitehead Memorial Lecture, given<1 t theCEIe
AusHn TX, October 1999.
Manuscript was received on 29 May 1999.

Acoustic and Optical Methods For Measuring

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Acoustic and Optical Methods For Measuring

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrcs ad Electrical Insulation Vol. 6 No.

5, Odober 1999 519

tical and acoustic measurement technologies have been developed to

and @ .,`along the x and

c/(ero) 1/2 and V

e ' ;(nx - T@) dz (16)

.60 and s is shown in Figure 31.

[8(x, y) + rm(t)] + loff (x,

lIy I would like to record my gratitude to Dr. A. van Roggen, be

Potrebbero piacerti anche