Small Small Small Small- -- -Signal Modeling and Linear Signal Modeling and Linear Signal Modeling and

nd Linear Signal Modeling and Linear

Amplification Amplification Amplification Amplification
Introduction to Amplifiers Introduction to Amplifiers Introduction to Amplifiers Introduction to Amplifiers
Amplifiers are used in design of complex analog
components and systems such as:
Operational Amplifiers
Analog-to-digital / Digital to analog Converters
Audio components (Compact disk players)
In order to predict and design a circuit, we must
develop a mathematical model that describe the
circuit.
To simplify the analysis and design process, the circuits are split into two parts:
dc equivalent circuits, which used to find the Q-point
ac equivalent circuits, which used for analysis of the circuits response to signal
sources.
The ac analysis is based on linearity and requires the use of small signal models
to exhibits linear relationships between terminal voltages and currents.
Introduction to Amplifiers (Cont.)
Amplifiers usually use electronic devices operating in the Active Region
A BJT is used as an amplifier when biased in the forward-active region
In this region, transistors can provide high voltage, current and power gains
Bias is provided to stabilize the operating point (the Q-Point) in the desired
region of operation
Q-point also determines
Small-signal parameters of transistor
Voltage gain, input resistance, output resistance
Maximum input and output signal amplitudes
Power consumption
Transistor Amplifiers | BJT Amplifier
The BJT is biased in the active region by dc voltage
source V
BE
. Q-point is set at (I
C
, V
CE
) = (1.5 mA, 5 V)
with I
B
= 15 A (
F
= 100)
Total base-emitter voltage is: v
BE
= V
BE
+ v
be
Collector-emitter voltage is: v
CE
= 10 i
C
x R
C
This
is the load line equation.
Assuming:
V
BE
=0.7 V, I
B
=15A

(peak) = 8 mV Causes 5 A change in

v
BE
varies between [0.70.008 and 0.7 + 0.008] = [0.692 and 0.708]
i
B
varies between [15A 5Aand 15A+ 5A] = [10A and 20A]
i
C
=
F
i
B
i
C
varies between [1 mA and 2mA]
If changes in operating currents and voltages
are small enough, then i
C
and v
CE
waveforms
are undistorted replicas of the input signal.
A small voltage change at the base causes a
large voltage change at collector.

is 180
o
out of phase of

Transistor Amplifiers | BJT Amplifier

Assuming:
V
BE
=0.7 V, I
B
=15A

(peak) = 8 mV Causes 5 A change in

v
BE
varies between [0.70.008 and 0.7 + 0.008] = [0.692 and 0.708]
i
B
varies between [15A 5Aand 15A+ 5A] = [10A and 20A]
i
C
=
F
i
B
i
C
varies between [1 mA and 2mA]
v
CE
varies between [3.4 V and 6.7V]

(peak) =
. .

= 1.65V
Transistor Amplifiers | BJT Amplifier
A
v
=
V
ce
V
be
=
1.65180
o
0.0080
o
= 206180
o
= 206
Minus sign indicates
180
o
phase shift
between the input and
output signals
Voltage Gain: Voltage Gain: Voltage Gain: Voltage Gain:
Coupling and Bypass Capacitors
Capacitors are designed to provide
negligible impedance at
frequencies of interest and
provide open circuits at dc.
C
1
and C
2
are low impedance
coupling capacitors or dc blocking
capacitors whose reactance at the
signal frequency is designed to be
negligible.
C
3
is a bypass capacitor that
provides a low impedance path for
ac current from emitter to ground,
thereby removing R
E
(required for
good Q-point stability) from the
circuit when ac signals are
considered.
ac coupling through capacitors is
used to inject ac input signal and
extract output signal without
disturbing Q-point
dc and ac Analysis |Two-Step Analysis
dc analysis:
Find dc equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by open circuits and
inductors by short circuits.
Find Q-point from dc equivalent circuit by using appropriate large-signal
transistor model.
ac analysis:
Find ac equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by short circuits, dc
voltage sources by ground connections and dc current sources by open
circuits.
Replace transistor by its small-signal model
Use small-signal ac equivalent to analyze ac characteristics of amplifier.
Combine end results of dc and ac analysis to yield total voltages and
currents in the network.
dc Equivalent Circuit for BJT Amplifier
All capacitors in the original amplifier circuit are replaced
by open circuits, disconnecting v
I
, R
I
, and R
3
from circuit.
dc Equivalent Circuit
ac Equivalent Circuit for BJT Amplifier
= =
= =
k 100 k 22
k 300 k 100
3
2
1
R R
L
R
R R R
C
B
Capacitors are replaced by short circuits
ac Equivalent Circuit
Small-Signal Operation |Diode Small-
Signal Model
The slope of the diode characteristic
at the Q-point is called the diode
conductance and is given by:
r
d
=
1
g
d
Diode resistance is given by:
d D D
i
d D D
i I
v V v
+ =
+ =
The total voltage and current in a
diode are given by:
g
d
is small but non-zero for I
D
= 0
because slope of diode equation is
nonzero at the origin.
At the origin, the diode conductance
and resistance are given by:
g
d
=
I
S
V
T
and r
d
=
V
T
I
S
Small-Signal Operation |Diode Small-
Signal Model
i
D
=I
S
exp
v
D
V
T
|
\

|
|
|
1

(
(
(
(
I
D
+i
d
=I
S
exp
V
D
+v
d
V
T
|
\

|
|
|
1

(
(
(
(
I
D
+i
d
=I
S
exp
V
D
V
T
|
\

|
|
|
1

(
(
(
(
+I
S
exp
v
D
V
T
|
\

|
|
v
d
V
T
+
1
2
v
d
V
T
|
\

|
|
2
+
1
6
v
d
V
T
|
\

|
|
3
+...

(
(
(
Subtracting I
D
from both sides of the equation,
i
d
=(I
D
+I
S
)
v
d
V
T
+
1
2
v
d
V
T
|
\


|

|
|
2
+
1
6
v
d
V
T
|
\


|

|
|
3
+...





(

(
(
(
For i
d
to be a linear function of signal voltage v
d
, v
d
<< 2V
T
= 0.05 V or
v
d
5 mV. Thus v
d
5 mV represents the requirement for small-signal
(linear) operation of the diode.
i
d
=(I
D
+I
S
)
v
d
V
T
|
\


|

|
|
=g
d
v
d
i
D
=I
D
+g
d
v
d
Now lets determine the largest magnitude of v
d
that represents a small signal.
Small-Signal Operation |Diode Small-
Signal Model
Small-Signal Operation |BJT Small-Signal
Model (The Hybrid-Pi Model)
The bipolar transistor is assumed to be operating in the Forward-Active Region:
Using a two-port y-parameter network:
The port variables can represent either time-varying part of total voltages and
currents or small changes in them away from Q-point values.
i
c
= g
m
v
be
+ g
o
v
ce
i
b
= g

v
be
+ g
r
v
ce
i
C
I
S
exp
v
BE
V
T
|
\

|
1+
v
CE
V
A
|
\

|
and i
B

i
C

F
V
CE
V
BE
( )

o
is called the small-signal common-
emitter current gain of the BJT.
i
c
= g
m
v
be
+ g
o
v
ce
i
b
= g

v
be
+ g
r
v
ce
i
C
I
S
exp
v
BE
V
T
|
\

|
1+
v
CE
V
A
|
\

|
i
B

i
C

F
g
m
=
i
c
v
be
v
ce=0
=
i
C
v
BE
Q-point
=
I
C
V
T
g
o
=
i
c
v
ce
v
be=0
=
i
C
v
CE
Q-point
=
I
C
V
A
+V
T
g

=
i
b
v
be
v
ce=0
=
i
B
v
BE
Q-point
=
I
C

o
V
T
g
r
=
i
b
v
ce
v
be=0
=
i
B
v
CE
Q-point
= 0
Small-Signal Operation |BJT Small-Signal
Model (The Hybrid-Pi Model)
g
r
= 0d
BJT Small-Signal Operation |Current
Gain & Intrinsic Voltage Gain

o
=g
m
r

F
1I
C
1

F
i
C
|
\




|

|
|
|
|
Q point






(

(
(
(
(
I
M
is the collector current at which is maximum.

o
>
F
for i
C
< I
M
, and
o
<
F
for i
C
> I
M
.
However, for simplicity
F
and
o
will be assumed to be equal
Intrinsic voltage gain is defined by:

f
represents the maximum voltage gain
an individual BJT can provide and does
not change with operating point.

f
= g
m
r
o
=
I
C
V
T
V
A
+V
CE
I
C
|
\

|
=
V
A
+V
CE
V
T
For V
CE
<<V
A

f

V
A
V
T
40V
A
BJT Hybrid-Pi Model - Summary
Small-signal parameters are controlled
by the Q-point and are independent of
geometry of the BJT
Transconductance:
Input resistance:
Output resistance:
g
m
=
I
C
V
T
40I
C
r

o
V
T
I
C
=

o
g
m
or
o
=g
m
r

r
o
=
V
A
+V
CE
I
C

V
A
I
C
Equivalent Forms of Small-Signal
Model
Voltage-controlled current source g
m
v
be
can be transformed into current-
controlled current source,
Basic relationship i
c
= i
b
is useful in both dc and ac analysis when the BJT
is in the forward-active region.
v
be
= i
b
r

g
m
v
be
= g
m
i
b
r

=
o
i
b
i
c
=
o
i
b
+
v
ce
r
o

o
i
b
BJT Small-Signal Operation | Small-Signal
Definition
For linearity, i
c
should be proportional to v
be
with v
be
<< 2V
T
or v
be
0.005 V.
The change in i
c
that corresponds to small-signal operation is:
i
C
= I
S
exp
v
BE
V
T
|
\

|
= I
S
exp
V
BE
+v
be
V
T
|
\

|
i
C
= I
C
+i
c
= I
S
exp
V
BE
V
T
|
\

|
exp
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
= I
C
exp
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
I
C
+i
c
= I
C
1+
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
+
1
2
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
2
+
1
6
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
3
+

(
(
i
c
= I
C
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
+
1
2
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
2
+
1
6
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
3
+

(
(
i
C
I
C
1+
v
be
V
T
|
\

|
= I
C
+ I
C
v
be
V
T
= I
C
+ g
m
v
be
i
c
I
C
=
v
be
V
T

0.005V
0.025V
= 0.200
Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Small-Signal Analysis - ac Equivalent Circuit
ac equivalent circuit is constructed by assuming that all capacitances
have zero impedance at signal frequency and dc voltage sources are ac
ground.
Assume that Q-point is already known.
Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit
Input voltage is applied to the base terminal
Output signal appears at collector terminal
Emitter is common to both input and output signals
Thus circuit is termed a Common-Emitter (C-E) Amplifier.
The terminal gain of the C-E amplifier is the gain from the base
terminal to the collector terminal
A
vt
CE
=
v
c
v
b
= g
m
R
L
R
L
= r
o
R
C
R
3
Common-Emitter Amplifiers | Input
Resistance and Signal Source Gain
Define R
iB
as the input resistance looking into
the base of the transistor:
The input resistance presented to v
i
is:
The signal source voltage gain is:
(
o
+1)R
E
R
iB
=
v
b
i
b
= r

R
in
= R
I
+ R
B
R
iB
= R
I
+ R
B
r

A
v
CE
=
v
o
v
i
=
v
o
v
b
v
b
v
i
= A
vt
CE
R
B
r

R
I
+ R
B
r

Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Rule of Thumb Design Estimate
A
v
CE
= A
vt
CE
R
B
r

R
I
+ R
B
r

A
vt
CE
A
vt
CE
= g
m
R
L
R
L
= r
o
R
C
R
3
Typically: r
o
>> R
C
and R
3
>> R
C
A
v
CE
g
m
R
C
= 40I
C
R
C
I
C
R
C
represents the voltage dropped across collector resistor R
C
A typical design point is I
C
R
C
=
V
CC
3
A
v
CE
40
V
CC
3
=13.3V
CC
To help account for all the approximations and have a number that is easy to
remember, our "rule-of-thumb" estimate for the voltage gain becomes
A
v
CE
10V
CC
Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Voltage Gain Example
Problem: Calculate voltage gain, input
resistance and maximum input signal level
for a common-emitter amplifier with a
specified Q-point
Given data:
F
= 100, V
A
= 75 V, Q-point is
(0.245 mA, 3.39 V)
Assumptions: Transistor is in active region,

O
=
F
. Signals are low enough to be
considered small signals. Room temperature.
Analysis:
g
m
= 40I
C
= 40 0.245mA
( )
= 9.80 mS r

o
g
m
=
100
9.8mS
=10.2 k
r
o
=
V
A
+V
CE
I
C
=
75V +3.39V
0.245mA
= 320 k R
B
= R
1
R
2
=160k 300k=104 k
R
L
= r
o
R
C
R
L
= 320k 22k 100k=17.1 k R
B
r

=104k 10.2k= 9.29 k

Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Voltage Gain Example (cont.)
Analysis (cont):
A
v
= g
m
R
L
R
B
r

R
I
+ R
B
r

|
\

|
|
= 9.8mS 17.1k
( )
9.29k
1k+9.29k
|
\

|
= 168 0.903
( )
= 151
R
in
= R
I
+ R
B
r

=10.3 k
v
be
= v
i
R
B
r

R
I
+ R
B
r

|
\

|
|
v
be
0.005V v
i
5mV
10.3k
9.29k
|
\

|
= 5.54 mV
Check the rule-of-thumb estimate: A
v
CE
10 12
( )
= 120 (ballpark estimate)
What is the maximum amplitude of the output signal: v
o
5.54mV 151
( )
= 0.837 V
Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Voltage Gain Example (cont.)
Simulation Results: The graph below presents the output voltage for an
input voltage that is a 5-mV, 10-kHz sine wave.
Note that although the sine wave at first looks good, the positive and
negative peak amplitudes are different indicating the presence of distortion.
The input is near our small-signal limit for linear operation.
Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Dual Supply Operation - Example
Problem: Find voltage gain, input and
output resistances for the circuit above
Given data:
F
= 65, V
A
= 50 V
Assumptions: Active-region operation,
V
BE
= 0.7 V, small signal operating
conditions.
Analysis: To find the Q-point, the
dc equivalent circuit is constructed.
I
B
=3.71 A
I
C
=65I
B
=241 A
I
E
=66I
B
=245 A
10
5
I
B
+V
BE
+(
F
+1)I
B
(1.610
4
)=5
510
4
I
C
V
CE
(1.610
4
)I
E
(5)=0
V
CE
=3.67 V
Next we construct the ac
equivalent and simplify it.
R
in
=R
B
r

=6.31 k
R
out
= R
C
r
o
= 9.57 k
A
v
CE
=
v
o
v
i
= g
m
R
out
R
3
( )
R
in
R
I
+ R
in
|
\

|
= 84.0
Gain Estimate: A
v
CE
10 V
CC
+V
EE
( )
= 100
6.74 k
Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Dual Supply Operation Example (cont)
C-E Amplifiers | Output Resistance
Apply test source v
x
and find i
x
(with v
i
= 0)
v
be
= 0 g
m
v
be
= 0
R
out
=
v
x
i
x
= R
C
r
o
R
out
R
C
for r
o
>> R
C
C-E Amplifiers | Output Resistance
Amplifier Power Dissipation
Static power dissipation
in amplifiers is found
from their dc equivalent
circuits.
(a) Total power dissipated in the C-B and E-B
junctions is:
P
D
= V
CE
I
C
+ V
BE
I
B
where V
CE
= V
CB
+ V
BE
Total power supplied is:
P
S
= V
CC
I
C
+ V
EE
I
E
Amplifier Signal Range
v
CE
=V
CE
V
m
sint where V
m
is the
output signal. Active region operation
requires v
CE
v
BE
So: V
m
V
CE
V
BE
Also: v
R
c
t
( )
= I
C
R
C
V
m
sint 0
V
m
min I
C
R
C
, V
CE
V
BE
( )