The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1) What is meant by nation state? When people living in a particular region develop an identity, with definite boundary, common ruler and common culture, it is called as nation state. 2) What is meant by nationalism? Nationalism is the love and patriotic feeling for ones own country. It promotes a sense of belongingness and unity amongst people. 3) What is meant by liberalism? The term liberalism is derived from a Latin word Liber meaning free. It stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges. Emphasized the concept of constitution and representatives government through parliament. 4) Who were the conservatives? Conservatives were against liberals. They believed in preservation of established traditional institutions like state and society monarchy social hierarchies, property and family. 5) Define the area of Balkans. Territory between the Black Sea and Adriatic Sea. Comprising of present Romania, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montego. Once a part of Ottoman empires inhabited mostly by slaves. 6) Which revolution was the first clear expression of nationalism? It was the French Revolution, which was started in the year 1789. It marked the transfer of power from monarch to a body of French citizen. 7) Name the areas occupied by French armies under Napoleon. Holland Belgium Switzerland

 Much of Italy 8) Who comprised of the new middle-class? Industrialists Businessmen Professionals 9) What step did the French Revolutionaries take to create a sense of identity among the French people? The idea of La Patrie (the father-land) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) was emphasized. United community enjoying equal rights. The new French flag, the tri-colours, replaced the formal Royal Standard. The Estate General elected by body of active citizens was renamed as the National Assembly. New hymns were composed and oaths were taken. Martyrs commemorated Formulated uniform laws. Internal custom duties and dues were abolished. Regional dialects were discouraged; French was made the common language of the nation. Also declared that The French-nation would liberate the people of Europe from despotism. 10) What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him? Administration became more efficient. Napoleon introduced revolutionary principles in administration making it more efficient and rational. The Civil Code of 1804, known as Napoleonic Code, did away with all the privileges based on birth. Right to property Simplified administrative divisions.

Abolished feudal system. Freed peasants from serfdom and dues. Guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed new-found freedom. Uniform laws, standardized weights and measures facilitated the movement of goods and capital from one region to another. 11) How was aristocracy organized in Europe in the 10th century? Aristocracy was the dominant class in Europe united by common way of life. Rich people owned estates in the country-side and also town houses. Spoke French for purpose of diplomacy. But formed only a small group. Families often connected by kiss of marriage. 12) What is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals? What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals? Political: Inviolability of private property. Universal suffrage (guaranteed only for property owning men). Social: Freedom for all Equality before law. Economic: Freedom of market, abolition of state-imposed restrictions on movement of goods and capital. In 1834, custom of Prussia reduced the number of currencies from 30 to 2. Network of railways facilitated mobility. 13) How did conservatives establish their power after 1815? (Or) How did the treaty of Vienna change the map of Europe? The conservatives believed in modern army, an efficient bureaucracy and a dynamic economy.

 In 1815, the European powers-Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria defeated Napoleon at Vienna to draw-up settlement of Europe. The conference was hosted by Austrian Chancellor-Duke Metternich. The treaty of Vienna of 1815 was signed to undo most changes that came about during Napoleonic war. The Bourbon Dynasty deposed was restored to power. France lost its territories, annexed under Napoleon. To prevent further expansion of French territories, series of states were set upon boundaries. Kingdom of Netherlands including Belgium was set-up in north. Genoa was added to piedmont in south. Prussia was given new territories in western frontiers. Austria was given the control of northern Italy. The Eastern Russia was given a part of Saxony. 39 states of German Confederation were left untouched. 14) Explain the development in Europe which gave birth to revolutionaries. (Or) Write a short note on Giuseppe Mazzini. Conservative regime set-up in 1815 was autocratic. Did not tolerate criticism. Quested activities which questioned authority of autocratic government. Imposed censorship laws, freedom of expression through newspaper, books, plays and songs which reflected ideas of liberty and freedom. Fear of repression drove many liberals underground. Secret societies were formed, which were committed to oppose monarchy and fight for liberty and freedom. One such individual was Italian revolutionary-Giuseppe Mazzini. Born in Genoa in 1807, he became a member of secret society at Carbonari. At 24, he was sent to exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

 Founded young Italy in Marseilles and young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded people from Poland, France, Italy and German states. He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. Italy couldnt continue to be patchwork of small states and kingdoms. Following the model, secret societies were formed in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Metternich described him as the most dangerous enemy of social order. 15) Write about The Greek War of Independence. Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th Century. Struggle for independence began in 1821. Greece got support from Greeks living in exile and West-Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists landed in Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilized public support for fight against Muslim Empire. The English Poet-Lord Byron, organized funds, fought in war and died of fever in 1824. Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation. 16) Write short notes on upheaval in France in 1830. Liberal-nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class started revolution. The Bourbon kings were overthrown. Louis Philippe was made ruler. Metternich once remarked, When France sneezes, the whole Europe catches cold.

 The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the UK and Netherlands. 17) Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder popularized the true spirit of nationalism through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dance. Karol Kurpinski of Poland celebrated national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like Polonaise of Mazurka into nationalist symbols. After Russian occupation in Poland, Russian language was imposed. Though an armed rebellion of Polish was started, it was crushed. Use of language became symbol of struggle against Russian dominance. 18) Describe the economic hardships faced in Europe in 1830s. Increase in population all over Europe. Migration from rural areas in search of jobs. People lived in over-crowded slums. Small producers faced stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods from England. Peasants struggled under burden of feudal dues. Bad harvest and rise of food prices. Aristocracy enjoyed powers. Food shortage and widespread unemployment brought population of Paris out on the roads. National Assembly proclaimed a republic. Louis Philippe was forced to flee. Granted suffrage to all adult males above 21-years-old. Guaranteed right to work. National work shops were set-up to provide employment. 19) Write notes on Frankfurt Parliament (1848-Revolution of Liberals).

 A large number of political associations comprising of professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans decided to vote for all German National Assembly of Frankfurt. On 18th May-1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened at St. Pauls Church. They drafted a constitution based on the system of constitution monarchy. When the deputies offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected and joined other monarchs. Opposition of Aristocracy and military became stronger. The parliament was dominated by the middle-classes who resisted the demands of artisans and workers and finally lost their support. In the end, troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband. In the years after 1848, monarchs began to realise that repression could be ended by granting concessions to liberals and revolutionaries. Serfdom and bonded labour was abolished in Habsburg and in Russia. Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians. 20) Write a note on role of women in nationalist struggles. Equality before law and liberalism didnt mean universal suffrage even in revolutionary France. Only property-owning men were given right to vote. Under Jacobins, only for a brief period, all men enjoyed suffrage. Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage. It reduced women to status of minor, subject to authority of father and husbands. Throughout the 19th century, women and non-propertied men organized movements demanding political rights (The question of granting political rights to women remained controversial).

 Founded newspaper, formed own political association, took part in political meetings and demonstrations. With all this, they were denied suffrage right during election of Frankfurt assembly. When the parliament convened at St. Pauls Church, they were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery. 21) Write a short note on The Unification of Italy. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into 7 states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs and the central part under Pope. South was under Bourbon Kings of Spain. Even Italian language had no common form. Mazzini, through Young Italy, stayed in the revolution in 1831 and 1848 in vain. Now the task fell on King Victor Emmanuel-II to unify Italian states through war. Cavour, who led the movement, was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He spoke French better than Italian, like any wealthy and educated person did. Through his tactful diplomatic alliance with France, he succeeded in defeating the Austrian force. A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Garibaldi joined. They marched into South-Italy and Kingdom of Two Sicilies winning the support of local peasants. Victor Emmanuel-II was proclaimed the king of United Italy in 1861. 22) Unification of Germany.

 The middle-class Germans in 1848 tried to unite different units of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. It was repressed by combined forces of monarchy and military supported by large land-owners and Junkers. Otto van Bismarck was the architect of the process of unification. Prussian King, William-I, was proclaimed the emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles. The new state-laid emphasis was on modern currency, legal and judicial system in Germany. 23) How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe? The formation of nation-state wasnt a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was a nation before the 18th century. Ethnic groups were English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. The groups had their own cultural and political traditions. The first step towards formation of nation-state was end of monarchy in 1688 by England. The Act of Union in 1707 brought Scotland under its control-forming UK or Britain. Scotlands culture and political institutions were suppressed. They were not allowed to speak Gaelic language and wear national dress. Independence was forbidden. Large numbers of people were forcibly driven out of their motherland. Similar was the fate of Ireland. Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants to establish dominance over Catholics. Catholics revolts were suppressed. After a failed revolt by Wolfe Tone, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into UK.

 The British flag (Union Jack) and National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King) became symbols of New Britain. 24) Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed? Nations were portrayed as female figures. French revolution artists used female allegory ideas of liberty, justice and republic. Attributes of liberty were red caps, broken chains and justice with blindfolded women carrying a pair of weighing scales. Artists of 19th century invented similar female allegories. In France, she was named Marianne with red cap, the tricolour flag and cockacle representing liberty and republic. Statues were erected in public places and images marked on coins and stamps. Allegory of German nation was Germania wearing a crown of oak leaves, symbolising heroism. 25) Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans? Regions of nationalist tensions increased in Europe after 1871. Balkans was composed of modern Romania, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montego, broadly inhabited by slaves. Balkans was under control of Ottoman Empire all through the 19th century. The Salvia nationalists struggled to define their identity and independence. Matters got further complicated with declining power of Ottoman Empire in Balkans. Taking advantage of the situation, the European powers-Russia, Germany, England and Austria-Hungary competed with one-another to extend control over this area.