Week 39

Introduction 329
Low-temperature solar systems:

flat plate collector 330
Cheaper alternatives to conventional
solar water heaters 366
Thermal storage systems 377
Concentrating collector
systems 383
Nomenclauture 392
References 394
6
Solar thermal engineering Solar thermal engineering Solar thermal engineering Solar thermal engineering Solar thermal engineering
Shirish S Garud, Fellow, and V V N Kishore, Senior Fellow
EnergyEnvironment Technology Division, TERI, New Delhi
Introduction
As discussed in Chapter 4, solar energy is
received on the earths surface in the form of
radiation comprising mostly the visible and
infrared wavelength ranges of the electromagnetic
spectrum. A black body (or any absorbing
surface) intercepting the solar radiation can
convert solar energy into heat, which can then be
transferred to a heat transfer fluid. The absorbing
surface, due to the high temperature gained from
solar radiation, will also lose heat through various
mechanisms, described in detail in Chapter 3.
When the area of heat loss is more or less same
as the area of collection, the ratio of heat lost
to energy received is rather high, as the solar
radiation fluxes are not too large. For example,
solar radiation intensities on a horizontal surface
vary between 300 and 800 W/m
2
on a clear sunny
day for a horizontal surface, and for a plate with a
temperature that exceeds ambient temperature
by about 40 C and with a heat loss coefficient of
8 W/m
2
C, the heat loss is 320 W/m
2
. Thus, the
losses are of the same order of magnitude as
the energy received. Consequently, such solar
thermal systems attain maximum temperatures
of the order of 100 C or so and are called low-
temperature solar thermal devices. These are,
nevertheless, very important because a large
amount of heat is required at low tempera-
tures in a variety of applications such as
330 Renewable energy engineering and technology
residential heating, domestic water heating, drying of several agro-products,
and cooking. This results in the saving of high-grade energy such as electricity
or LPG. This has been, and continues to be the rationale for adopting low-
temperature solar thermal devices. Some of the solar thermal devices in this
category are solar water heating collectors, collecting-cum-storage systems,
shallow solar ponds, salinity gradient solar ponds, active or passive systems for
residential or commercial buildings, swimming pool heaters, solar stills, and
solar cookers.
As discussed in Chapter 4, solar radiation received on the earths surface
is of two types: beam and diffuse. The beam or direct radiation can be
focused onto a line or a point using either reflectors (mirrors) or refractors
(lenses). Thus, radiation collected over large areas can be directed to receivers
of much smaller areas, leading to a reduction in the area of heat loss as
compared to the area of collection. The solar flux received is several times
higher than the heat losses, which makes it possible for the receiver to attain
very high temperatures. As the position of the sun changes continuously with
respect to the earth, the collector will have to track the sun in order to keep
receiving high fluxes at the receiver throughout the day. These collectors are
called concentrating collectors and are of two types: line-focusing and
point-focusing. The temperature of the receivers can range between 250 C
and 1500 C, depending on the concentration ratio, which is defined as the
ratio of the collecting area to the receiving area and can vary from 10 to
10 000. Concentrating collectors are used primarily for power generation
applications, though recent applications include industrial process heating
and institutional cooking.
Due to the diurnal and seasonal variations of the solar radiation, the heat
collected will have to be stored, as the demand for heat seldom matches the
supply of energy over long periods of time. Heat can be stored as sensible heat,
latent heat, or chemical energy. Various heat storage systems will be discussed
later in this chapter.
Low-temperature solar systems: flat plate collector
The flat plate collector has been at the centre of considerable commercial as
well as research activities in solar thermal engineering for the past 50 years
or so. It is simple to construct, does not need tracking, and requires little
maintenance. There exist a large number of manufacturers/suppliers of solar
water heating systems based on flat plate collectors in India, and a significant
growth rate has been registered in the sales of solar water heating systems in
recent years.
Solar thermal engineering 331
To understand the working of a flat plate collector, consider a black
surface insulated at the bottom and exposed to solar radiation. As the black
surface absorbs radiation in the complete wavelength region of the
solar spectrum, it gains heat, and starts losing heat to the surroundings
by conduction, convection, and radiation. Using the equations derived in
Chapter 3, the equilibrium temperature of a black surface can be calculated.
Wind convection is one of the main causes of heat loss. For certain assumed
conditions of radiation intensity, surface absorption, etc., the plate tempera-
ture as a function of wind velocity is plotted as curve A in Figure 6.1.
It can be seen that the difference between the plate temperature and
the ambient temperature drops off rapidly as the wind velocity increases.
Now consider enclosing the black surface in a glass enclosure. Glass has the
property of transmitting most of the visible part of the radiation and part of
the near-infrared radiation. However, it is opaque to the infrared wavelength
range in which the hot plate emits radiation. Thus, it acts like a greenhouse
besides isolating the hot surface from the wind convection currents to a
large extent. Using the equations for heat losses, to be derived later, one can
calculate the plate temperatures for a black surface with a glass enclosure,
shown as curve B in Figure 6.1. It can be seen that the plate temperatures are
much higher, even for high wind velocities. The black surface can now be a
part of the heat exchanger that delivers heat to the colder fluid passing
through it. The simplest way to extract the heat is to pass the fluid below the
hot surface (Figure 6.2).
An analysis of a simple flat plate water heater depicted in Figure 6.2 is
presented by Grossman, Shitzer, and Zvirin (1977). If instead of water, air is
Figure 6.1 Temperature profiles of the hot absorber surface exposed to sunlight under
covered and non-covered conditions
passed through this water heater, we get the classic solar air heater, analysed in
detail by Whillier (1963), and presented along with other types of air
heaters by Sukhatme (1984e). The most standard and accepted method
of heat extraction in a liquid flat plate collector, however, is the tube fin
arrangement (Figures 6.3[a] and 6.3[b]).
The useful heat that can be obtained from a collector would be equal
to the net solar energy falling on the plate minus the net heat loss to the
Figure 6.2 A simple flat plate collector for heating water
Figure 6.3(a) Typical fin and tube-type solar collector
Source Duffie and Beckman (1991)
Figure 6.3(b) Flat plate collector assembly showing header, footer, and distribution pipes
Source IS 12933 (2003)
surroundings. A bare plate would receive maximum radiation but the
introduction of a cover (or a cover system consisting of two or more glazings)
reduces the energy received, the reduction being due to reflection,
transmission, and absorption of radiation by the cover system. The heat
losses, on the other hand, are primarily through convection and radiation
from the top (called top losses) and through conduction from the bottom and
the side insulation (called bottom and side losses). It is important to study
these losses for estimating the efficiency or performance of the collector.
Transmission, reflection, and absorption of radiation are dependent on
the properties of the medium of transmission, wavelength of radiation, and
the angle of incident radiation. We assume that all properties are independent
of wavelength, which is true for glass with low iron content, but not for other
cover materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or polyethylene. Solar radia-
tion is only slightly polarized and has perpendicular as well as parallel
components. Fresnel has derived expressions for the reflection of unpolarized
light passing from medium 1 to medium 2, which can be written as
r
r
pp
pa
=

+
=

+
sin ( )
sin ( )
tan ( )
tan ( )
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1

rr
I
I
r r
r
i
pp pa
= = + ( )/ 2
where
1
and
2
are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively, as
shown in Figure 6.4, r is reflectance, and r
pp
and r
pa
are the perpendicular and
parallel components of the unpolarized light.
Figure 6.4 Angles of incidence and reflection
...(6.1)
...(6.2)
...(6.3)
For the present discussion, medium 1 is air and medium 2 is glass. For
applications such as solar pond, medium 2 can be water. The angles
1
and
2
are related to the refractive indices of the media n
1
and n
2
by Snells law.
n
1
sin

1
= n
2
sin
2
...(6.4)
The refractive index of air is approximately 1.0 and the average refractive
index of glass is 1.526.
Example 1
Calculate the reflectance of glass at normal incidence and at an incidence
angle of 75.
Solution
For normal incidence, both
1
and
2
are zero and it can be shown that
r o
n n
n n
( ) =
+
1 2
1 2
2
j
(
,
\
,
( ...(6.5)
r o
n n
n n
( ) =
+
1 2
1 2
2
j
(
,
\
,
( ...(6.6)
For n = 1.526
r o ( )
.
.
. = =
0 526
2 526
0 0434
2
j
(
,
\
,
(
For = 75, the refraction angle is obtained as
2
1
2
75
1 526
39 27
75
1
2
35 73
= =
=
sin
sin
.
.
( )
sin ( . )
sin
j
(
,
\
,
(
r
22
2
2
114 27
35 73
114 27 ( . )
tan ( . )
tan ( . )
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
= 0.2577
The losses through reflection, refraction, and absorption in the cover
system determine the quantum of radiation available for conversion into
useful heat. When radiation passes through a cover material such as
glass, there are two interfaces per cover, whereas Figure 6.4 depicts only
one interface. The radiation reflected and transmitted is different for each
component of polarization, hence it is necessary to treat the perpendicular
and parallel components separately. The ray tracing method is generally used
to estimate the transmittance (Figure 6.5).
Neglecting the absorption in the cover material and considering only the
parallel component, the transmittance
pa
, is obtained by summing up all the
transmission terms for the parallel component.
pa pa pa pa pa pa
pa
r r r r r
r
= + + +
=
( ) ( ) ( ) .......
(
1 1 1
1
2 2 2 2 4

ppa pa
n
n
pa pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
r
r
r
r
r
)
( )
( )
2 2
0
2
2
1
1
1
1
=
1
=
+
...(6.7)
Similarly, transmittance for the perpendicular component
pp
is
pp
pp
pp
r
r
=
+
1
1
...(6.8)
The components
pa
and
pp
are not equal at normal incidence and the
average transmittance is given by
0
1
2
1
1
1
1
= +
+
j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(
r
r
r
r
pa
pa
pp
pp
...(6.9)
Figure 6.5 Transmission through a single cover considering only reflectance and transmission
Duffie and Beckman (1991)
Superscript 0 indicates that absorption within the slab is not considered.
Equations 6.1 and 6.2 can be used to calculate r
pa
and r
pp
. has been calculated
as a function of the incident angle for a number of covers and represented
graphically. These graphs are available in standard texts (Duffie and Beckman
1991; Sukhatme 1984). The transmittance remains almost constant up to
= 40, and then falls rapidly. At = 90, the transmittance is zero, as is
expected.
Absorption of solar radiation by cover media
The absorption of radiation in a medium is described by Bouguers law, which
can be stated as
dI
ds
KI =
...(6.10)
where dI is the amount of radiation absorbed in the width ds of the path
length and K is extinction coefficient of the medium. The negative sign on the
right-hand side of Equation 6.10 indicates that I decreases with increase
in s. Consider a differential element dx as shown in Figure 6.6.
cos ;
cos
2
2
= =
dx
ds
ds
dx
Substituting in Equation 6.10, we have
dI
I
K
dx
=
cos
2
...(6.11)
The extinction coefficient K varies from approximately 4 m
1
for good-quality
glass to about 32 m
1
for poor-quality glass. It is dependent on the iron content
of the glass and can generally be determined by observing the edge of the
glass. A greenish edge indicates high iron content and a high value of K.
Low-iron glasses are generally preferred for solar applications. These are
Absorption of the incident ray in transparent cover
not yet produced in India, but some manufacturers of solar systems import
them. Typically, the best transmittance of an Indian glass is about 88%,
whereas low-iron glasses have transmittance of 92% or above. One can ob-
serve that transmittance plays an important role since the radiation
transmitted through good-quality glass is higher by five per cent or more than
normal glass.
Integrating Equation 6.11 between the limits I
1
to I
2
, and 0 to L, where L
is the cover plate thickness, we get
a
I
I
KL
= =
2
1 2
exp
cos
j
(
,
\
,
( ...(6.12)
Superscript a indicates transmittance considering absorption in the
cover plate.
The transmittance , reflectance , and absorptance of a single cover
can be derived using the ray tracing techniques similar to the ones described
earlier. The parallel and perpendicular components of the polarization are
obtained and the average of the two is used for application. For practical
collector applications, however, the transmittance of a single cover can be
approximated by
=
a
...(6.13)
where t and t
a
are given by Equations 6.9 and 6.12. The absorptance of a single
cover can be approximated by
= 1
a
...(6.14)
As = 1
= ...(6.15)
Example 2
Calculate , , and for a glass cover with following attributes:
Thickness = 4 mm, K = 25, and angle of incidence = 75.
Solution
For angle of incidence of 75 from Example 1, the angle
2
= 39.27. Now using
Equation 6.1
r
pp
=
+
sin ( )
sin ( )
2
2 1
2
2 1


Thus, r
pp
= 0.410
Similarly, r
pa
= 0.105
Substituting in Equation 6.9, we get
= 0.614
Similarly,
a
= 0.88
Now =
a
= 0.54
= 1
a
= 0.12, and
= = 0.614 0.54 = 0.074
The values of transmittance as a function of the angle of incidence for a
single cover for different values of KL are shown in Figure 6.7.
Transmittanceabsorptance product
After passing through the cover system, the solar radiation is mostly absorbed
by the collector plate, and a small amount is reflected off the plate. The
reflected radiation is not entirely lost, but is re-reflected and re-absorbed
(Figure 6.8).
If is the transmittance of the cover system and is the absorptance of
the plate at a given angle of incidence, an amount is absorbed by the plate
Transmittance of a single cover for three types of glass
Duffie and Beckman (1991)
and (1) is reflected back to the cover system. The absorptance of the plate
also depends on the angle of incidence. Table 6.1 gives the values of
absorptance for various angles of incidences for a plain black surface
(Goswami, Kreith, and Kreider 2000).
The reflection from the absorber plate is assumed to be diffuse. The
amount reflected back to the plate from the cover system is (1 )
d
, where
d
is called diffuse reflectance. The reflection continues as shown in Figure 6.8,
and the summation of all the absorption terms is
( ) ( ) ,
]
]
=

n
d
n
0
1 ...(6.16)

=
1 1 ( )
d
... (6.17)
The symbol () is not the product of and , but should be considered
as a property of the coverabsorber system. Studies show that transmittance
or reflectance of the diffuse radiation can be obtained by defining an equiva-
lent angle of beam radiation that gives the same transmittance or reflectance
as diffuse radiation. For solar applications, this angle is 60, which means that
Angular variation of absorptance of lamp black paint
Angle of incidence () Absorptance
030 0.96
3040 0.95
4050 0.93
5060 0.91
6070 0.88
7080 0.81
8090 0.66
Source Goswami, Kreith and Kreider (2000)
beam radiation with an incidence angle of 60 has the same transmittance as
the diffuse radiation. Diffuse reflectance is then obtained by using Equation
6.15 for evaluated at 60.
Example 3
Find () for a collector having single glass cover with KL = 0.125 and absorber
having absorptance 0.90. The angle of incidence for incoming radiation is 40.
Solution
For single glass cover with KL = 0.125, = 0.90 for = 40.
Similarly, at 60 (the effective angle of incidence for reflected radiation)
= 0.82.
Now,
2
= sin
1
(sin 40/1.526) = 24.91
a
= exp(KL/cos
2
)
= 0.986
d
=
a
= 0.086
Hence, () = /[1 (1 )
d
]
= 0.90 0.90/[1 (1 0.90) 0.086]
= 0.817
Alternatively, it is possible to estimate
d
= 1
r
.
r
can be found from Figure 6.5.
For most practical application, it is found that
() = 1.01 ...(6.18)
As and are dependent on the incident angle, the property () also
varies. Relationship between ()/()
n
and the incident angle is shown in
Figure 6.9. The graphs are not sensitive to KL and hence can be applied to all
materials having a refractive index close to that of glass (Table 6.2).
Figure 6.9 provides the theoretical basis for evaluating the incident
angle modifier of a given collector during collector testing, which will be
described later.
Table 6.2 Average refractive index of some glazing materials in the solar spectrum
Material Average refractive index
Glass 1.526
Polycarbonate 1.600
Polyvinyl fluoride 1.450
Polyfluorinated ethylene propylene 1.340
It has been assumed earlier that transmission, etc., are independent of
wavelength, in case of low-iron glass, but not for glass with higher iron content
and for many plastic films. Transmittance as a function of wavelength is
available for many common cover materials (Duffie and Beckman 1991;
Goswami, Kreith, and Kreider 2000). The transmittance over the entire
wavelength region can be obtained by integration.
If a film of low refractive index is deposited onto a transparent slab up to
an optical thickness of /4, radiation of wavelength reflected from the upper
and lower surfaces of the film will have a phase difference of 180 and will
cancel each other.
The reflectance will decrease, and the transmittance will increase corre-
spondingly. Such coatings are used in camera lenses, binoculars, etc., but are
expensive. Some methods such as etching are also available for reducing the
reflectance of glass used in solar collectors.
Figure 6.9 Typical ()/()
n
curve
Radiation absorbed by collector plate
The solar energy incident on a tilted surface can be estimated by the methods
described in Chapter 4. The incident radiation on a tilted surface would consist
of beam radiation, diffuse radiation, and ground-reflected radiation, and each of
these three components should be treated separately. The absorbed radiation S
is obtained as
S I R I I I
b b b d d g b d g
= +
+
+ + ( ) ( )
cos
( ) ( )
cos

1
2
1
j
(
,
\
,
(

2
j
(
,
\
,
( ...(6.19)
where (1 + cos )/2 and (1 cos )/2 are the view factors from the collector to
the sky and to the ground, respectively. The subscripts b, d, and g represent
Figure 6.10 Effective incidence angle of diffuse radiation
beam, diffuse, and ground. For a given collector tilt , one can define an
effective incidence angle for transmittance of diffuse radiation (Figure 6.10).
Figure 6.10 has been obtained by assuming that diffuse radiation from
the sky, as well as from the ground, is isotropic and by integrating the beam
transmittance over an appropriate incidence angle (Brandemuehl and
Beckman 1980).
Sometimes, it is convenient to define an average value for () as
S = ()
av
I
t
...(6.20)
When the beam radiation is high, an approximate value of () can be
obtained as follows.
()
av

= 0.96()
b
...(6.21)
The values of I
t
are measured directly sometimes. For example, a
pyranometer is mounted on the plane of the collector during testing.
Equations 6.20 and 6.21 can then be used to obtain S.
The monthly average value can be obtained using the average values for
H R
b b
, , etc. (Duffie and Beckman 1991).
Selective surfaces
The energy absorbed by the collector plate is dependent on the absorptance .
Dull black paints are used to get high values for . However, a black surface
will also have high emittance, as absorbance and emittance are related. For an
opaque surface
+

=
= 1 ...(6.22)
where
= reflectance,

= emittance, and
= absorptance
and
+ = 1 ...(6.23)
Hence
...(6.24)
The black surface will lose energy through convection and radiation, and a
surface with higher will have higher losses also. An ideal surface should thus
have a high absorbance (or low reflectance) in the solar spectrum ( < 3 m) and
low emissivity (high reflectance) in the infrared spectrum (Figure 6.11).
In reality, the selectivity is achieved by polishing a metal surface and
coating it with a thin surface layer, which is transparent to long-wave radiation
but has high absorptance for shorter wavelength solar radiation. Surface layers
made of nickel black or black chrome have been found to be quite suitable as
selective surfaces. These are deposited onto a polished metal plate by chemical
treatment, vacuum deposition, or by electroplating. The thickness of the layer
is only about 0.1 m. The spectral reflectance of black chrome as a function of
wavelength is shown in Figure 6.12.
The examples of calculating emissivities of such surfaces at any given
temperature by suitable integration are given in standard books (Duffie and
Beckman 1991).
Figure 6.11 Characteristics of a selective surface
Figure 6.12 Spectral reflectance of black chrome surface
Having obtained a value for absorbed radiation by using Equation 6.19,
we can now derive an energy balance equation for the flat plate collector.
If A
c
is the area of the collector, the energy input would be equal to A
c
S.
If T
p
is the mean plate temperature of the absorber, the heat lost at any given
time can be represented by
Q
L
= A
c
U
L
(T
p
T
a
) ...(6.25)
where U
L
is an overall heat loss coefficient and T
a
is the ambient temperature.
The useful heat, mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, can thus be
written as
Q
u
= A
c
[SU
L
(T
p
T
a
) ...(6.26)
If no heat is extracted, Q
u
= 0, and Equation 6.26 can be written as
S
p a L
T = T + (S/ U ) ...(6.27)
where T
p
S
is the stagnation temperature for a given radiation level. It can be
seen that the stagnation temperature can be used as a measure of the heat loss
coefficient U
L
and has actually been used in the proposed standard for solar
cookers for India. U
L
can also be obtained by calculating various heat transfer
resistances represented in the electrical network analogy shown in Figure 6.13.
The collector plate at temperature T
p
loses heat to the cover both by
convection and radiation with the heat loss q
pc
given by
q h T T
T T
p c c p c
p c
p c

( )
= +
) + (
1
4 4
1 1 1
( )
( / / )

...(6.28)
Thermal network for a single cover flat plate collector
The radiation loss can be expressed as h
r1
(T
p
T
c
), where
h
T T T T
r
p c p c
p c
1
2 2
1 1 1
=
+ +
) + (

( )( )
( / / )
...(6.29)
Therefore,
q h T T h T T
h h T T
p c c p c r p c
c r p c
= +
= +
1 1
1 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
+
( )
( )
T T
h h
p c
c r
,
]
]
]
1
1 1
...(6.30)
From Equation 6.30, it can be deduced that resistance R
1
, shown in
Figure 6.13, is given as
R
h h
c r
1
1 1
1
=
+
...(6.31)
The heat transfer resistance from the cover to the ambient temperature
can similarly be obtained as
R
h h
c r
2
2 2
1
=
+
...(6.32)
The wind convection coefficient h
c2
can be obtained from Equation
3.208 of Chapter 3. The top loss coefficient U
t
is given as
1 1 1
1 1 2 2
U h h h h
t c r c r
=
+
+
+ ( ) ( )
...(6.33)
U
R R
R R
t
=
+
1 2
1 2
...(6.34)
U
t
can be obtained as a function of the plate temperature through an
iterative procedure, for any number of covers (Duffie and Beckman 1991). The
top loss coefficient, apart from the plate temperature, is dependent on
p
,
wind velocity, ambient temperature, and collector tilt. It also decreases with
the plate spacing between the cover plate and the absorber plate, but seems to
be nearly constant for a plate spacing of more than 20 mm. Graphs of
U
t
for a single cover system are given for a collector tilt angle of 45 for
p
= 0.95 and
p
= 0.1 and for a wind heat loss coefficient of 10 W/m
2
C in
Figure 6.14.
An empirical equation for U
t
was developed by Klein, and is described
in Duffie and Beckman (1991). The variation of U
t
()/U
t
(45) is shown in Fig-
ure 6.15.
The heat loss from the bottom of the collector is through the insulation,
and is given by
U
k
b
i
=
...(6.35)
where k is the thermal conductivity and
i
is the thickness of the insulating
material. The edge losses can also be included in U
b
. The overall heat loss
coefficient U
L
is given as
U
L
= U
t
+ U
b
...(6.36)
The reduction in the values of the top loss coefficient (and hence that of
U
L
) for selectively coated surfaces is apparent from Figure 6.14. For example, the
value of U
t
(45) at a plate temperature of 80 C, ambient temperature of 40
C, and wind loss coefficient of 10 W/m
2
C is about 6.5 W/m
2
C for a nor-
Figure 6.14 Dependence of U
t
on T
p
and
p
mal black surface (e
p
= 0.95). Under similar conditions, it is 3.5 W/m
2
C for se-
lectively coated surfaces (e
p
= 0.1).
Several efforts have been made to reduce the value of top loss
coefficient by other means. Equation 6.33 shows that a reduction in
h
c1
will also reduce U
t
. The convective heat transfer coefficient can be re-
duced by evacuating the space between the plate and the cover, or by
using convection suppression devices. Convection suppression has been
achieved in practice by using a transparent honeycomb-like structure
between the plate and the cover. Recent advances in convection suppression
and heat loss reduction include the development of TIM (transparent
insulation material) technology. TIM represents a new class of insulation
materials wherein air gaps and/or evacuated spaces are used to reduce
heat loss. Unlike conventional insulation materials, these materials are
transparent to solar radiation and hence can be used to prevent convec-
tive heat loss from the top surface of the collector absorber.
Typically, transparent insulation consists of a transparent cellular
(honeycomb) array where air pockets are formed in an air layer. Kaushika and
Sumathy (2003) have presented a detailed review of TIM.
Plate fin collectors for water heating have been made in a variety of ways,
with the twin aims of improving heat transfer rate from the plate to the flow-
ing water and of reducing the cost.
Presently, however, selectively coated plate fins have become more or
less standardized. These are manufactured centrally by a few companies like
Figure 6.15 Variation of top loss coefficient U
t
with angle of inclination
Source Duffie and Beckman (1991d)
Solchrome India Ltd, Parwanoo, India, and Bangalore Electroplating Works
Ltd, Bangalore. The makers of solar thermal systems procure the fin tube
assemblies and assemble the complete collectors in smaller factories. A single
copper plate fin (with a single copper tube) typically has the dimensions
shown in Figure 6.16.
One-dimensional conductive heat transfer in metallic fins has been
described in detail in Chapter 3. The equations derived in that chapter can
now be applied to solar collectors.
Referring to Figure 6.17, heat balance on the element is given as
k b
dT
dx
k b
dT
dx
S x b U x b T T
x x x
L a
=
+
( )
...(6.37)
where k is the thermal conductivity of the material, is the fin thickness, b
is a small width in direction perpendicular to x, S is the solar radiation
Figure 6.16 Typical dimensions (a) and temperature (b) profile of single copper plate
fin with selective coating
(a)
(b)
absorbed by the fin, U
L
is the total heat loss coefficient, T is the temperature
at x, and T
a
is the ambient temperature.
Dividing throughout by x and taking the limit as x 0, we get
k
d T
dx
S U T T
L a
2
2
= ( )
...(6.38)
or
d T
dx
U
k
T T
S
U
L
a
L
=
2
2
( )
...(6.39)
The boundary conditions are
dT
dx
T T
x
x W D b
=
=
= =
0
2
0;
( ) / ...(6.40)
where T
b
is the temperature at the edge of the tube. The solution to the
second-order differential equation can be found as
T T S U
T T S U
mx
m W D
a L
b a L

[ ]
/
/
cosh
cosh ( ) / 2
...(6.41)
Figure 6.17 Heat balance on solar collector fin element
.
where
m
U
k
L
=
...(6.42)
The heat conducted into the tube can be obtained by
q k b
dT
dx
fin
x W D
=

( ) / 2
=
k bm
U
S U T T
m W D
L
L b a
[ ]

,
,
]
]
]
( ) tanh
( )
2
...(6.43)
Equation 6.43 is for heat conducted from one side of the tube and hence
the total heat conducted is twice this amount. Taking b as unity (for unit width
in the y-direction), the equation can be written as
q W D F S U T T
fin L b a
= ( ) ( ) [ ] ...(6.44)
where F is the fin efficiency, given as
F
m W D
=
tanh[m(W D)/2]
[ ( ) / ] 2
...(6.45)
This is the standard fin efficiency equation, in which F decreases steadily
with decrease in U k W D
L

( )
( ) ,
]
]
/ . 2
It can be seen that F would be same for different metals, provided k is
kept constant. If
c
is the thickness of a copper plate, the equivalent thickness
of, say, an aluminium plate will be (k
Cu
/k
Al
)
c
or 1.8
c
. The choice would
ultimately depend upon other factors such as long-term durability and the
cost of the material.
The energy collected above the tube region will also contribute to the
useful heat and is given by
D[S U
L
(T
b
T
a
)].
The total useful energy thus obtained is
q W D F D S U T T
u L b a
= ( ) + ,
]
]
[ ] ( ) ...(6.46)
For a quasi-steady state, useful heat must be ultimately transferred to the
fluid flowing inside the pipe. The resistance to heat flow from T
b
to T
f
, the
fluid temperature, consists of the contact resistance of the bond between the
plate and the tube and the convective heat transfer resistance of the fluid.
Combining these two resistances
q
T T
D h C
u
b f
i fi b
=
+
( )
,
,
]
]
]
1 1
...(6.47)
where D
i
is the inside tube diameter and h
fi
is the liquid heat transfer
coefficient. The bond conductance C
b
can be estimated if thermal
conductivity, bond width, and thickness are known, but is best measured by
experiments. Whillier and Saluja (1965) showed that the bond conductance
should be greater than 30 W/m
2
C in order to avoid loss of performance.
Combining Equations 6.46 and 6.47 one can eliminate T
b
to obtain
q WF S U T T
u L f a
= [ ] ( ) ...(6.48)
where the collector efficiency factor F is given by
+
,
,
]
]
]
F
U
W
U D W D F C D h
L
L b i fi
=
+ +
( )
[ ( ) ]
1
1 1 1
...(6.49)
The collector efficiency factor F is essentially a design parameter and is
constant for a given collector. Variation of F with other parameters such as
tube spacing, k, and U
L
can be plotted using Equation 6.49. Such plots are
available in standard textbooks (Duffie and Beckman 1991). Equation 6.48
gives the useful heat gain as a function of fluid temperature T
f
. However, T
f
will increase as the fluid is flowing through the collector. The temperature
distribution in the flow direction will depend on the flow rate of the fluid with
reference to the collector area, and can be obtained by simple heat balance.
Bonding methods
In the early 1970s, mechanical clamping and rivetting were common bonding
technologies. These methods were commonly used for mild steel fins and
galvanized fin tube combination. However, the conductivity of such bonds
was low due to improper thermal contact between the tube and the fin metal.
Subsequently, soldering technology was developed, which was cheaper, but the
solders generally tin based, which melt at about 100 C, causing loss of per-
formance at stagnation temperature and the bonding is also not uniform.
Later on, a copper eutectic alloy containing a high percentage of silver
was developed. This alloy melts at temperatures above 200 C and also has
conductivity close to that of copper. It comes in the form of paste and hence is
easy to apply and gives uniform contact throughout the fin length. The high
cost of the alloy is its major disadvantage. Another method of forming
channels between two aluminium sheets, called roll bonding, was developed.
This method is commonly used in refrigerator evaporator modules. For solar
applications, however, aluminium tubes or channels cannot be used due to
corrosion problems, hence some companies tried to develop roll bond sheets
with a copper tube inserted in the channel. These types of fins were common
for black-painted collectors. However, the recent trend is to use selective
coated fins of copper. Recently, some companies have introduced high-
frequency welding of copper to copper. This method gives a direct joint
between the tube and the fin and hence the bond conductivity is as good as
that of copper. However, the width of the contact area is very small (approxi-
mately 1 mm), which restricts flow of heat to the tube.
Heat balance of fluid
As Equation 6.48 has been developed for unit length in the y-direction
(direction of fluid flow), one can make a heat balance on the section y for the
one tube shown in Figures 6.16 and 6.17.
mC T mC T y q
p f
y y
p f
y
u
+

=
...(6.50)
where
m is the fluid flow rate for a single tube.
Dividing throughout by y, substituting for q
u
from Equation 6.48, and
taking the limit as y 0, we get
niC
dT
dy
WF S U T T
p
f
L f a
=
[ ]
( )
...(6.51)
Integrating between the limits T
f,I
and T
f,o
and between y = 0 to L, we get
T T S U
T T S U
WLU F mC
f o a L
f i a L
L p
,
,
/
/
exp( / )

=
...(6.52)
where T
f,i
is the inlet fluid temperature, T
f,o
is the outlet fluid temperature, and
L is the length of the collector plate. We have made an implicit assumption
that F and U
L
are independent of temperature. Noting that WL is the area of
the single tube fin arrangement, Equation 6.52 can be written as
T T S U
T T S U
A U F mC
f o a L
f i a L
c L
p
,
,
/
/
exp( / )

=
...(6.53)
If the collector consists of several tube fins, as is usually the case,
m
will be the total flow rate of the fluid entering the collector, and A
c
is the
collector area.
One can see that the right-hand side of Equation 6.53 approaches 1 as
m
increases, making T
f,o
T
f,i
. It is, thus, clear that the maximum heat that
could have been transferred, from the plate to the fluid would be when the en-
tire collector is at T
f,i
. It is convenient to define a quantity, which is the ratio of
the actual useful energy gained by the fluid to the maximum energy that could
have been transferred.
This ratio can be written as

F
mC T T
A S U T T
R
p f o f i
c L f i a
=
( )
( )
, ,
,
]
]
...(6.54)
It can be shown that

F
R
mC
p
A
c
U
L
A
c
U
L
F
mC
p

j
(
,
,
,
,
\
,
(
(
(
(
,
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
]
1 exp
...(6.55)
Dividing both sides by F, we get
F
R
F
mC
p
A
c
U
L
F
A
c
U
L
F
mC
p

j
(
,
,
,
,
\
,
(
(
(
(
,
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
]
=
1 exp
...(6.56)
The quantity F
R
/F is, thus, a function of a single dimensionless variable
mC A U F
p c L
/
( ) and is plotted in Figure 6.18. This graph can be used to calcu-
late F
R
when other parameters are known.
Equation 6.54 can be written as
Q mC T T A F S U T T
u p f o f i c R L f i a
= = ( ) ( )
, , ,
,
]
]
...(6.57)
Dividing by (A
c
G
T
) throughout, we get an expression for instantaneous
collector efficiency.
= =
Q
A G
F U
T T
G
n
c T
R avg L
f i a
T
( )
,
,
]
]
]
,
...(6.58)
Note that G
T
is numerically equal to I
T
/t, where t is the time interval
for measuring solar radiation, which is usually 1 hour. G
T
has the unit of W/m
2
whereas I
T
is expressed in Wh/m
2
. For hourly measurements, G
T
and I
T
are
numerically equal. Equation 6.58 is often referred to as HWB (Hottel
WhillierBliss) equation.
Equation 6.58 shows that if the instantaneous collector efficiency is
plotted against (T
f,i
T
a
)/G
T
, a straight line should result with the intercept
equal to F
R
()
avg
and the slope equal to F
R
U
L
. If tests are conducted when
most of the radiation is beam radiation and during noon time when inci-
dent angle is almost normal, the two parameters obtained, that is, F
R
()
n
and
F
R
U
L
, describe the collector functioning quite unambiguously. A third pa-
rameter, the incident angle modifier K
, is defined based on the variation of

()/()
n
with the angle of incidence (refer to Figure 6.9). The following
functional form has been suggested for K
.
K b
= + 1
1
1
0
cos

j
(
,
\
,
( ...(6.59)
where b
o
is termed as the incident angle modifier coefficient. Different
testing standards are followed in different countries. The ASHRAE 9377
Figure 6.18 Relationship between F
r
/F and mC
p
/A
c
U
L
F
Source Duffie and Beckman (1991d)
.
standard is followed in USA, and similar testing methods exist in other
countries. In India, IS 12933 (2003) is followed for solar flat plate collector
testing. Gupta and Garg (1967) have described a collector testing method for
solar air heaters in India. A typical collector effciency plot for a liquid flat col-
lector is shown in Figure 6.19, and the test loops for collection testing are
shown in Figures 6.20 (a) and (b).
It is apparent that the collector efficiency changes throughout the
day. The collector performance for a given location can be obtained by using
Equation 6.58, if the collector parameters are known.
Other types of collector geometries
The analysis employed for the tube-fin type collector can be extended to
other types of collectors also. For example, the conventional air heater, shown
in Figure 6.21, has been analysed using the same methodology.
Figure 6.19 Solar collector test
Source Kishore and Katam (1987)
Figure 6.20(a) Test loop for solar collector test set-up (open loop)
Source IS 12933 (2003)
Heat balance equations for the length y and for width b in the x-direc-
tion can be written as follows.
For the collector plate
Sb y U b y T T h b y T T h T T b y
t p a pf p f r pb p b
( ) ( ) ( )
,
= +
...(6.60)
where S, U
t
, and T
p
have the same meaning as those for liquid collectors, T
f
is
the air temperature at y, h
pf
is the convective heat transfer coefficient be-
tween the plate and the fluid, h
r,pb
is the radiative heat transfer coefficient
between the collector plate and the insulated bottom plate, and T
b
is the tem-
perature of the bottom plate. h
r,pb
is given by
h
T T T T
r pb
p b p b
p b
,
( )( )
/ /
=
+ +
+

2 2
1 1 1
( )
...(6.61)
which is similar to Equation 6.29.
Figure 6.21 Cross-section of a conventional solar air heater
Figure 6.20(b) Test loop for solar collector test (closed loop)
Source IS 12933 (2003)
The term by cancels throughout, and we have

S U T T h T T h T T
t p a pf p f r pb p b

( )

( )
( )
,
= +
...(6.62)
A similar equation is obtained for the bottom plate

h T T h T T U T T
r pb p b bf b f b b a ,

( )
( ) ( ) = +
...(6.63)
where h
bf
is the convective heat transfer coefficient from the bottom plate to
the air, U
b
is the bottom loss coefficient, and T
a
is the ambient tempera-
ture. The useful heat gain by the fluid is given by
mC T b y h T T b y h T T
or
mC
b
dT
dy
h T T
p f pf p f bf b f
p
f
pf p
( )
( )
= +
=
ff bf b f
h T T
( )
( ) +
With some simplifying assumptions, it can be shown that (Dickinson,
Clark, and Iantuore 1976)
mC
b
dT
dy
F S U T T
p
f
L f a
( )
,
]
]
=
...(6.65)
where

j
(
,
\
,
(
F
U
h
L
e
= +
1
1
...(6.66)
U
L
= U
t
+ U
b
...(6.67)
and h h
h h
h h
e pf
r pb bf
r pb bf
= +
+
,
,
( )
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
...(6.68)
The useful heat gain is given by
Q A F S U T T
u c R L f i a
=
( )
,
]
]
,
...(6.69)
F
mC
A U
F A U
mC
R
p
c L
c L
p
=

1

j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
exp
...(6.70)
where A
c
is the collector area.
...(6.64)
Figure 6.22(a) Solar air collector with air flow between the cover plate and the absorber
The heat transfer coefficients h
pf
and h
bf
can be taken as equal and can be
obtained as follows.

Nu =
0 01344
1 1 586
0 75
0 125
. (Re)
. (Re)
.
.
...(6.71)
where Nu is the Nusselt number hD
e
/k, Re is the Reynolds number VD
e
/,
and D
e
is the equivalent diameter.
D
Cross tional area of the duct
Wetted perimeter
e
=
-

4 sec
...(6.72)
The above treatment assumes that the flow is fully developed (which is
the case if L/D
e
30) and is fully turbulent. The pressure drop across the
collector can be obtained by the Blasius equation
f = 0.079 Re
0.25
(6.73)
It is also common to have solar air heaters where the air flows between
the cover and the plate (Figure 6.22[a]).
The useful heat gain for the type of collector is given by
Q A F S U T T
u c R L f i a
=
( )
,
]
]
,
...(6.74)
where
U
U U h h h h h h U U h h
h h
L
t b r pc r pc t b
r pc
=
+ + + + +
+
( )( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
, ,
,
hh U h h h h
t r pc 2 2 1 2
+ +
,
...(6.75)
and
F
h h h U h h h h
U h h U h h
r pc t r pc
t r pc b r p
, ,
, ,
) (
1 2 2 1 2
1 2
+ + +
+ + + + +
cc r pc
h )
,
( )
2 ...(6.76)
where h
1
and h
2
are the convective heat transfer coefficients as shown in ther-
mal network (Figure 6.22[b]).
Example 4
Most solar dryers operate as a one-pass system, that is, ambient air enters the
solar collector and exits as hot air, which is fed into the drying cabinet. Drying
of several food crops requires the hot air to be at a specific temperature. This
would mean that the flow rate of air also be regulated as the radiation intensity
changes in order to keep a constant output temperature.
1 Derive an expression giving the flow rate as a function of radiation intensity.
2 Calculate the mass velocity ( m A
c
/ ) under the following conditions

U
L
= 8.0 W/m
2
T
f,o
T
f,i
= 30 C
= 0.85
I
t
= 900 W/m
2
F = 0.74
C
p
= 1.0 kJ/kg C
Solution
1 For T
f,i
= T
a
, Equation 6.69 can be written as
=
=
Q A F S
A S
mC
A U
F A U
m C
u c R
c
p
c L
c L
p

j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
1 exp (a)
For a given rise in temperature T, q
u
can also be written as
Q mC T T m C T
u p f o f i p
= =

( )
, ,
(b)
Thermal network of solar air heater
From Equations (a) and (b), we get
U T
S
F A U
mC
L c L
p
= 1

j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
exp
Re-arranging the equation yields
m
A
F U C
U T S c
L p
L
( )
( )
,
]
]
=
/
ln / 1
1
(c)
U T
I
F U C g m s
L
t
L p
( )

= =
= =
8 30
0 85 900
0 235
0 740 8
1
5 92
2
.
.
/
.
. / .
11
1
3 73
22
79 2
1
2
ln /
.
/ /
.
( )
,
]
]
U T S
Therefore m A g m s
or
L
c
=
=
. h kg m /
2
Trickle type collectors
In these collectors, water at a small flow rate passes down a corrugated
absorber sheet. It is distributed uniformly by a header pipe at the top and
collected in a channel at the bottom. A theoretical and experimental
investigation of such a roof collector has been done by Maru, Kishore, and
Gomkale (1986).
Collector with phase-changing fluids
Solar collectors charged with low boiling point organic fluids such as freon-11,
n-hexane, acetone, n-pentane, etc. have been employed for applications such
as solar water pumping (Kishore, et al. 1986; Pytlinski 1978; Rao and
Rao 1976). The fluid entering the collector is first heated to boiling
temperature and is subsequently maintained at that temperature. The fluid
then exits the collector as vapour at high pressure. This high pressure vapour
can then be used for developing mechanical power for applications such as
2
pumping. Analysis and testing of collectors charged with phase-changing
fluids have been reported by Kishore, Gandhi, and Rao (1984) and Kishore,
Gandhi, Marquis, et al. (1984).
Thermo-siphoning in solar energy systems
As flat plate collectors have to be kept inclined to receive maximum radiation
for a given latitude, the heated water rises to the top due to its lower density.
This principle can be used for circulating water within the solar system.
Similarly, heated air rises to the top of the collector in natural circulation
dryers. The natural convection flow caused due to density differences has
been used to induce ventilation through solar chimneys (Figure 6.23).
Thermo-siphoning in solar water heating collectors
The analysis of thermo-siphon solar water heating systems (sometimes also
called natural circulation systems) was done by Close (1962), Gupta and Garg
(1968), and Ong (1974). Schematic diagram of thermo-siphon solar water heat-
ing system along with temperature distribution at various points is shown in
Figure 6.24.
Figure 6.23 Solar chimney
Theoretical analysis of thermo-siphon system
The specific gravity of water at a given temperature T
m
is given by
SG = A T
m
2
+ B T
m
+ C
where,
A = 1.25 10
6
, B = 5.83 10
5
, and C = 0.99967 ...(6.77)
Figure 6.24 Schematic diagram of thermo-siphon solar water heating system along
with temperature distribution at various points
Note 16 are measurement points
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
Source Ong (1974)
(a)
(b)
The thermo-siphon head causing flow is equivalent to the area under the
heighttemperature curve of Figure 6.24, and is given by Ong (1974) as
H T T AT B f H
f m
= + 0 5 2
5 3 3
. ( )( ) ( ) ...(6.78)
where
f H H H H H H H H H ( ) / = 2
3 1 2 1 3 5
2
6 5
( )

( )

( )

( )
...(6.79)
The thermo-siphon head is balanced by the pressure drop due to friction
and other losses in pipes, which is represented as follows.

( ) ,
]
]
H f l d k u g
f
/ / +
2
2 ...(6.80)
where f is the friction factor, l is length, d is diameter, k is the equivalent
number of velocity heads lost by the flow in passing through bends, etc., and u
is the velocity. As shown in Chapter 3, the friction factor f for laminar flow is
given by
f = 64/Re.
Natural circulation flows are generally small, and hence laminar flow can
be assumed. The total pressure drop through N pipes in the collector panel,
headers, and piping outside the collector can be written as
H f l d k
m
g d N
f e e e ,
/ = +
1 1
2
2 2
1
4 2
8
( )
,
]
]
j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(

...(6.81)
where f
e
and k
e
are the equivalent friction factors and the head loss given by

f f f N
l
l
d
d
f N
l
l
d
d
e
= + +
1 2
2 2
1
1
2
3
2 3
1
1
3
5
5
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(
...(6.82)
and
k k k N
d
d
k N
d
d
e
= + +
1 2
2 1
2
4
3
2 1
3
4
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
,
\
,
(
(
...(6.83)
1, 2, and 3 represent a bank of N parallel collector tubes, each of length l
1
and diameter d
1
; two headers of total length l
2
and diameter d
2
; and two lengths
of connecting pipes of total length l
3
and diameter d
3
.
A mean temperature T
m
for the system is defined as
T
T T T T
m
=
+
=
+
1 2 5 3
2 2
( ) ( )
By writing instantaneous (hourly) energy balance for the system and by
employing a finite difference method, T
m
and mcan be found by employing a
finite difference method (Ong 1974).
Solar thermo-siphon systems have become popular due to their intrinsic
advantage of not requiring external energy for operating the system.
Cheaper alternatives to conventional solar water heaters
As conventional solar water heaters have higher initial costs as compared to
commercial fuel-based water heaters (for example, electric geysers), several
attempts have been made to design cheaper systems. Some of these are
discussed below.
open for fixing a cover glass (Figure 6.25).
If the height of the metal box is 50 mm, it can hold 50 litres/m
2
of
collector area. On the basis of a rough calculation for a 24-hour average
radiation level of 200 W/m
2
and an average collector efficiency of 25%, a
temperature rise of about 20 C can be obtained for such a box-type col-
lector. If the initial temperature of water is 30 C, the final water
temperature would be 50 C, which is quite adequate for bathing, etc. Such
Figure 6.25 Simple collector-cum-storage solar water heater
Nomenclature
a Albedo of the surface
A Aperture area of the cooker (m
2
)
A
c
Area of the collector (m
2
)
A
r
Receiver area (m
2
)
A
c1
Total collector area (m
2
)
A
tb
Projected tube area (m
2
)
A
abs
Projected area of the absorber (m
2
)
A
1
/A
2
Area ratio
b Width (m)
b
o
Incident angle modifier coefficient
B Radiance (W)
C Concentration ratio
C
b
Bond conductance (W/m)
C
r
Ratio of (MC)
w
/(MC)
w
d Diameter (m)
D
e
Equivalent diameter (m)
D
i
Inside tube diameter (m)
E
2
/E
1
Flux concentration ratio
f Factor
F Fin efficiency
F Collector efficiency factor
g Gravitational acceleration (m/s
2
)
G
o
Global radiation on a horizontal surface (W/m
2
)
G
s
Radiation immediately below the surface (W/m
2
)
G
s,c
Solar constant
G
eff
Effective solar radiation (W/m
2
)
G
sun
Radiosity
h
1
, h
2
Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
K)
h
bf
Convective heat transfer coefficient from the bottom plate to the air
(W/m
2
K)
h
fi
Fluid heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
K)
h
pf
Convective heat transfer coefficient between the plate and the fluid
(W/m
2
K)
h
r,pb
Radiative heat transfer coefficient between the collector plate and the
bottom plate (W/m
2
K) in air heater
I Irradiance, W/m
2
k Equivalent number of velocity heads lost by the flow in passing through
bends, thermal conductivity (W/mK)
k
T
Thermal diffusivity (m
2
/s)
K Extinction coefficient of the medium
K
a
Incident angle modifier
l Thickness of water layer (m), length, m
L Length of the collector plate (m)
L Cover plate thickness (m)
m Fluid flow rate for a single tube (kg/s)
MC Mass-specific heat product of water in the pond (J/K)
n
1
, n
2
Refractive indices of the media
Nu Nusselt number
p Mean free path molecule (m)
q
1
Conductive heat transfer if convection is suppressed (W)
q
u
Useful heat gain (W)
q
pc
Heat loss, W
q
load
Useful energy supplied to the load from the storage (W)
q
vac
Conductive heat transfer under vacuum (W)
Q
b
Bottom loss to the ground (W)
Q
L
Heat lost (W)
Q
s
Sum of heat losses (W)
Q
u
Useful heat (W)
r Reflectance of unpolarized light
r
pa
Parallel component of the unpolarized light
r
pp
Perpendicular component of the unpolarized light
Re Reynolds number
R
T
Thermal Rayleigh number
S Salinity (kg/m
3
)
S Solar radiation absorbed by the fin (W/m
2
)
t Time (s)
T Temperature
u Velocity (m/s)
U
b
Heat loss coefficient from the bottom of the collector (W/m
2
K)
U
L
Overall heat loss coefficient (W/m
2
K)
U
t
Top loss coefficient (W/m
2
K)
(UA)
tank
Product of the overall heat transfer coefficient and the surface area of
the tank (W/K)
x x-coordinate
y y-coordinate
Radiant flux (W)
Angle
.
.
.
Transmittance
pa
Transmittance for the parallel component
pp
Transmittance for the perpendicular component
Reflectance
d
Diffuse reflectance
Absorptance, thermal expansion coefficient
Wavelength (m)
Collector tilt
Fin thickness (m)
i
Thickness of the insulating material (m)
c
Thickness of a copper plate (m)
Efficiency
o
Optical efficiency
Kinematic viscosity (m
2
/s)
() Characteristic wavelength-dependent attenuation length (m)
Solid angle
References
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Introduction 329

Low-temperature solar systems:

338 Renewable energy engineering and technology

, is defined based on the variation of

/ ) under the following conditions

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