Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Approved:
_________________________________________
Professor Ernesto Gutierrez-Miravete, Engineering Project Advisor
Copyright 2012
by
Mitchell S. King
All Rights Reserved
ii
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... vii
NOMENCLATURE ....................................................................................................... viii
GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................................... ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ................................................................................................... x
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xi
1. Theory .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
Methodology .................................................................................................... 38
2.2
2.2.2
2.2.3
3.2
3.3
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Example of a Twisted Cantilever Beam ........................................................... 1
Figure 2 90 Twisted Cantilever Beam in the xy-Plane.................................................. 2
Figure 3 90 Twisted Cantilever Beam in the yz-Plane .................................................. 3
Figure 4 - xyz Axes vs. ABC Axes .................................................................................... 4
Figure 5 Arbitrary Beam Cross-Section Subjected to Bending Moment Mz(x) ............. 6
Figure 6 - Rotation of Axes and Moment of Inertia ........................................................ 13
Figure 7 - Moment of Inertia Variation within the Twisted Region of a Rectangular
Beam ................................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 8 - Point of Discontinuity in Shear Stress ............................................................ 19
Figure 9 - Width and Thickness Parameters of the Solution ........................................... 32
Figure 10 - Load and Length Parameters of the Solution ................................................ 32
Figure 11 - Midplane Shell of the ABAQUS FEA Model .............................................. 38
Figure 12 - Meshed View of the ABAQUS FEA Model................................................. 39
Figure 13 - Load and Boundary Conditions of the ABAQUS FEA Model..................... 40
Figure 14 - FEA Shell Model, Variation of Principal Axes ............................................ 42
Figure 15 - FEA Tensile Stress at the Shells Midplane ................................................. 44
Figure 16 - FEA Tensile Stress at the Shell's Positive Face ............................................ 45
Figure 17 - FEA Indicates an Additional Compressive Stress Peak in Twisted Region,
Shells Positive Face ........................................................................................................ 45
Figure 18 - FEA Tensile Stress at the Shell's Negative Face .......................................... 46
Figure 19 - FEA Indicates an Additional Tensile Stress Peak in Twisted Region, Shells
Negative Face .................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 20 - FEA Shear Stress Distribution at the Shell's Midplane ................................ 47
Figure 21 - FEA Shear Stress Concentration at Shell's Midplane ................................... 48
Figure 22 - FEA Shear Stress Distribution on Shells Positive Face .............................. 49
Figure 23 - FEA Shear Stress Distribution on Shells Negative Face ............................. 50
Figure 24 - FEA Displacement Results, Isometric View ................................................ 51
Figure 25 - FEA Displacement Results, xy-Plane ........................................................... 51
Figure 26 - FEA Displacement Results, yz-Plane ............................................................ 52
Figure 27 - FEA Indicates Residual Stiffness and Non-planar Cross-Section at x = x4 .. 53
v
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Summary of FEA Input Parameters ................................................................. 40
vii
NOMENCLATURE
For the following symbols, i j. Units are in parenthesis.
E - Modulus of Elasticity (psi)
- Strain Tensor (in/in)
ii - Extensional Strain (in/in)
ij - Tensor Shear Strain (in/in)
F - Force Applied to the Free End of the Cantilever Beam (lbs)
G - Shear Modulus (psi)
- Engineering Shear Strain (in/in)
Iii - Moment of Inertia (in4)
Iij - Product of Inertia (in4)
- Curvature (in-1)
L - Length (in)
M - Moment (in-lb)
- Poissons Ratio (dimensionless)
- Stress Tensor (psi)
ii - Tensile Stress (psi)
t - Thickness of the Rectangular Cross-Section, Less than its Width, w (in)
ij - Shear Stress (psi)
- Angular Measurement Between the B and Y-Axes or the C and Z-Axes (radians or degrees)
u - Longitudinal Displacement (in)
v - Vertical Displacement (in)
w - Transverse Displacement, Only Applicable to Section 1.3.2 (in)
w - Width of the Rectangular Cross-Section, Greater than its Thickness, t (in)
viii
GLOSSARY
ABAQUS
Cantilever Beam
Deflection
Displacement
- See deflection.
Equilibrium
FEA
Final Orientation
Global Axes
- of the beam and whose origin is at the fixed end of the beam.
Hooke's Law
Initial Orientation
- related to the applied stress within the elastic limit of the solid.
- The cross-sectional orientation of the beam from its origin to L1.
Isotropic
Local Axes
Midpoint Rule
Modulus of Elasticity
Moment of Inertia
Origin
Poisson's Ratio
Product of Inertia
Shear Modulus
Strain
Stress
Twisted Cantilever Beam
Varying Orientation
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to thank my fianc, Jessica Rowe, for her unwavering support,
encouragement, and affection during my graduate studies.
ABSTRACT
Twisted cantilever beams are defined here as beams whose rectangular cross-sectional
orientation changes along the beams length with respect to global axes. These beams
have a twisted or spiral-type geometric feature somewhere along their length. This
project will formulate solutions for twisted cantilever beams in static bending using
classical beam theory, compare the results to numerical solutions, and discuss
inconsistencies.
xi
1. Theory
1.1 Coordinate System
The analytical case of interest is a rectangular cantilever beam in static bending with an
abrupt, 90 twist, like that shown in Figure 1. The beam is rigidly affixed at one end,
preventing any displacements or rotations at that end. The geometric center of the beam
at the affixed end will be defined as the origin or the point at which all coordinates
(x,y,z) are equal to zero. Cartesian coordinates will be used in these solutions because
traditional cantilever beams in bending have documented analytical solutions in
Cartesian coordinates as well. Note that the placement of the axes shown in Figure 1
does not place the vertex at the analytical origin.
Moving away from the rigid attachment at (0,0,0), parallel to the length of the beam will
be defined as: moving in the x-direction, defining the x-axis. The direction of the
y-axis is orthogonal to the x-axis and is chosen to be parallel to one side of the beams
cross-section at the origin. The z-axis is orthogonal to both the x and y-axes. These
three axes whose origin occurs at the beams geometric center, at the fixed end, are
defined as the global axes.
Moving down the beams length, away from the rigid attachment, in the x-direction, the
beam initially has a homogeneous moment of inertia and its initial orientation. At
some distance, denoted by L1, the beams cross-section begins to rotate about its x-axis,
but its moment of inertia remains continuous, where it can be described as having a
varying orientation. The beams cross-section continues to rotate until it reaches
another distance, denoted by L2, where the rotation stops but again, the moment of
inertia remains continuous. Beyond L2, the beams final orientation continues until it
reaches its free end, whose distance from the origin is denoted by the length L3. For the
case of a 90 twist, the final orientation is rotated 90 from the initial orientation. See
Figure 2 and Figure 3.
Y
L1
L12
L3
Because the cross-sectional orientation of the beam is varying along its length between
L1 and L2, another set of axes are defined in order more easily express twist parameters
and cross-sectional orientations. These local axes are also Cartesian, but are denoted
(A,B,C) instead of (x,y,z). The origin of the local axes is not necessarily at the same
location as that of the global axes, but can be anywhere along the beams length,
provided that the A-axis remains collinear with the x-axis. At the beams fixed end, at
its geometric center, the A-axis is collinear with the x-axis, the B-axis is collinear with
the y-axis, and the C-axis is collinear with the z-axis. Once the beams cross-section
begins to rotate (at L1) the B and C-axes develop an angular measurement greater than
zero between their global counterparts (y and z, respectively). The A-axis and x-axis
will always remain collinear, and either can be used interchangeably. See Figure 4.
Y
[ x and A-axes both coming out of the page. ]
C
Figure 4 - xyz Axes vs. ABC Axes
It is important to describe and define the parameters within the beams varying
orientation (L1 x L2), because these parameters will contribute to the analytical
solutions that are eventually formulated. The difference between the cross-sections at
x = L1 and L1 x L2 can be quantified by the angular difference, , between the y and
B-axes or the z and C-axes. The rate of twist can then be defined as the change in angle,
, over the change in length between L1 and L2, or
Let (x) be a linear function of x, so that the rate of twist from L1 to L2 is a constant
value. Then, by the equalities given by equations [1] through [3]:
Solving for the constants M and N, and subtracting these equalities gives:
Together, equations [6] through [8] fully describe the beams twist parameters and can
be derived using the values L1 and L2.
Y
Arbitrary
Cross-Section
Mz(x)
1.3.1
Stress Equilibrium
As a result of the applied load, F, and subsequent moment, Mz(x), the beam experiences
displacements, strains, and a state of stress. Each can be represented by a tensor at each
point throughout its volume. The generic stress tensor, [], is given by:
[9]
In order to satisfy equilibrium, the stress tensor must be symmetric such that:
[10]
[11]
[12]
That is, the normal stresses, ii, and the x-z and y-z shear stresses, xz and yz, are identical
to those for a beam in pure bending, but no specific assumptions are made about the
other shear stress, xy, only that it is some function of x, y, and z.
The equations of 3-D stress equilibrium with no body forces are now noted to augment
the discussion and simplify the equations above:
[13]
[14]
[15]
Based on equations [10] through [12], equations [13] and [14] reduce to:
[16]
[17]
Equations [16] and [17] make up the 3-D stress equilibrium equations for a cantilever
beam experiencing plane stress. Upon inspection, one can see that equation [17] is only
satisfied if xy is constant in the x-domain. Rewriting equations [10] and [11] for clarity,
equation [12] can be simplified to:
[18]
[19]
[20]
1.3.2
Strain-Displacement Relationships
As mentioned, the beam also experiences a state of strain. The generic stress tensor, [],
is given by:
[21]
For small deflections (where sin ), the following expressions relate strain to
displacement:
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
Rewriting equations [22] through [27], the components of the strain tensor, [], are:
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
1.3.3
Stress-Strain Relationships
[35]
where E is the modulus of elasticity and G is the shear modulus. The two modulii are
related through Poissons Ratio, , by the following:
[36]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
10
Substituting equation [44] in the x-direction stress equilibrium equation ([16]) gives:
[45]
P is a constant of integration and can be determined on the basis that in order to satisfy
boundary equilibrium around the perimeter of the beam, the shear force must be equal to
zero at these points.
[47]
[48]
11
The strains at each point can be found directly from the resultant stresses, by inserting
equations [46] through [48] into equations [37] through [42]. Inserting equation [46]
and [47] into the stress-strain relationships (equation [37]), and that into the straindisplacement relationship (equation [22]) leads to a noteworthy:
[49]
Equation [49] can be integrated in x to solve for the longitudinal displacement of the
beam, once the function of Izz is known.
For small strains and displacements in the elastic range, and assuming that plane sections
remain plane, the curvature of the beams neutral surface can be expressed in the
following form:
Up to this point, each parameter of the stress, strain, and displacement components is
known except the moment of inertia about the neutral axis, Izz, and the constant of
integration, P, for the shear term. This moment of inertia and P are derived in the
following discussion.
12
1.4.1
Consider the plane area shown in Figure 6 below. The moments and product of inertia
with respect to the local BC-axes are:
[51]
[52]
[53]
The same forms of expressions exist for the global coordinate system, in xyzcoordinates.
[ x and A-axes both coming out of the page. ]
Y
Arbitrary
Cross-Section
CdA
dA
y
BdA
Z
The moments and product of inertia in the BC-plane are constant values, equal to those
of the yz-plane at the origin. However, as the angular measurement increases, the
moments and product of inertia in the yz-plane change. To obtain these quantities, the
coordinates of the differential element dA are expressed in terms of the yz-coordinates as
follows:
13
[54]
[55]
Using the following trigonometric identities, the form of IYY, IZZ, and IYZ can be
simplified.
14
These are complicated expressions in their most reduced form, unlike the simple and
familiar
and product of inertia in the local coordinate system (equations [51], [52], and [53]) are
substituted in the above integrals, they take on a more practical form.
[56]
[57]
[58]
IYY, IZZ, and IYZ are the moments and product of inertia in the global coordinate system at
any point along the x-axis, and IBB, ICC, and IBC are the moments and product of inertia in
the local coordinate system.
With the moments and products of inertia defined as such, the reader is referred back to
Figure 2 to be reminded of the cross-sectional orientation at the origin. Specifically, for
this problem, the local moments and product of inertia are the same as those of a
rectangular cross-section in bending, where ICC is the strong axis of bending and IBB is
the weak axis of bending at the origin. The limits of integration are defined by the
beams perimeter. Thus:
15
[59]
[60]
[61]
For any symmetric cross-section whose centroid is at the origin, IBC will be zero, so any
terms containing the beams local product of inertia will drop out of equations [56], [57],
and [58]. Substituting equations [59] through [61] into these equations gives:
By substituting in the relationship between and x (see equations [6], [7], and [8]),
these equations yield the full form of the functionally varying moments of inertia.
[62]
16
[63]
[64]
Taking (for example) values of t =0.25 and w = 1.00, the moments and product of
inertia change in the twisted region of the beam as shown in Figure 7 below:
Figure 7 - Moment of Inertia Variation within the Twisted Region of a Rectangular Beam
17
1.4.2
The stress distributions will be solved to eventually formulate the strain and
displacement solutions. However, the shear stress, xy, still has an undefined constant, P,
which must be found to fully formulate the stress in the beam. As stated in section 1.4.1,
P is a constant of integration that can be determined on the basis that in order to satisfy
boundary equilibrium around the perimeter of the beam, the shear force must be equal to
zero at these points. But because the beams cross-section is rotating, this constant is
also related to the twist parameters for L1 x L2.
For the beams initial orientation:
18
For the beams varying orientation, the y-coordinate of the beams outermost fiber is
constantly changing. This coordinate is needed to solve the shear stress distribution in
this region. The perimeter of the beam can be represented by four straight lines whose
orientation varies with the x-position, or . Because the perimeter edges intersect one
another at right angles, however, the function of the outermost y-coordinate will not be a
continuous function. The function changes when the y-axis coincides with the corner of
the beams cross-section.
. See Figure 8.
Y
= arctan (t/w)
t
Figure 8 - Point of Discontinuity in Shear Stress
For the varying orientation, where 0 arctan (t/w), the y-coordinate of the outermost
fiber of the beams cross-section is:
19
Substituting this value into equation [48] and using the relationship between and x
(equation [7]) gives:
[67]
Similarly, for the varying orientation, where arctan (t/w) /2, the y-coordinate of
the outermost fiber of the beams cross-section is:
Substituting this value into equation [48] and using the relationship between and x
(equation [7]) gives:
[68]
20
1.4.3
Consolidating equations [6], [7], [8], [46], and [65] through [68]:
Any
[69]
Orientation:
Any
[70]
Orientation:
Initial
[71]
Orientation:
Varying
[72]
Orientation:
Varying
[73]
Orientation:
Final
[74]
Orientation:
21
1.4.4
Inserting equations [69] through [74] into the stress-strain relationships given by
equations [37] through [42]:
Any
[75]
Orientation:
Any
[76]
Orientation:
Any
[77]
Orientation:
Initial
[78]
Orientation:
Varying
[79]
Orientation:
Varying
[80]
Orientation:
Final
[81]
Orientation:
22
1.4.5
Now that the moment of inertia, Izz, has been derived, equation [50] can be integrated to
obtain the y-displacement function.
longitudinal position, x, the vertical displacement function must be dissected into three
conditional equations, depending on the magnitude of x. The first solution presented
will be for the case of
orientation and the moment of inertia is constant in this region, equation [50] is
integrated twice in x, as would be done for a normal cantilever beam with constant crosssection:
:
[82]
The displacement function for x values in the varying orientation becomes more
complicated, however. For values of x where
be considered constant and excluded from the integrals, as was done above. Inserting
the equality for Izz into equation [50], for values of x where
once with respect to x gives:
23
, and integrating
The second term of the y-displacement slope solution (above) indicates an inherent flaw
in the application of classical beam theory to this problem. Even a simplified version of
the function
does not stay within the real domain; the varying moment of
inertia functions presence in the denominator complicates the solution beyond any
reasonable point.
Because the solution is beyond the scope of this document, a piecewise approximation is
instead presented using the midpoint rule. If the second term above is broken into many
separate intervals, the integral can be carried out by approximating the value of x for
each separate interval. That is, the distance from L1 to L2 will be divided by N number
of divisions, and the average longitudinal value between each point will be used in place
of x. The midpoint rule is defined as:
The midpoint of each interval is equal to the variable xn, where N is the number of
predefined intervals chosen:
, the value
of a is already known and equal to L1. Likewise, the value of b will be set to x.
Therefore, the second term of the exact y-displacement slope solution can be
approximated as:
24
In this form, the first term of the exact solution can be solved directly, and the second
term can be approximated. Of course, as
solution, but in this form it is much easier to deal with. Thus, the slope of the beam,
, for
The constant of integration, C3, can be determined by applying the boundary condition
provided by equation [82]: at
25
Rewriting the expression for the slope of the beam in the region of
To solve for the displacements, the equality above must again be integrated in x.
However, the second term again creates problems and yields solutions of non-real
numbers. Thus, the midpoint rule must be applied a second time. Let the second term
above be defined as an arbitrary function of x, (x), so that:
26
There have certainly been more elegant expressions derived in engineering. Writing the
total solution for y-displacement when
gives:
27
becomes:
[83]
can be formulated
using the same process as the other intervals. Because this x-location is within the final
orientation and the moment of inertia is constant in this region, equation [50] is
integrated twice in x, as was done to derive equations [82] and [83], only the
contribution to the displacement from the varying orientation is given the limits of L1
and L2.
28
The constant of integration, C5, can be determined by recalling the function derived for
the beams slope between
, and inserting
29
Notice that in this region only one term of the beams slope is dependent on x. This
simplifies things much more than before when deriving the beams deflection in the
varying orientation. That is, all integrals henceforth can be computed directly, and no
more approximations are needed. To solve for the y-displacement, the equality above is
integrated in x to give:
30
[84]
Equations [83] and [84] are very complicated and tedious to carry out in real
applications. A less cumbersome method is to use the equation of the beams slope,
, and integrate the numerical value(s) over x, rather than carrying through to a
closed-form solution. This method will be used to obtain values in section 1.5 and in
Appendix A.
31
w
[Final Orientation]
w = 1.0
[Initial Orientation]
t = 0.25
10 lbs
3
1
4.5
7.5
Figure 10 - Load and Length Parameters of the Solution
Let the material properties
of the beam be those of mild steel (ms):
32
For comparison to numerical results, the stress, strain, and displacement values at five
distinct values of x will be found. These five x-locations are as follows:
the beam. In addition, at each x value the stress, strain, and vertical displacement values
will be formulated for three values of y, corresponding to the positive/negative outermost
beam fiber y value, and at
. The analytical results for all other points can be found in Appendix A.
In the beams local coordinates, the moments and products of inertia are:
For
and
and
33
is:
In tensor form:
The strains at
and
The vertical displacement at this point is found using the slope equation that, when
integrated in x, gives equation [83]. Because the value of x = 3.75 lies in the region of
. For the following solution, let N = 5.
34
is simply
The constant of integration, C7, is determined by the boundary condition provided by the
beams vertical displacement in its initial orientation.
At
35
The very outer-most beam fiber that lies on the y-axis is derived in section 1.4.2, and is
given by the equality:
Since
For
at
and
In tensor form:
The strains at
and
The vertical displacement at this point does not depend on y, so it is the same as
previously calculated.
36
For
and
In tensor form:
The strains at
and
The vertical displacement at this point does not depend on y, so it is the same as
previously calculated.
37
For this
particular problem, a shell assembly was created and meshed to generate S4R elements
(4-sided shell elements using reduced integration methods). This option was chosen
because it most closely matches the theoretical results of a traditional cantilever beam,
without a twist feature.
First, the midplane shell geometry was created by extruding line-connectors to specific
datum planes. These datum planes represent the x-values chosen for examination of the
theoretical solutions. See Table 1 for the values of x that represent these datum planes.
The figure below shows the shell geometry created in ABAQUS to create an FEA model
of the twisted cantilever beam.
38
After the geometry was defined, the element was assigned a shell thickness (t = 0.25)
and material properties (E = 30x106 psi, = 0.3) identical to those of the theoretical
solution in Section 1.5. The shell geometry was then meshed to form S4R elements,
with an approximate global seed size of 0.1. The seed size of the model determines the
coarseness of the mesh. ABAQUS generally selects an appropriate seed size based on
the number of elements it is able to process; with the student version of ABAQUS (used
herein), the number of elements is limited to 1,000.
It is possible to extrude the twisted region of the cantilever beam as one element,
however, Figure 11 above shows that it was created with two separate elements. This
was done to force the meshing to generate element points at the x = 3.75 point. This is
useful in that point results at the middle of the twist feature can later be extracted,
instead of using points nearby and approximating. Figure 12, below, shows the meshed
model of the twisted cantilever beam.
Finally, the root of the beam was fixed by creating an initial job step and setting all
displacement and rotations at x = 0 equal to zero (shown as orange cones in Figure 13).
A second job step was created to define the end-load on the beam. To avoid point
effects, a transverse shear, line-load on the far edge was used (shown as red arrows in
39
the negative y direction in Figure 13). This model was submitted for analysis and
completed successfully.
Variable
Value
L1
L2
4.5
L3
7.5
1.00
0.25
30 x 106 psi
0.3
-10 lbs
40
correspond to the stress states in the ABC-coordinate system (see Figure 4). A direct
comparison can be made to any x-direction values, but to compare shearing components
or any direction other than x, the values must be properly transformed into the global
coordinate system (xyz). To apply this transformation of results, the user must specify a
field output transformation option corresponding to the global axes (under
ResultsOptionsTransformation).
41
42
NOTE:
The following graphical representations extracted from ABAQUS give stress, strain,
and displacement values in index notation. Therefore,
2.2.1
The midplane of the FEA model shows tensile stress values (xx) peaking at the fixed
end of the beam, as is the case for a traditional cantilever beam. It does not indicate any
specific stress-increasing effect induced by the twist feature. See Figure 15 for a view of
the tensile stress results at the midplane.
At the shell models positive face, however, ABAQUS shows a severe increase in
compressive stress as the beam approaches its final orientation. At the models negative
face, the same region indicates a severe increase in tensile stress. See Figure 16 and
Figure 17 for the tensile stresses at the positive face of the shell model and Figure 18 and
Figure 19 for the tensile stresses at the negative face of the shell model.
Because the relationship between stress and strain is linear (see equations [34] and [35])
the graphical results of only stress are given. The strain distributions predicted by
ABAQUS are similar to their corresponding stress distributions, shown below.
43
44
Figure 17 - FEA Indicates an Additional Compressive Stress Peak in Twisted Region, Shells Positive Face
45
Figure 19 - FEA Indicates an Additional Tensile Stress Peak in Twisted Region, Shells Negative Face
46
2.2.2
Figure 20 shows the shear stress distribution of the shells midplane. Notice that the
initial orientation shows a parabolic distribution, as is the case of classical beam theory.
However, Figure 20 also shows that the shear stress has a negative shear stress
concentration at the origin, near the top and bottom fibers (the blue corners). This may
be attributed to point effects and discontinuity extrapolations generated by the numerical
integration routine of ABAQUS. Notice that just adjacent to these points, the shear
stress is positive, and more close to a zero value.
Figure 20 and Figure 21 also show that at the beams midpoint, in the middle of its twist
feature, there is a negative shear stress concentration. Again, note that there is a linear
relationship between stress and strain. Thus, only the distributions for stress are shown.
47
The results of the positive and negative faces of the shell model indicate severe shear
stress concentrations after the twist midpoint and before the beams final orientation
begins. Most notably, there is a large increase in positive shear in the xy-plane. This
rebounds the color spectrum of the post-processor, and results in the rest of the beam
appearing as a constant shear value. This is not the case, however. The shear stress still
follows a parabolic distribution over the height of the beam, up to the twisted region.
See Figure 22 and Figure 23 for the shear stress distributions on the positive and
negative faces of the shell model.
48
49
50
2.2.3
Figure 24 through Figure 26 below show the twisted cantilever beams displacement
distribution. Note that in Figure 26, there is a positive z displacement at the end of the
beam. This feature indicates shear coupling within the layers of the shell, which is not
addressed by classical beam theory.
51
When viewing the rotational displacements about the x-axis, an interesting point arises:
the twist feature seems to have imposed a structural anomaly in the beam at the end of its
twist, at x = x4. The displacements across the beams width at the end of the twist
(z-direction) follow a parabolic distribution. Classical beam theory suggests that vertical
displacements are independent of this direction. Looking at regions far from this point
(x4), the rotations about the x-axis disappear, corresponding to traditional theory. At
52
x = x4, however, the outer edges of the beam have a higher residual stiffness than the
centerline, and experience smaller displacements. See Figure 27.
x4 = 4.5
53
almost exactly. Equation [83] does a reasonable job up to the end of the twist but
beyond this (Equation [84]), predicts a slightly stiffer beam.
displacements of the beam as calculated in this document and by FEA. Notice that each
method plots a smooth, cubic displacement function along the beams length.
54
Overall, it is shown that for vertical displacements, classical beam theory can be applied
to cantilever beams with functionally varying moments of inertia to obtain reasonable
results. The percent difference of the beams vertical deflection at the end of the beam
(x = 7.5) using beam theory is only 4.5% different than the value predicted by FEA.
Classical beam theory (as applied in the derivation of theoretical values within),
however, does not account for out-of-plane displacements that may occur, as these are
resultant of shear-coupling and non-planar cross-sectional deformations.
shows that FEA results predict out-of-plane displacements.
Figure 26
assumptions of traditional beam mechanics (see section 1.3.1) forces one to discount
out-of-plane effects. In the case of a twisted cantilever beam, this may disregard key
aspects of the beams internal mechanics. Beam theory does not leave room for out-ofplane displacements but does predict fairly accurate in-plane displacements when
compared to the results of FEA.
When compared to the analytical solutions for similar rectangular beams with constant
cross-sections (see Figure 29), the vertical displacement curve of this particular twisted
cantilever beam seems to relate more closely to the beam experiencing strong-axis
bending, though this correlation will be a function of the length and twist parameters. If
the twist was closer to the fixed end of the beam (near x = 0), the displacement curve of
the twisted cantilever beam would be expected to more closely follow that of the
constant cross-section beam in weak-axis bending. Conversely, the closer the twist is to
the applied load (near x = L3), the more closely the displacement curve would follow that
of the constant cross-section beam in strong-axis bending.
55
56
methods and by numerical methods. The theoretical method, as presented herein, should
not be used to calculate maximum tensile stress within the varying-orientation region of
a twisted cantilever beam.
57
The FEA model shows the shear stress peaking at the midpoint of the twist, but this
effect is not predicted by the application of classical beam theory.
A possible
explanation is that, contrary to classical beam theory, plane sections are not remaining
plane under deformation (as shown by Figure 27). This effect would cause the shear
deformations to have a much greater impact on the distribution of flexural stresses
58
within the beam than calculated with traditional methods. Figure 31 shows the severity
of error in using traditional beam theory to calculate shear stresses within the beams
twisted region.
For the application of failure criterion (such as von Mises, Tresca, maximum stress, etc),
the shear stress equations developed by this document would not accurately demonstrate
maximum shear stress values, and could lead to errors. However, both theoretical and
FEA models indicate a peak of sorts at the twists midpoint. To mitigate gross errors
and propagate conservatism, a scalar factor could be applied to the constant shear stress
values of the initial or final orientations formulated by traditional methods to estimate
the maximum shear stress at the midpoint of the twist. In this particular problem, the
scalar factor is approximately 8/3. Additional case studies of beam geometries should be
performed to confirm the validity of this value and method. Refining the tensile and
shear stress equations could be possible by using the methodology of Timoshenko,
where plane sections do not necessarily remain plane, as demonstrated in Chapter 12 of
Reference [d].
59
When the indirect method is used to calculate stresses and strains in the twisted region of
the cantilever beam, the results of this document demonstrate that classical beam theory
is not applicable. If the exact stress distribution was needed within the twisted region,
using the indirect method and classical beam theory would not predict reliable values.
The margin of error within the twisted region is too great to be safely applied to real
applications of twisted cantilever beams.
A possible explanation for the stress calculation error is that cross-sections of the beam
that begin plane are not remaining plane under load and subsequent displacement, which
is a critical assumption of classical beam theory. A non-planar section becomes evident
by studying the FEA rotational and displacement results at the end of the twist, presented
in Figure 27. Because the beams cross-section is being distorted as a result of the
applied load, a key stipulation of beam theory is obviously not being satisfied.
The theoretical stress and strain functions derived by this document are not
recommended for detailed analyses. However, based on the applied load and beam
geometry, the results presented herein suggest that the method of calculating vertical
displacement gives reasonable results. These displacement results could be applied to
the strain-displacement equations (section 1.3.2), and then to the stress-strain equations
(section 1.3.3) to approximate stress and strain values within the beams twisted region.
60
Note that although the vertical displacement functions derived are very close to FEA
results, full application of the direct method to find stresses and strains will still be an
approximation. Under an applied load, FEA shows that the beam experiences out-ofplane displacement.
distribution throughout the beam, though its magnitude is much less than the vertical
displacements. Therefore, applying the direct method to calculate stresses will not yield
exact results, but could be used to estimate stress and strain values within the beams
twisted region.
61
x1
x = 0, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
-60 psi
0 in/in
0.000 in
x = 0, y = 0.5
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
1,800 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
0.000 in
x = 0, y = -0.5
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
-1,800 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
0.000 in
62
x2
x = 3.00, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
-60 psi
0 in/in
-4.680 x 10-4 in
x = 3.00, y = 0.5
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
1,080 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
-4.680 x 10-4 in
x = 3.00, y = -0.5
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
-1,080 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
-4.680 x 10-4 in
63
x3
x = 3.75, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
-14.12 psi
0 in/in
-7.297x 10-4 in
x = 3.75, y =
= 0.1768
599.0 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
-7.297x 10-4 in
x = 3.75, y = -
= -0.1768
-599.0 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
-7.297x 10-4 in
64
x4
x = 4.50, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
-60 psi
0 in/in
-1.382 x 10-3 in
x = 4.50, y = 0.125
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
2,880 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
-1.382 x 10-3 in
x = 4.50, y = -0.125
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
-2,880 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
-1.382 x 10-3 in
65
x5
x = 7.50, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
-60 psi
0 in/in
-6.665 x 10-3 in
x = 7.50, y = 0.125
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
0 in/in
-6.665 x 10-3 in
x = 7.50, y = -0.125
Tensile Stress, xx (Equation [69])
0 psi
0 psi
0 in/in
0 in/in
-6.665 x 10-3 in
66
x1
x = 0, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx
-3.691 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-62.26 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
0.000 in
x = 0, y = 0.5
Tensile Stress, xx
1,717 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-150.7 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
0.000 in
x = 0, y = -0.5
Tensile Stress, xx
-1,719 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-150.0 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
0.000 in
67
x2
x = 3.00, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx
-204.8 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-51.12 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
-7.470 x 10-8in/in
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-4.812 x 10-6 in
x = 3.00, y = 0.5
Tensile Stress, xx
818.1 psi
Shear Stress, xy
35.16 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-4.840 x 10-6 in
x = 3.00, y = -0.5
Tensile Stress, xx
-850.3 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-68.46 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-4.840 x 10-6 in
68
x3
x = 3.75, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx
-9.876 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-162.9 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-7.589 x 10-4 in
x = 3.75, y =
= 0.1768
Tensile Stress, xx
2,719 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-852.9 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-7.561 x 10-4 in
x = 3.75, y = -
= -0.1768
Tensile Stress, xx
-2,576 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-844.8 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-7.560 x 10-4 in
69
x4
x = 4.50, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx
-0.7396 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-66.70 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-1.352 x 10-3 in
x = 4.50, y = 0.125
Tensile Stress, xx
2,929 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-70.85 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-1.352 x 10-3 in
x = 4.50, y = -0.125
Tensile Stress, xx
-2,930 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-62.54 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-1.352 x 10-3 in
70
x5
x = 7.50, y = 0
Tensile Stress, xx
Shear Stress, xy
-58.87 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
x 10-6 in/in
Vertical Displacement, v
-6.986 x 10-3 in
x = 7.50, y = 0.125
Tensile Stress, xx
47.86 psi
Shear Stress, xy
0.3965 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-6.986 x 10-3 in
x = 7.50, y = -0.125
Tensile Stress, xx
-47.86 psi
Shear Stress, xy
-0.3965 psi
Longitudinal Strain, xx
Shear Strain, xy
Vertical Displacement, v
-6.986 x 10-3 in
71
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2, 468, 426, 455
3, 441, 436, 440
4, 460, 442, 458
325, 542, 500, 499
326, 540, 509, 501
403, 601, 566, 602
404, 603, 555, 562
*Element, type=S4R
84
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95
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353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368
369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384
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562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577
578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593
594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609
610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625
626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641
642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657
658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673
674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689
690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705
706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721
722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737
738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753
754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769
770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785
786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801
802, 803, 804, 805
** Section: TFBsection
*Shell Section, elset=_I1, orientation=Ori-1, material=Steel
0.25, 5
*Orientation, name=Ori-2
0.,
0.,
1.,
0.,
1.,
0.
3, 0.
** Region: (TFBsection:Picked), (Material Orientation:Picked)
*Elset, elset=_I2, internal, generate
403, 483, 1
** Section: TFBsection
*Shell Section, elset=_I2, orientation=Ori-2, material=Steel
0.25, 5
*End Part
**
**
** ASSEMBLY
**
*Assembly, name=Assembly
**
*Instance, name=TFBshell-1, part=TFBshell
*End Instance
**
*Nset, nset=Set-1, instance=TFBshell-1
11, 12, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170
*Elset, elset=Set-1, instance=TFBshell-1
493, 494, 495, 519, 520, 524, 560, 562, 592, 594
*Nset, nset=Set-2, instance=TFBshell-1
8, 9, 10, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125
*Elset, elset=Set-2, instance=TFBshell-1
413, 414, 415, 429, 430, 433, 435, 438, 439, 441, 489, 490, 491, 515, 540, 543
545, 546, 555, 614
*Nset, nset=Set-3, instance=TFBshell-1
6, 7, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103
*Elset, elset=Set-3, instance=TFBshell-1
327, 334, 335, 356, 359, 360, 372, 373, 396, 398, 407, 421, 423, 424, 425, 448
449, 451, 477, 479
*Nset, nset=Set-4, instance=TFBshell-1
3, 4, 5, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58
*Elset, elset=Set-4, instance=TFBshell-1
11, 15, 16, 21, 41, 42, 43, 44, 82, 107, 345, 346, 352, 353, 354, 374
378, 379, 382, 397
*Nset, nset=Set-5, instance=TFBshell-1
1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
*Elset, elset=Set-5, instance=TFBshell-1
97
98
99
8. References
[a] Shames, Irving H. and Francis A. Cozzarelli. 1997. Elastic and Inelastic Stress
Analysis, Revised Printing. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor and Francis.
[b] Gere, James A. 2003. Mechanics of Materials, 6th Edition. Tampa, Florida:
Thomson-Engineering.
[c] Gibson, Ronald F. 2012. Principles of Composite Material Mechanics, 3rd
Edition. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor and Francis.
[d] Timoshenko, Stephen P.
1970.
Theory of Elasticity.
McGraw-Hill.
100