NUS/ECE

EE4101

Waveguides
At high frequencies, the loss of electromagnetic waves traveling along transmission lines due to conductor resistance and radiation leakage becomes exceedingly large. To alleviate this problem, hollow waveguides can be used. We will study the rectangular waveguide as a typical example. y x x z b , y a
Rectangular waveguide
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z r ,
Circular waveguide

Waveguides

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EE4101

General Field Expression inside a Waveguide

Transverse directions: (x, y) or (r, ) Longitudinal direction: z (propagation direction) In general

Then
~ E = E ( x , y )e z
2E 2 = E 2 z

Helmholtzs equations:

2E + k 2E = 0
2H + k 2H = 0

(k =
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Waveguides

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EE4101

Method of Solution: Step 1 Express transverse field components Ex, Ey in terms of longitudinal field component Ez

Step 2

Obtain solution for the longitudinal field Ez from the wave equation

Step 3

Obtain Ex, Ey from Ez

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Waveguides

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EE4101

In rectangular coordinates:
2E + k 2E = 0
2 2 2 2 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + k E = 0 2 2 2 xy + z 2 + k E = 0 2 2 2 + + k E=0 xy

2 2 2 E + + k E=0 xy

(1a) (1b)
Waveguides

Similarly,

2 2 2 H + + k H=0 xy

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NUS/ECE

EE4101

E = j H
x x Ex y y Ey z = jH z Ez

Note that: ~ E i ( x , y , z ) = E i ( x , y )e z ~ H i ( x , y , z ) = H i ( x , y )e z i = x, y , z

E z E y = jH x y z
E x E z = jH y z x

E y

E x = jH z y x

~ E z ~ ~ + E y = jH x y ~ E ~ ~ E x z = jH y x ~ ~ E y E ~ x = jH z y x

(2a) (2b) (2c)

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Waveguides

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EE4101

Similarly from
H = j E

We have
~ H z ~ ~ + H y = jE x y

(3a)

~ ~ H z ~ = jE y H x x ~ H y ~ H x ~ = jE z y x

(3b)

(3c)

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Waveguides

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EE4101

Finally from equation sets in (2) and (3), we have: ~ ~ 1 H z E z ~ j Hx = 2 2 y + k x ~ ~ 1 E H ~ z z + j Hy = 2 2 + k y x ~ ~ 1 H z E z ~ + j Ex = 2 2 y + k x ~ ~ 1 H z E z ~ j Ey = 2 2 x + k y (4a) (4b) (4c) (4d)

~ Hence, we can solve the scalar Helmholtzs equations for Ez and ~ Hz, and use the above formulas to determine the other components.
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Waveguides

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Waveguide Mode Classification

It is convenient to first classify waveguide modes as to whether Ez or Hz exists according to:

TEM: TE: TM:

Ez = 0 Ez = 0 Ez 0

Hz = 0 Hz 0 Hz = 0

TEM = Transverse ElectroMagnetic TE = Transverse Electric TM = Transverse Magnetic

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Waveguides

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EE4101

(1) TEM Modes: ~ ~ Ez = H z = Ez = H z = 0

From the equations in (4), for the existence of non-trivial solutions, the denominators must be zero also. That is,

2 + k2 = 0
Propagation constants: = jk = j
u p =

Phase velocity:

Waveguides

Hon Tat Hui

NUS/ECE

EE4101

From the equations in (4), the field components take an indefinite mathematical form of 0/0, whose definite values have to be determined by boundary conditions. In general, we can write:
E = 0
2 xy

~ Ex = Ex0 ,

E x = E x 0 e jkz

~ Ey = Ey0 ,
2 xy H = 0
~ H x = H x0 ,

E y = E y 0 e jkz
H x = H x 0 e jkz

~ H y = H y0 ,

H y = H y 0 e jkz

The relations between Ex, Ey, Hx, and Hy can be further obtained from the equations in (2) and (3), as shown below.
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Waveguides

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EE4101

Wave impedance:
Z TEM

~ Ex Ex j = = ~ = = Hy Hy

(5a)

Wave impedance = Intrinsic impedance of the medium ~ Ey Ey j (5b) = ~ = = = Z TEM Hx Hx Combining (5a) & (5b), + Hyy = Hxx Therefore
H=
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Ey Z TEM

+ x

Ex y Z TEM

1 Z TEM

E z
Waveguides

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TEM modes can only exist in two-conductor waveguides such as two-wire transmission lines, co-axial lines, parallel-plate waveguides, etc, but not in single-conductor waveguides such as rectangular waveguides and circular waveguides. This is because either longitudinal field components or longitudinal currents are required to support the transverse magnetic field components Hx and Hy which form close loops in the transverse plane. There are no longitudinal currents (not longitudinal surface currents) inside hollow waveguides and hence hollow waveguides cannot support TEM modes. But they can support TE and TM modes.

(2) TE and TM Modes: TE and TM modes in general exist in hollow waveguides such as rectangular waveguides and circular waveguides. They will be studied in the context of these waveguides.
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EE4101

Rectangular Waveguide
(A) TM Modes: ~ Hz = Hz = 0
y

b a

We first find the longitudinal field Ez ~ E z ( x, y, z ) = E z ( x, y )e z From (1a), the equation for the Ez field is: 2 2 2~ E z (x,y ) = 0 x 2 + y 2 + h
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h2 = 2 + k 2
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Let ~ E z ( x, y ) = X (x )Y ( y ) function of x only Then

1 d 2 X (x ) 1 d 2Y ( y ) 2 + = h X ( x ) dx 2 Y ( y ) dy 2

function of y only

The above equation can be satisfied for all values of x and y inside the waveguide only when both terms on the left-hand side being equal to a constant.

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EE4101

Hence let

1 d X (x ) 2 = k x X ( x ) dx 2
2

1 d 2Y ( y ) 2 = k y Y ( y ) dy 2

where
2 2 kx + ky = h2

Boundary conditions:

Solutioins:

~ E z (0 ,y ) = 0 ~ E z (a,y ) = 0 ~ E z ( x,0) = 0 ~ E z (x,b ) = 0

C1 and C2 are constants to be determined by the boundary conditions along the z direction.

X ( x ) = C1 sin k x x

with

Y ( y ) = C2 sin k y y with
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m kx = a n ky = b

(m = 1, 2, 3, ) (n = 1, 2, 3, )
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~ m n E z ( x,y ) = E0 sin x sin y a b m n h =k +k = + a b

2 2 x 2 y 2 2

(m = 1, 2, 3,) (n = 1, 2, 3, )
E0 is a contant equal to C1C2 and is to be determined by the excitation condition of the waveguide.

m ~ m n E x ( x,y ) = 2 x sin y E0 cos h a a b n ~ m n E y ( x,y ) = 2 E0 sin x cos y h b a b j n ~ m n H x ( x,y ) = 2 E0 sin x cos y h b a b j m ~ m n H y ( x,y ) = 2 x sin y E0 cos h a a b
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EE4101

Every combination of the integers m and n defines a possible TM mode that may be designated as a TMmn mode. Hence there are infinite number of TM mode that can exist inside the waveguide. Propagation constant : = h2 k 2 m n 2 = + a b
2 2 2 2

m n 2 = + (2f ) a b The frequency at which = 0 is called the cutoff frequency fc. 1 2 2 2 ( ) = c mn = 1 2 2 m n f c ( f c )mn = + m n + 2 a b a b
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Note that the cutoff frequency for a TEM mode is zero (i.e., DC).

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EE4101

(a) When f > fc, the propagation constant is an imaginary number and the mode can travel inside the waveguide.
2f c = j = j k h = jk 1 2f
2 2 2

fc = jk 1 f

fc = k 1 f

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Waveguides

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EE4101

Guided wavelength:

g =

2 fc k 1 f
2

fc 1 f
2

2 1 = k f

where is the wavelength of a plane wave with a frequency f. Note that g > .

=
2 g

2 2

1 c

2 1 = 2 g c

2 g

2 c

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Waveguides

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EE4101

Phase velocity:

up =

fc k 1 f
2

fc 1 f

up =

u fc 1 f
2

u =

The phase velocity is frequency dependent. A rectangular waveguide is a dispersive device.

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Waveguides

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EE4101

Group velocity:

fc d 1 ug = = = u 1 d d f d
ug < u

Note that:

u pu g = u 2

Wave impedance: Z TM Ey fc Ex = = = = = 1 Hy H x j f
See animation Group Velocity
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Waveguides

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EE4101

Graphical Interpretation of up and ug

- curve for waveguide TE and TM modes

c u p = slope of this straight line

P
u g = slope at P
- curve for TEM modes

Group velocity ug is the signal propagation velocity if we assume the signal composed of a narrow band of frequencies centered around f. Phase velocity up is the speed of a constant-phase point of a particular mode. Group velocity is also the speed of energy flow inside the waveguide. (See Ref. 5, Section 8.5, for more details.)
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EE4101

(b) When f < fc, the propagation constant is a real number and the mode is non-propagating. The amplitude of the mode becomes smaller (with the e-z) along the z direction. This mode is called an evanescent mode. k2 = = attenuation constant = h 1 2 h
f = h 1 f c E j = x = = = j H y j
2 2

fc Z TM 1 imaginary f Note that the energy of an evanescent mode is not lost but only transferred back to the excitation source. That is, an evanescent mode is constantly exchanging energy with the excitation source. Hon Tat Hui Waveguides 23

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Example 1
What are the instantaneous field expressions for the TM11 mode in a rectangular waveguide of side lenghts a and b? Sketch its field lines.

Solution
With m = 1 & n = 1, ~ E z ( x,y ) = E0 sin x sin y a b
~ E x (x,y ) = 2 E0 cos x sin h a a b ~ E y ( x,y ) = 2 E0 sin x cos h b a b
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y y
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~ H z ( x,y ) = 0
E sin 0 x cos y a b b j ~ H y ( x,y ) = 2 E0 cos x sin y h a a b j ~ H x ( x,y ) = 2 h

For propagation modes: = j

~ ~ Ei ( x, y, z ) = Ei ( x, y )e z = Ei ( x, y )e j z , i = x, y, z ~ ~ z H i (x, y, z ) = H i (x, y )e = H i ( x, y )e j z , i = x, y, z Instantaneous field expressions:

{ } H ( x, y, z; t ) = Re{H ( x, y, z )e },
j t i i
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Ei ( x, y, z; t ) = Re Ei ( x, y, z )e jt , i = x, y, z
i = x, y , z
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E z ( x,y, z; t ) = E0 sin x sin a b

y cos(t z )

E x (x,y, z; t ) = 2 E0 cos x sin y sin (t z ) h a a b E y ( x,y, z; t ) = 2 E0 sin x cos y sin (t z ) h b a b

H z ( x,y, z; t ) = 0
H x (x,y, z; t ) = 2 h E0 sin x cos y sin (t z ) b a b

H y ( x,y, z; t ) = 2 h
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E0 cos x sin y sin (t z ) a b a 26

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TM11 mode has the lowest cutoff frequency among all the TM modes. Its field lines are shown below. Solid lines: E field, dash lines: H field

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EE4101

~ (B) TE Modes: E z = E z = 0 Using a similar analysis as for the TM modes, we can obtain field expressions for TE modes as: (m = 0,1, 2, ) ~ m n (n = 0,1, 2, ) H z ( x, y ) = H 0 cos x cos y a b m & n cannot j n ~ m n be both equal x sin y E x ( x, y ) = 2 H 0 cos to zero h b a b j m ~ m n x cos y E y ( x, y ) = 2 H 0 sin H0 is a constant h a a b to be determined by the excitation m ~ m n H x ( x, y ) = 2 x cos y condition of the H 0 sin h a waveguide. a b n ~ m n H y ( x, y ) = 2 x sin y H 0 cos h b a b
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Waveguides

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EE4101

Cutoff frequency:

( f c )mn =
Cutoff wavelength:

1 2

m n + a b
2

(c )mn =

1 f c

2 m n + a b
2 2

Propagation constant:
fc = k 1 f
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Waveguides

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EE4101

Guided wavelength:

g =

fc 1 f
2

Phased velocity: up = u fc 1 f
2

Group velocity: fc ug = u 1 f
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Wave impedance:
Z TE =

fc 1 f
2

Attenuation constant for evanescent modes: f = = h 1 f c

2

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Note that in TE mode propagation, the lowest order mode is TE10 which also has the lowest cutoff frequency among all the propation modes in a rectangular waveguide. The cutoff frequencies of the different modes are shown below for two cases of waveguide dimensions. Case 1: b/a=1/2
TE10
1

TE 01 TE 20
2

TE11 TM11
3

f c / (f c )TE

10

Case 2:
TE 01 TE10 1
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TE11 TM11

TE 02 TE 20 2 f c / (f c )TE
10
Waveguides

b/a=1

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TE10 Mode - Rectangular Waveguide

TE10 is the dominant mode in a rectangular waveguide with lowest cutoff frequency (when a > b).
(Picture form)

E field: solid lines H field: dash lines Surface current

(Schematic form)

TE10
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Field expression of TE10 mode (m = 1 & n = 0): ~ j z j z = H 0 cos x e H z = H z ( x, y )e a

~ 2a j z j z = j H 0 sin x e E y = E y ( x, y )e a

a H x = H x ( x, y ) e j z = j H 0 sin a Ez = Ex = H y = 0 Cutoff frequency:

x e j z

( f c )TE
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10

1 2a
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Cutoff wavelength:

(c )TE

10

= 2a

Propagation constant:
10

TE = k 1
Guided wavelength:

2a

( )

g TE 10

1 2a
2

Wave impedance:
Z TE10 =

1 2a 35
2

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Waveguides

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EE4101

Excitation of the Rectangular Waveguide

Cross-section at x = a/2

Probe

Coaxial line

Excitation of a rectangular waveguide by a coaxial line.

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A Note on the Propagating Modes inside the Rectangular Waveguide Note that in a rectangular waveguide with an excitation source frequency f = fi, all those TM and TE modes with a cutoff frequency lower than fi can propagate inside the waveguide. Whether they will actually appear inside the waveguide depends on the excitation method. The excitation method, for example the orientation of the coaxial probe, can be chosen to excite certain modes while suppress other modes. Those modes with a cutoff frequency higher than fi cannot propagate inside the waveguide no matter what excitation method chosen to excite them.
However, in the most general case, an EM wave inside the rectangular waveguide is a linear combination of all those TE and TM modes whose cutoff frequencies being lower than the excitation frequency. Hence the rectangular waveguide is a high-pass filter. Hon Tat Hui Waveguides 37

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Example 2
A standard rectangular waveguide WG-16 is to be designed for the Xband (8-12.4 GHz) radar application. The dimensions are a = 2.29 cm and b = 1.02 cm. If only the lowest mode TE10 mode is to propagate inside the waveguide and that the operating frequency be at least 25% above the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode but no higher than 95% of the next higher cutoff frequency, what is the allowable operatingfrequency range of this waveguide?

Solution
a = 2.29 cm b = 1.02 cm

( f c )TE
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10

3 108 = = = 6.55 109 2a 2 0.0229 1

(Hz )
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( f c )TE
( f c )TE

mn

1 2
1

m n + a b
2

20

m = 2,n =0

3 108 = = = 13.10 109 a 0.0229 1

(Hz )

( f c )TE

01

3 108 = = = 14.71 109 m = 0 , n =1 2b 2 0.0102

(Hz ) > ( f c )TE

20

Hence the allowable operating-frequency range is:

125%( f c )TE10 f 95%( f c )TE 20

That is:
8.19 GHz f 12.45 GHz
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References:
1. David K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetic, AddisonWesley Pub. Co., New York, 1989. 2. David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005. 3. Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 2007. 4. Robert E. Collin, Field theory of guided waves, IEEE Press, New York, 1991. 5. J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1975, Chapter 8, Section 8.5. 6. Joseph A. Edminister, Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993. 7. Yung-kuo Lim (Editor), Problems and solutions on electromagnetism, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993. Hon Tat Hui Waveguides 40