Computer Organization

2009

Lesson 1 An Overview of the Computer System

This lesson includes the following sections: 1. 2. 3. The Parts of a Computer System Looking Inside the Machine Software: Bringing the Machine to Life

1 The Parts of a Computer System What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device used to process data. A computer can convert data into information that is useful to people. A complete computer system includes four distinct parts: 1. Hardware 2. Software 3. Data 4. User

Computer Organization

2009

1.1

Hardware
A computer's hardware consists of electronic devices; the parts you can see and touch. The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware used by the computer, such as a keyboard, monitor, modem, mouse, etc.

1.2 Software
Software also called programs consists of organized sets of instructions for controlling the computer. Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help it manage its own tasks and devices. Other programs exist for the user, and enable the computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating documents.

Computer Organization

2009

1.3 Data
Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can manipulate and process into information that is useful to people. Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has been reduced to digits, or numbers. The computer stores and reads all data as numbers. Although computers use data in digital form, they convert data into forms that people can understand, such as text, numerals, sounds, and images.

1.4 Users
People are the computer's operators, or users. Some types of computers can operate without much intervention from people, but personal computers are designed specifically for use by people.

Computer Organization

2009

2. Looking Inside the Machine

Types of Hardware The CPU Memory How Memory is Measured Input and Output Devices Storage Devices

2.1 Types of Hardware

A computer's hardware devices are categorized as follows: 1. Processor 2. Memory 3. Input and output (I/O) devices 4. Storage devices

2.2 The CPU

The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processing. This function is divided between the computer's processor and memory. The processor is also called the central processing unit (CPU). It manages all devices and performs the actual processing of data.

Computer Organization

2009

The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the computer's main circuit board (the motherboard).

2.3 Memory
Memory also consists of chips attached to the motherboard. Memory holds data and program instructions as the CPU works with them. This memory is called Random Access Memory (RAM). The CPU can find any piece of data in RAM, when it needs it for processing. RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data only when the power is on. When the power is off, RAM's contents are lost.

Computer Organization

2009

2.4 How Memory is Measured

The smallest usable unit of measure for memory is the byte the amount of memory required to hold one character, like the leer A or the numeral 2.

Computers work with larger chunks of data, measured in multiple bytes, as shown below: Unit Approx. Value (bytes) Kilobyte (KB) Megabyte (MB) Gigabyte (GB) Terabyte (TB) 1,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000,000,000 Actual Value (bytes) 1,024 1,048,576 1,073,741,824 1,099,511,627,776

2.5 Input and Output Devices

Input devices accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system. The keyboard and mouse are examples of input devices. Output devices return processed data back to the user or to another computer system. The printer and monitor are examples. Communications devices (such as modems and network interface cards) perform both input and output, allowing computers to share information.

Computer Organization

2009

2.6 Storage Devices

Storage devices hold data not currently being used by the CPU. Data is commonly stored on a magnetic or optical disk. Each type uses a special medium for storing data on its surface. A disk drive is a device that reads data from and writes data to a disk. Most new computers feature a floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive, and an optical disk drive. The most common optical storage devices are CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives.

Computer Organization

2009

3. Software: Bringing the Machine to Life

What is Software? System Software Application Software

3.1 What is Software?

Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells the computer how to do certain tasks. A set of instructions is often called a program. When a computer is using a particular program, it is said to be running or executing the program. The two most common types of programs are system software and application software.

Computer Organization

2009

3.2 System Software

System software exists primarily for the computer itself, to help the computer perform specific functions. One major type of system software is the operating system (OS). All computers require an operating system. The OS tells the computer how to interact with the user and its own devices. Common operang systems include Windows, the Macintosh OS, OS/2, and UNIX .

3.3

Applications
Application software tells the computer how to accomplish tasks the user requires, such as creating a document or editing a graphic image. Some important kinds of application software are:

Computer Organization

2009

Introducon to single board computer 8085

The 8085 and Its Busses

The 8085 is an 8-bit general purpose microprocessor that can address 64K Byte of memory. The 8085 Bus Structure: The 8-bit 8085 CPU (or MPU Micro Processing Unit) communicates with the other units using a 16-bit address bus, an 8-bit data bus and a control bus. It has 40 pins and uses +5V for power. It can run at a maximum frequency of 3 MHz. The pins on the chip can be grouped into 6 groups: 1. Address Bus. 2. Data Bus. 3. Control and Status Signals. 4. Power supply and frequency.

10

Computer Organization
5. Externally Initiated Signals. 6. Serial I/O ports.

2009

The Address and Data Busses

The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 A15 which are unidireconal. The other 8 address bits are mulplexed (me shared) with the 8 data bits. So, the bits AD0 AD7 are bi-direconal and serve as A0 A7 and D0 D7 at the same time. During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry the address bits during the early part, then during the late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits. In order to separate the address from the data, we can use a latch to save the value before the function of the bits changes. Address Bus Consists of 16 address lines: A0 A15 Operates in unidirectional mode: The address bits are always sent from the MPU to peripheral devices, not reverse. 16 address lines are capable of addressing a total of 216 = 65,536 (64k) memory locations. Address locaons: 0000 (hex) FFFF (hex) Data Bus Consists of 8 data lines: D0 D7 Operates in bidirectional mode: The data bits are sent from the MPU to peripheral devices, as well as from the peripheral devices to the MPU.

11

Computer Organization
Data range: 00 (hex) FF (hex)

2009

The Control and Status Signals

There are 5 main control and status signals. These are: 1. ALE: Address Latch Enable. This signal is a pulse that become 1 when the AD0 AD7 lines have an address on them. It becomes 0 aer that. This signal can be used to enable a latch to save the address bits from the AD lines. 2. RD: Read. Active low. 3. WR: Write. Active low. 4. IO/M: This signal specifies whether the operation is a memory operaon (IO/M=0) or an I/O operaon (IO/M=1). 5. S1 and S0 : Status signals to specify the kind of operaon being performed .Usually un-used in small systems.

Frequency Control Signals

There are 2 important pins in the frequency control group. X0 and X1 are the inputs from the crystal or clock generang circuit. The frequency is internally divided by 2.So, to run the microprocessor at 3 MHz, a clock running at 6 MHz should be connected to the X0 and X1 pins. CLK (OUT): An output clock pin to drive the clock of the rest of the system.

12

Computer Organization

2009

Control Bus
Consists of various lines carrying the control signals such as read / write enable, flag bits.

Operaons of 8085
The internal architecture of the 8085 CPU is capable of performing the following operations: 1. Store 8-bit data (Registers, Accumulator) 2. Perform arithmetic and logic operations (ALU) 3. Test for conditions (IF / THEN) 4. Sequence the execution of instructions 5. Store temporary data in RAM during execution

13

Computer Organization

2009

The 8085: CPU Internal Structure

14