POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS IN FACTS & HVDC SYSTEMS

Abstract:- The driving force behind the development of power systems is the growing demand for electric energy. Especially in developing countries like India, this demand will be greatest in the near future. To meet the demand, the more number of interconnected power systems are appealing. This can be easily achievable because of breakthroughs in power semiconductor technology then enabled the manufacture of powerful thyristors and, later of new elements such as the gate turn-off thyristors (GTO) and insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT). Development based on these semiconductor devices first established high-voltage dc current transmission (HVDC) technology as an alternative to long-distance ac transmission. HVDC technology, in turn, has provided the basis for the development of flexible ac Transmission system (FACTS) equipment which can solve problems in ac transmission. An interconnected grid are being developed with better economy, less reserve capacity required and improved network reliability in mind. Since a countrys economy demands for a good quality and reliable power supplies. Such interconnected systems are expanded across national frontiers, the links are being created by way of HVDC or FACTS or both, whatever is more feasible in technical and economical terms. Thereby it is possible for a system to use the most economical power generation source including neighboring systems. However, when the interconnections grids are heavily loaded due to an increasing power exchange, the reliability and availability of the transmission will be reduced. And hence the performance of these power systems decreases with the size and increases the complexity of the power networks. Deregulation and privatization are posing new challenges to high-voltage transmission systems. HVDC and FACTS not only provides the necessary features to avoid technical problems related power quality issues in heavily loaded power systems such as voltage sag, swell and harmonic compensation and also they increase the transmission capacity and system stability very efficiently and assist in preventing cascading disturbances. Environmental constraints, such as energy saving, loss minimization and CO2 reduction, will also play an increasingly more important role. The loading of existing power systems will further increase which will lead to bottlenecks and reliability problems. Therefore, the strategies for the development of large power systems go clearly in the direction of Smart Grids, consisting of AC/DC interconnections and point-to-point bulk power transmission highways (i.e. Super Grid Solutions). FACTS technology is also an important part of this strategy. These hybrid systems offer significant advantages in terms of technology, economics and system security. They reduce transmission costs as well as help bypass heavily loaded AC systems. This paper has discussed the power quality enhancements in FACTS and HVDC systems, needs of advanced FACTS and HVDC based control for future power system and enhancing system stability and its development. Keywords:- Flexible ac transmission system (FACTS), High-voltage dc transmission (HVDC), FACTS devices, STATCOM, SVC, Voltage source converter

1.

INTRODUCTION

Electricity is an essential requirement for all facets of our life. It has been recognized as a basic human need. It is critical infrastructure on which the socio-economic development of the country depends. Supply of electricity at reasonable rate is essential for its overall development. Equally important is availability of reliable and quality power at competitive rates to Indian industry to make it globally competitive and to enable it to exploit the tremendous potential of employment generation. In the present day electricity market, electricity companies engage in as many transactions in one hour as they used to conduct in an entire day. Such increased demand along with uncertainty of transactions will further strain power systems. Moreover large amounts of distributed generation, in particular wind generation, connected with the network will result in further uncertainty of load and power flow distribution and impose additional strain on power systems. It is a real challenge to ensure that the transmission system is flexible enough to meet new and less predictable supply and demand conditions in competitive electricity markets. One of the most common technical solutions in dealing with this challenge is the construction of new transmission lines. However, the process of new transmission line construction is both timeconsuming and costly, and may cause short and long-term disruptions to the environment. In addition there are usually many complaints made by neighboring residents, often causing local authorities to disallow planning permission to construct new transmission lines. FACTS devices and HVDC links [1, 2] are considered as low-environmental impact technologies and are a proven enabling solution for rapidly enhancing reliability and upgrading transmission capacity on a long-term cost-effective basis. Power flowing in the network is usually uncontrolled, and is governed by Kirchhoff s laws and Ohm's law. The uncontrollable power flows may result in low power transfer capability of networks; bottlenecks in the network; loop flows; and angle and voltage instabilities, etc. The power angle and voltage instabilities may cause (a) generator outages, (b) line tripping and (c) system blackouts. Normally an electric power system should be operated within its operating limits such as voltage limits, thermal limits, and angle and voltage stability limits. FACTS and HVDC can provide both steady state and dynamic control for power systems. For steady state control, FACTS and HVDC can provide voltage regulation; power flow management and control; congestion management; and elimination of bottlenecks and enhancement of transfer capability, etc. For dynamic control, FACTS and HVDC can provide fast voltage support; fast power flow control and dynamic congestion management; fast controlled voltage and power compensation; fast control of power oscillations; voltage stability control; and fault ride-through, etc. The ever-increasing frequency of blackouts seen in developed countries has also enhanced the need for new power system control technologies such as FACTS devices. Cascading outages are common occurrences before major blackouts. These outages originate from dynamic congestion and shortage of voltage support in the transmission network. The reasons for the blackouts may result from: (a) Investment in the transmission grid has not kept up with the growth in demand and increase in energy trading;

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(b) Regulatory uncertainty has delayed the investment in the grid and there is a lack of incentives for transmission network companies to upgrade their grids, due to costs and environmental constraints; (c) in the deregulated electricity market environment, many existing transmission and distribution systems are operated close to their operating limits in terms of voltage, thermal and power transfer capabilities, and system stabilities constraints; (d) a lack of fast dynamic control resources such as FACTS and HVDC, which can be used to re-direct power flows among the available transmission corridors, and provide dynamic voltage support; (e) a lack of coordinated system control via the SCADA/EMS systems; (f) a lack of sophisticated infrastructure and associated advanced control methodologies that would be able to monitor and control the system wide instabilities across regions. As FACTS devices can redirect the flow of electricity, they have the potential to relieve or avoid possible congestion and voltage instability. Technologies such as FACTS and HVDC [1, 2], HTS (High-Temperature Superconductor) cable [3], SMES (Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage) [4] and FCL (Fault-Current Limiter) [5] together with Wide Area Stability Monitoring, Control and Protection System [6] are available to prevent or mitigate the kinds of outages that have happened in North America and in Europe in the past few years. It is anticipated that with the application of these devices either individually or in combination it should lead to a much more secure and reliable power grid. In addition to the application of FACTS and HVDC in system voltage, power flow and stability controls, FACTS and HVDC will also play a very important role in distributed generation interconnections, voltage and power flow controls of renewable energy networks, enhancement of the power quality and fault ride through capability, etc. This paper is prepared based on the references listed[1-113] and intended to focus; how the latest power transmission technologies i.e. FACTS & HVDC with the advancement of power electronics technology plays the important role in bringing up quality and reliable power to the world.

2.

THE CURRENT STATUS OF POWER ELECTRONICS DEVELOPMENT

The history of power electronics started from 1965 with the first Thyristor rectifiers, and development has not stopped since. Power electronics have evolved to the present modularized IGBT, IGCT, IEGT or ETO voltage source converters. THYRISTOR The Thyristor is a device, which can be triggered with a pulse at the gate and remains in the onstage until the next current zero crossing. Thyristors have the highest current and blocking voltage, and are still the device with the highest voltage and power levels. This means that fewer semiconductors need to be used for each application Thyristors can be used as switches for capacitors or inductors, and in converters for reactive power compensators. HVDC based thyristor technology is still the only possible AC-DC transmission approach with a voltage level above 500 kV and power above 3000 MW. These devices are being used in high-voltage directcurrent transmission systems. At present, no other device type can match the performance of thyristors, and their application for long distance and large power transmission with very high power is expected to continue in the foreseeable future.

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IGCT To increase controllability, GTO (Gate Turn Off) Thyristors were developed, and can be switched off with a voltage peak at the gate. These GTO based devices are now replaced by IGCT (Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors), which combine the advantages of low on stage losses and low switching losses. These semiconductors are used in smaller FACTS devices and drive applications. The GTO thyristors have also been developed over the past 30 years. Their main advantages over thyristors have been in the higher switching the anode to cathode voltage. These attributes have led to the use of GTOs in high power inverter systems. IGBT and IEGT The IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) has become an important power electronic technology in FACTS applications. The device takes advantage of the high voltage bipolar transistor with MOS gate. Basically an IGBT can be switched on with a positive voltage and switched off with a zero voltage. This characteristic allows a very simple gate drive unit to control the IGBT. The voltage and power level of the applications is up to 300 kV and 1000 MVA for VSC HVDC. IEGT (Injection Enhancement Gate Transistor) Chips are the latest in fast recovery diode technology, and are an advanced standard package design. They create a compact, high-efficiency and high-isolation 6.5kV, 1.2kA IEGT module, which uses trench gate semiconductor technology. The IEGT has high power ratings comparable to the GTO and can be operated at high speed comparable to the IGBT. The latest IEGT module combines low thermal resistances with reduced on-state losses and a 3000 reduction of off-state losses is realized when compared with conventional modules. In addition, the size of an IEGT module is about one third of that of a GTO module. ETO Thyristor An ETO (Emitter Turn-Off) thyristor combines the best characteristics of IGCT and IGBT with a high current carrying capability and a medium voltage of GTO is considered as one of the emerging high-power semiconductor devices. The ETO Thyristor was initially developed as an extremely high-power switching device to be used in power conversion systems within electric utility grids. The ETO Thyristors are capable of switching up to 4 kA of electric current and 6 kV of electric voltage. The ETO Thyristor has the following technical characteristics: (a) 5000A snubber-less turn-off capability; (b) Low switching losses & conduction losses; (c) Low cost device and circuit; (d) Easy for series and parallel operation; (e) Low gate drive power; (f) Built-in over-current protection and current sensor; (g) Easy for mass-production. The core or the workhorse of HVDC and FACTS installations are high-power thyristors, triggered optically by means of laser technology or electrically depending on application. Thyristors can only switch on the current. The switching-off is carried out by the next current
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zero crossing itself; this is the reason why a thyristor converter is referred to as a linecommutated system. Should no line voltage be available on one side of an HVDC system or in a FACTS application, the system is no longer functioning. An advantage of thyristor converters is their high loading capacity both during nominal and overload operation as well as in the event of contingency. Consequently, bulk power systems at high transmission capacities of 5 to 7 GW can be implemented with thyristors only. A further benefit consists in comparatively low station losses. Power electronics have a wide spread range of applications from electrical machine drives to excitation systems, industrial high current rectifiers for metal smelters, frequency controllers and electric trains. FACTS devices are just one application besides many others that have followed the same technology trends of power electronics. The elimination of transmission bottlenecks by using Power electronics is listed in Table 1. Table. 1 Elimination of Transmission Bottlenecks by means of Power Electronics Depending on the grid structure, there are four basic cases; a) Load displacement in case of parallel lines by impedance variation (series compensation) b) Fast load-flow control in meshed structures with HVDC/GPFC (or very slow with phase shifting transformer) c) Voltage collapse; reactive/active power injection by means of FACTS/HVDC d) Excess of allowed short-circuit level; short-circuit current limitation (FACTS/HVDC)

By the use of new, high power direct light-triggered thyristors (LTT), significant benefits can be achieved, as shown in the Fig. 1. Siemens uses this innovative technology for both HVDC and FACTS controllers. Highlights are less electronic components, leading to an increased reliability, in combination with a unique wafer-integrated thyristor over-voltage protection.

Fig. 1. Benefits of LTT-Thyristor Technology and View on the Thyristor Stack (right side)

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In Fig. 2, the stepwise assembly of the thyristors in modules and valve group is shown. An additional, important feature of these high power electronic components is a flame-retardant design of the elements.

Fig. 2. Advanced Power Electronic Components (Example HVDC)

3.

HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION

3.1 Development The first large-scale thyristors for HVDC were developed decades ago. HVDC became a conventional technology in the area of back-to-back and two-terminal long-distance and submarine cable schemes. However, only few multi-terminal schemes have been realized up to now. However, further multi-terminal HVDC schemes are planned in the future. The main application area for HVDC is the interconnection between systems which cannot be interconnected by ac because of different operating frequencies or different frequency controls. This type of interconnection is mainly represented by back-to-back stations or long-distance transmissions when a large amount of power, produced by a hydropower plant, for instance, has to be transmitted by overhead line or by submarine cable. HVDC schemes to increase power transmission capability inside of a system have been used only in a few cases in the past. However, more frequent use of such HVDC applications can be expected in the future to fulfill the requirements in deregulated systems. A few years ago a larger number of back-to-back projects were built to interconnect systems. Now there is a strong trend towards submarine cable schemes transmitting cheap energy from hydropower plants to the loads. The economy of this type of transmission has been enhanced by the development of mass-insulated dc cables for voltages up to 450 kV, promising even higher voltages in the future. Long-distance HVDC schemes featuring overhead lines with voltages up to 600 kV are used to transmit large power blocks. In past years new efforts have been made to improve the HVDC technology and to further reduce costs and losses. New ideas still under development are based on solutions already existing in other technical areas and using advantages of new semiconductor devices. A further effective
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step in improvement results from new controls and in the field of engineering. Modern HVDC unifies characteristics which are important for the application in the system: it transmits active power independently of the conditions in the connected ac systems; it can additionally control ac voltage at least within certain limits; and it can effectively damp power oscillations in ac systems using fast control. 3.2 HVDC Advantages An important advantage of HVDC is that it can be applied in cases where an AC interconnection is not possible because of technical problems. It offers technical and economical benefits, such as: A DC link allows power transmission between AC networks with different frequencies or networks, which cannot be synchronized, for other reasons. Inductive and capacitive parameters do not limit the transmission capacity or the maximum length of a DC overhead line or cable. The conductor cross section is fully utilized because there is no skin effect. For a long cable connection, e.g. beyond 40 km, HVDC will in most cases offer the only technical solution because of the high charging current of an AC cable. This is of particular interest for transmission across open sea or into large cities where a DC cable may provide the only possible solution. A digital control system provides accurate and fast control of the active power flow. Fast modulation of DC transmission power can be used to damp power oscillations in an AC grid and thus improve the system stability. 3.3 Transmission Costs For long-distance transmission the HVDC system involves lower costs than an ac transmission, as shown by the example of 1200-km transmission distance in Figs. 3 and 4, depicting basic schemes and specific transmission costs, respectively. Similar economical and technical advantages in favor of HVDC are also valid for submarine cable transmissions at distances greater than about 50 km.

Fig. 3. Two types of high-voltage transmission system

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Fig. 4. Specific transmission costs for various HVAC and HVDC alternatives versus transmitted power for a distance of 1200 km. When comparing the transmission costs for an A-B interconnection, it is necessary to evaluate not only the investment cost of line and substation equipment but also the loss costs in order to select the most suitable scheme as shown in Fig. 4 for 1200-km distance in the case of 1000-, 2000-, or 4000-MW transmission. Clearly recognizable are the lower total investment and loss costs of the more favorable dc options. Also considerable different loss cost parts can be shown. While 500 kV is the favorite voltage at 1000 MW, it should be 650 kV at 2000 MW, and 750 kV at 4000 MW in the case of HVDC. However, because of reliability constraints, the operating voltages in realized projects are equal to or less than 600 kV. In the case of HVAC, although more expensive, the corresponding values would be 500, 735, and 765 or 1050 kV. No reactive power is transmitted during HVDC transmission. This results in lower line losses with dc than with ac. Compared, for example, on the basis of a 1200-MW transmission system in the range of 500 1000 km, an HVDC line will have 14%24% lower losses than an HVAC line. In spite of the additional converter station losses this benefit will become noticeable at distances exceeding approximately 250 km. Hence an important value for economic calculations is the converter losses. 4. THE COMPONENTS OF AN HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

To assist the designers of transmission systems, the components that comprise the HVDC system, and the options available in these components, are presented and discussed. The three main elements of an HVDC system are: the converter station at the transmission and receiving ends, the transmission medium, and the electrodes. 4.1 The converter station The converter stations at each end are replicas of each other and therefore consists of all the needed equipment for going from AC to DC or vice versa. The main components of a converter station are;

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a. Thyristor valves The thyristor valves can be build-up in different ways depending on the application and manufacturer. However, the most common way of arranging the thyristor valves is in a twelvepulse group with three quadruple valves. Each single thyristor valve consists of a certain amount of series connected thyristors with their auxiliary circuits. All communication between the control equipment at earth potential and each thyristor at high potential, is done with fibre optics. b. VSC valves The VSC converter consists of two level or multilevel converter, phase-reactors and AC filters. Each single valve in the converter bridge is built up with a certain number of series connected IGBTs together with their auxiliary electronics. VSC valves, control equipment and cooling equipment would be in enclosures (such as standard shipping containers) which make transport and installation very easy. All modern HVDC valves are water-cooled and air insulated. c. Transformers The converter transformers adapt the AC voltage level to the DC voltage level and they contribute to the commutation reactance. Usually they are of the single phase three winding type, but depending on the transportation requirements and the rated power, they can be arranged in other ways. d. AC Filters and Capacitor Banks On the AC side of a 12-pulse HVDC converter, current harmonics of the order of 11, 13, 23, 25 and higher are generated. Filters are installed in order to limit the amount of harmonics to the level required by the network. In the conversion process the converter consumes reactive power which is compensated in part by the filter banks and the rest by capacitor banks. In the case of the CCC the reactive power is compensated by the series capacitors installed in series between the converter valves and the converter transformer. The elimination of switched reactive power compensation equipment simplify the AC switchyard and minimize the number of circuit-breakers needed, which will reduce the area required for an HVDC station built with CCC. With VSC converters there is no need to compensate any reactive power consumed by the converter itself and the current harmonics on the AC side are related directly to the PWM frequency. Therefore the amount of filters in this type of converters is reduced dramatically compared with natural commutated converters. e. DC filters HVDC converters create harmonics in all operational modes. Such harmonics can create disturbances in telecommunication systems. Therefore, specially designed DC filters are used in order to reduce the disturbances. Usually no filters are needed for pure cable transmissions as well as for the Back-to-Back HVDC stations. However, it is necessary to install DC filters if an OH line is used in part or all the transmission system. The filters needed to take care of the harmonics generated on the DC end, are usually considerably smaller and less expensive than the filters on the AC side. The modern DC filters are the Active DC filters. In these filters the

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passive part is reduced to a minimum and modern power electronics is used to measure, invert and re-inject the harmonics, thus rendering the filtering very effective. 4.2 Transmission Medium For bulk power transmission over land, the most frequent transmission medium used is the overhead line. This overhead line is normally bipolar, i.e. two conductors with different polarity. HVDC cables are normally used for submarine transmission. The most common types of cables are the solid and the oil-filled ones. The solid type is in many cases the most economic one. Its insulation consists of paper tapes impregnated with high viscosity oil. No length limitation exists for this type and designs are today available for depths of about 1000 m. The self contained oilfilled cable is completely filled with low viscosity oil and always works under pressure. The maximum length for this cable type seems to be around 60 km. The development of new power cable technologies has accelerated in recent years and today a new HVDC cable is available for HVDC underground or submarine power transmissions. This new HVDC cable is made of extruded polyethylene, and is used in VSC based HVDC systems. 5. CORE HVDC TECHNOLOGIES Two basic converter technologies are used in modern HVDC transmission systems. These are conventional line-commutated current source converters (CSCs) and self-commutated voltage source converters (VSCs). 5.1 Line-Commutated Current Source Converter Conventional HVDC transmission employs line-commutated CSCs with thyristor valves. Such converters require a synchronous voltage source in order to operate. The basic building block used for HVDC conversion is the three phase, full-wave bridge referred to as a six-pulse or Graetz bridge. The term six-pulse is due to six commutations or switching operations per period resulting in a characteristic harmonic ripple of six times the fundamental frequency in the dc output voltage. Each six-pulse bridge is comprised of six controlled switching elements or thyristor valves. Each valve is comprised of a suitable number of series-connected thyristors to achieve the desired dc voltage rating. The dc terminals of two six-pulse bridges with ac voltage sources phase displaced by 30 can be connected in series to increase the dc voltage and eliminate some of the characteristic ac current and dc voltage harmonics. Operation in this manner is referred to as 12-pulse operation. In 12-pulse operation, the characteristic ac current and dc voltage harmonics have frequencies of 12n 1 and 12n, respectively. The 30 phase displacement is achieved by feeding one bridge through a transformer with a wye-connected secondary and the other bridge through a transformer with a delta-connected secondary. Most modern HVDC transmission schemes utilize 12-pulse converters to reduce the harmonic filtering requirements required for six-pulse operation; e.g., fifth and seventh on the ac side and sixth on the dc side. This is because, although these harmonic currents still flow through the valves and the transformer windings, they are180 out of phase and cancel out on the primary side of the converter transformer. Fig. 6 shows the thyristor valve arrangement for a 12-pulse converter with three quadruple valves, one for each phase. Each thyristor valve is built up with series-connected thyristor modules. Line-commutated converters require a relatively strong synchronous voltage source in order to commutate. Commutation is the transfer of current from one phase to another in a synchronized firing sequence of the thyristor valves. The three-phase symmetrical short circuit capacity available from the network at the converter connection point should be at least
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twice the converter rating for converter operation. Line commutated CSCs can only operate with the ac current lagging the voltage, so the conversion process demands reactive power. Reactive power is supplied from the ac filters, which look capacitive at the fundamental frequency, shunt banks, or series capacitors that are an integral part of the converter station. Any surplus or deficit in reactive power from these local sources must be accommodated by the ac system. This difference in reactive power needs to be kept within a given band to keep the ac voltage within the desired tolerance. The weaker the ac system or the further the converter is away from generation, the tighter the reactive power exchange must be to stay within the desired voltage tolerance. Fig. 6 illustrates the reactive power demand, reactive power compensation, and reactive power exchange with the ac network as a function of dc load current.

Fig. 6. Reactive power compensation for conventional HVDC converter station Converters with series capacitors connected between the valves and the transformers were introduced in the late 1990s for weak-system, back-to-back applications. These converters are referred to as capacitor-commutated converters (CCCs). The series capacitor provides some of the converter reactive power compensation requirements automatically with load current and provides part of the commutation voltage, improving voltage stability. The overvoltage protection of the series capacitors is simple since the capacitor is not exposed to line faults, and the fault current for internal converter faults is limited by the impedance of the converter transformers. The CCC configuration allows higher power ratings in areas were the ac network is close to its voltage stability limit. The asynchronous Garabi interconnection between Brazil and Argentina consists of 4 550 MW parallel CCC links. The Rapid City Tie between the Eastern and Western interconnected systems consists of 2 100 MW parallel CCC links. Both installations use a modular design with converter valves located within prefabricated electrical enclosures rather than a conventional valve hall.

5.2 Self-Commutated Voltage Source Converter HVDC transmission using VSCs with pulse-width modulation (PWM), commercially known as HVDC Light, was introduced in the late 1990s. Since then the progression to higher voltage and power ratings for these converters has roughly paralleled that for thyristor valve converters in the 1970s. These VSC-based systems are self- commutated with insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) valves and solid-dielectric extruded HVDC cables. HVDC transmission with VSCs can be beneficial to overall system performance. VSC technology can rapidly control both active and reactive power independently of one another. Reactive power can also be controlled at each terminal independent of the dc transmission voltage level.
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This control capability gives total flexibility to place converters anywhere in the ac network since there is no restriction on minimum network shortcircuit capacity. Self-commutation with VSC even permits black start; i.e., the converter can be used to synthesize a balanced set of three phase voltages like a virtual synchronous generator. The dynamic support of the ac voltage at each converter terminal improves the voltage stability and can increase the transfer capability of the sending- and receiving-end ac systems, thereby leveraging the transfer capability of the dc link. Fig. 7 shows the active and reactive power operating range for a converter station with a VSC. Unlike conventional HVDC transmission, the converters themselves have no reactive power Fig. 7. Operating range or voltage demand and can actually control their reactive source converter HVDC transmission power to regulate ac system voltage just like a generator. 6. HVDC SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS AND OPERATING MODES Fig. 8 shows the different common system configurations and operating modes used for HVDC transmission. Mono-polar systems are the simplest and least expensive systems for moderate power transfers since only two converters and one high-voltage insulated cable or line conductor are required. Such systems have been used with low-voltage electrode lines and sea electrodes to carry the return current in submarine cable crossings. In some areas conditions are not conducive to mono-polar earth or sea return. This could be the case in heavily congested areas, fresh water cable crossings, or areas with high earth resistivity. In such cases a metallic neutral- or lowvoltage cable is used for the return path and the dc circuit uses a simple local ground connection for potential reference only. Back-to-back stations are used for interconnection of asynchronous networks and use ac lines to connect on either side. In such systems power transfer is limited by the relative capacities of the adjacent ac systems at the point of connection. As an economic alternative to a mono-polar system with metallic return, the midpoint of a 12-pulse converter can be connected to earth directly or through an impedance and two half-voltage cables or line conductors can be used. The converter is only operated in 12-pulse mode so there is never any stray earth current.

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Fig. 8. HVDC configurations and operating modes VSC-based HVDC transmission is usually arranged with a single converter connected pole-topole rather than pole-to-ground. The center point of the converter is connected to ground through a high impedance to provide a reference for the dc voltage. Thus, half the converter dc voltage appears across the insulation on each of the two dc cables, one positive the other negative. The most common configuration for modern overhead HVDC transmission lines is bipolar with a single 12-pulse converter for each pole at each terminal. This gives two independent dc circuits each capable of half capacity. For normal balanced operation there is no earth current. Monopolar earth return operation, often with overload capacity, can be used during outages of the opposite pole. Earth return operation can be minimized during mono-polar outages by using the opposite pole line for metallic return via pole/converter bypass switches at each end. This requires a metallic-return transfer breaker in the ground electrode line at one of the dc terminals to commutate the current from the relatively low resistance of the earth into that of the dc line conductor. Metallic return operation capability is provided for most dc transmission systems. This not only is effective during converter outages but also during line insulation failures where the remaining insulation strength is adequate to withstand the low resistive voltage drop in the metallic return path. For very-high-power HVDC transmission, especially at dc voltages above 500 kV (i.e., 600 kV or 800 kV), series connected converters can be used to reduce the energy unavailability for
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individual converter outages or partial line insulation failure. By using two series-connected converters per pole in a bipolar system, only one quarter of the transmission capacity is lost for a converter outage or if the line insulation for the affected pole is degraded to where it can only support half the rated dc line voltage. Operating in this mode also avoids the need to transfer to mono-polar metallic return to limit the duration of emergency earth return. 6.1 HVDC Control and Operating Principles of Conventional HVDC

The fundamental objectives of an HVDC control system are as follows: i. to control basic system quantities such as dc line current, dc voltage, and transmitted power accurately and with sufficient speed of response ii. to maintain adequate commutation margin in inverter operation so that the valves can recover their forward blocking capability after conduction before their voltage polarity reverses iii. to control higher-level quantities such as frequency in isolated mode or provide power oscillation damping to help stabilize the ac network iv. to compensate for loss of a pole, a generator, or an ac transmission circuit by rapid readjustment of power v. to ensure stable operation with reliable commutation in the presence of system disturbances vi. to minimize system losses and converter reactive power consumption vii. to ensure proper operation with fast and stable recoveries during ac system faults and disturbances. For conventional HVDC transmission, one terminal sets the dc voltage level while the other terminal(s) regulates the (its) dc current by controlling its output voltage relative to that maintained by the voltage-setting terminal. Since the dc line resistance is low, large changes in current and hence power can be made with relatively small changes in firing angle (alpha). Two independent methods exist for controlling the converter dc output voltage. These are; i. ii. by changing the ratio between the direct voltage and the ac voltage by varying the delay angle or by changing the converter ac voltage via load tap changers (LTCs) on the converter transformer.

Whereas the former method is rapid the latter method is slow due to the limited speed of response of the LTC. Use of high delay angles to achieve a larger dynamic range, however, increases the converter reactive power consumption. To minimize the reactive power demand while still providing adequate dynamic control range and commutation margin, the LTC is used at the rectifier terminal to keep the delay angle within its desired steady-state range (e.g., 1318) and at the inverter to keep the extinction angle within its desired range (e.g., 17 20), if the angle is used for dc voltage control or to maintain rated dc voltage if operating in minimum commutation margin control mode. Fig. 9 shows the characteristic transformer current and dc bridge voltage waveforms along with the controlled items Ud, Id, and tap changer position (TCP).

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Fig. 9. Conventional HVDC Control 6.2 VSC-Based HVDC Power can be controlled by changing the phase angle of the converter ac voltage with respect to the filter bus voltage, whereas the reactive power can be controlled by changing the magnitude of the fundamental component of the converter ac voltage with respect to the filter bus voltage. By controlling these two aspects of the converter voltage, operation in all four quadrants is possible. This means that the converter can be operated in the middle of its reactive power range near unity power factor to maintain dynamic reactive power reserve for contingency voltage support similar to a static var compensator. It also means that the real power transfer can be changed rapidly without altering the reactive power exchange with the ac network or waiting for switching of shunt compensation. Being able to independently control ac voltage magnitude and phase relative to the system voltage allows use of separate active and reactive power control loops for HVDC system regulation. The active power control loop can be set to control either the active power or the dcside voltage. In a dc link, one station will then be selected to control the active power while the other must be set to control the dc-side voltage. The reactive power control loop can be set to control either the reactive power or the ac-side voltage. Either of these two modes can be selected independently at either end of the dc link. Fig. 10 shows the characteristic ac voltage waveforms before and after the ac filters along with the controlled items Ud, Id, Q, and Uac.

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Fig. 10. Control of VSC HVDC Transmission 6.3 The Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) Approach Both the size of voltage steps and the related gradients can be reduced or minimized if the AC voltage generated by the converter can be selected in smaller increments than at two or three levels only. The finer this gradation, the smaller is the proportion of harmonics and the lower is the emitted high-frequency radiation. Converters with this capability are called multilevel converters. Furthermore, the switching frequency of individual semiconductors can be reduced. Since each switching event creates losses in the semiconductors, converter losses can also be effectively reduced. But due to high number of transformer winding, this approach is not practical for high voltage applications. 7. HVDC APPLICATIONS HVDC transmission applications can be broken down into different basic categories. Although the rationale for selection of HVDC is often economic, there may be other reasons for its selection. HVDC may be the only feasible way to interconnect two asynchronous networks, reduce fault currents, utilize long underground cable circuits, bypass network congestion, share utility rights of-way without degradation of reliability, and to mitigate environmental concerns. In all of these applications, HVDC nicely complements the ac transmission system. The overview of HVDC applications is listed in Table 2. 7.1 Long-Distance Bulk Power Transmission HVDC transmission systems often provide a more economical alternative to ac transmission for long-distance bulk power delivery from remote resources such as hydroelectric developments, mine-mouth power plants, or large-scale wind farms. Higher power transfers are possible over longer distances using fewer lines with HVDC transmission than with ac transmission. Typical HVDC lines utilize a bipolar configuration with two independent poles, one at a positive voltage
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and the other at a negative voltage with respect to ground. Bipolar HVDC lines are comparable to a double circuit ac line since they can operate at half power with one pole out of service but require only one-third the numbers of insulated sets of conductors as a double circuit ac line. Automatic restarts from temporary dc line fault clearing sequences are routine even for generator outlet transmission. No synchro-checking is required as for automatic reclosures following ac line faults since the dc restarts do not expose turbine generator units to high risk of transient torque amplification from closing into faults or across high phase angles. The controllability of Table. 2. Overview of HVDC Applications
Long distance transmission over land Natural commutated HVDC with OH lines Natural commutated HVDC with sea cables Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) in Back-to-Back Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) with OH lines Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) with sea cables VSC Converters in Back-to-Back VSC Converters with Land or Sea Cables Long distance transmission over sea Interconnectio ns of asynchronous networks Windmill connection to network Feed of small isolated loads

HVDC links offer firm transmission capacity without limitation due to network congestion or loop flow on parallel paths. Controllability allows the HVDC to leap-frog multiple chokepoints or bypass sequential path limits in the ac network. Therefore, the utilization of HVDC links is usually higher than that for extra high voltage ac transmission, lowering the transmission
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cost per MWh. This controllability can also be very beneficial for the parallel transmission since, by eliminating loop flow, it frees up this transmission capacity for its intended purpose of serving intermediate load and providing an outlet for local generation. Whenever long-distance transmission is discussed, the concept of break-even distance frequently arises. This is where the savings in line costs offset the higher converter station costs. A bipolar HVDC line uses only two insulated sets of conductors rather than three. This results in narrower rights-of-way, smaller transmission towers, and lower line losses than with ac lines of comparable capacity. A rough approximation of the savings in line construction is 30%. Although break-even distance is influenced by the costs of right-of-way and line construction with a typical value of 500 km, the concept itself is misleading because in many cases more ac lines are needed to deliver the same power over the same distance due to system stability limitations. Furthermore, the long-distance ac lines usually require intermediate switching stations and reactive power compensation. This can increase the substation costs for ac transmission to the point where it is comparable to that for HVDC transmission. For example, the generator outlet transmission alternative for the 250-kV, 500- MW Square Butte Project was two 345-kV series-compensated ac transmission lines. The 12,600-MW Itaipu project has half its power delivered on three 800-kV series compensated ac lines (three circuits) and the other half delivered on two 600-kV bipolar HVDC lines (four circuits). Similarly, the 500-kV, 1,600- MW Intermountain Power Project (IPP) ac alternative comprised two 500-kV ac lines. The IPP takes advantage of the double-circuit nature of the bipolar line and includes a 100% short-term and 50% continuous monopolar overload. The first 6,000-MW stage of the transmission for the Three Gorges Project in China would have required 5 500-kV ac lines as opposed to 2 500-kV, 3,000-MW bipolar HVDC lines. 7.2 Underground and Submarine Cable Transmission Unlike the case for ac cables, there is no physical restriction limiting the distance or power level for HVDC underground or submarine cables. Underground cables can be used on shared rightsof way with other utilities without impacting reliability concerns over use of common corridors. For underground or submarine cable systems there is considerable savings in installed cable costs and cost of losses when using HVDC transmission. Depending on the power level to be transmitted, these savings can offset the higher converter station costs at distances of 40 km or more. Furthermore, there is a drop-off in cable capacity with ac transmission over distance due to its reactive component of charging current since cables have higher capacitances and lower inductances than ac overhead lines. Although this can be compensated by intermediate shunt compensation for underground cables at increased expense, it is not practical to do so for submarine cables. For a given cable conductor area, the line losses with HVDC cables can be about half those of ac cables. This is due to ac cables requiring more conductors (three phases), carrying the reactive component of current, skin-effect, and induced currents in the cable sheath and armor. With a cable system, the need to balance unequal loadings or the risk of post contingency overloads often necessitates use of a series-connected reactors or phase shifting transformers. These potential problems do not exist with a controlled HVDC cable system.

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Extruded HVDC cables with prefabricated joints used with VSC-based transmission are lighter, more flexible, and easier to splice than the mass-impregnated oil-paper cables (MINDs) used for conventional HVDC transmission, thus making them more conducive for land cable applications where transport limitations and extra splicing costs can drive up installation costs. The lowercost cable installations made possible by the extruded HVDC cables and prefabricated joints makes long-distance underground transmission economically feasible for use in areas with rights-of-way constraints or subject to permitting difficulties or delays with overhead lines. 7.3 Asynchronous Ties With HVDC transmission systems, interconnections can be made between asynchronous networks for more economic or reliable system operation. The asynchronous interconnection allows interconnections of mutual benefit while providing a buffer between the two systems. Often these interconnections use back-to-back converters with no transmission line. Asynchronous HVDC links act as an effective firewall against propagation of cascadi ng outages in one network from passing to another network. Many asynchronous interconnections exist in North America between the Eastern and Western interconnected systems, between the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) and its neighbors, [e.g., Mexico and the Southwest Power Pool (SPP)], and between Quebec and its neighbors (e.g., New England and the Maritimes). 7.4 Offshore Transmission Self-commutation, dynamic voltage control, and black-start capability allow compact VSC HVDC transmission to serve isolated loads on islands or offshore production platforms over long-distance submarine cables. This capability can eliminate the need for running expensive local generation or provide an outlet for offshore generation such as that from wind. The VSCs can operate at variable frequency to more efficiently drive large compressor or pumping loads using high-voltage motors. Fig. 11 shows the Troll A production platform in the North Sea where power to drive compressors is delivered from shore to reduce the higher carbon emissions and higher O&M costs associated with less efficient platform-based generation.

Fig. 11. VSC Power supply to Troll A production platform

Large remote wind generation arrays require a collector system, reactive power support, and outlet transmission. Transmission for wind generation must often traverse scenic or environmentally sensitive areas or bodies of water. Many of the better wind sites with higher capacity factors are located offshore. VSC-based HVDC transmission allows efficient use of long-distance land or submarine cables and provides reactive support to the wind generation complex.
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7.5 Multi-terminal Systems Most HVDC systems are for point-to-point transmission with a converter station at each end. The use of intermediate taps is rare. Conventional HVDC transmission uses voltage polarity reversal to reverse the power direction. Polarity reversal requires no special switching arrangement for a two terminal system where both terminals reverse polarity by control action with no switching to reverse power direction. Special dc-side switching arrangements are needed for polarity reversal in a multi-terminal system, however, where it may be desired to reverse the power direction at a tap while maintaining the same power direction on the remaining terminals. For a bipolar system this can be done by connecting the converter to the opposite pole. VSC HVDC transmission, however, reverses power through reversal of the current direction rather than voltage polarity. Thus, power can be reversed at an intermediate tap independently of the main power flow direction without switching to reverse voltage polarity. 7.6 Power Delivery to Large Urban Areas Power supply for large cities depends on local generation and power import capability. Local generation is often older and less efficient than newer units located remotely. Often, however, the older, less-efficient units located near the city center must be dispatched out-of merit because they must be run for voltage support or reliability due to inadequate transmission. Air quality regulations may limit the availability of these units. New transmission into large cities is difficult to site due to right-of-way limitations and land-use constraints. Compact VSC-based underground transmission circuits can be placed on existing dual-use rights-of-way to bring in power as well as to provide voltage support, allowing a more economical power supply without compromising reliability. The receiving terminal acts like a virtual generator delivering power and supplying voltage regulation and dynamic reactive power reserve. Stations are compact and housed mainly indoors, making siting in urban areas somewhat easier. Furthermore, the dynamic voltage support offered by the VSC can often increase the capability of the adjacent ac transmission. 8. CASE STUDIES IN HVDC SYSTEMS After the 2003 Blackout in the United States, new projects are gradually coming up in order to enhance the system security. 8.1 Neptune HVDC Project USA One example is the Neptune HVDC project. The task given by Neptune Regional Transmission System LLC (RTS) in Fairfield, Connecticut, was to construct an HVDC transmission link between Sayreville, New Jersey and Long Island, New York. As new overhead lines cannot be built in this densely populated area, power should be brought directly to Long Island by HVDC cable transmission, bypassing the AC sub-transmission network. For various reasons, environmental protection in particular, it was decided not to build a new power plant on Long Island near the city in order to cover the power demand of Long Island with its districts Queens and Brooklyn, which is particularly high in summer.

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Fig. 12a. Highlights of Neptune HVDC Project - USA

Fig. 12b. Benefits of Neptune HVDC Project for Blackout Prevention

The Neptune HVDC interconnection is an environmentally compatible, cost-effective solution which will help meet these future needs. The low-loss power transmission provides access to various energy resources, including renewable ones. The interconnection is carried out via a combination of submarine and subterranean cable directly to the network of Nassau County
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which borders on the city area of New York. Neptune RTS was established to develop and commercially operate power supply projects in the United States. By delivering a complete package of supply, installation, service and operation from one single source, the seamless coverage of the customers needs was provided. The availability of this combined expertise fulfills the prerequisites for financing these kinds of complex supply projects through the free investment market. Siemens and Neptune RTS were developing the project over three years to prepare it for implementation. In addition to providing technological expertise, studies, and engineering services, substantial support was given to the customer during the projects approval process. In Fig. 12a, highlights of this innovative project typical of the future integration of HVDC into a complex synchronous AC system are depicted. During trial operation, 2 weeks ahead of schedule, Neptune HVDC proved its Blackout prevention capability in a very impressive way. On June 27th, 2007, a Blackout occurred in New York City. Over 380,000 people were without electricity in Manhattan and Bronx for up to one hour, subway came to a standstill and traffic lights were out of operation. In this situation, Neptune HVDC successfully supported the power supply of Long Island and due to this, 700,000 households could be saved there, ref. to Fig. 12b. 8.2 Prospects of HVDC in India The HVDC East-South interconnection in India (commercial operation in 2003) uses both advantages, the avoidance of transmission of additional power through the AC system and the interconnection of power areas which cannot be operated synchronously. A view of the HVDC northern terminal in the state of Orissa is given in Fig. 13a. In April 2006, Power grid Corporation of India decided to increase the transmission capacity of the East-South DC transmission from 2,000 MW to 2,500 MW. As the upgrade is now completed, it is possible to make maximum use of the systems overload capacity. To increase the capacity of the link, the experts have developed a solution known as Relative Aging Indication and Load Factor Limitation (RAI & LFL).

Fig. 13a. Site View of Indian EastSouth Interconnector DC station Talcher

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Fig. 13b. Sustainability of Transmission in India East-South Interconnector and Ballia-Bhiwadi

With their help it is possible to utilize the overload capacity of the system more effectively without having to install additional thyristors. Furthermore, in March 2007, Siemens and its consortium partner Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL) were awarded an order by Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd, New Delhi, to construct a new HVDC transmission. The purpose of the new HVDC transmission system is to strengthen the power supply to the growing region around New Delhi. This is the fourth long-distance HVDC transmission link in India. The power transmission system is to transport electrical energy with low loss from Ballia in the east of Uttar Pradesh province to Bhiwadi, approx. 800 km away in the province of Rajasthan near New Delhi. In comparison with a conventional double-circuit 400 kV AC transmission line, this HVDC transmission link improves transmission efficiency so that 688,000 tons of CO2 will be saved, ref. to Fig. 13b. This new long-distance HVDC transmission link is the second system built by Siemens in India. 9. FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS (FACTS ) Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are: power flow control increase of transmission capability voltage control reactive power compensation stability improvement power quality improvement power conditioning flicker mitigation interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages
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Fig. 14. Operational limits of transmission lines for different voltage levels

In all applications the practical requirements, needs and benefits have to be considered carefully to justify the investment into a complex new device. Fig. 14 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and more important. The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction times down to far below one second. In the following sections a structured overview on FACTS-devices is given. These devices are mapped to their different fields of applications. The flexible AC transmission system is akin to high voltage DC and related thyristor developments, designed to overcome the limitations of the present mechanically controlled AC power transmission systems. By using reliable and highspeed power electronic controllers, the technology offers five opportunities for increased efficiency of utilities. Greater control of power so that it flows on the prescribed transmission routes Secure loading of transmission lines to levels nearer their thermal limits Greater ability to transfer between controlled areas Prevention of cascading outages Damping of power system oscillation

The increased interest in these devices is essentially due to two reasons. Firstly, the recent development in high power electronics has made these devices cost effective and secondly, increased loading of power systems, combined with deregulation of power industry, motivates the use of power flow control as a very cost-effective means of dispatching specified power transactions. Several emerging issues in competitive power market, namely, as congestion management, enhancement of security and available transfer capability of the system, transmission pricing, etc. have been restricting the free and fair trade of electricity in the open power market. FACTS devices can play a major role in these issues. Moreover, it is important to
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ascertain the location for placement of these devices because of their considerable costs. The insertion of such devices in electrical systems seems to be a promising strategy to reduce the power flows in heavily loaded lines resulting in increased system loadability, low system loss, improved stability of the network and reduced cost of production. Also, reduces mitigation of power quality problems such as voltage sag, swell & interruption. 10. FACTS CLASSIFICATION

10.1 Based on Technology Depending on technological features, the FACTS devices can be divided into three generations; - First generation: mechanically switched devices (Manually operated passive elements for reactive power flow compensation) - Second generation: used thyristors with ignition controlled by gate(SCR). - Third generation: semiconductors with ignition and extinction controlled by gate (GTOs , MCTS , IGBTS , IGCTS , etc).

Fig. 15. FACTS Technology Developments Last two classifications are independent, existing for example, devices of a group of the second classification that can belong to various groups of the third classification. The main difference between second and third generation devices is the capacity to generate reactive power and to interchange active power. The first generation FACTS devices work like passive elements using impedance or tap changer transformers controlled by thyristors. The second generation FACTS devices work like angle and module controlled voltage sources and without inertia, based on converters, employing electronic tension sources (three-phase inverters, auto-switched voltage sources, synchronous voltage sources, voltage source control) fast proportioned and controllable and static synchronous voltage and current sources. 10.2 Based on network connection
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Depending on the type of connection to the network FACTS devices can differentiate four categories; a. b. c. d. serial controllers derivation controllers serial to serial controllers serial-derivation controllers

a. Serial controllers. Can consist of variable impedance as a condenser, coil, etc or a variable electronics based source at a fundamental frequency. The principle of operation of all serial controllers is to inject a serial tension to the line. A variable impedance multiplied by the current that flows through it represents the serial tension. While the tension is in quadrature with the line current the serial controller only consumes reactive power; any other phase angle represents management of active power. A typical controller is Serial Synchronous Static Compensator (SSSC). b. Controllers in derivation. As it happens with the serial controller, the controller in derivation can consist of a variable impedance, variable source or a combination of both. The operation principle of all controllers in derivation is to inject current to the system in the point of connection. A variable impedance connected to the line tension causes variable current flow, representing an injection of current to the line. While the injected current is in quadrature with the line tension, the controller in derivation only consumes reactive power; any other phase angle represents management of active power. A typical controller is Synchronous Static Compensator (STATCOM). c. Serial-serial Controllers. This type of controllers can be a combination of coordinated serial controllers in a multiline transmission system. Or can also be a unified controller in which the serial controllers provide serial reactive compensation for each line also transferring active power between lines through the link of power. The active power transmission capacity that present a unified serial controller or line feed power controller (also called BtB), makes possible the active and reactive power flow balance and makes the use of transmission bigger. In this case the term unified means that the DC terminals of the converters of all the controllers are connected to achieve a transfer of active power between each other. A typical controller is the Interline Power Flow Compensator (IPFC). d. Serial-derivation Controllers. This device can be a combination of serial and derivations controllers separated, coordinately controlled or a unified power flow controller with serial and derivation elements. The principle of operation of the serial-derivation controllers is to inject current to the system through the component in derivation of the controller, and serial tension with the line utilizing the serial component. When the serial and derivation controllers are unified, they can have an exchange of active power between them through their link. A typical controller is Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), switch incorporating function of a filtering and conditioning becomes a Universal Power Line Conditioner (UPLC).

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11.

OVERVIEW OF FACTS DEVICES

Fig. 16. Overview of Major FACTS Devices The left column in Fig. 16 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or mechanically switchable components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves. The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to compensate this. In each column the elements can be structured according to their connection to the power system. The shunt devices are primarily for reactive power compensation and therefore voltage control. The SVC provides in comparison to the mechanically switched compensation a smoother and more precise control. It improves the stability of the network and it can be adapted instantaneously to new situations. The STATCOM goes one step further and is capable of improving the power quality against even dips and flickers. The series devices are compensating reactive power. With their influence on the effective impedance on the line they have an
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influence on stability and power flow. These devices are installed on platforms in series to the line. Most manufacturers count Series Compensation, which is usually used in a fixed configuration, as a FACTS-device. The reason is, that most parts and the system setup require the same knowledge as for the other FACTS-devices. In some cases the Series Compensator is protected with a Thyristor-bridge. The application of the TCSC is pri marily for damping of inter-area oscillations and therefore stability improvement, but it has as well a certain influence on the power flow. The SSSC is a device which has so far not been builds on transmission level because Series Compensation and TCSC are fulfilling all the today's requirements more cost efficient. But series applications of Voltage Source Converters have been implemented for power quality applications on distribution level for instance to secure factory in feeds against dips and flicker. These devices are called Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) or Static Voltage Restorer (SVR). More and more growing importance is getting the FACTS-devices in shunt and series configuration. These devices are used for power flow controllability. The higher volatility of power flows due to the energy market activities requires a more flexible usage of the transmission capacity. Power flow control devices shift power flows from overloaded parts of the power system to areas with free transmission capability. Phase Shifting Transformers (PST) is the most common device in this sector. Their limitation is the low control speed together with a high wearing and maintenance for frequent operation. As an alternative with full and fast controllability the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is known since several years mainly in the literature and but as well in some test installations. The UPFC provides power flow control together with independent voltage control. The main disadvantage of this device is the high cost level due to the complex system setup. The relevance of this device is given especially for studies and research to figure out the requirements and benefits for a new FACTS-installation. All simpler devices can be derived from the UPFC if their capability is sufficient for a given situation. Derived from the UPFC there are even more complex devices called Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) and Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller (GUPFC) which provide power flow controllability in more than one line starting from the same substation. Between the UPFC and the PST there was a gap for a device with dynamic power flow capability but with a simpler setup than the UPFC. The Dynamic Power Flow Controller (DFC) was introduced recently to fill this gap. The combination of a small PST with Thyristor switched capacitors and inductances provide the dynamic controllability over parts of the control range. The practical requirements are fulfilled good enough to shift power flows in market situations and as well during contingencies. The last line of HVDC is added to this overview, because such installations are fulfilling all criteria to be a FACTS-device, which is mainly the full dynamic controllability. HVDC Back-toBack systems allow power flow controllability while additionally decoupling the frequency of both sides. While the HVDC Back-to- Back with Thyristors only controls the active power, the version with Voltage Source Converters allows additionally a full independent controllability of reactive power on both sides. Such a device ideally improves voltage control and stability together with the dynamic power flow control. For sure HVDC with Thyristor or Voltage Source Converters together with lines or cables provide the same functionality and can be seen as very

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long FACTS-devices. The control attributes for various FACTS configurations are listed in Table 3. Table 3. Control attributes of various FACTS devices S.No FACTS devices (2nd &3rd Generations) Var Compensator, SVC 1. Static (TCR,TCS,TRS) Controlled Series 2. Thyristor compensations (TCSC,TSSC) Controlled 3. Thyristor Series(TCSR,TSSC) Reactor Attributes of Control Voltage control and stability, compensation of VARs. muffling of oscillations Current control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current Current control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current Control of active power, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability Control of reactive power, voltage control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and voltage stability Limits o transitory and dynamic voltage

controlled Phase shifting 4. Thyristor transformer (TCPST,TCPR) 5. Thyristor Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR) 6. Thyristor Controlled Voltage Limited (TCVL) Third Generation Static Compensator 7. Synchronous (STATCOM without storage) Static Compensator 8. Synchronous (STATCOM with storage)

Voltage control, compensation of VARs, muffling of oscillations, stability of voltage Voltage control and stability, compensation of VARs, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and tension stability 9. Static Synchronous Series Compensator Current control, muffling of oscillations, (STATCOM without storage) transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current 10. Static Synchronous Series compensator Current control, muffling of oscillations, (STATCOM with storage) transitory,dynamics and of voltage stability Control of active and reative power, 11. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) voltage control, compensation of VARs,muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current 12. Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) control of reactive power, voltage control, or Back to back(BtB) muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and o voltage stability FACTS-devices are usually perceived as new technology, but hundreds of installations world wide, especially of SVC since early 1970s with a total installed power of 90.000 MVAr, show the acceptance of this kind of technology. Table 4 shows the estimated number of worldwide
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installed FACTS devices and the estimated total installed power. Even the newer developments like STATCOM or TCSC show a quick growth rate in their specific application areas. Table 4. Estimated number of worldwide installed FACTS devices and their estimated total installed power Type SVC STATCOM Series Compensation TCSC HVDC B2B HVDC VSC B2B UPFC Number 600 15 700 10 41 1+(7 with cable) 2-3 Total Installed Power in MVA 90.000 1.200 350.00 2.000 14.000 900 250

12. INSTALLATION FACTORS FOR FACTS DEVICES There are three factors to be considered before installing FACTS devices: a. The type of device b. The capacity required c. The location that optimize the functioning of the device Of these three factors, the last one is of great importance, because the desired effect and the proper features of the system depend of the location of FACTS.
Steps for the identification of FACTS Projects:

i.

ii. iii.

iv.

The first step should always be to conduct a detailed network study to investigate the critical conditions of a grid or grids connections. These conditions could include: risks of voltage problems or even voltage collapse, undesired power flows, as well as the potential for power swings or sub synchronous resonances; For a stable grid, the optimized utilization of the transmission lines e.g. increasing the energy transfer capability could be investigated; If there is a potential for improving the transmission system, either through enhanced stability or energy transfer capability, the appropriate FACTS device and its required rating can be determined; Based on this technical information, an economical study can be performed to compare costs of FACTS devices or conventional solutions with the achievable benefits.

13. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF FACTS CONFIGURATIONS 13.1 Shunt Configuration The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks are:
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 Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train systems Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines Improvement of static or transient stability Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes due to insufficient power quality. For example demands for increased steel production and rules for network disturbances have, together with increasing cost of energy, made reactive power compensation a requirement in the steel industry. A special attention is given to weak network connections with severe voltage support problems. A steel melting process demands a stable and steady voltage support for the electric arc furnace. With dynamic reactive power compensation, the random voltage variations characterized by an arc furnace are minimized. The minimized voltage variations are achieved by continuously compensating the reactive power consumption from the arc furnace. The result is an overall improvement of the furnace operation, which leads to better process and production economy. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations require SVCs or STATCOMs similar to the application above. SVC or STATCOM for even stricter requirements on power quality are used in other kinds of critical factory processes, like electronic or semiconductor productions. A growing area of application is the renewable or distributed energy sector. Especially offshore wind farms with its production fluctuation have to provide a balanced reactive power level and keep the voltage limitations within the wind farm, but as well on the interconnection point with the main grid. A lot distributed generation devices are interconnected with the grid through a voltage source converter similar to the STATCOM fulfilling all requirements on a stable network operation. 13.1.1 SVC Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse. A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability. Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network conditions. In addition an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations through voltage amplitude modulation. SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the Thyristor valve, i.e. stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The stepup connection of this equipment to the transmission voltage is
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achieved through a power transformer. The Thyristor valves together with auxiliary systems are located indoors in an SVC building, while the air core reactors and capacitors, together with the power transformer are located outdoors. In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor Switched or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination of these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Fig. 17. The first commercial SVC was installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission level the first SVC was used in 1979. Since then it is widely used and the most accepted FACTS-device. A recent installation is shown in Figure 1.10.

Fig. 17 SVC building blocks and voltage /current characteristic 13.1.2 STATCOM In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM (STATic COMpensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is built with Thyristors with turn-off capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The structure and operational characteristic is shown in Fig. 18. The static line between the current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage. The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC in Fig. 18. This means, that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability. In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the combination with energy storages on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

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Fig. 18. STATCOM structure and voltage /current characteristic

13.2 Series Devices The world's first Series Compensation on transmission level, counted nowadays by the manufacturers as a FACTS-device, went into operation in 1950. Series Compensation is used in order to decrease the transfer reactance of a power line at rated frequency. A series capacitor installation generates reactive power that in a self-regulating manner balances a fraction of the line's transfer reactance. The result is that the line is electrically shortened, which improves angular stability, voltage stability and power sharing between parallel lines. Series Capacitors are installed in series with a transmission line, which means that all the equipment has to be installed on a fully insulated platform. On this steel platform the main capacitor is located together with the overvoltage protection circuits. The overvoltage protection is a key design factor, as the capacitor bank has to withstand the throughput fault current, even at a severe nearby fault. The primary overvoltage protection typically involves non-linear varistors of metal-oxide type, a spark gap and a fast bypass switch. Secondary protection is achieved with ground mounted electronics acting on signals from optical current transducers in the high voltage circuit. Even if the device is known since several years, improvements are ongoing. One recent achievement is the usage of dry capacitors with a higher energy density and higher environmental friendliness. As a primary protection Thyristor switches can be used, but cheaper alternatives with almost the same capability based on triggered spark gaps and special breakers without power electronics have recently been developed. A special application of Series Compensation can be achieved by combining it with a series reactance to get a fault current limiter. Both components are neutralizing each other in normal operation. In the case of a fault, die Series Compensation is bridged with a fast protection device or a Thyristor bridge. The remaining reactance is limiting the fault current. Pilot installations of such a system configuration are already in use. 13.2.1 TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) address specific dynamical problems in transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical systems are interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub- Synchronous Resonance (SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units and series compensated transmission systems. The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a
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mechanism for controlling line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits.

Fig. 19. Principle setup and operational diagram of thyristor controlled series compensation (TCSC) From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional series capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including the thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Likewise the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary systems. Fig. 19 shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram. The firing angle and the thermal limits of the thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational diagram. The main principles of the TCSC concept are two; firstly, to provide electromechanical damping between large electrical systems by changing the reactance of a specific interconnecting power line, i.e. the TCSC will provide a variable capacitive reactance. Secondly, the TCSC shall change its apparent impedance (as seen by the line current) for sub-synchronous frequencies, such that a prospective sub synchronous resonance is avoided. Both objectives are achieved with the TCSC, using control algorithms that work concurrently. The controls will function on the thyristor circuit in parallel to the main capacitor bank such that controlled charges are added to the main capacitor, making it a variable capacitor at fundamental frequency but a virtual inductor at sub-synchronous frequencies. The first TCSC was commissioned in 1996. 13.2.2 SSSC While the TCSC can be modeled as series impedance, the SSSC is a series voltage source. The principle configuration is shown in Fig. 20, which looks basically the same as the STATCOM. But in reality this device is more complicated because of the platform mounting and the protection. A Thyristor protection is absolutely necessary, because of the low overload capacity of the semiconductors, especially when IGBTs are used.

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Fig. 20. Principle setup of SSSC and implementation as DVR for power quality applications

The voltage source converter plus the Thyristor protection makes the device much more costly, while the better performance cannot be used on transmission level. The picture is quite different if we look into power quality applications. This device is then called Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). The DVR is used to keep the voltage level constant, for example in a factory infeed. Voltage dips and flicker can be mitigated. The duration of the action is limited by the energy stored in the DC capacitor. With a charging mechanism or battery on the DC side, the device could work as an uninterruptible power supply. 13.3 Shunt and Series Devices Power flow capability is getting more and more importance with the growing restrictions for new power lines and the more volatile power flow due to the energy market activities. 13.3.1 Dynamic Flow Controller A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow Controller (DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) and switched series compensation. A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Fig. 21a. The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components: a standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST) series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors (TSC / TSR) A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on the system reactive power requirements)

Fig. 21a. Principle configuration of DFC Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or TSR. The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support in case of overload and other conditions. Normally the reactances of reactors and the capacitors are selected based
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on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher power flow resolution is needed, a reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added. The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics. However, in general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be applied for a continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules: TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required. The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR. The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the currents higher than normal loading. The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the operation of the MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors. In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume an inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective in steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the DFC and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series voltage.

Fig. 21b. Operational diagram of a DFC

The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the throughput current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of speed of control, influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high/low loading the two parts of the series voltage has quite different characteristics. The steady state control range for loadings up to rated current is illustrated in Fig. 21b, where the x-axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y-axis corresponds to the injected series voltage. Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the power flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the origin (at which the tap is at zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the short circuit reactance of the PST. Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an injected voltage (approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases (and the flow on parallel branches increases). The operating point moves along lines parallel to the arrows in the Fig. 21b. The slope of these arrows depends on the size of the parallel reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps are
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switched in and the tap is at its maximum. Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases (due e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero current, it will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the series voltage. Consequently, the series voltage at zero current corresponds to rated PST series voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by the line corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive steps by-passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant. 13.3.2 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSI's) sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the system through coupling transformers. One VSI is connected in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer. A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown in Fig. 22.

Fig. 22. Basic structure of UPFC The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current ish into the transmission line. This current consists of two components with respect to the line voltage: the real or direct component ishd, which is in phase or in opposite phase with the line voltage, and the reactive or quadrature component, ishq, which is in quadrature. The direct component is automatically determined by the requirement to balance the real power of the series inverter. The quadrature component, instead, can be independently set to any desired reference level (inductive or capacitive) within the capability of the inverter, to absorb or generate respectively reactive power from the line. The various possible control modes are listed down; a) VAR Control Mode: In this, the reference input is an inductive or capacitive var as request. The shunt converter control translates the var reference in to a corresponding shunt current request and adjusting the gating of the converter to establish the desired current. b) Automatic Voltage Control Mode: In this the goal is to maintain the transmission line voltage at the connection point to a reference value. Instead, the series inverter injecting the voltage Vse controllable in amplitude and phase angle in series with the transmission line influences the power flow on the transmission line. The injected series voltage can be determined in different ways. c) Direct Voltage Injection Mode:
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The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase angle of the series injected voltage. When the injected voltage is kept in phase with the system voltage or in quadrature with the line current, provides series reactive compensation. d) Phase Angle Shifter Emulation Mode: The reference input signal is phase displacement between the two ends of bus voltages. The injected voltage is controlled with respect to input bus voltage so that the output bus voltage is phase shifted by an angle specified by the reference input. e) Line Impedance Emulation Mode: In line impedance mode, the magnitude of the injected voltage vector Vpq is controlled in proportion to the magnitude of line current, so it emulates reactive impedance. The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance. f) Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: In automatic power flow control mode, the series injected voltage is determined automatically and continuously by a closed loop control system to ensure that the desired P and Q are maintained despite system changes. The reference inputs are values of P and Q to maintain on the transmission line despite system changes. For simplification of control analysis and to improve the dynamic performance of UPFC, various control strategies including d-q axis control have been reported by authors. 13.3.3 Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) The IPFC is a generalized and multi-functional FACTS controller. The IPFC addresses the problem of compensating a number of transmission lines at a given substation. Series capacitive compensators are used to increase the transmittable active power over a given line but they are unable to control the reactive power flow in, and thus the proper load balancing of the line. With IPFC active power can be transferred between different lines.

Fig. 23. Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) Therefore, it is possible to: Equalize both active and reactive power flow between the lines, Reduce the burden of overloaded lines by active power transfer,

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Compensate against resistive line voltage drops and the corresponding reactive power demand, Increase the effectiveness of the overall compensating system for dynamic disturbances. The capability of the IPFC is facilitated by a number of voltage-sourced converters (VSCs) as shown in Fig. 23, which are connected back-to-back at their dc terminals. Each VSC is coupled to a different transmission line via series coupling transformer and is able to provide independent series reactive compensation, as an SSSC, to its own line. However, the converters can transfer active power among them via their common dc terminal. A multi-converter IPFC configuration allows the IPFC to provide reactive power series compensation in one series branch, and to provide both active and reactive compensation for the remaining series branch. 13.3.4 Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller The GUPFC combines three or more shunt and series converters. It extends the concept of voltage and power flow control beyond what is achievable with the known two-converter UPFC. The simplest GUPFC consists of three converters, one connected in shunt and the other two in series with two transmission lines in a substation. Fig. 24 shows the principle configuration. The basic GUPFC can control total five power system quantities such as a bus voltage and independent active and reactive power flows of two lines.

Fig. 24. Principle configuration of a GUPFC The concept of GUPFC can be extended for more lines if necessary. The device may be installed in some central substations to manage power flows of multi-lines or a group of lines and provide voltage support as well. By using GUPFC-devices, the transfer capability of transmission lines can be increased significantly. Furthermore, by using the multi-line management capability of the GUPFC, active power flows on lines can not only be increased, but also be decreased with respect to operating and market transaction requirements. In general the GUPFC can be used to increase transfer capability and relieve congestions in a flexible way. The complexity of its configuration and control scheme needs specific applications cases. 14. FACTS APPLICATIONS FACTS controllers can be used for various applications to enhance power system performance. One of the greatest advantages of using FACTS controllers is that it can be used in all the three states of the power system, namely: (1) Steady state, (2) Transient and (3) Post transient steady

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state. However, the conventional devices find little application during system transient or contingency condition. 14.1 Steady State Application Various steady state applications of FACTS controllers includes voltage control (low and high), increase of thermal loading, post-contingency voltage control, loop flows control, reduction in short circuit level and power flow control. SVC and STATCOM can be used for voltage control while TCSC is more suited for loop flow control and for power flow control. a) Congestion Management Congestion management is a serious concern for Independent System Operator (ISO) in present deregulated electricity markets as it can arbitrarily increase the prices and hinders the free electricity trade. FACTS devices like TCSC, TCPAR (Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator) and UPFC can help to reduce congestion, smoothen locational marginal prices (LMP) and to increase the social welfare by redirecting power from congested interface to underutilized lines. b) ATC Improvement In many deregulated market, the power transaction between buyer and seller is allowed based on calculation of ATC. Low ATC signifies that the network is unable to accommodate further transaction and hence does not promote free competition. FACTS controllers like TCSC, TCPAR and UPFC can help to improve ATC by allowing more power transactions. c) Reactive Power and Voltage Control The use of shunt FACTS controllers like SVC and STATCOM for reactive power and voltage control is well known. d) Loading Marin Improvement Several blackouts in many part of the world occur mainly due to voltage collapse at the maximum load ability point. Series and shunt compensations are generally used to increase the maximum transfer capabilities of power networks. The recent advancement in FACTS controllers have allowed them to be used more efficiently for increasing the loading margin in the system. e) Power Flow Balancing and Control FACTS controllers, especially TCSC, SSSC and UPFC, enable the load flow on parallel circuits and different voltage levels to be optimized and controlled, with a minimum of power wheeling, the best possible utilization of the lines, and a minimizing of overall system losses at the same time. 14.2 Dynamic Application Dynamic application of FACTS controllers includes transient stability improvement, oscillation damping (dynamic stability) and voltage stability enhancement. One of the most important capabilities expected of FACTS applications is to be able to reduce the impact of the primary disturbance. The impact reduction for contingencies can be achieved through dynamic voltage support (STATCOM), dynamic flow control (TCSC) or both with the use of UPFC.
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i. Transient Stability Enhancement Transient instability is caused by large disturbances such as tripping of a major transmission line or a generator and the problem can be seen from the first swing of the angle. FACTS devices can resolve the problem by providing fast and rapid response during the first swing to control voltage and power flow in the system. ii. Oscillation Damping Electromechanical oscillations have been observed in many power systems worldwide and may lead to partial power interruption if not controlled. Initially, power system stabilizer (PSS) is used for oscillation damping in power system. Now this function can be more effectively handled by proper placement an setting of SVC, STATCOM and TCSC. iii. Dynamic Voltage Control Shunt FACTS controllers like SVC and STATCOM as well as UPFC can be utilized for dynamic control of voltage during system contingency and save the system from voltage collapse and blackout. iv. SSR Elimination Sub synchronous resonance (SSR) is a phenomenon which can be associated with series compensation under certain adverse conditions. TCSC have dynamic characteristics that differ drastically from conventional series capacitors especially at frequencies outside the operating frequency range and hence is used in Stde, Sweden for the elimination of SSR in the power system. v. Power system Interconnection Interconnection of power systems is becoming increasingly widespread as part of power exchange between countries as well as regions within countries in many parts of the world. There are numerous examples of interconnection of remotely separated regions within one country. Such are found in the Nordic countries, Argentina and Brazil. In cases of long distance AC transmission, as in interconnected power systems, care has to be taken for safeguarding of synchronism as well as stable system voltages, particularly in conjunction with system faults. With series compensation, bulk AC power transmission over distances of more than 1,000km are a reality today and has been used in Brazil north south interconnection. With the advent of TCSC, further potential as well as flexibility is added to AC power transmission. 14.3 Application in Deregulated Environment Apart from its traditional application for voltage control, power flow control and enhancing steady state and dynamic limits, FACTS controllers are finding new applications in the present deregulated environment. One of the applications is in controlling the parallel flow or loop flow. Loop flow results in involuntary reduction in transmission capacity that may belong to some other utility and hence foreclose beneficial transactions through that line. Utilities can also make use of FACTS controllers in their tie lines, either to shield it from the neighbouring effects, such as wheeling transactions or to participate in such transaction. FACTS devices can also be implemented to ensure the economy in operation by placing it in a suitable line such that least cost generators can be dispatched more. It can also be used to reduce the losses in the system. Yet, another application is to use FACTS to relieve the congestion in the system. FACTS devices can be strategically placed such that congestion cost is reduced, curtailment is decreased and price volatility due to congestion is minimized.

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15. FACTS BENEFITS & COSTS The benefits from the use of FACTS devices are many; however, not all are tangible. Similarly, the costs of FACTS devices are also huge. The world second UPFC came into operation at the end of year 2004 in Keepco power system in Korea. It was the largest single procurement order ever placed by Keepco. From this, it is clear how expensive these technologies are. But, the cost has to compute against anticipated benefits. One of the reasons for low deployment of FACTS is because very little has been done to show their profitableness. FACTS devices can save the system from potential threat of system collapse, which can have very serious consequences on other economic sector as well. It can help to avoid the wide spread blackout. The opportunity cost of FACTS controllers in these situations has to take into consideration. 15.1 Benefits i. Environmental Benefit The construction of new transmission line has negative impact on the environment. FACTS devices help to distribute the electrical energy more economically through better utilization of existing installation there by reducing the need for additional transmission lines. For example, in Sweden, eight 400 kV systems run in parallel to transport electrical energy from the north to the south. Each of these transmission systems is equipped with FACTS. Studies have shown that four additional 400 kV transmission systems would be necessary, if FACTS were not utilized on the existing systems. ii. Increased Stability Instabilities in power system are created due to long length of transmission lines, interconnected grid, changing system loads and line faults in the system. These instabilities results in reduced line flows or even line trip. FACTS devices stabilize transmission systems with increased transfer capability and reduced risk of line trips. iii. Increased Quality of Supply Modern industries require high quality of electricity supply including constant voltage and frequency, and no supply interruptions. Voltage dips, frequency variations or the loss of supply can lead to interruptions in manufacturing processes with high economic losses. FACTS devices can help to provide the required quality of supply. iv. Flexibility and Uptime Unlike new overhead transmission lines that take several years to construct, FACTS installation requires only 12 to 18 months. FACTS installation has the flexibility for future upgrades and requires small land area. v. Financial Benefit Financial benefit from FACTS devices comes from the additional sales due to increased transmission capability, additional wheeling charges due to increased transmission capability and due to delay in investment of high voltage transmission lines or even new power generation facilities. Also, in a deregulated market, the improved stability in a power system substantially reduces the risk for forced outages, thus reducing risks of lost revenue and penalties from power contracts. vi. Reduced Maintenance Cost The overhead transmission lines need to be cleared from the surrounding environment (e.g. tree branches) from time to time. In comparison to this, the FACTS maintenance cost is very
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minimum. In addition, as the number of transmission line increases, the probability of fault occurring in a line is also high. So, by utilizing the transmission systems optimally with the use of FACTS, the total number of line fault is minimized, thus reducing the maintenance costs. 15.2 Costs As compared to conventional devices, FACTS controllers are very expensive. The approximate cost per kVar output of various conventional devices and FACTS controllers are shown in Table. However, the cost per kVar decreases for higher capacity of FACTS controllers. The total cost also depends on the size of fixed and controlled portion of the FACTS controllers. The FACTS equipment cost represent only half of the total FACTS project cost. Other costs like civil works, installation, commissioning, insurance, engineering and project management constitute the other half of the FACTS project cost. Table 5. Cost of conventional and FACTS controllers FACTS Controllers Shunt Capacitor Series Capacitor SVC TCSC STATCOM UPFC Series Portions UPFC Shunt Portions Cost 8/kVar 20/kVar 40/ kVar controlled portions 40/ kVar controlled portions 50/ kVar 50/ kVar through power 50/ kVar controlled

15.3 Issues High cost and high losses, appropriate size and setting, location and procurement availability are some major issues with the use of FACTS controllers. Even with the long history of development, proven technology and long list of benefits, FACTS controllers are not yet widely deployed because of the high cost as compared to the conventional counterpart. The procurement availability of FACTS controllers is also a major issue. Market for SVC is widely developed and can be procured competitively. While, very limited competition exists regarding the procurement of TCSC and STATCOM. For the case of UPFC, it is more likely that there will be no competition at all. Another important concern is the losses, which increase with higher loading and FACTS devices produce more loss than the conventional ones. So, more effort is needed in the development of semiconductor switches that are fast and, at the same time, have low switching and conduction losses. Size of FACTS controllers also bears significance, since cost increases proportionally with the size. Similarly appropriate setting and location are important to obtain the desired performance. These are to be addressed during the planning stage of the FACTS project. As the number of FACTS controllers increases in the power system, the interactions among the controllers itself will be a serious concern that requires separate in-depth study

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16.

CASE STUDIES FACTS DEVICES

16.1 SVC in Thailand The power system in Thailand during 1990s was undergoing strong expansion. A weak part of the bulk system was a tie-line linking major generation located in the central region with the load in the south. The length of this interconnection is about 700 km. Transient stability was a limiting factor for power transmission of this interconnection. Therefore, an SVC rated 50 MVAr inductive to 300 MVAr capacitive at 230 kV, was installed in 1994 at Bang Saphan substation, located midway along the interconnection. The purpose of the SVC is consequently to increase the transient stability, thereby increasing the power transmission capability of the system by a considerable amount. At the same time the SVC provides continuous voltage control under various operating conditions of the system. The SVC at Bang Saphan has enabled a considerable increase of the active power transmission capability of the power corridor to the south. Without the SVC, the power transmission capacity was limited to below 200 MW due to transient stability limitations of the tie-line. With the SVC in operation, the power transmission capacity has been raised to well over 300 MW, representing an improvement of power transmission capacity by more than 50% over existing lines. 16.2 TCSC in Brazil North-South Interconnection An example of AC interconnection of separate power systems within one country is found in Brazil. There are two main power systems in the country which were previously not interconnected, the North System and the South System. The system was connected with 500 kV AC line of 1,000 km long line and series compensated in several places. The TCSC is located at the Imperatriz substation and Sarra de Mesa, which are the terminal points of the interconnection. The task of TCSC is to damp low frequency inter-area power oscillations between the power systems on either side of the inter-connection. These oscillations (0.2 Hz) would otherwise constitute a hazard to power system stability. 16.3 STATCOM at SDG&E Talega Substation The STATCOM installed in the SDG&E system at the Talega 138 kV substation is being applied to relieve transmission system constraints in the area through dynamic var control during peak load conditions. It is operating as a STATCOM with a rated dynamic reactive capacity of 100 MVAr. The main objectives of the Talega STATCOM are to regulate and control the 138 kV AC system voltage, to give dynamic reactive power support following system contingencies, and to provide high reliability with redundant parallel converter design and modular construction and operational flexibility through auto-reconfiguration design. 16.4 UPFC at AEP Inez Substation The first UPFC ( 320 MVA) was commissioned in 1998 at America Electric Power (AEP) Inez substation. At that time, the Inez load area has power demand of around 2,000 MW and was served by long heavily loaded 138 kV transmission lines. During normal power delivery, there was very small voltage stability margin for system contingencies. Single contingency outages in the area will adversely affect the underlying 138 kV system, and, in certain cases, a second contingency would be intolerable, resulting in a wide-area blackout.

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UPFC was installed at Inez substation to provide reliable power supply to the Inez area with effective voltage support and added real power supply facilities. More than 100 MW increase in power transfer, excellent voltage support at the Inez bus and reduction in real power loss by more than 24 MW was achieved with this installation. 17. PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER VERSUS HVDC AND FACTS Phase shifting transformers have been developed for transmission system enhancement in steady state system conditions. The operation principle is voltage source injection into the line by a series connected transformer, which is fed by a tapped shunt transformer, very similar to the UPFC, which uses VSC-Power Electronics for coupling of shunt and series transformer. This way, overloading of lines and loop-flows in Meshed Systems and in parallel line configurations can be eliminated. However, the speed of phase shifting transformers for changing the phase angle of the injected voltage via the taps is very slow: typically between 5 and 10sec per tap, which sums up for 1 minute or more, depending on the number of taps. As a rule of thumb for successful voltage or power-flow restoration under transient system conditions, a response time of approx. 100mSec is necessary with regard to voltage collapse phenomena and First Swing Stability requirements. Such fast reaction times can easily be achieved by means of FACTS and HVDC controllers. Their response times are fully suitable for fast support of the system recovery. Therefore, dynamic voltage and load-flow restoration is clearly reserved to power electronic devices like FACTS and HVDC. In conclusion, phase shifting transformers and similar devices using mechanical taps can only be applied for very limited tasks with slow requirements under steady state system conditions.

18.

HYBRID AC/DC INTERCONNECTION

Even if the conditions of two power systems allow an ac interconnection the stability of such a link depends on the length and strength of the interconnection. A parallel HVDC interconnection can essentially improve operating conditions. Fig. 25 shows a comparison of an ac and of a hybrid ac/dc interconnection. If the interconnection consists of two double-circuit ac lines, it can be seen that in the event of a severe fault in one system the ac link becomes unstable. However, if the interconnection consists of one double-circuit ac line and a parallel HVDC bipole, operating conditions are stable. Using its fast control, the HVDC system can efficiently damp stability oscillations. In the future, interconnected systems may extend over continents to form global systems. However, the technical and economical advantages of very long ac interconnections unifying more than two systems diminish with the size of the total system. In such cases, a hybrid ac/dc interconnection could improve the operation and offers economic advantages (Fig. 26). The idea of such a hybrid interconnection is to exchange power between neighboring systems by shorter ac interconnections and to use HVDC for transmission of large power blocks over long distances. In such global systems HVDC can assure reliable operation of the total system by its fast control. Also, Power can be brought directly to the spots in the systems where it is required without any risk to overload the AC system in between. A further advantage of such a solution is the control performance of HVDC, which can effectively support the AC system stability and damp inter-area oscillations.
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Fig. 25. AC system interconnection and hybrid AC/HVDC interconnection

Fig. 26. Representation of large interconnections 19. SYSTEM STUDIES FOR LARGE TRANSMISSION PROJECTS WITH HVDC AND FACTS Fig. 27 give an example of a large power system simulation of the Chinese grid, in which both FACTS and HVDC have been integrated for grid interconnection and point to point long
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distance transmission in a hybrid way. Because of the long transmission distances, the system experiences severe power oscillations after faults, close to the stability limits. In the recordings in Fig. 28 (upper part) oscillations are depicted. The first case given is HVDC transmitting power in constant power mode, see curve a. It can be seen that strong power oscillations occur. If, however, damping control of HVDC Gui-Guang is activated (curve b), the oscillations are damped very effectively. Using series compensation with two TCSCs and two FSCs at Pingguo substation, the stability of the overall system can be further increased (curve c ). The lower part of Fig. 28 shows that without HVDC, the Pingguo TCSCs need more actions for damping: 28a) compared to 28-b). Without series compensation and without HVDC damping, such a large power system would be unstable in case of fault contingencies, thus leading to severe outages (Blackout).

Fig. 27. Use of HVDC and FACTS in Hybrid system in China Similar studies have been carried out for large transmission projects worldwide. An example of such studies is described in the following. With the Mead-Adelanto and the Mead-Phoenix Transmission Project (MAP/MPP), a major 500 kV transmission system extension has been carried out to increase the power transfer opportunities between Arizona and California, USA. The extension includes two main series compensated 500 kV line segments and two equally rated Static Var Compensators, supplied by Siemens, at the Adelanto and Marketplace substations - ref to Fig. 29. The SVCs enabled the integrated operation of the already existing highly compensated EHV AC system and two large HVDC systems. The SVC installation was an essential prerequisite for the overall system stability at an increased power transfer rate.

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Fig. 28. China Benefits of active damping with HVDC & FACTS

Fig. 29. HVDC plus SVC ;Mead Adelanto-USA

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Fig. 30 Mead-Adelanto studies-Comparison of SVC Voltage and POD Control Mode

Fig. 31. The Problem - No Right of Way for 400kV AC Grid Access of Baltic cable HVDC An example of the intensive project testing with computer and real-time simulator facilities is given in Fig. 30 for a fault application at Marketplace 500 kV bus. The figure shows the computer test results with both SVCs active. The influence of the HVDC can be seen from the DC voltage Edc. Fig. 30a. is with both SVCs only in voltage control mode (PSDC blocked); Fig. 30b. shows an improved damping with the PSDC function enabled. In Fig. 31, a new FACTS application with SVC in combination with HVDC in Germany is shown.

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Fig. 32. The Solution the first HV SVC in the German Grid at Siemens substation It is actually the first high voltage FACTS controller in the German network. Reason for the SVC installation at Siemenss substation nearby the landing point of the Baltic Cable HVDC were unforeseen right of way restrictions in the neighboring area, where an initially planned new tieline to the strong 400 kV network for connection of the HVDC was denied. Therefore, with the existing reduced network voltage of 110 kV (see the dotted black lines in Fig. 31, only a limited amount of power transfer of the DC link was possible since its commissioning in 1994, in order to avoid repetitive HVDC commutation failures and voltage problems in the grid. In an initial first step for grid access improvement, an additional transformer for connecting the 400 kV HVDC AC bus with the 110 kV bus (see the Fig. 31) was installed. Finally, in 2003 with the new SVC, equipped with a fast coordinated control, the HVDC could fully increase its transmission capacity up to the design rating of 600 MW. In addition to this measure, a new cable to the 220 kV grid was installed, to increase the system strength with regard to performance improvement of the HVDC controls. In Fig. 32, a photo of the Siemens SVC in Germany is given. In the same way as in the previous project cases, intensive studies, first with computer and then with real-time simulator by using the physical SVC controls and simplified models for the HVDC, have been carried out prior to commissioning. 20. MARKET AND RELIABILITY ISSUES In conclusion of the previous sections, Table 6 summarizes the impact of FACTS and HVDC on load flow, stability and voltage quality when using different devices. Evaluation is based on a large number of studies and experiences from projects reported in research papers. Table 7 summarizes the market expectations for FACTS and HVDC solutions today and in the future. The market for series compensation, for SVC and for B2B for load-flow control is actually large today and, as a result of liberalization and deregulation in the power industry, is developing fast in the future. The market in the HVDC long distance transmission field is further progressing fast. A large number of high power long distance transmission schemes using either overhead lines or submarine cables projects have been put into operation or are in the stage of installation.

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Principle

Variation of the Line Impedance : series Compensa tion

Voltage Control; Shunt compensat ion

Load-Flow Control

Table 6. FACTS & HVDC Overview of Functions & Ranking (Based On Survey of studies & Practical Experience) Devices Scheme Impact on System Performance Load Stability Voltage Flow Quality FSC (Fixed series compensation) TPSC (Thyristor protected series compensation) TCSC (Thyristor controlled series compensation) MSC/R (Mechanically Switched capacitor/Reactor) SVC (static var Compensator) STATCOM (static synchronous Compensator) HVDC(B2B,LDT) UPFC (Unfied Power Flow controller)

Influence: No or low Small Medium Strong Table 7. Markets for FACTS and HVDC Products S.No Type 1. Product Market Status

2. 3. 4.

Shunt MSC/R Compensation SVC STATCOM Series FSC Compensation FCSC/TPSC Combined UPFC Device Power HVDC Transmission

Small Market Upcoming Market Excellent Market

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Excellent on-site operating experience is being reported, and the FACTS and HVDC technology became mature and reliable. 21. FACTS AND HVDC CONTROLS OF THE FUTURE POWER SYSTEM

21.1. Renewable energy sources: Challenges to the grids Sustainability of power supply stands for a number of measures for efficiency enhancement with regard to power generation, it means the increase in efficiency ratio during energy conversion at a power plant, the reduction in transmission losses in the grid and, last but not least, efficiency enhancement at the load. The decisive role in terms of sustainability is played by the renewable energy sources, particularly those capable of producing entirely CO2-free power, such as hydro, solar and wind energy. 21.2. Needs of Advanced FACTS and HVDC based Control for Future Power Systems It has been recognized that some transmission systems are not yet designed for the deregulated energy market. Power system infrastructure needs modernization as future power systems will have to be smart, fault tolerant, dynamically and statically controllable, and energy efficient. As discussed in the previous sections, the interconnected transmission network needs either to be enforced or to be upgraded to a super power grid using FACTS and HVDC technologies. The super power grid may be a mixture of high voltage AC and HVDC links plus FACTS devices for provision of secure and reliable power transmission. FACTS and HVDC will be helpful to provide fast dynamic voltage, power flow and stability control of the power grid while enhancing efficient utilization of transmission assets. At the same time network congestion will be efficiently managed and system blackouts will be mitigated or avoided. 21.3. Integration of Wind Area Stability Control and Protection with FACTS and HVDC Control against System Blackouts The wide area stability control and protection system is considered the "eyes" that overlook the entire system area, and can capture any system incidents very quickly; while FACTS and HVDC are the "hands" of the system, which have very fast dynamic response capability and should be able to take very quick actions as soon as commands are received from the system operator. As the current situation stands, the fast dynamic control capability of FACTS and HVDC has not been fully explored and realized. The integration of the Wide Area Stability Control and Protection with FACTS and HVDC control will fully employ control capabilities of both technologies to achieve fast stability control of system, and to prevent the system against blackouts. Hence, a high network security and a reliable performance can be achieved. In order to tackle large-scale stability disturbance and protect the transmission system against blackouts, a coordinated control of the integrated power network is required using the advanced stability control methodologies and/or wide area monitoring and control by using FACTS and HVDC control technologies. In order to fulfill the requirement of wide area monitoring control, Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) are required to be installed in some portal substations, which can provide necessary information for wide area control. In addition, a system operator of the interconnected EU network is essential to coordinate the operation and control of the system reliably and safely.
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21.4. FACTS and HVDC for Distributed Generation FACTS and HVDC can be applied in transmission systems to improve the voltage, power flow and stability control. They can also be applied in the interconnection of distributed generation to power grids in order to satisfy the connection requirement of distributed generators in compliance with the Grid Codes. In recent years, a number of VSC HVDCs with BTB structure have been applied in the wind generation interconnection with the grid thanks to the voltage, active and reactive power control capability provided by the BTB VSC HVDC. In the future, for some applications, a multi-terminal VSC HVDC configuration may be used. FACTS controllers such as SVC and STATCOM can be applied to control voltage of wind generators, as voltage usually fluctuates. STATCOM, which has the ability to regulate voltage smoothly and quickly and provide continuously dynamic reactive support, will find wide application in this aspect. STATCOM integrated with energy storage will give the device greater influence such that dynamic active and reactive power flow control may be achieved. STATCOM devices can be used to achieve voltage and power flow control for wind generation, power quality control for preventing voltage dips; voltage swells; fault ride through and stability control. In order to fully employ the capabilities of FACTS, use of the energy storage integrated with FACTS will be a viable solution in providing multifunctional controls for voltage fluctuations, power flow and power quality in a single device. 22. OUTLOOK OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF FACTS AND HVDC

The development of future FACTS and HVDC requires the following features; (a) Reduction of overall costs (b) Improvement of reliability (c) Structural modularity and scalability (d) Mobility and relocatability (e) Internal fault-detecting and protection capabilities (f) Openness to third party product connectivity 22.1. Reduction of Overall Costs It seems likely that continuous R&D effort will reduce the overall cost of VSC by 25 to 30 00, because no auxiliary components are needed for harmonic cancellation; transformer-less series controllers can be developed; identical building block module structure for partial availability can also be developed; wide frequency band control operation will become fast and effective; and protection action during abnormal operation conditions and contingencies will become feasible. 22.2. Improvement of Reliability With the advances in IEGT, ETO or other power electronic switch techniques, reliability will be improved due to the application of simplified circuits and advanced packaging techniques. As there are an enormous number of chips in a power system converter, a single chip failure would not lead to malfunction of an entire FACTS device.

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22.3 Structural Modularity and Scalability The concept of modularity comes from computer software engineering; modularity has been applied to hardware architecture, institutional organization and structure, etc. A modular design should have a clear architecture, clean interfaces, and a set of well-specified functional tests of each module's performance. The design of IBM's 360-mainframe computer is a good example for explaining modularity. The IBM system was designed to have various parts, called modules. The modules were designed and produced independently of one another, but, when combined, they worked together seamlessly. As a result, all mainframe computers built out of the 360 modules could run the same software. Furthermore, new modules could be added to the system, and old ones upgraded without rewriting code or disrupting operations. In a similar fashion, the H-bridge Building Block is a modular designed VSC, which has easy-toexpand voltage and power ratings by adding building blocks in series or shunt connections. Modular design of VSCs will therefore be convenient for maintenance and easy to diagnose for fault or failure of hardware. Scalability is a very important design concept in electronics systems, computer systems, databases, routers, and networking; it implicitly implies performance. A system, whose performance improves after adding hardware, proportionally to the capacity added, is said to be a scalable system. System scalability makes system expansion simple and easy, hence upgrading the system is more feasible. 22.4. Mobility and Re-locatability In electricity market environments, the uncertainty of the system demand becomes a real challenge. In this situation, it is preferable that FACTS devices can be mobilized and should be reloadable according to the system demand distribution. In this way, the stranded transmission investment costs may be avoided, and hence the uncertainty of planning can be hedged. 22.5 Functional Flexibility Functional flexibility requires a FACTS device to provide more than one control function or control possibility. In addition, the FACTS device should be expandable to realize interconnections with other FACTS devices or storage devices. For instance, two STATCOMs may be configured into either a BTB VSC HVDC or a UPFC. 22.6 Hybrid FACTS Controllers

Fig. 33. Quadrature Booster (QB) transformer

Due to the high cost of FACTS devices, hybrid FACTS may be constructed by combining traditional devices with FACTS devices in order to expand functionality. For instance, a
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Quadrature Booster (QB) transformer (as shown in Fig. 33) may be combined with a TCSC to realize independent active and reactive power flow control. 22.7. Intelligence-Based Monitoring and Diagnostic System for FACTS and HVDC An intelligence-based monitoring and diagnostic system for FACTS and HVDC will be able to monitor and diagnose any early warnings for potential failure of power electronic components, and therefore corrective actions may be taken before any malfunctions occur. 23. CONCLUSION This paper presents a review of power quality problems experienced by power systems of today, and the current status of applications of power electronic techniques such as FACTS and HVDC in power systems. The needs of advanced FACTS and HVDC techniques for control of future power systems in particular to attain good quality power are described and addressed. In order to ensure that the transmission system is flexible enough to meet new and less predictable supply and demand conditions, the interconnected power system should be modernized and transformed into a smart power grid, which is an intelligent, electronically controlled power system in comparison to the electromechanically controlled system used today. A modernized electricity system will enable a substantial increase in productivity, improve energy efficiency and resource utilization, and generate significant additional wealth to meet the growing societal and environmental needs of the twenty-first century. The key technologies required for control of future power systems will include advanced intelligent sensoring, advanced communication hardware for monitoring and control (including wide area based system monitoring and control systems), data-processing, advanced power system operation and control software, FACTS and HVDC to reduce congestion, fast reaction within real-time to mitigate disturbances, provide fast voltage support, and redirect the flow of power when necessary. The primary control objectives of future power systems are: to facilitate electricity trading; to optimize the overall performance and robustness of the system; to react quickly to disturbances to minimize their impact and prevent the system against blackouts and; to restore the system to the normal operating level after a disturbance. FACTS and HVDC solutions together with advanced communication, computing and control technologies will fulfill the above requirements. With the continuous effort in R&D of control technologies, it is likely that the costs will be further reduced, and hence they will be more widely used in electric power grids in the next 5 to 10 years. So we are anticipating good quality and reliable power supply in the near future thats the way towards super grid by means of achieving through advanced FACTS and HVDC. 24. [1] [2] REFERENCES K. Habur, D. OLeary FACTS-Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems. For Cost Effective and Reliable Transmission of Electrical Energy, Siemens, 2004. M. Gmez, O. Abarrategui, I. Zamora FACT devices in Distributed Generation, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ06). Palmade Mallorca (Spain), April 2006.
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