1 Lectures 5, 6.

The Phrase

4.1. Types of phrase When examining a clause in English, one can sense that it is made up of words or groups of words connected by relations that turn them into units (see 2.6.). To understand how such relations work, look at the examples below: The dog| ate| the treat|. SVO pattern

The big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor| ate| the tasty treat on the table near the window that gave on the park in front of the Old Catholic Cathedral|. SVO pattern The two clauses, though very different in length, are both SVO clauses, and have exactly the same clause elements: subject, verb, and object. The difference then should rest at phrase level, because syntactic functions in the clause are realised by phrases. Indeed, every clause element consists of a grammatical unit, called phrase. Both the dog and the big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor are noun phrases that fulfil the function of subject. Notice: Romanian speakers of English have to be aware of the fact that phrase and fraz are false friends, because they look and sound similar, but differ significantly in meaning.

The head is the most important element of the phrase, the word that cannot be omitted without destroying the phrase itself. To put it differently, if the clause pattern is the minimal structure of a clause, the head is the minimal structure of a phrase. The head determines the relationships and the behaviour of the phrase as a whole. In the two examples above, both subjects consist of nouns phrases. They are recognized as noun phrases because the central element in both is the noun dog and, consequently, each phrase behaves as a noun. The table below contains an example for each of the five types of phase in English. type 1. noun phrase 2. verb phrase 3. adjective phrase 4. adverb phrase 5. prepositional phrase example a nice chat must have been dreaming very nice very calmly of the language word-class of head noun: chat verb: dreaming adjective: nice adverb: calmly preposition: of

It is important to note that the number of phrase types (five) is smaller than the number of wordclasses (ten). For comparison, they are put side by side below: type of phrase noun phrase (NP) verb phrase (VP) adjective phrase (AdjP) adverb phrase (AdvP) prepositional phrase (PpP) examples (the friendly) dog go (very) nice (very) slowly to the dog word-classes nouns verbs adjectives adverbs prepositions pronouns numerals conjunctions determiners interjections examples dog go nice slowly to it five and the ouch

Pronouns, numerals, conjunctions, determiners, and interjections do not have a corresponding phrase (there is no example of Pronoun Phrase or Numeral Phrase). As for pronouns and numerals only, sometimes they can occupy the position of head of a noun phrase ([NP I] love his novels! [NP I]'ve read [NP five].) or, in the case of numerals, of an adverb phrase (He came [AdvP fifth] in the car race.) We already know that each phrase, except the prepositional phrase, can consist of the head only. To see how that works, let us look again at the bracketed noun phrases in the examples above: the dog and the big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor. The longer phrase can be contracted to the head only dog by removing in turns all the determinatives and modifiers, or can be expanded into a longer sequence by adding the modifiers back. If we scale the phrase as below, it becomes obvious that depending on where we start from, top down or bottom up, various head dependents can be added/ removed before and after the head. [the dog] [the big friendly dog] [the big friendly dog of my neighbour] [the big friendly dog of my neighbour on the third floor] Each object in the two examples above also consists in a noun phrase: the treat and the tasty treat on the table near the window that gave on the park in front of the Old Catholic Cathedral , respectively, and the difference in length between them is even more outstanding. By arranging them on the same pyramidal scale, it becomes obvious that a phrase that consists of other elements besides the head can be analyzed in more than one way. This happens because, in English, phrases can be embedded (see 2.6.3).

3 [NP [det the] treat] [NP [det the] [AdjP tasty] treat] [NP [det the] [AdjP tasty] treat [PpP on the table]] [NP [det the] [AdjP tasty] treat [PpP on the table] [PpP near the window]] [NP [det the] [AdjP tasty] treat [PpP on the table] [PpP near the window] [that-Cl that gave on the park]] [NP [det the] [AdjP tasty] treat [PpP on the table] [PpP near the window] [that-Cl that gave on the park] [PpP in front of the Old Catholic Cathedral]] As we can see, the treat on the first line is a noun phrase, which on the line below is combined with an adjective tasty, then with a prepositional phrase, on the table, which in turn is combined with that gave on the park, to which in front of the Old Catholic Cathedral is added, and such additions can potentially go on endlessly. Notice that within a phrase, we can even add a clause like that gave on the park, as in the window that gave on the park. Such occurrences, obtained by adding further phrases, or even clauses, within the basic structure of a phrase, are examples of embedding (see 2.6.3.). The fact that a phrase may contain another (embedded/nested) phrase or clause is one of the main features of English phrases.

4.2. Syntactic functions of phrases Another feature that describes phrases is the fact that there are two types of syntactic relations that apply to them. As we have seen, phrases can have syntactic functions in the clause - they can realise subjects, verbals, objects, complements or adverbials. At the same time, the phrases that are embedded within other phases can have syntactic functions in the phrase they belong to. The table below presents the major syntactic functions the different phrase types can have at clause and phrase level. phrase type noun phrase syntactic function in clause subject; direct object; indirect object; subject complement; object complement, adverbial verbal subject complement; object complement adverbial syntactic function in phrase complement of preposition in PpP; premodifier in NP; apposition to other NP premodifier in NP; postmodifier in NP; head in NP modifier in AdjP, AdvP

verb phrase adjective phrase adverb phrase

4 prepositional adverbial postmodifier in NP; complement in AdjP; phrase premodifier in NP Examples for each situation above will be provided and discussed in the following sections.

4.3. The noun phrase 4.3.1. Definition A noun phrase is a phrase in which the word which acts as its head is typically a noun or a pronoun. A noun phrase may minimally consist of a noun (cats), as in [NP Cats] make wonderful pets preceded or not by a determiner, or of a pronoun (they), as in [NP They] make wonderful pets. There are cases where the head of a noun phrase is an adjective, especially when the structure definite article + adjective occurs, as in the soap opera title [NP The young] and the restless. Other examples include: the poor, the blind, the sick, and so on. 4.3.2. The structure of the noun phrase The head of a noun phrase may be accompanied by other words or phrases, which provide information about it. For instance, the noun phrase all indoor cats of different breeds contains a determiner (all), a premodifier (indoor), the head (cats) and a postmodifier (of different breeds). [NP [det All] [AdjP indoor] cats [PpP of different breeds]] The structure of the noun phrase can be represented as follows: NP (determiners(s)) + (premodifier(s)) + head + (postmodifier(s))

Notice: The parentheses represent optional elements. The noun-headed NP structure is illustrated below1:
determiner premodifiers industrially advanced a small wooden a market the new training head (noun) countries box system college patterns postmodifiers that he owned that has no imperfections for teachers of industrial development in the US

Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Conrad and Leech, Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, p. 264, 2002.

5 Pronoun-headed NP phrases usually do not include a determiner or premodifiers, but they may have postmodifiers.
determiner premodifiers head (pronoun) I she anyone those one postmodifiers

the

big

who is willing to listen who take the trouble to register in town

According to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005) certain classes of adjectives do not modify a noun and are themselves heads for noun phrases. This is the case for: some adjectives, particularly superlatives, that function as heads of noun phrases that are abstract. These noun phrases are singular: The best is yet to come. The latest is that our team is winning. some set expressions: from the sublime to the ridiculous, out of the ordinary, etc. Examples: We have much in common. Im leaving for good. Ill tell you in private. The situation went from bad to worse. Adjectives normally preceded by the definite article the or by a determiner like many or more that in this structure designate a group having a characteristic in common: There are more unemployed than ever before. These expressions are normally plural (the dead means all dead people or the dead people, but not the dead person) and cannot be used with a possessive s. We say the problems of the poor or the poor peoples problems, not the poors problems. Adjectives without the are sometimes used in paired structures with both and: opportunities for both rich and poor. A few adjectives of nationality ending in sh or ch are used after the without nouns. They include Irish, Welsh, English, British, Spanish, Dutch, French: The Irish are very proud of their sense of humour. These expressions are plural; singular equivalents are an Irish

6 woman, a Welshman (not a Welsh). Where nouns exist, they are preferred to expressions with the ish: the Danes or the Turks (not the Danish or the Turkish). In a few formal fixed expressions, the + adjective can have a singular meaning. They include the accused, the undersigned, the deceased, the former and the latter: The accused was released on bail, Mr. Gray and Mrs. Cook: the latter is a well-known designer. Adjectives are sometimes used after the to refer to general abstract ideas, especially in philosophical writing: the beautiful, the supernatural, the unreal. These expressions are singular: Shes interested in the supernatural. A noun that has already been mentioned or that does not need to be mentioned can be omitted, when thinking about a choice between two or more different kinds of thing: Have you got any bread? ~ Do you want white or brown? Color adjectives can sometimes have a plural s in this situation: Wash the reds and the blues separately. Determiners/ determinatives are function words that come before the head and before all the other dependents in a noun phrase and determine or specify how the reference of a noun phrase is to be understood. For example, this determines the reference of table in this table: it tells us which or what table is intended. (G. Leech 2006, 33) the author also mentions that in an older tradition of grammar, determiners were treated as adjectives, and terms like demonstrative adjective and possessive adjective are still used in some grammars. (2006, 33) The presence of determiners is obligatory before singular count nouns. Notice that, for example, cat without a determiner cannot be a noun phrase: Cat makes a wonderful pet, unless cat is a name or a nickname, but in that case it no longer is a count noun. Determiners can be divided into three classes: 1. predeterminers, e.g. all, both, half, as in [det all] cats, [det both] breeds. 2. central determiners, e.g. a(n), the, those, as in [det a] breed, [det those] cats. 3. postdeterminers, e.g. other, two, first, as in [det two] cats, [det other] breeds. Premodifiers are modifiers placed before the head. They are normally realised by adjectives (indoor cats), participial premodifiers (broken heart, breaking news) but can sometimes be

7 realized by nouns (church roof) or other types of phrases. An example proposed by Biber et al. shows a prepositional phrase that premodifies a noun. It probably fell out of the sky after an [PpP in-flight] explosion. (Biber, Johansson, et al. 1999) The head governs concord, that is, the agreement in grammatical form between elements in a clause or a phrase. It may be preceded by determiners and premodifiers and followed by postmodifiers. The postmodifiers incorporate all the elements placed after the head and typically consist of prepositional phrases (cats [PpP of different breeds]), relative clauses (cats [that-Cl that stay indoors]) and non-finite clauses (cats [ing-Cl staying on the sofa]). Appositive clauses can also be embedded in noun phrases quite often, as in [NP the fact [app-Cl that she was his worst nightmare]]. Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, 266) distinguish between clausal postmodifiers and phrasal postmodifiers. Clausal postmodifiers can be finite (relative clauses) or non-finite (to-clauses, ing-clauses, and ed-clauses). Phrasal postmodifiers consist of two main types: prepositional phrases and appositive noun phrases, but adjective phrases can also occur, less commonly, as in President Bush will reiterate he wants a smooth transition and will cooperate in [any way possible]2. Occasionally adverbs can also be premodifiers or postmodifiers in noun phrases: a. adverb as premodifier: the nearby guards b. adverb as postmodifier: a block behind Relative clauses are a common type of postmodifier. In the clause He has two cats that stay indoors, the relative clause is embedded in the noun phrase. In order to highlight the process of embedding, we should try to recreate previous stages, starting from two independent clauses and moving towards the embedded relative clause provided above: He has two cats. The cats stay indoors. The next step connects the two clauses into a sentence, by replacing cat (which is object in the former and subject in the latter) with the relative pronoun that: He has two cats that stay indoors.

Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Conrad and Leech, Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, p. 266, 2002.

8 In the sentence we obtained, the first clause is the main clause, and the second the relative clause. That preserves its syntactic function of subject in the dependent clause and the whole relative is embedded in the noun phrase [NP cats [that-Cl that stay indoors]]. The same procedure can be used for embedded non-finite clauses: He caressed two cats. The cats were staying on the sofa. He caressed the two cats that were staying on the sofa. He caressed the two cats staying on the sofa. Appositive clauses embedded in a noun phrase are introduced by the conjunction that: the fact that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa We can distinguish between the conjunction that in appositive clauses and the relative that by noticing that, as a conjunction, that does not have a function within its clause, while as a relative pronoun it is realised at subject of its clause. Consequently, that can be omitted in the appositive clause (that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa) but not in the relative clause (cats stay indoors). A copular relation can be identified between the appositive clause and the head of the phrase in which it is embedded: the fact that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa can be converted into a finite clause by inserting be: the fact is that he caressed the two cats staying on the sofa. The issue can be further clarified if we consider Leech's definition of the apposition: A relation between two constituents such that the following statements normally apply: (a) apposition exists between two noun phrases; (b) the two constituents in apposition are in a relationship which could be expressed by the verb be; (c) the two constituents are juxtaposed and combined in a single noun phrase, which can act, for example, as subject or object of a sentence. Examples of apposition are: George Washington, first President of the USA; My neighbour Mrs Randall; tequila, a powerful Mexican drink. By extension, the term apposition can apply to a noun phrase next to a coreferential nominal clause (for example, the idea/hope that the White House would change its policy can become a sentence with be: The idea/hope was that the White House would change its policy). An of-phrase in which of links coreferential expressions may also be termed appositive: the city of Beirut; the disgrace of losing the contest. (2006, 12) In conclusion, appositive relationships appear between two noun phrases or between a noun phrase and an appositive clause which have identical reference. It would be useful for the Romanian speaker of English to note that both types of apposition correspond to the Romanian atribut, which in the approach of this course is not recognized as a clause element together with the subject, verbal, object, complement, and adverbial, but rather as a phrase element.

9 To sum it up, modifiers are optional elements that are dependent on the head. Premodifiers and postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structure of noun phrases: noun phrase structure head determiner + head premodifier + head determiner + premodifier + head head + postmodifier determiner + head + postmodifier premodifier + head + postmodifier determiner+premodifier+head+postmodifier example Cats those cats white cats some white cats cats on the sofa some cats on the sofa white cats on the sofa some white cats on the sofa

All the NPs in the table above can have the same function in a clause; they can all realise, for example, subjects, as in Cats/those cats/ white cats/ some white cats/ cats on the sofa/ some cats on the sofa/ white cats on the sofa/ some white cats on the sofa are asleep, or objects, as in He liked cats/those cats/ white cats/ some white cats/ cats on the sofa/ some cats on the sofa/ white cats on the sofa/ some white cats on the sofa. There can be more than one premodifier or postmodifier in a noun phrase: nice white cats, cats on the sofa which require my attention Both the two premodifiers in the first example and the two in the second separately modify the head word, cats. Consequently, the two examples can be re-written as follows: nice white cats nice cats white cats

cats on the sofa which require my attention cats on the sofa cats which require my attention

Another characteristic of the modifier is that it may itself be modified by the addition of adverb phrases, as in a very nice cat. Kies proposes the following diagram of the functional components of a noun phrase:

10

He explains that, depending on the context of the situation, determiners and modifiers are chosen according to our needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the NP. The diagram is one way to represent the dual nature of a phrase, seen as a merger of both form and function. 4.3.3. Coordination Noun phrases can be linked together with the conjunctions and or or, as in the white cats and their owner. The same applies to premodifiers or postmodifiers, which can also be coordinated. Especially for the non-native speakers of English, this possibility can pose certain problems of understanding who/ what the modifiers refer to. For example, in a situation where two adjectives coordinated by and premodify a noun in the singular, it is clear that the noun has both of the

11 attributes expressed by the two adjectives. In a polite and friendly person, it is easy to understand that the person is both polite and friendly. The difficulty appears when two adjectives modify a head noun in the plural, as in literate and religious inhabitants, because the phrase can be interpreted in two ways: inhabitants that are both literate and religious, but also literate inhabitants and religious inhabitants. The same is true, for instance, about young men and women, because it is not clear whether both categories share the attribute young. Similar examples can be provided for postmodifiers: a dessert of chocolate and cream means a dessert that consists of both chocolate and cream, while desserts of chocolate and cream can mean desserts that consist of both chocolate and cream, as well as desserts that consist of chocolate and desserts that consist of cream. Determiners can also apply to two or more nouns or modified nouns, as in her sister and two brothers meaning 'her sister and her two brothers'. Consequently, there are ambiguous situations involving determiners as well; their cats and other pets can be understood as either their cats and their other pets or other pets and their cats. 4.3.4. Noun phrase complexity In 4.3.2. and 4.3.3., we saw that noun phrases become more complex by embedding and coordination for the following reasons: a noun phrase may contain more than one premodifier or postmodifier a modifier may itself be modified by the addition of adverb phrases like noun phrases, premodifiers and postmodifiers can also be coordinated. One-word modifiers, especially adjectives and nouns, are typically placed before the head, i.e. a white cat, a white Siamese cat, their white Siamese cat, while multi-word modifiers generally occur after the head, i.e. the cat of the man, the cat that the man loves, the cat of the man that she loves best. An exception to the general rule that governs the ordering of NP dependents is; for example, the fact that the genitive phrase, which is a multi-word modifier, always precedes the head, as in my friend's car. Leech (2006, 74) provides a noun phrase to demonstrate that, as a result of the combination of modifiers in one noun phrase, long sequences can be built up: the recent unrest in Ruritania, which has led to a cautious measure of liberalization in a regime that up to recently has been a byword for totally inflexible authoritarianism.

12 Even more elaborate examples and comments are provided by Downing and Locke (2006, 455). The following structure is an example of a pronominal head (something) which has as postmodifier a single finite relative clause, some of whose elements are realised more than once.3 The other night, on television, I saw something [which reminded me of the Spaniards [going into South America + and advancing over the mountains + and terrifying the population with terrible new weapons, + cannon + and the horse [which nobody [in their world] had ever seen]]]. The next sentence uses a different organisation of successive post-modification. Each of the two NPs, every student and a grant, is post-modified by three coordinated units: a. in the case of the first, AdjP + PpP + non-restrictive relative clause b. in the case of the second, PpP + two relative clauses. Virtually every student [AdjP normally resident in England or Wales], [AdjP with specified minimum qualifications], [relative-Cl who is admitted to a full-time degree, [PpP at a university [PpP in the UK]]] is entitled to a grant [PpP from his/ her Local Education Authority], [relative-Cl which is intended to cover his/ her tuition fees and maintenance [PpP for the duration [PpP of the course] [relative-Cl and which also includes an element [PpP towards his/her vacation maintenance.]] Three of these six modifiers contain embedded units of their own. Under certain circumstances, complex noun phrases may be split up, as in the following examples4: A rumour spread through the camp that a relieving force from Dinapur had been cut to pieces on the way to Krishnapur. The time was coming for me to leave Frisco or I would go crazy. In this chapter a description will be given of the food assistance programs that address the needs of the family. This arrangement is in agreement with general principles for the ordering of elements within the clause. The principal syntactic means are: word order the passive existential there

3 4

Embedding is indicated by a bracket, and coordination by +: Examples and comments adapted from Biber, Johansson, et al. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English , 1999, p. 99, 886)

13 dislocation clefting Choices also vary according to register, reflecting differences in communicative needs and stylistic norms. In registers where use of language is the focus, as in in fiction and journalism, choices may sometimes simply be due to a desire to achieve stylistic variation. As these examples show, noun phrases can display considerable structural complexity generated by combinations of different kinds of modifiers and through embedding noun phrases, appositional structures and clauses. 4.3.5. Syntactic functions of noun phrases As we have already seen in 3., 4.2., 4.3., noun phrases can have various syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below. in the syntactic function clause 1. subject 2. direct object 3. indirect object example His friends were preparing a surprise party. His friends were preparing a surprise party. His friends were preparing a surprise party for him. 4. subject complement That was a special surprise party. 5. object complement They called him party boy. 6. adverbial They'll have the party next week. in the 1. complement of preposition a surprise party of his own phrase in PpP 2. premodifier of a noun or NP a surprise party of his own 3. apposition to another NP 4. premodifier in AdjP 5. premodifier in AdvP the surprise party, their gift for him the two weeks old baby one month earlier than expected

In addition to the functions above, noun phrases can also be used as peripheral elements in the clause. Biber, Johansson, et al. enumerate and illustrate them as follows (1999, pp.134-10): a. detached predicatives are similar to subject complements in form and meaning, but unlike the latter, they can be used independently of the type of verb. They are loosely attached to the core of the clause, usually at the beginning or the end, and characteristically take the form of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase which describes the subject referent (1999, 134): A republican, he recognized the authority of Victor Emmanuel.

14 b. parenthetical elements5 are mainly used in writing and are signalled typographically by parentheses, dashes, or some other typographic device. They give additional information which is related to, but not part of, the main message of the clause. They mostly consist of noun phrases or numeral phrases, and sometimes of complete independent clauses. At precisely 11.07 (Earth time), a message flashed up on the ITN screen. The first thing we notice about the rocks of the Grand Canyon is a pronounced layering, or stratification (Figure 2-6). One of the first to make it in modern times (some Greeks had known it long before) was Leonardi da Vinci. c. Preface/left dislocation is typical of speech. It consists of a noun phrase, with a coreferent pronoun (marked here with [I) following in the core of the clause: This woman, [she]'s ninety odd. Mark - will [he] be first to finish? ( c o ~ v ) d. Tags/ right dislocations are short structures which can be added at the end of the clause in conversation or in written representations of speech to clarify or underline the reference of the noun phrase. They take either the form of a noun phrase or of an interrogative or declarative clause. Noun phrase tags examples: Oh [he] was a, [he] was a lovely man, wasn't [he], Doctor Jones? [It] makes you wonder, you know, all this unemployment. [It] was a good book this. e. Vocatives take the form of noun phrases (very often proper names) and are used to single out the addressee of a message: Are you singing mate? Mum, I'm making such a big sandwich.

The term is used here for elements which cannot be assigned to a more specific category.

15 Lecture 6 4.4. The verb phrase 4.4.1. Definition and structure Most grammars agree that the verb phrase (VP) consists of a head, which is a lexical or a primary verb6, preceded by the optional elements, the primary and/or modal auxiliaries. A simple verb phrase consists in the head/main verb only. The main verb selects the other clause elements that can occur in the clause (see valency). The auxiliaries further characterize the action, state, or process expressed by the main verb. Finite verb phrases mark distinctions of tense between present and past and can be preceded by modal auxiliaries. Non-finite verb phrases are not marked for tense and cannot occur with modal auxiliaries. According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, 42), in two situations verb phrases are discontinuous/split into two parts: In questions, the subject is placed after the (first) auxiliary verb: What's he doing? (verb phrase is doing) Adverbs or other adverbials can interrupt the parts of a verb phrase: He has just arrived. (just is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb). Notice that this interposed position of the adverb between the auxiliary and the main verb never occurs in Romanian (El a tocmai ajuns.).

Kies models the structure of a verb phrase in the following diagram:

Lexical, primary and auxiliary verb are discussed in 5.4.

16 Due to its clarity and simplicity, it can be used for future reference, together with Leech's patterns of verb choices discussed in 3.9.2 and with Biber, Conrad and Leechs table of the main forms of the VP below, illustrated with show as main verb and could as a modal auxiliary (2002, 43). present tense simple perfect progressive passive perfect+ progressive perfect +passive progressive +passive shows/show has/have shown am/is/are showing am/is/are shown has/have been showing past tense showed had shown was/were showing was/were shown had been showing modal could show could have shown could be showing could be shown could have been showing

has/have been shown

had been shown

could have been shown

am/is/are being shown

was/were being shown could be being shown

As we can see in the table above, primary and modal auxiliaries can combine in forms like may have done, has been done, is being done. Primary auxiliaries follow modals and, as we have already seen in Leech's model, if all are present, they occur in the order shown below. MODAL + PERFECT + PROGRESSIVE + PASSIVE

Nevertheless, the verb phrases with four or more verbs (such as could have been being shown) are quite uncommon. Notice that, in both Romanian and English, more than one auxiliary can occur in the same verb phrase. English structure example future perfect will have done modal perfect might have been doing progressive modal perfect could have been being progressive passive made Romanian structure viitor anterior condiional-optativ perfect example va fi fcut ar fi putut face

condiional-optativ perfect ar fi putut fi fcut pasiv

17 4.4.3. Syntactic functions of verb phrases As we saw in 4.2, the verb phrase has only one function in the clause and no function in the phrase. Thus, both the a. finite and b. non-finite verb phrases always realise the verbal of the clause they belong to. a. His friends| were preparing| a surprise party. (were preparing verbal, finite VP) b. His friends enjoy || |preparing| surprise parties||. (preparing verbal in ing-Cl, non-finite VP)

4.5. The adjective phrase 4.5.1. Definition and structure An adjective phrase is a phrase in which the head is an adjective. The simplest type of adjective phrase consists of an adjective only, as in They had powerful cars. Like nouns phrases, adjective phrases can be made more complex by adding words that modify/complement the head. Modifiers qualify what is denoted by the adjective, and they are optional. Thus, in terms of structure, the adjective phrase (AdjP) typically consists of a head, optionally preceded and followed by modifiers. Modifiers that precede the head are alternatively called specifiers and those that follow it, complements. Heads, premodifiers and postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structure of AdjPs: adjective phrase structure head premodifier + head head + postmodifier premodifier + head + postmodifier example nice very nice nice of you to come very nice of you to come

The structure of the adjective phrase can also be arranged diagrammatically (source, papyr.com):

18

The head of the adjective phrase is always realised by an adjective. Adjectives are words that typically modify nouns, by specifying the properties or the attributes of that noun. [NP a [AdjP calm] attitude] His mother is [AdjP very angry with him]. He is [AdjP so interested in linguistics]. Specifiers typically indicate the degree of the quality denoted by the adjective. The most common type of specifier consists of degree adverbs, such as very, so, too, etc. The elements following the head serve to complete the meaning of the adjective and are generally called complements. Complements mainly take the form of prepositional phrases (too late for reconciliation) comparative constructions (funnier than the last show) degree adverbs (useful enough) to-infinitive clauses (too poor to feed themselves) comparative clauses (His behaviour was ruder than I could imagine.)

Postmodifiers are called complements because they normally complete what is implied in the meaning of the adjective. For example, if we say His mother is very angry, we mean that the

19 subject is characterized in some respect by a certain state, and the postmodifier specifies in what respect: with him. Certain adjectives (aware, fond, subject, afraid, etc.) require the presence of a postmodifier for completeness. Together with other adjectives, they are grouped in lists labelled 'adjectives with obligatory prepositions' that can be found in usage books such as Raymond Murphys English Grammar In Use with Answers and CD ROM: A Self-study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English. Such adjectives that take obligatory postmodifiers have verbs with corresponding meanings. A few examples are provided in the table below. adjective example aware fond subject afraid verb example I know that there will be consequences. She likes cats. They submit the proposal for debate. She fears snakes.

I'm aware of the consequences. know She is fond of cats. like

The proposal is subject to submit debate. She is afraid of snakes. fear

4.5.2. Syntactic functions of adjective phrases Adjective phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below. Syntactic function 1. subject complement 2. object complement 1. premodifier of a noun or NP 2. postmodifier of a noun or NP 3. head in NP Example That moment was special. They found him nice. a special surprise the nicest surprise party possible the blind

In the clause In the phrase

Subject complement is the most typical role of the adjective phrase in the clause. The head adjective in an adjective phrase functioning as subject complement is classified as predicative adjective. Predicative adjectives occur after a link verb, which is the normal position the subject complement. The most typical role the adjective phrase at the level of phrase is that of premodifier of NP, where the adjective is classified as attributive adjective. Attributive adjectives normally occur before the nouns they modify (see examples above), but the members of a small subclass, called postpositive adjectives, actually follow the head noun.

20 The resulting noun phrases are fixed official expressions such as Asia Minor, attorney general, governor general, heir apparent, notary public, Princess Royal, times past, etc. Another situation of postposition is when the head the adjective modifies indefinite or demonstrative pronouns such as something (something nice), everyone (everyone alive), those (no one responsible), etc. Postpositive adjectives often combine with specifiers in the superlative, as in the nicest dress imaginable or the best services available. Notice that, with the exception of the fixed expressions above, only predicative adjectives can be postposed. his closest relative alive his closest relative living This happens because they can be expanded into relative clause with subject complement, which can be reconstructed as follows: the nicest dress imaginable the nicest dress that was imaginable the best services available the best accommodations that is available The adjective living (= alive now, according to Cambridge Dictionaries Online n.d.) can be used predicatively only, so the instance below is ungrammatical. his closest relative living his closest relative who is living Living should be replaced by alive (as in his closest relative alive, that can be expanded to his closest relative who is alive), which is an exclusively predicative adjective. Nevertheless, most adjectives can occur in both the attributive and the predicative positions. A very long modifying adjective phrase can also be postposed, as in the following two examples. Our mother was a fabulous farm cook, able to mix, roll, and cut biscuits as easily as blinking. (The Sun Magazine n.d.) An adjective phrase modifying a noun can be discontinuous, with the noun head splitting it in two parts: During journeys to and from school Asia was a different sibling than the one I knew at home. (The Sun Magazine n.d.)

4.6. The adverb phrase 4.6.1. Definition and structure

21 The adverb phrase (AdvP) is a phrase in which the head is an adverb. An adverb phrase may consist of one word (an adverb alone) or of two or more words. Mainly one-word adverb phrases modify adjectives (barely alive) or adverbs (very slowly). Adverb phrases (as forms) should not be mistaken for adverbials (as functions). The adverb phrase is a phrase (= a word or group of words which can fulfil a syntactic function in a clause), while the adverbial is a clause element that can be realised by adverb phrases, prepositional phrases and adverbial clauses. Much like adjective phrases, adverb phrases (AdvP) may contain, besides the head, one or more modifiers. The modifiers (premodifiers/ specifiers and postmodifiers/complements) in an adverb phrase are optional elements that are dependent on the head. They can all combine to form the following basic structures: (premodifier/specifier) head separately almost separately (postmodifier/complement) from him

The structure of the adverb phrase was arranged diagrammatically by Kies (papyr.com):

Semantically, most of characteristic expressed Premodifiers are usually by prepositional phrases expected).

the premodifiers are intensifiers that express the degree of the by an adjective or adverb. The most common intensifier is very. realized by degree adverbs, while postmodifiers are typically realized or comparative clauses (She did not manage as smoothly as she had

Here are some examples of possible structures of adverb phrases:

22 adverb phrase structure head premodifier + adverb adverb + postmodifier premodifier + adverb + postmodifier Example separately almost separately separately from him almost separately from him

4.6.2. Syntactic functions of adverb phrases Adverb phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below. In the Syntactic function7 clause 1. adverbial 2. subject complement 3. direct object 4. subject (marginally) In the 1. modifier in AdjP phrase 2. modifier in AdvP 3. modifier in NP 4. modifier of determiners 5. modifier in PpP 6. submodifier in AdjP 7. submodifier in AdvP 8. post-modifier in AdjP 9. post-modifier in AdvP 10. post-modifier in NP complement in PpP Example They had a surprise party in the garden. Thats quite all right. I dont know when. They didnt tell me why. Today is the last Friday in the month. a very pleasant surprise party almost surprisingly the then Minister of Health; a nearby hotel about double; roughly half; almost all right out of sight; just down the road much too short; rather more interesting (not) all that easily; far too often quick enough; very beautiful indeed quickly enough; nicely indeed; never again the journey back; the way ahead over here; through there; from inside; till now

In the enumeration in the table above, the most common syntactic roles of the adverbial phrase are 1 in the clause and 1 and 2 in the phrase. Many adverbs can function both as modifiers in phrases and as adverbials at clause level. In the clause He was totally satisfied with the party, totally is a premodifier for the head adjective satisfied, while in She totally agreed with him, totally is an adverb phrase functioning as an adverbial in the clause. When adverb phrases realise adverbials, they are frequently optional in the sense that they can be omitted without the clause becoming ungrammatical.

Functions and examples 2 to 4 in clause and 3 to 10 in phrase are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, 509).

23 4.7. The prepositional phrase 4.7.1. Definition and structure The prepositional phrase is a phrase consisting of a preposition followed normally by a noun phrase called either prepositional complement or the object of the preposition. The structure following a preposition is called a complement because it completes the meaning of the preposition, due to the semantic association between the preposition and the following NP. The same structure is also called the object of the preposition because a prepositional complement is object territory and personal pronouns are therefore in the objective case (Greenbaum and Quirk 1990, 188). The prepositional phrase is a structure with three parts: (modifier/specifier) right head into towards complement/object the car her

The head of a prepositional phrase is always a preposition, and, unlike the heads of all the other phrase types, it cannot occur by itself, without its complement. Much like in Romanian, the preposition can be seen as a link that connects the noun phrase and the preceding units. The order of the constituents in the prepositional phrase can be inferred from the name of the word-class the head word belongs to: the preposition (foregoing position) normally comes before its complement. Nevertheless, according to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005), in contemporary English, structures with stranded prepositions have become the rule (or at least a popular alternative) in the following situations: The stranding is obligatory when the prepositional complement becomes the subject of the clause. o Your case will soon be attended to. o The picture is worth looking at. In questions and relative clauses the prepositional complement may be a pronoun or adverb that is fronted. In that case, the preposition is normally stranded. o Where are you coming from? o I am the person (that) you are waiting for. [In relative clauses the pronoun may be omitted.]

24 Notice that in formal style the preposition is fronted with its complement. o For whom are you waiting? o I am the person for whom you are waiting. In passive structures, prepositions go with their verbs: o She likes to be looked at. o Carol was operated on last night. Notice that even in a formal style, prepositions cannot be moved away from passive verbs: o In my family, money was never spoken about. (not about money was never spoken) In infinitive structures, infinitive complements can have prepositions with them: o The village is pleasant to live in. o Ive got lots of music to listen to. Even in very formal style, prepositions are not often put at the beginning of questions which have be as the main verb. o Who is it for, madam? (not For whom is it?) The structures whereto, whatlike and whatfor have a fixed order: o Where shall I send it to? (but not To where shall I send it?) o What does she look like? (but not Like what does she look?) Additionally, Swan (2005, 453-4) lists a number of exceptions to the exceptions above. common adverbial expressions consisiting of preposition + NP (e.g. with great patience, in a temper) in which the preposition is closely connected with the noun and is kept as near as possible to it. The preposition cannot usually be moved to the end of a clause. o I admired the patience with which she spoke. (not the patience she spoke with). During and since are not normally put at the end of clauses. o During which period did it happen? (not Which period did it happen during?)

25 o Since when have you been working for her? (not When have you been working for her since?) The modifier is normally a degree object and it is the only optional element of a prepositional phrase. The prepositional complement is typically realised by a noun phrase, but it may also be realised by other word classes or phrases8: Adjective and adverb phrases as complements are uncommon and limited to certain set expressions such as at last, for good, for ever, etc. (see 4 and 5 below). prepositional complement 1. noun phrase 2. nominal relative clause 3. -ing clause 4. adjective phrase 5. adverb 6. preposition phrase 7. wh + to-inf. Cl example at home, above the city from what I know before getting to you at long last, for good, in private until very recently, ever since, for ever except in here, from out of the forest Do you have any problems apart from where to stay?

4.7.2. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases Prepositional phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They can actually realise every element of clause structure except the predicator, each illustrated with examples in the table below9. Syntactic function In the 1. adverbial clause 2. subject 3. direct object 4. prepositional object 5. subject complement object complement In the 1. postmodifier in NP phrase 2. complement in AdjP 3. complement in AdvP 4. premodifier in NP 5. complement in PpP
8 9

Example She talked to him after the party. After dark is the only good time for fireworks. I dont consider next to a railway line a good place to live. Someone has been tampering with the scanner. Monica must be out of her mind to reject such an interesting offer. His illness left him without a job. the tree in the garden happy with his reaction, brilliant at gardening far from here an out-of-date report, off-the-record comments except on Mondays

Realisations and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, 536) F unctions and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, 541-2).

26 As Downing and Locke note, the use of PpPs in the functions of subject and object is normally restricted to expressions of place or time. PpPs are used freely as sCs or oCs to express temporary states, where they are often interchangeable with adjectives. (Monica must be out of her mind ~ mad, His illness left him without a job ~ jobless) PpPs have an ability to be embedded recursively in other PpPs or phrases. In other words, one unit is embedded in another, which is embedded in another, and so on, as in: A car accident [on the motorway [to Yorkshire]]. (2006, 541) Another illustration is provided by Greenbaum and Nelson (2002: 89). In the clause There were variations in the degree of bitterness of taste, embedding can be shown as follows: prepositional phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase in the degree of bitterness of taste the degree of bitterness of taste of bitterness of taste bitterness of taste of taste

A last observation here is that two or more prepositional phrases that realise adverbials may appear independently and simultaneously in the same clause (see 3.8.), as in the following example: At midnight (1) she secretly (2) eloped with her lover (3) to his lodgings (4).

27 Exercises: 1. Identify the head in each of the following bracketed noun phrases: 1. [ Cats] make very affectionate pets 2. [ The editor] rejected the manuscript 3. We drove through [an enormous forest] in Germany 4. [People who cycle] get very wet 5. We really enjoy [the funny stories he tells] 2. Identify the phrase type: 1. Houses are [unbelievably expensive] just now. 2. We [met Paul] last week. 3. [A car that won't go] is not particularly useful 4. I enjoy eating [in Indian restaurants] 5. Don't you have to leave [early]? 6. Tell [him] not to worry. Exercise 4.1 The noun phrase Indicate whether each underlined noun phrase contains a pre-modifier, a postmodifier, or both. 1. The umbrella originated in Mesopotamia over 3000 years ago. 2. It was an emblem of rank and distinction. 3. It protected Mesopotamians from the harsh sun. 4. For centuries, umbrellas served primarily as a protection from the sun. 5. The Greeks and Romans regarded the umbrella as effeminate and ridiculed men who carried umbrellas. *Exercise 4.2 The noun phrase Bracket the noun phrases in each sentence below. Some sentences may have more than one noun phrase. If a noun phrase contains another noun phrase within it, bracket the embedded noun phrase a further time. For example: [Microwave cooking] is [an absolutely new method for [the preparation of [food]]]. 1. Fire is not used in microwave cooking. 2. Electromagnetic energy agitates the water molecules in the food. 3. The agitation produces sufficient heat for cooking. 4. The electronic tube that produces microwave energy is called a magnetron. 5. The magnetron was in use a decade before the birth of the microwave oven. *Exercise 4.3 Relative clauses Combine the (a) and (b) sentences in each set below by turning one of the sentences into a relative clause.

28 la. The drugs inevitably damage a patients healthy cells as well. b. The drugs are used for chemotherapy. 2a. Human infants pass through a critical period. b. The period lasts a few years. 3a. It was a mystery. b. They could not solve the mystery. 4a. The fundraising campaign has recruited a core of graduates. b. They in turn contact more graduates. Exercise 4.4 Appositive clauses Indicate whether each underlined clause is a relative clause or an appositive clause. 1. The manager lacked the experience that would have helped him overcome the crisis. 2. You have undermined my conviction that a nuclear war is inevitable. 3. She has heard the news that all the passengers and crew escaped unhurt. 4. I cannot dispute the fact that you have won the support of most members. Exercise 4.5 Apposition In the sentences below, underline the noun phrases that are in apposition. 1. The accelerator hurled ions of carbon and neon at a foil target of bismuth, a metal related to lead. 2. Helena Bonham-Carter was in it, the actress who played Ophelia in Hamlet. 3. UK drug authorities have asked for more data on the companys anti-migraine drug, Imigran. 4. Wood can supply 5 per cent of our energy needs, leaving 95 per cent that must come from other sources solar, wind, coal, nuclear, biomass. Exercise 4.6 Coordination The coordinated noun phrases below are ambiguous. Rewrite the phrases unambiguously to show the different meanings. 1. my friends and good neighbours 2. aged cheese and wine 3. their properties and other businesses Exercise 4.8 Functions of noun phrases Identify the function of each underlined noun phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: S (subject) oC (object complement) dO (direct object) cP (complement of preposition) iO (indirect object) pM (pre-modifier of a noun or noun phrase) sC (subject complement) A (adverbial) 1. The great fire of 1174 ( ) did not affect the nave, but it gutted the choir ( ). 2. The book offers a vivid picture of Poland and its people ( ). 3. The whole Dickens ( ) family went to stay with Mrs Roylance in Little College Street ( ).

29 4. Last April ( ), security staff ( ) spotted an intruder ( ) on the White House lawn ( ). Exercise 4.25 The adjective phrase Underline each adjective phrase. 1. Fragrant homemade bread is becoming common in many American homes. 2. In a recent sample, 30 per cent of the subscribers to a womans magazine said that they baked bread. 3. The first bread was patted by hand. 4. The early Egyptians added yeast and made conical, triangular, or spiral loaves as well as large, flat, open-centred disks. Exercise 4.26 The adjective phrase Complete the sentences below by adding a post-modifier to the adjectives at the ends of the sentences. 1. No doubt you are aware _______________________ 2. My children are always happy _______________________ 3. It is sometimes possible _______________________ 4. They are sure _______________________ Exercise 4.27 Functions of adjective phrases Identify the function of each underlined adjective phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: PrM (pre-modifier in noun phrase) PM (post-modifier in noun phrase) sC (subject complement) oC (object complement) 1. The former ( ) champion is now very ill ( ). 2. He has a rare ( ) viral ( ) infection. 3. The drugs he takes make him sick ( ). Exercise 4.28 The adverb phrase Underline each adverb phrase. 1. Disposing of nuclear waste is a problem that has recently gained much attention. 2. Authorities are having difficulties finding locations where nuclear waste can be disposed of safely. 3. There is always the danger of the waste leaking very gradually from the containers in which it is stored. 4. Because of this danger, many people have protested quite vehemently against the dumping of any waste in their communities. Exercise 4.29 Functions of adverb phrases Identify the function of each underlined adverb phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: A (adverbial) M Adj (modifier of adjective) M Adv (modifier of adverb)

30 1. Small forks first ( ) appeared in eleventh-century Tuscany. 2. They were widely ( ) condemned at the time. 3. It was in late eighteenth-century France that forks suddenly ( ) became fashionable. 4. Spoons are thousands of years older than forks and began as thin, slightly ( ) concave pieces of wood. 5. Knives were used far ( ) earlier than spoons. Exercise 4.32 The prepositional phrase Underline each prepositional phrase and circle each preposition. If a prepositional phrase is embedded within another prepositional phrase, underline it twice. 1. It may come as a surprise to you that massage is mentioned in ancient Hindu Chinese writings. 2. It is a natural therapy for aches and pains in the muscles. 3. The Swedish technique of massage emphasizes improving circulation by manipulation. 4. Its value is recognized by many doctors. 5. Some doctors refer to massage as manipulative medicine. *Exercise 4.33 The prepositional phrase Rewrite the sentences below, moving prepositions to alternative positions that they can occur in. You may need to make some consequent changes. 1. The secretary is the person who you should send your application to. 2. Relativity is a theory on which many modern theories in physics are based. 3. Who are you writing to? 4. This article is one that researchers in economics often make reference to. Exercise 4.34 Functions of prepositional phrases Identify the function of each underlined prepositional phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: pN (post-modifier of a noun) pAdj (post-modifier of an adjective) A (adverbial) 1. Politicians in the United States must raise large sums of money ( ) if they want to get elected. 2. A candidate can no longer win with little campaign money ( ). 3. Candidates are keenly aware of the need for huge financial contributions ( ). 4. They need the money to employ staff and for the frequent advertisements they run on television ( ). 5. In recent campaigns ( ), television advertisements have been quite belligerent.