Latour, Bruno (1987): Science in action. Camebridge, Massachusetts: Har ard !ni ersit" #ress.

Innholdsfortegnelse med hyperlinker

$nnho%ds&ortegne%se med h"'er%in(er..........................................................................................1 Mer(nad om %a"out.....................................................................................................................) *orside.........................................................................................................................................+ Ba(side........................................................................................................................................+ Bo(en starter..............................................................................................................................., Contents.......................................................................................................................................c(no/%edgements.....................................................................................................................7 $01234!C1$30. 3'ening #andora5s B%ac( Bo6....................................................................8 (1) Loo(ing &or a /a" in.........................................................................................................9 ()) 7hen enough is ne er enough........................................................................................18 (+) 1he &irst ru%e o& method...................................................................................................)) #art $. *rom 7ea(er to Stronger 2hetoric................................................................................)7 CH.#192 1. Literature............................................................................................................)7 #art .. Contro ersies............................................................................................................)8 #art B. 7hen contro ersies &%are u' the %iterature becomes technica%..................................+7 #art C. 7riting te6ts that /ithstand the assau%ts o& a hosti%e en ironment...........................8Conc%usion. 0umbers, more numbers...................................................................................78 CH.#192 ). Laboratories.......................................................................................................78 #art .. *rom te6ts to things: a sho/do/n............................................................................79 #art B. Bui%ding u' counter:%aboratories..............................................................................98 #art C. .''ea%ing (to) 0ature.............................................................................................111 #art $$. *rom 7ea( #oints to Strongho%ds..............................................................................118 CH.#192 +. Machines..........................................................................................................118 $ntroduction: 1he ;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der...................................................................118 #art .. 1rans%ating interests .............................................................................................................................................1), #art B. <ee'ing the interested grou's in %ine......................................................................1+8 #art C. 1he mode% o& di&&usion = ersus the mode% o& trans%ation........................................18> CH.#192 ,. $nsiders 3ut......................................................................................................1-+ #art .. $nteresting others in the %aboratories.......................................................................1-, #art B. Counting .%%ies and 2esources...............................................................................18) #.21 $$$. *rom Short to Longer 0et/or(s............................................................................199 CH.#192 8. 1ribuna%s o& 2eason.........................................................................................)>> #art .. 1he tria%s o& rationa%it"...........................................................................................)>1 #art B. Socio%ogics..............................................................................................................)18 #art C. 7ho 0eeds Hard *acts?..........................................................................................))9 CH.#192 -. Centres o& Ca%cu%ation.....................................................................................)+8 #ro%ogue. 1he domestication o& the sa age mind...............................................................)+8 #art .. .ction at a distance.................................................................................................),) #art B. Centres o& ca%cu%ation..............................................................................................)8#art C. Metro%ogies.............................................................................................................)71 .##904$@ 1. 2u%es o& Method.............................................................................................)8)

.##904$@ ). #rinci'%es........................................................................................................)8+ 0otes.......................................................................................................................................)8, $ntroduction.........................................................................................................................)8, Cha'ter 1.............................................................................................................................)8, Cha'ter ).............................................................................................................................)88 Cha'ter +.............................................................................................................................)87 Cha'ter ,.............................................................................................................................)88 Cha'ter 8.............................................................................................................................)91 Cha'ter -.............................................................................................................................)9) 2e&erences...............................................................................................................................)9, $nde6........................................................................................................................................+>)

Merknad om layout
Sidetall stAr B erst 'A sidene. 4e satt i ((dobbe% 'arentes)), og de er s(i%t &ra den ti%hBrende siden med to %inCes(i&t, og &ra den &oregAende siden med &ire %inCes(i&t. Noter. 1e(sten har &or det meste s%uttnoter, sam%et i et eget (a'itte% ba(erst, sortert under headinger 'A ni A ) som ti%s arer h er (a'itte%o ers(ri&t. 4et &ore(ommer ogsA en(e%te &otnoter. 4isse er uts(i%t med sti((ordene =&otnote start= og =&otnote s%utt=, med tre 6:er 'A h er side. S%uttnote:hen isningene er ta%%, &otnote:hen isningene er stCerner D asteris(er E. Headinger: Bo(a har headinger 'A &em ni Aer. 4isse er &ormatert digita%t som tre ni Aer. 1.Headinger som angir =#art $= os . og er &ormatert 'A ni A en, er 'A ni A en i bo(a. ). Headinger som angir =CH.#192 1= os . og er &ormatert 'A ni A en, er 'A ni A to i bo(a. +. Headinger som angir =#art .= os . e%%er =#ro%ogue=, og er &ormatert 'A ni A to, er 'A ni A tre i bo(a. ,. Headinger som angir =(1)= os . med s(ri&t i smA bo(sta er og &ormatering 'A ni A tre, er 'A ni A &ire i bo(a. 8. Headinger som angir =(.)= os . med s(ri&t i store bo(sta er og &ormatering 'A ni A tre, er 'A ni A &em i bo(a. Figurer og tabeller er a%%e sammen ti%rette%agt. 4e er uts(i%t med sti((ordene =tabe%% n D &igur n start= og =tabe%% n D &otnote n s%utt=, med tre 6:er 'A h er side.

HHF +>.11.)>>8

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SC$90C9 $0 .C1$30 Bruno Latour

Bakside
Bruno Latour 'ro ides a %i e%" and cha%%enging ana%"sis o& science, demonstrating ho/ socia% conte6t and technica% content are both essentia% to a 'ro'er understanding o& scienti&ic acti it". 9m'hasiGing that science can on%" be understood through its 'ractice, the author e6amines science and techno%og" in action: the ro%e o& scienti&ic %iterature, the acti ities o& %aboratories, the institutiona% conte6t o& science in the modern /or%d, and the means b" /hich in entions and disco eries become acce'ted. =3ne cannot but be im'ressed b" the sco'e o& Latour5s /or( .. . 1his is no mere bricolage, but a coherent and 'o/er&u% &rame:/or( &or research. $ 'redict that Science in Action /i%% ha e an im'act com'arab%e to 1homas <uhn5s Structure of Scientific Revolutions both as a 'ro ocation to 'hi%oso'hers and as an ins'iration to socio%ogists and historians o& science.= 0$CH3L.S F.24$09, Times Literary Supplement

=1his account o& science as com'osed o& dri&ting, recombining net/or(s is 'resented /ith considerab%e charm and humour. 1here are man" brie& case histories to en%i en the te6t, and the boo( /or(s er" /e%% as a guide through scienti&ic reasoning.= S19H90 I9.2LI, Nature

=1here is a /ea%th o& materia% and some titi%%ating insight into disco eries beginning /ith the &amed race to &ind the structure o& 40. J the doub%e he%i6 J and in Latour5s hands, it becomes a true c%i&&hanger ... 1his Kboo(L /i%% re/ard those /ho /ant to 'robe science and the modern /or%d in de'th.= Kirkus

Bruno Latour is .ssociate #ro&essor at the Centre de Socio%ogie de %5$nno ation at the 9co%e 0ationa%e Su'Mrieure des Mines, #aris. $SB0 >:-7,:79)91:) Har ard !ni ersit" #ress Cambridge, Massachusetts

Boken starter

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SCIENCE IN AC I!N

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SCIENCE IN AC I!N Ho/ to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers through societ" Bruno Latour Har"ard #ni"ersity $ress

Cambridge, Massachusetts

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Copyright %&' ()*+ by Bruno Latour .%% rights reser ed #rinted in the !nited States o& .merica 9%e enth 'rinting, )>>+ ,ibrary of Congress Cataloging in $ubli&ation -ata Main entr" under tit%e: ,atour. Bruno. Science in action. Bibliography/ '. $nc%udes inde6. 1. ScienceJSocia% as'ects. ). 1echno%og"JSocia% as'ects. +. ScienceJHistor". ,. S&ien&e 0$hilosophy. L 1it%e. N 178.8.L+8 1987 +>-5 .,8 8-:1-+)$SB0 >:-7,:79)91:) ('a'er)

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To Michel allon, this outcome of a seven!year "iscussion

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Contents
A&kno1ledgements iii $ntroduction !pening $andora5s Bla&k Bo2 1 #.21 1 *23M 79.<92 13 S1230O92 2H9132$C Cha'ter 1 ,iterature )1 #art .: Contro ersies. #art B: 7hen contro ersies &%are u' the %iterature becomes technica%. #art C: 7riting te6ts that /ithstand the assau%ts o& a hosti%e en ironment. Conc%usion: 0umbers, more numbers Cha'ter ) ,aboratories -+ #art .: *rom te6ts to things: . sho/do/n. #art B: Bui%ding u' counter:%aboratories. #art C: .''ea%ing (to) nature #.21 $$ *23M 79.< #3$01S 13 S1230OH3L4S Cha'ter + Ma&hines 1>+ $ntroduction: 1he ;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der. #art .: 1rans%ating interests. #art B: <ee'ing the interested grou's in %ine.

#art C: 1he mode% o& di&&usion ersus the mode% o& trans%ation Cha'ter , Insiders !ut 1,8 #art .: $nteresting others in the %aboratories. #art B: Counting a%%ies and resources $A3 $$$ *23M SH321 13 L30O92 091732<S 177 Cha'ter 8 ribunals of 3eason 179 #art .: 1he tria%s o& rationa%it". #art B: Socio%ogics. #art C: 7ho needs hard &acts? Cha'ter - Centres of &al&ulation )18 #ro%ogue: 1he domestication o& the sa age mind. #art .: .ction at a distance. #art B: Centres o& ca%cu%ation. #art C: Metro%ogies Appen"i# $ 2u%es o& Method )88 Appen"i# % #rinci'%es )89 Notes )-> References )-&n"e# %'$

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A&kno1ledgements

0ot being a nati e 9ng%ish s'ea(er $ had to re%" hea i%" on m" &riends to re ise successi e dra&ts o& this manuscri't. Fohn La/ and #ene%o'e 4u%%ing ha e been most 'atient in re ising the ear%ier dra&ts. Ste en Sha'in, Harr" Co%%ins, 4on Mac<enGie, 2on 7 estrum and Leigh Star su&&ered each on one di&&erent cha'ter. $ ha e been most &ortunate in ha ing Oeo&&re" Bo/(er edit the /ho%e boo(, 5debug5 it and suggest man" use&u% changes. #art o& the /or( &or this boo( has been su''orted b" a grant &rom C02S:(rogramme STS) 0ot a %ine o& it cou%d ha e been /ritten /ithout the stimu%ation, en ironment, &riendshi' and materia% conditions o& the Centre de Socio%ogie de %5$nno ation at 9co%e 0ationa%e Su'Mrieure des Mines de #aris, m" ne/ 5a%ma mater5.

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IN 3!-#C I!N. !pening $andora4s Bla&k Bo2

Scene $: 3n a co%d and sunn" morning in 3ctober 1988, Fohn 7hitta(er entered his o&&ice in the mo%ecu%ar bio%og" bui%ding o& the $nstitut #asteur in #aris and s/itched on his *clipse M+,-... com'uter. . &e/ seconds a&ter %oading the s'ecia% 'rograms he had /ritten, a three: dimensiona% 'icture o& the 40. doub%e he%i6 &%ashed onto the screen. Fohn, a isiting com'uter scientist, had been in ited b" the $nstitute to /rite 'rograms that cou%d 'roduce three:dimensiona% images o& the coi%s o& 40. and re%ate them to the thousands o& ne/ nuc%eic acid se;uences 'ouring out e er" "ear into the Courna%s and data ban(s. 50ice 'icture, eh?5 said his boss, #ierre, /ho /as Cust entering the o&&ice. 5Ies, good machine too,5 ans/ered Fohn. Scene %: $n 1981 in the Ca endish %aborator" at Cambridge, 9ng%and, the @:ra" 'ictures o& cr"sta%%ised deo6"ribonuc%eic acid /ere not 5nice 'ictures5 on a com'uter screen. 1he t/o "oung researchers, Fim 7atson and *rancis Cric( 1, had a hard time obtaining them &rom Maurice 7i%(ins and 2osa%ind *ran(%in in London. $t /as im'ossib%e "et to decide i& the &orm o& the acid /as a tri'%e or a doub%e he%i6, i& the 'hos'hate bonds /ere at the inside or at the outside o& the mo%ecu%e, or indeed i& it /as an he%i6 at a%%. $t did not matter much to their boss, Sir La/rence Bragg, since the t/o /ere not su''osed to be /or(ing on 40. an"/a", but it mattered a %ot to them, es'ecia%%" since Linus #au%ing, the &amous chemist, /as said to be about to unco er the structure o& 40. in a &e/ months. Scene /: $n 198> in a 4ata Oenera% bui%ding on 2oute ,98 in 7estborough, Massachusetts, 1om 7est ) and his team /ere sti%% tr"ing to debug a ma(eshi&t 'rotot"'e o& a ne/ machine nic(named *agle that the com'an" had not '%anned to bui%d at &irst, but that /as beginning to rouse the mar(eting de'artment5s interest. Ho/e er, the debugging 'rogram /as a "ear behind schedu%e. Besides, the choice 7est had made o& using the ne/ #.L chi's (e't

de%a"ing the machine:renamed *clipse M+,-..., since no one /as sure at the time i& the com'an" manu&acturing the chi's cou%d de%i er them on demand. $n the meantime, their main com'etitor, 49C, /as se%%ing man" co'ies o& its +A0 $$,'-., increasing the ga' bet/een the t/o com'anies.

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%(' ,ooking for a 1ay in

7here can /e start a stud" o& science and techno%og"? 1he choice o& a /a" in crucia%%" de'ends on good timing. $n 1988, in #aris, Fohn 7hitta(er obtains 5nice 'ictures5 o& 40. on a 5good machine5. $n 1981 in Cambridge 7atson and Cric( are strugg%ing to de&ine a sha'e &or 40. that is com'atib%e /ith the 'ictures the" g%im'sed in 7i%(ins5s o&&ice. $n 198>, in the basement o& a bui%ding, another team o& researchers is &ighting to ma(e a ne/ com'uter /or( and to catch u' /ith 49C. 7hat is the meaning o& these 5&%ashbac(s5, to use the cinema term? 1he" carr" us bac( through s'ace and time. 7hen /e use this tra e% machine, 40. ceases to ha e a sha'e so /e%% estab%ished that com'uter 'rograms can be /ritten to dis'%a" it on a screen. .s to the com'uters, the" don5t e6ist at a%%. Hundreds o& nuc%eic acid se;uences are not 'ouring in e er" "ear. 0ot a sing%e one is (no/n and e en the notion o& a se;uence is doubt&u% since it is sti%% unsure, &or man" 'eo'%e at the time, /hether 40. '%a"s an" signi&icant ro%e in 'assing genetic materia% &rom one generation to the ne6t. 1/ice a%read", 7atson and Cric( had 'roud%" announced that the" had so% ed the ridd%e and both times their mode% had been reduced to ashes. .s to the 5good machine5 *agle, the &%ashbac( ta(es us bac( to a moment /hen it cannot run an" 'rogram at a%%. $nstead o& a routine 'iece o& e;ui'ment Fohn 7hitta(er can s/itch on, it is a disorder%" arra" o& cab%es and chi's sur e"ed b" t/o other com'uters and surrounded b" doGens o& engineers tr"ing to ma(e it /or( re%iab%" &or more than a &e/ seconds. 0o one in the team (no/s "et i& this 'roCect is not going to turn out to be another com'%ete &ai%ure %i(e the *12 com'uter on /hich the" /or(ed &or "ears and /hich /as (i%%ed, the" sa", b" the management. $n 7hitta(er5s research 'roCect man" things are unsett%ed. He does not (no/ ho/ %ong he is going to sta", i& his &e%%o/shi' /i%% be rene/ed, i& an" 'rogram o& his o/n can hand%e mi%%ions o& base 'airs and com'are them in a /a" that is bio%ogica%%" signi&icant. But there are at %east t/o e%ements that raise no 'rob%ems &or him: the doub%e he%i6 sha'e o& 40. and his 4ata Oenera% com'uter. 7hat /as &or 7atson and Cric( the 'rob%ematic &ocus o& a &ierce cha%%enge, /hat /on them a 0obe% #riGe, is no/ the basic dogma o& his 'rogram, embedded in thousand o& %ines o& his %isting. .s &or the machine that made 7est5s team /or( da" and night &or "ears, it is no/ no more 'rob%ematic than a 'iece o& &urniture as it hums ;uiet%"

a/a" in his o&&ice. 1o be sure, the maintenance man o& 4ata Oenera% sto's b" e er" /ee( to &i6 u' some minor 'rob%emsP but neither the man nor Fohn ha e to o erhau% the com'uter a%% o er again and &orce the com'an" to de e%o' a ne/ %ine o& 'roducts. 7hitta(er is e;ua%%" /e%% a/are o& the man" 'rob%ems '%aguing the Basic 4ogma o& bio%og": Cric(, no/ an o%d gent%eman, ga e a %ecture at the $nstitute on this a &e/ /ee(s ago : but neither Fohn nor his boss ha e to rethin( entire%" the sha'e o& the doub%e he%i6 or to estab%ish a ne/ dogma. 1he /ord bla&k bo2 is used b" c"berneticians /hene er a 'iece o& machiner" or

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a set o& commands is too com'%e6. $n its '%ace the" dra/ a %itt%e bo6 about /hich the" need to (no/ nothing but its in'ut and out'ut. .s &ar as Fohn 7hitta(er is concerned the doub%e he%i6 and the machine are t/o b%ac( bo6es. 1hat is, no matter ho/ contro ersia% their histor", ho/ com'%e6 their inner /or(ings, ho/ %arge the commercia% or academic net/or(s that ho%d them in '%ace, on%" their in'ut and out'ut count. 7hen "ou s/itch on the *clipse it runs the 'rograms "ou %oadP /hen "ou com'are nuc%eic acid se;uences "ou start &rom the doub%e he%i6 sha'e. 1he &%ashbac( &rom 3ctober 1988 in #aris to .utumn 1981 in Cambridge or 4ecember 198> in 7estborough, Massachusetts, 'resents t/o com'%ete%" di&&erent 'ictures o& each o& these t/o obCects, a scienti&ic &act:the doub%e:he%i6 : and a technica% arte&act : the *agle minicom'uter. $n the &irst 'icture Fohn 7hitta(er uses t/o b%ac( bo6es because the" are un'rob%ematic and certainP during the &%ashbac( the bo6es get reo'ened and a bright co%oured %ight i%%uminates them. $n the &irst 'icture, there is no %onger an" need to decide /here to 'ut the 'hos'hate bac(bone o& the doub%e he%i6, it is Cust there at the outsideP there is no %onger an" s;uabb%e to decide i& the *clipse shou%d be a +):bit &u%%" com'atib%e machine, as "ou Cust hoo( it u' to the other 03H. com'uters. 4uring the &%ashbac(s, a %ot o& 'eo'%e are introduced bac( into the 'icture, man" o& them sta(ing their career on the "ecisions the" ta(e: 2osa%ind *ran(%in decides to reCect the mode%:bui%ding a''roach Fim and *rancis ha e chosen and to concentrate instead on basic @:ra" cr"sta%%ogra'h" in order to obtain better 'hotogra'hsP 7est decides to ma(e a +):bit com'atib%e machine e en though this means bui%ding a tin(ered Q(%udge5, as the" contem'tuous%" sa", and %osing some o& his best engineers, /ho /ant to design a neat ne/ one. $n the #asteur $nstitute Fohn 7hitta(er is ta(ing no big ris( in be%ie ing the three:dimensiona% sha'e o& the doub%e he%i6 or in running his 'rogram on the *clipse) 1hese are no/ routine choices. 1he ris(s he and his boss ta(e %ie e%se/here, in this gigantic 'rogram o& com'aring a%% the base 'airs generated b" mo%ecu%ar bio%ogists a%% o er the /or%d. But i& /e go bac( to Cambridge, thirt" "ears ago, /ho shou%d /e be%ie e? 2osa%ind *ran(%in /ho sa"s it might be a three:strand he%i6? Bragg /ho orders 7atson and Cric( to gi e u' this ho'e%ess /or( entire%" and get bac( to serious business? #au%ing, the best chemist in the /or%d, /ho un ei%s

a structure that brea(s a%% the (no/n %a/s o& chemistr"? 1he same uncertaint" arises in the 7estborough o& a &e/ "ears ago. Shou%d 7est obe" his boss, de Castro, /hen he is e6'%icit%" as(ed not to do a ne/ research 'roCect there, since a%% the com'an" research has no/ mo ed to 0orth Caro%ina? Ho/ %ong shou%d 7est 'retend he is not /or(ing on a ne/ com'uter? Shou%d he be%ie e the mar(eting e6'erts /hen the" sa" that a%% their customers /ant a &u%%" com'atib%e machine (on /hich the" can reuse their o%d so&t/are) instead o& doing as his com'etitor 49C does a Qcu%tura%%" com'atib%e5 one (on /hich the" cannot reuse their so&t/are but on%" the most basic commands)? 7hat con&idence shou%d he ha e in his o%d team burned out b" the &ai%ure o& the *12 'roCect? Shou%d he ris( using the ne/ #.L chi's instead o& the o%der but sa&er ones?

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666 &igur $.1 start 666 *igure $.1 Bes(ri e%se: Bi%det iser en sti%isert s(isse a et anti(t gres( gudebi%de : guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. Begge ansi(tene er ist &ra siden. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg, e%%ers er de sA og si %i(e. 4e to ansi(tene har &B%gende na n: .nsi(tet endt mot enstre: 2ead" Made Science. .nsi(tet endt mot hB"re: Science in the Ma(ing. 666 &igur $.1 s%utt 666

!ncertaint", 'eo'%e at /or(, decisions, com'etition, contro ersies are /hat one gets /hen ma(ing a &%ashbac( &rom certain, co%d, un'rob%ematic b%ac( bo6es to their recent 'ast. $& "ou ta(e t/o 'ictures, one o& the b%ac( bo6es and the other o& the o'en contro ersies, the" are utter%" di&&erent. 1he" are as di&&erent as the t/o sides, one %i e%", the other se ere, o& a t/o: &aced Fanus. 5Science in the ma(ing5 on the right side, 5a%% made science5 or 5read" made science5 on the otherP such is Fanus bifrons, the &irst character that greets us at the beginning o& our Courne". $n Fohn5s o&&ice, the t/o b%ac( bo6es cannot and shou%d not be reo'ened. .s to the t/o contro eria% 'ieces o& /or( going on in the Ca endish and in 7estborough, the" are %aid o'en &or us b" the scientists at /or(. 1he im'ossib%e tas( o& o'ening the b%ac( bo6 is made &easib%e (i& not eas") b" mo ing in time and s'ace unti% one &inds the contro ersia% to'ic on /hich

scientists and engineers are bus" at /or(. 1his is the &irst decision /e ha e to ma(e: our entr" into science and techno%og" /i%% be through the bac( door o& science in the ma(ing, not through the more grandiose entrance o& read" made science.

0o/ that the /a" in has been decided u'on, /ith /hat sort o& 'rior (no/%edge shou%d one be e;ui''ed be&ore entering science and techno%og"? $n Fohn 7hitta(er5s o&&ice the doub%e he%i6 mode% and the com'uter are c%ear%" distinct &rom the rest o& his /orries. 1he" do not inter&ere /ith his 's"cho%ogica% mood, the &inancia% 'rob%ems o& the $nstitute, the big grants &or /hich his boss has a''%ied, or /ith the 'o%itica% strugg%e the" are a%% engaged in to create in *rance a big data ban( &or mo%ecu%ar bio%ogists. 1he" are Cust sitting there in the bac(ground, their scienti&ic or technica% contents neat%" distinct &rom the mess that Fohn is immersed in. $& he /ishes to (no/ something about the 40. structure or about the *clipse, Fohn o'ens Molecular 3iology of the 1ene or the 4ser5s Manual, boo(s that he can ta(e o&& the she%&. Ho/e er, i& /e go bac( to 7estborough or to Cambridge this c%ean distinction bet/een a conte6t and a content disa''ears.

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Scene 6: 1om 7est snea(s into the basement o& a bui%ding /here a &riend %ets him in at night to %oo( at a +A0 com'uter. 7est starts 'u%%ing out the 'rinted circuits boards and ana%"ses his com'etitor. 9 en his &irst ana%"sis merges technica% and ;uic( economic ca%cu%ations /ith the strategic decisions a%read" ta(en. .&ter a &e/ hours, he is reassured. 5$5d been %i ing in &ear o& H.@ &or a "ear,5 7est said a&ter/ard. ( . . . ) 5$ thin( $ got a high /hen $ %oo(ed at it and sa/ ho/ com'%e6 and e6'ensi e it /as. $t made me &ee% good about some o& the decisions /e5 e made5. 1hen his e a%uation becomes sti%% more com'%e6, inc%uding socia%, st"%istic and organisationa% &eatures: Loo(ing into the H.@, 7est had imagined he sa/ a diagram o& 49C5s cor'orate organiGation. He &e%t that H.@ /as too com'%icated. He did not %i(e, &or instance, the s"stem b" /hich arious 'arts o& the machine communicated /ith each other, &or his taste, there /as too much 'rotoco% in o% ed. He decided that H.@ embodied &%a/s in 49C5s cor'orate organiGation. 1he machine e6'ressed that 'henomena%%" success&u% com'an"5s cautious, bureaucratic st"%e. 7as this true? 7est said it did not matter, it /as a use&u% theor". 1hen he re'hrased his o'inions. 57ith H.@, 49C /as tr"ing to minimiGe the ris(5, he said, as he s/er ed around another car. Orinning, he /ent on: 57e5re tr"ing to ma6imiGe the /in, and ma(e

9ag%e go as &ast as a ra'ed a'e.5 (<idder: 1981, '. +-) 1his heterogeneous e a%uation o& his com'etitor is not a margina% moment in the stor"P it is the crucia% e'isode /hen 7est decides that in s'ite o& a t/o:"ear de%a", the o''osition o& the 0orth Caro%ina grou', the &ai%ure o& the *12 'roCect, the" can sti%% ma(e the *agle /or(. 53rganisation5, 5taste5, 5'rotoco%5, 5bureaucrac"5, 5minimisation o& ris(s5, are not common technica% /ords to describe a chi'. 1his is true, ho/e er, on%" once the chi' is a b%ac( bo6 so%d to consumers. 7hen it is submitted to a com'etitor5s tria%, %i(e the one 7est does, a%% these biGarre /ords become 'art and 'arce% o& the technica% e a%uation. Conte6t and contents merge. Scene 7: Fim 7atson and *rancis Cric( get a co'" o& the 'a'er un ei%ing the structure o& 40. /ritten b" Linus #au%ing and brought to them b" his son: #eter5s &ace betra"ed something im'ortant as he entered the door, and m" stomach san( in a''rehension at %earning that a%% /as %ost. Seeing that neither *rancis nor $ cou%d bear an" &urther sus'ense, he ;uic(%" to%d us that the mode% /as a three:chain he%i6 /ith the sugar 'hos'hate bac(bone in the center. 1his sounded so sus'icious%" %i(e our aborted e&&ort o& %ast "ear that immediate%" $ /ondered /hether /e might a%read" ha e had the credit and g%or" o& a great disco er" i& Bragg had not he%d us bac(. (7atson: 19-8, '. 1>)) 7as it Bragg /ho made them miss a maCor disco er", or /as it Linus /ho missed a good o''ortunit" &or (ee'ing his mouth shut? *rancis and Fim hurried%" tr" out the 'a'er and %oo( to see i& the sugar 'hos'hate bac(bone is so%id enough to ho%d the structure together. 1o their amaGement, the three chains described b" #au%ing had

((-))

no h"drogen atoms to tie the three strands together. 7ithout them, i& the" (ne/ their chemistr", the structure /i%% immediate%" &%" a'art. Iet someho/ Linus, un;uestionab%" the /or%d5s most astute chemist, had come to the o''osite conc%usion. 7hen *rancis /as amaGed e;ua%%" b" #au%ing5s unorthodo6 chemistr", $ began to breathe s%o/er. B" then $ (ne/ /e /ere sti%% in the game. 0either o& us, ho/e er, had the s%ightest c%ue to the ste's that had %ed Linus to his b%under. $& a student had made a simi%ar mista(e, he /ou%d be thought un&it to bene&it &rom Ca% 1ech5s chemistr" &acu%t". 1hus, /e cou%d not but initia%%" /orr" /hether Linus5s mode% &o%%o/ed &rom a re o%utionar"

ree a%uation o& the acid:based 'ro'erties o& er" %arge mo%ecu%es. 1he tone o& the manuscri't, ho/e er, argued against an" such ad ance in chemica% theor". (idem: '. 1>+)

1o decide /hether the" are sti%% in the game 7atson and Cric( ha e to e a%uate simu%taneous%" Linus #au%ing5s re'utation, common chemistr", the tone o& the 'a'er, the %e e% o& Ca% 1ech5s studentsP the" ha e to decide i& a re o%ution is under /a", in /hich case the" ha e been beaten o&&, or i& an enormous b%under has been committed, in /hich case the" ha e to rush sti%% &aster because #au%ing /i%% not be %ong in 'ic(ing it u': 7hen his mista(e became (no/n, Linus /ou%d not sto' unti% he had ca'tured the right structure. 0o/ our immediate ho'e /as that his chemica% co%%eagues /ou%d be more than e er a/ed b" his inte%%ect and not 'robe the detai%s o& his mode%. But since the manuscri't had a%read" been dis'atched to the (rocee"ings of the National Aca"emy, b" mid:March at the %atest Linus5s 'a'er /ou%d be s'read around the /or%d. 1hen it /ou%d be on%" a matter o& da"s be&ore the error /ou%d be disco ered. 7e had an"/here u' to si6 /ee(s be&ore Linus again /as in &u%%:time 'ursuit o& 40.. (idem: '. 1>,) 5Sus'ense5, 5game5, 5tone5, 5de%a" o& 'ub%ication5, 5a/e5, 5si6 /ee(s de%a"5 are not common /ords &or describing a mo%ecu%e structure. 1his is the case at %east once the structure is (no/n and %earned b" e er" student. Ho/e er, as %ong as the structure is submitted to a com'etitor5s 'robing, these ;ueer /ords are 'art and 'arce% o& the er" chemica% structure under in estigation. Here again conte6t and content &use together. 1he e;ui'ment necessar" to tra e% through science and techno%og" is at once %ight and mu%ti'%e. Mu%ti'%e because it means mi6ing h"drogen bonds /ith dead%ines, the 'robing o& one another5s authorit" /ith mone", debugging and bureaucratic st"%eP but the e;ui'ment is a%so %ight because it means sim'%" %ea ing aside a%% the 'reCudices about /hat distinguishes the conte6t in /hich (no/%edge is embedded and this (no/%edge itse%&. .t the entrance o& 4ante5s $n&erno is 1ritten/ .B.0430 H3#9 .LL I9 7H3 90192 H929. .t the onset o& this o"age shou%d be /ritten:

((7))

.B.0430 <037L94O9 .B3!1 <037L94O9 .LL I9 7H3 90192 H929. Learning to use the doub%e he%i6 and *agle in 1988 to /rite 'rograms re ea%s none o& the biGarre mi6ture the" are com'osed o&P stud"ing these in 198) or in 198> re ea%s it a%%. 3n the t/o b%ac( bo6es sitting in 7hitta(er5s o&&ice it is inscribed, as on #andora5s bo6: 4.0O92: 43 031 3#90. *rom the t/o tas(s at hand in the Ca endish and in 4ata Oenera% Head;uarters, 'assions, dead%ines, decisions esca'e in a%% directions &rom a bo6 that %ies o'en. #andora, the m"thica% android sent b" Reus to #rometheus, is the second character a&ter Fanus to greet us at the beginning o& our tri'. (7e might need more than one b%essing &rom more than one o& the anti;ue gods i& /e /ant to reach our destination sa&e%".)

%5' 6hen enough is ne"er enough

Science has t/o &aces: one that (no/s, the other that does not (no/ "et. 7e /i%% choose the more ignorant. $nsiders, and outsiders as /e%%, ha e %ots o& ideas about the ingredients necessar" &or science in the ma(ing. 7e /i%% ha e as &e/ ideas as 'ossib%e on /hat constitutes science. But ho/ are /e going to account &or the c%osing o& the bo6es, because the" do, a&ter a%%, c%ose u'? 1he sha'e o& the doub%e he%i6 is sett%ed in Fohn5s o&&ice in 1988P so is that o& the *clipse M+,-... com'uter. Ho/ did the" mo e &rom the Ca endish in 198) or &rom 7estborough, Massachusetts, to #aris 1988? $t is ai% er" /e%% to choose contro ersies as a /a" in, but /e need to &o%%o/ a%so the c%osure o& these contro ersies. Here /e ha e to get used to a strange acoustic 'henomenon. 1he t/o &aces o& Fanus ta%( at once and the" sa" entire%" di&&erent things that /e shou%d not con&use.

666 &igur $.) start 666 *igure $.) Fanus5 &irst dictum: 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstresier: =Fust get the &acts straightS= .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =Oet rid o& a%% the use%ess &acts= 666 &igur $.) s%utt 666

((8))

Scene 8: Fim co'ies &rom arious te6tboo(s the &orms o& the base 'airs that ma(e u' 40., and '%a"s /ith them tr"ing to see i& a s"mmetr" can be seen /hen 'airing them. 1o his amaGement adenine cou'%ed /ith adenine, c"tosine /ith c"tosine, guanine /ith guanine and th"mine /ith th"mine ma(e er" nice su'erim'osab%e &orms. 1o be sure this s"mmetr" renders the sugar 'hos'hate bac(bone strange%" missha'en but this is not enough to sto' Fim5s 'u%se racing or to sto' him /riting a trium'hant %etter to his boss. $ no sooner got to the o&&ice and began e6'%aining m" scheme than the .merican cr"sta%%ogra'her Ferr" 4onohue 'rotested that the idea /ou%d not /or(. 1he tautomeric &orms $ had co'ied out o& 4a idson5s boo( /ere, in Ferr"5s o'inion, incorrect%" assigned. M" immediate retort that se era% other te6ts a%so 'ictured guanine and th"mine in the eno% &orm cut no ice /ith Ferr". Ha''i%" he %et out that &or "ears organic chemists had been arbitrari%" &a oring 'articu%ar tautomeric &orms o er their a%ternati es on on%" the &%imsiest o& grounds. (. . .) 1hough m" immediate reaction /as to ho'e that Ferr" /as b%o/ing hot air, $ did not dismiss his criticism. 0e6t to Linus himse%&, Ferr" (ne/ more about h"drogen bonds than an"one in the /or%d. Since &or man" "ears he had /or(ed at Ca% 1ech on the cr"sta% structures o& sma%% organic mo%ecu%es, $ cou%dn5t (id m"se%& that he did not gras' our 'rob%em. 4uring the si6 months that he occu'ied a des( in our o&&ice, $ had ne er heard him shooting o&& his mouth on subCects about /hich he (ne/ nothing. 1horough%" /orried, $ /ent bac( to m" des( ho'ing that some gimmic( might emerge to sa% age the %i(e:/ith:%i(e idea. (7atson: 19-8, ''. 1)1:)) Fim had got the &acts straight out o& te6tboo(s /hich, unanimous%", 'ro ided him /ith a nice b%ac( bo6: the eno% &orm. $n this case, ho/e er, this is the er" &act that shou%d be dismissed or 'ut into ;uestion. 3r at %east this is /hat 4onohue sa"s. But /hom shou%d Fim be%ie e? 1he unanimous o'inion o& organic chemists or this chemist5s o'inion? Fim, /ho tries to sa% age his mode%, s/itches &rom one ru%e o& method, 5get the &acts straight5, to other more strategic ones, 5%oo( &or a /ea( 'oint5, 5choose /ho to be%ie e5. 4onohue studied /ith #au%ing, he /or(ed on sma%% mo%ecu%es, in si6 months he ne er said absurd things. 4isci'%ine, a&&i%iation, curricu%um itae, 's"cho%ogica% a''raisa% are mi6ed together b" Fim to reach a decision. Better sacri&ice them and the nice %i(e:/ith:%i(e mode%, than 4onohue5s criticism. 1he &act, no matter ho/ 5straight5, has to be dismissed. 1he un&oreseen di idend o& ha ing Ferr" share an o&&ice /ith *rancis, #eter, and me, though ob ious to a%%, /as not s'o(en about. $& he had not been /ith us in Cambridge, $ might sti%% ha e been 'um'ing out &or a %i(e:/ith:%i(e structure. Maurice, in a %ab de oid o& structura% chemists, did not ha e an"one to te%% him that a%% the te6tboo( 'ictures /ere /rong. But &or Ferr", on%" #au%ing /ou%d ha e been %i(e%" to ma(e the right choice and stic( b" its conse;uences. (idem: '. 1+)) 1he ad ice o& Fanus5 %e&t side is eas" to &o%%o/ /hen things are sett%ed, but not as %ong as things remain unsett%ed. 7hat is on the %e&t side, uni ersa% /e%%:(no/n &acts o& chemistr", becomes, &rom the right side 'oint o& ie/, scarce

((9))

'ronouncements uttered b" t/o 'eo'%e in the /ho%e /or%d. 1he" ha e a 9uality that crucia%%" de'ends on %oca%isation, on chance, on a''raising simu%taneous%" the /orth o& the 'eo'%e and o& /hat the" sa".

666 &igur $.+ start 666 *igure $.+ Fanus5s second dictum: 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =Fust get the most e&&icient machine= .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =4ecide on /hat e&&icienc" shou%d be= 666 &igur $.+ s%utt 666

Scene ': 7est and his main co%%aborator, .%sing, are discussing ho/ to tac(%e the debugging 'rogram: 5$ /ant to bui%d a simu%ator, 1om.5 5$t5%% ta(e too %ong, .%sing. 1he machine5%% be debugged be&ore "ou get "our simu%ator debugged.5 1his time, .%sing insisted. 1he" cou%d not bui%d 9ag%e in an"thing %i(e a "ear i& the" had to debug a%% the microcode on 'rotot"'es. $& the" /ent that /a", moreo er, the"5d need to ha e at %east one and 'robab%" t/o e6tra 'rotot"'es right &rom the start, and that /ou%d mean a doub%ing o& the boring, grue%ing /or( o& u'dating boards. .%sing /anted a 'rogram that /ou%d beha e %i(e a 'er&ected 9ag%e, so that the" cou%d debug their microcode se'arate%" &rom the hard/are. 7est said: 5Oo ahead. But $ betch"a it5%% a%% be o er b" the time "ou get it done.5 (<idder. 1981, '. 1,-)

1he right side5s ad ice is strict%" &o%%o/ed b" the t/o men since the" /ant to bui%d the best 'ossib%e com'uter. 1his ho/e er does not 're ent a ne/ contro ers" starting bet/een the t/o men on ho/ to mimic in ad ance an e&&icient machine. $& .%sing cannot con ince one o& his team members, #ec(, to &inish in si6 /ee(s the simu%ator that shou%d ha e ta(en a "ear and a ha%&, then 7est /i%% be right: the simu%ator is not an e&&icient /a" to 'roceed because it /i%% come too %ate. But i& .%sing and #ec( succeed, then it is 7est5s de&inition o& e&&icienc" /hich /i%% turn out to be /rong. 9&&icienc" /i%% be the conse;uence o& /ho succeedsP it does not he%' deciding, on the s'ot, /ho is right and /rong. 1he right side5s ad ice is a%% er" /e%% once *agle is sent to manu&acturingP be&ore that, it is the %e&t side5s con&using strategic ad ice that shou%d be &o%%o/ed.

((1>))

666 &igur $., start 666 *igure $., Fanus5 third dictum: 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =3nce the machine /or(s 'eo'%e /i%% be con inced= .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =1he machine /i%% /or( /hen a%% the re%e ant 'eo'%e are con inced= 666 &igur $ , s%utt 666

Scene -: 7est has insu%ated his team &or t/o "ears &rom the rest o& the com'an". QSome o& the (ids,5 he sa"s, Qdon5t ha e a notion that there5s a com'an" behind a%% o& this. $t cou%d be the C$. &unding this. $t cou%d be a 's"cho%ogica% test5 (<idder: 198), '. )>>). 4uring this time, ho/e er, 7est has constant%" %obbied the com'an" on beha%& o& *agle) .cting as a midd%e: man he has &i%tered the constraints im'osed on the &uture machine b" de Castro (the Big Boss), the mar(eting de'artment, the other research grou' in 0orth Caro%ina, the other machines 'resented in com'uter &airs, and so on. He /as a%so the one /ho (e't negotiating the dead%ines that /ere ne er met. But there comes a 'oint /hen a%% the other de'artments he

has %obbied so intense%" /ant to see something, and ca%% his b%u&&. 1he situation becomes es'ecia%%" tric(" /hen it is c%ear at %ast that the 0orth Caro%ina grou' /i%% not de%i er a machine, that 49C is se%%ing +A0 %i(e hot ca(es and that a%% the customers /ant a su'ermini +):bit &u%%" com'atib%e machine &rom 4ata Oenera%. .t this 'oint 7est has to brea( the 'rotecti e she%% he has bui%t around his team. 1o be sure, he designed the machine so as to &it it in /ith the other de'artments5 interests, but he is sti%% uncertain o& their reaction and o& that o& his team sudden%" bere&t o& the machine. .s the summer came on, increasing numbers o& intruders /ere being %ed into the %ab : diagnostic 'rogrammers and, 'articu%ar%", those 'rogrammers &rom So&t/are. Some Hard" Bo"s had gro/n &ond o& the 'rotot"'es o& 9ag%e, as "ou might o& a 'et or a '%ant "ou5 e raised &rom a seed%ing. 0o/ 2asa%a /as te%%ing them that the" cou%dn5t /or( on their machines at certain hours, because So&t/are needed to use them. 1here /as an e6'%anation: the 'roCect /as at a 'recarious stageP i& So&t/are didn5t get to (no/ and %i(e the hard/are and did not s'ea( enthusiastica%%" about it, the 'roCect might be ruinedP the Hard" Bo"s /ere %uc(" that So&t/are /anted to use the 'rotot"'es:and the" had to (ee' So&t/are ha''". (idem: '. )>1) 0ot on%" the So&t/are 'eo'%e ha e to be (e't ha''", but a%so the manu&acturing 'eo'%e, those &rom mar(eting, those /ho /rite the technica% documentation, the designers /ho ha e to '%ace the /ho%e machine in a nice %oo(ing bo6 (not a b%ac( one this timeS), not mentioning the stoc(ho%ders and the customers. .%though the

((11))

machine has been concei ed b" 7est, through man" com'romises, to (ee' a%% these 'eo'%e ha''" and bus", he cannot be sure it is going to ho%d them together. 9ach o& the interest grou's has to tr" their o/n di&&erent sort o& tests on the machine and see ho/ it /ithstands them. 1he /orst, &or 1om 7est, is that the com'an" manu&acturing the ne/ #.L chi's is going ban(ru't, that the team is su&&ering a postpartum de'ression, and that the machine is not "et debugged. 53ur credibi%it", $ thin(, is running out,5 7est te%%s his assistants. *agle sti%% does not run more than a &e/ seconds /ithout &%ashing error messages on the screen. 9 er" time the" 'ainsta(ing%" 'in'oint the bug, the" &i6 it and then tr" a ne/ and more di&&icu%t debugging 'rogram. 9ag%e /as &ai%ing its Mu%ti'rogramming 2e%iabi%it" 1est m"sterious%". $t /as b%o/ing a/a", crashing, going out to ne er:ne er %and, and &a%%ing o&& the end o& the /or%d a&ter e er" &our hours or so o& smooth running. 5Machines some/here in the agon" o& the %ast &e/ bugs are er" u%nerab%e,5 sa"s .%sing. 51he shouting starts about it. $t5%% ne er /or(, and so on. Managers and su''ort grou's start sa"ing

this. Hangers:on sa", =Oee, $ thought "ou5d get it done a %ot sooner.= 1hat5s /hen 'eo'%e start ta%(ing about redesigning the /ho%e thing.5 .%sing added, 57atch out &or 1om no/.5 7est sat in his o&&ice. 5$5m thin(ing o& thro/ing the (ids out o& the %ab and going in there /ith 2asa%a and &i6 it. $t5s true. $ don5t understand a%% the detai%s o& that suc(er, but $ /i%%, and $5%% get it to /or(.5 5Oimme a &e/ more da"s,5 said 2asa%a. (idem: '. )+1)

. &e/ /ee(s %ater, a&ter *agle has success&u%%" run a com'uter game ca%%ed .d enture, the /ho%e team &e%t the" had reached one a''ro6imate end: Q$t5s a com'uter,5 2asa%a said (idem: '. )++). 3n Monda" 8 3ctober, a maintenance cre/ comes to /hee% do/n the ha%% /hat /as ;uic(%" becoming a b%ac( bo6. 7h" has it become such? Because it is a good machine, sa"s the %e&t side o& our Fanus &riend. But it /as not a good machine be&ore it /or(ed. 1hus /hi%e it is being made it cannot con ince an"one because o& its good /or(ing order. $t is on%" a&ter end%ess %itt%e bugs ha e been ta(en out, each bug being re ea%ed b" a ne/ tria% im'osed b" a ne/ interested grou', that the machine /i%% eventually and progressively be made to /or(. .%% the reasons &or /h" it /i%% /or( once it is &inished do not he%' the engineers /hi%e the" are ma(ing it.

Scene :: Ho/ does the doub%e he%i6 stor" end? $n a series o& tria%s im'osed on the ne/ mode% b" each o& the successi e 'eo'%e Fim 7atson and *rancis Cric( ha e /or(ed /ith (or against). Fim is '%a"ing /ith cardboard mode%s o& the base 'airs, no/ in the (eto &orm suggested b" Ferr" 4onohue. 1o his amaGement he rea%ises that the sha'e dra/n b" 'airing adenine /ith th"mine and guanine /ith c"tosine are su'erim'osab%e. 1he ste's o& the doub%e he%i6 ha e the same sha'e. Contrar" to his ear%ier mode%, the structure might be com'%ementar" instead o& being %i(e:/ith%i(e. He hesitates a /hi%e, because he sees no reason at &irst &or this com'%ementarit". 1hen he remembers /hat /as ca%%ed 5Charga&& %a/s5, one o& these man" em'irica% &acts the" had (e't in the bac(ground. 1hese 5%a/s5 stated that there

((1)))

666 &igur $.8 start666

Fanus5s &ourth dictum: 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =7hen things are true the" ho%d= .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =7hen things ho%d the" start becoming true= 666 &igur $.8 s%utt 666

/as a%/a"s as much adenine as th"mine and as much guanine as c"tosine, no matter /hich 40. one chose to ana%"se. 1his iso%ated &act, de oid o& an" meaning in his ear%ier %i(e:/ith: %i(e mode%, sudden%" brings a ne/ strength to his emerging ne/ mode%. 0ot on%" are the 'airs su'erim'osab%e, but Charga&& %a/s can be made a conse;uence o& his mode%. .nother &eature came to strengthen the mode%: it suggests a /a" &or a gene to s'%it into t/o 'arts and then &or each strand to create an e6act com'%ementar" co'" o& itse%&. 3ne he%i6 cou%d gi e birth to t/o identica% he%ices. 1hus bio%ogica% meaning cou%d su''ort the mode%. Sti%% Fim5s cardboard mode% cou%d be destro"ed in s'ite o& these three ad antages. Ma"be 4onohue /i%% burn it to ashes as he did the attem't a &e/ da"s ear%ier. So Fim ca%%ed him to chec( i& he had an" obCection. 57hen he said no, m" mora%e s("roc(eted5 (7atson: 19-8, '. 1),). 1hen it is *rancis /ho rushes into the %ab and 5'ushes the bases together in a number o& /a"s5. 1he mode%, this time, resists *rancis5s sce'ticism. 1here are no/ man" decisi e e%ements tied together /ith and b" the ne/ structure. Sti%%, a%% the con inced 'eo'%e are in the same o&&ice and a%though the" thin( the" are right, the" cou%d sti%% be de%uding themse% es. 7hat /i%% Bragg and a%% the other cr"sta%%ogra'hers sa"? 7hat obCections /i%% Maurice 7i%(ins and 2osa%ind *ran(%in, the on%" ones /ith @:ra"s 'ictures o& the 40., ha e? 7i%% the" see the mode% as the on%" &orm ab%e to gi e, b" 'roCection, the sha'e isib%e on 2osa%ind5s 'hotogra'hs? 1he"5d %i(e to (no/ &ast but dread the danger o& the &ina% sho/do/n /ith 'eo'%e /ho, se era% times a%read", ha e ruined their e&&orts. Besides, another a%%" is missing to set u' the tria%, a humb%e a%%" &or sure but necessar" a%% the same: 51hat night, ho/e er, /e cou%d not &irm%" estab%ish the doub%e he%i6. !nti% the meta% bases /ere on hand, an" mode% bui%ding /ou%d be too s%o''" to be con incing5 (idem: '. 1)7). 9 en /ith Charga&& %a/s, /ith bio%ogica% signi&icance, /ith 4onohue5s a''ro a%, /ith their e6citement, /ith the base 'airing a%% on their side, the he%i6 is sti%% s%o''". Meta% is necessar" to rein&orce the structure %ong enough to /ithstand the tria%s that the com'etitorsDco%%eagues are going to im'ose on it. 1he remainder o& the doub%e he%i6 stor" %oo(s %i(e the &ina% rounds o& a 'residentia% nomination. 9 er" one o& the other contenders is introduced into the o&&ice /here the mode% is no/ set u', &ights /ith it &or a /hi%e be&ore being ;uic(%"

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o er/he%med and then '%edging com'%ete su''ort to it. Bragg is con inced a%though sti%% /orried that no one more serious than Fim and *rancis had chec(ed the he%i6. 0o/ &or the big game, the encounter bet/een the mode% and those /ho &or "ears had ca'tured its 'roCected image. 5Maurice needed but a minute5s %oo( at the mode% to %i(e it.=He /as bac( in London on%" t/o da"s be&ore he rang u' to sa" that both he and 2os" &ound that their @:ra" data strong%" su''orted the doub%e he%i65 ('. 1+1). Soon #au%ing ra%%ies himse%& to the structure, then it is the turn o& the re&erees o& Nature) 53& course,5 sa"s the %e&t side o& Fanus, 5e er"one is con inced because Fim and *rancis stumb%ed on the right structure. 1he 40. sha'e itse%& is enough to ra%%" e er"one.5 50o, sa"s the right side, e er" time someone e%se is con inced it 'rogressi e%" becomes a more right structure.5 9nough is ne er enough: "ears %ater in $ndia and 0e/ Rea%and other researchers /ere /or(ing on a so:ca%%ed 5/ar'ed Gi''er5 + mode% that did e er"thing the doub%e he%i6 does J'%us a bit moreP #au%ing strong%" su''orted his o/n structure that had turned out to be entire%" /rongP Fim &ound bio%ogica% signi&icance in a %i(e:/ith:%i(e structure that sur i ed on%" a &e/ hoursP 2osa%ind *ran(%in had been stubborn%" con inced ear%ier that it /as a three: strand he%i6P 7i%(ins ignored the (eto &orms re ea%ed b" Ferr" 4onohueP Charga&&5s %a/s /ere an insigni&icant &act the" (e't in the bac(ground &or a %ong timeP as to the meta% atom to"s, the" ha e %ent strong su''ort to count%ess mode%s that turned out to be /rong. .%% these a%%ies a''ear strong once the structure is b%ac(bo6ed. .s %ong as it is not, Fim and *rancis are sti%% strugg%ing to recruit them, modi&"ing the 40. structure unti% e er"one is satis&ied. 7hen the" are through, the" /i%% &o%%o/ the ad ice o& Fanus5s right side. .s %ong as the" are sti%% searching &or the right 40. sha'e, the" /ou%d be better o&& &o%%o/ing the right side5s con&using ad ices. 7e cou%d re ie/ a%% the o'inions o&&ered to e6'%ain /h" an o'en contro ers" c%oses, but /e /i%% a%/a"s stumb%e on a ne/ contro ers" dea%ing /ith ho/ and /h" it c%osed. 7e /i%% ha e to %earn to %i e /ith t/o contradictor" oices ta%(ing at once, one about science in the ma(ing, the other about read" made science. 1he %atter 'roduces sentences %i(e 5Cust do this . . . Cust do that . . .5P the &ormer sa"s 5enough is ne er enough5. 1he %e&t side considers that &acts and machines are /e%% determined enough. 1he right side considers that &acts and machines in the ma(ing are a%/a"s under7determined. , Some %itt%e thing is a%/a"s missing to c%ose the b%ac( bo6 once and &or a%%. !nti% the %ast minute *agle can &ai% i& 7est is not care&u% enough to (ee' the So&t/are 'eo'%e interested, to maintain the 'ressure on the debugging cre/, to ad ertise the machine to the mar(eting de'artment.

%8' he first rule of method

7e /i%% enter &acts and machines /hi%e the" are in the ma(ingP /e /i%% carr" /ith us no 'reconce'tions o& /hat constitutes (no/%edgeP /e /i%% /atch the c%osure o&

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666 &igur $.- start 666 *igure $.1. rute inneho%der en 'Astand uten an&Brse%stegn: 1he 40. mo%ecu%e has the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6. ). rute inneho%der samme 'Astand med an&Brse%stegn: =1he 40. mo%ecu%e has the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6.= +. rute: 0Trbi%de a ansi(tet ti% en mann, med sna((ebob%e som sier: 1he 40. mo%ecu%e has the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6. ,. rute: 3 ersi(tsbi%de a mange mennes(e&igurer som be eger seg rundt og (on erserer: ,.1 1o &iguer stAr sammen og e(s%er &B%gende re'%i((er: : Ma" be it is a tri'%e he%i6. : $t is not a he%i6 at a%%. ,.) 1o andre &iguerer mBtes og begge sier i (or: $& it had the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6. ,.+ 9n 'erson stAr a%ene i ba(grunnen og sier: : 7h" don5t "ou gu"s do something serious? 8. rute: <ontormui%CB, to 'ersoner i (o ersasCon, som "trer: : 1his /ou%d e6'%ain Charga&&. : and it /ou%d be 'rett". -. 3 ersi(tbi%de: &ire &igurer be eger seg rundt, og a%%e sna((er om det samme: 1he" sa" that 7atson and Cric(5 ha e sho/n that 40. is a doub%e he%i6. 7. Bi%de a en bo( med sna((ebob%e. Bob%en rommer &B%gende 'Astand i an&Brse%stegn: =7atson and Cric( ha e sho/n that the 40. mo%ecu%e has the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6.= 8. Bi%de inneho%der en 'Astand uten an&Brse%stegn: Since the mo%ecu%e o& 40. has the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6 the re'%ication o& genes is made understandab%e.

666 &igur $.- s%utt 666

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the b%ac( bo6es and be care&u% to distinguish bet/een t/o contradictor" e6'%anations o& this c%osure, one uttered /hen it is &inished, the other /hi%e it is being attem'ted. 1his /i%% constitute our &irst rule of method and /i%% ma(e our o"age 'ossib%e. 1o s(etch the genera% sha'e o& this boo(, it is best to 'icture the &o%%o/ing comic stri': /e start /ith a te6tboo( sentence /hich is de oid o& an" trace o& &abrication, construction or o/nershi'P /e then 'ut it in ;uotation mar(s, surround it /ith a bubb%e, '%ace it in the mouth o& someone /ho s'ea(sP then /e add to this s'ea(ing character another character to ;hom it is s'ea(ingP then /e '%ace a%% o& them in a s'eci&ic situation, some/here in time and s'ace, surrounded b" e;ui'ment, machines, co%%eaguesP then /hen the contro ers" heats u' a bit /e %oo( at ;here the dis'uting 'eo'%e go and ;hat sort o& ne/ e%ements the" &etch, recruit or seduce in order to con ince their co%%eaguesP then, /e see ho/ the 'eo'%e being con inced sto' discussing /ith one anotherP situations, %oca%isations, e en 'eo'%e start being s%o/%" erasedP on the %ast 'icture /e see a ne/ sentence, /ithout an" ;uotation mar(s, /ritten in a te6t boo( simi%ar to the one /e started /ith in the &irst 'icture. 1his is the genera% mo ement o& /hat /e /i%% stud" o er and o er again in the course o& this boo(, 'enetrating science &rom the outside, &o%%o/ing contro ersies and accom'an"ing scientists u' to the end, being s%o/%" %ed out o& science in the ma(ing. $n s'ite o& the rich, con&using, ambiguous and &ascinating 'icture that is thus re ea%ed, sur'rising%" &e/ 'eo'%e ha e 'enetrated &rom the outside the inner /or(ings o& science and techno%og", and then got out o& it to e6'%ain to the outsider ho/ it a%% /or(s. *or sure, man" "oung 'eo'%e ha e entered science, but the" ha e become scientists and engineersP /hat the" ha e done is isib%e in the machines /e use, the te6tboo(s /e %earn, the 'i%%s /e ta(e, the %andsca'e /e %oo( at, the b%in(ing sate%%ites in the night s(" abo e our head. Ho/ the" did it, /e don5t (no/. Some scientists ta%( about science, its /a"s and means, but &e/ o& them acce't the disci'%ine o& becoming a%so an outsiderP /hat the" sa" about their trade is hard to doub%e chec( in the absence o& inde'endent scrutin". 3ther 'eo'%e ta%( about science, its so%idit", its &oundation, its de e%o'ment or its dangersP un&ortunate%", a%most none o& them are interested in science in the ma(ing. 1he" sh" a/a" &rom the disorder%" mi6ture re ea%ed b" science in action and 're&er the order%" 'attern o& scienti&ic method and rationa%it". 4e&ending science and reason against 'seudo:sciences, against &raud, against irrationa%it", (ee's most o& these 'eo'%e too bus" to stud" it. .s to the mi%%ions, or bi%%ions, o& outsiders, the" (no/ about science and techno%og" through 'o'u%arisation on%". 1he &acts and the arte&acts the" 'roduce &a%% on their head %i(e an e6terna% &ate as &oreign, as inhuman, as un'redictab%e as the o%den <atum o& the 2omans.

.'art &rom those /ho ma(e science, /ho stud" it, /ho de&end it or /ho submit to it, there e6ist, &ortunate%", a &e/ 'eo'%e, either trained as scientists or not, /ho o'en the b%ac( bo6es so that outsiders ma" ha e a g%im'se at it. 1he" go b" man" di&&erent names (historians o& science and techno%og", economists, socio%ogists, science teachers, science 'o%ic" ana%"sts, Courna%ists, 'hi%oso'hers, concerned

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scientists and citiGens, cogniti e anthro'o%ogists or cogniti e 's"cho%ogists), and are most o&ten &i%ed under the genera% %abe% o& 5science, techno%og" and societ"5. $t is on their /or( that this boo( is bui%t. . summar" o& their man" results and achie ements /ou%d be /orth doing, but is be"ond the sco'e o& m" (no/%edge. $ sim'%" /ish to summarise their metho" and to s(etch the ground that, sometimes un/itting%", the" a%% ha e in common. $n doing so $ /ish to he%' o ercome t/o o& the %imitations o& Qscience, techno%og" and societ"5 studies that a''ear to me to th/art their im'act, that is their organisation by "iscipline and by ob=ect) 9conomists o& inno ation ignore socio%ogists o& techno%og"P cogniti e scientists ne er use socia% studies o& scienceP ethnoscience is &ar remote &rom 'edagog"P historians o& science 'a" %itt%e attention to %iterar" studies or to rhetoricP socio%ogists o& science o&ten see no re%ation bet/een their academic /or( and the in vivo e6'eriments 'er&ormed b" concerned scientists or citiGensP Courna%ists rare%" ;uote scho%ar%" /or( on socia% studies o& scienceP and so on. 1his Babe% o& disci'%ines /ou%d not matter much i& it /as not /orsened b" another di ision made according to the obCects each o& them stud". 1here e6ist historians o& eighteenth:centur" chemistr" or o& Oerman turn:o&:the:centur" 'h"sicsP e en citiGens5 associations are s'ecia%ised, some in &ighting atomic energ", others in strugg%ing against drug com'anies, sti%% others against ne/ math teachingP some cogniti e scientists stud" "oung chi%dren in e6'erimenta% settings /hi%e others are interested in adu%t dai%" reasoningP e en among socio%ogists o& science, some &ocus on micro:studies o& science /hi%e others tac(%e %arge:sca%e engineering 'roCectsP historians o& techno%og" are o&ten a%igned a%ong the technica% s'ecia%ities o& the engineers, some stud"ing aircra&t industries /hite others 're&er te%ecommunications or the de e%o'ment o& steam enginesP as to the anthro'o%ogists stud"ing 5sa age5 reasoning, er" &e/ get to dea% /ith modern (no/%edge. 1his scattering o& disci'%ines and obCects /ou%d not be a 'rob%em i& it /as the ha%%mar( o& a necessar" and &ecund specialisation, gro/ing &rom a core o& common 'rob%ems and methods. 1his is ho/e er &ar &rom the case. 1he sciences and the techno%ogies to be studied are the main &actors in determining this ha'haGard gro/th o& interests and methods. $ ha e ne er met t/o 'eo'%e /ho cou%d agree on /hat the domain ca%%ed 5science, techno%og" and societ"5 meantJin &act, $ ha e rare%" seen an"one agree on the name or indeed that the domain e6istsS $ c%aim that the domain e6ists, that there is a core o& common 'rob%ems and methods, that it is im'ortant and that a%% the disci'%ines and obCects o& 5science, techno%og" and societ"5 studies

can be em'%o"ed as so much s'ecia%ised materia% /ith /hich to stud" it. 1o de&ine /hat is at sta(e in this domain, the on%" thing /e need is a &e/ sets o& conce'ts sturd" enough to stand the tri' through a%% these man" disci'%ines, 'eriods and obCects. $ am /e%% a/are that there e6ist man" more so'histicated, subt%e, &ast or 'o/er&u% notions than the ones $ ha e chosen. .re the" not going to brea( do/n? .re the" going to %ast the distance? 7i%% the" be ab%e to tie together enough em'irica% &acts? .re the" hand" enough &or doing 'ractica% e6ercisesE? 1hese are

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the ;uestions that guided me in se%ecting &rom the %iterature rules of method and prin&iples and to dedicate one cha'ter to each 'airEE. 1he status o& these ru%es and that o& the 'rinci'%es is rather distinct and $ do not e6'ect them to be e a%uated in the same /a". B" Qru%es o& method5 $ mean /hat a 'riori decisions shou%d be made in order to consider a%% o& the em'irica% &acts 'ro ided b" the s'ecia%ised disci'%ines as being 'art o& the domain o& Qscience, techno%og" and societ"5. B" Q'rinci'%es5 $ mean /hat is my 'ersona% summar" o& the em'irica% &acts at hand a&ter a decade o& /or( in this area. 1hus, $ e6'ect these 'rinci'%es to be debated, &a%si&ied, re'%aced b" other summaries. 3n the other hand, the ru%es o& method are a 'ac(age that do not seem to be easi%" negotiab%e /ithout %osing sight o& the common ground $ /ant to s(etch. 7ith them it is more a ;uestion o& a%% or nothing, and $ thin( the" shou%d be Cudged on%" on this ground: do the" %in( more e%ements than others? 4o the" a%%o/ outsiders to &o%%o/ science and techno%og" &urther, %onger and more inde'endent%"? 1his /i%% be the on%" ru%e o& the game, that is, the on%" Qmeta5 ru%e that /e /i%% need to get on /ith our /or(.

666 &otnoter start 666 E 1he 'resent boo( /as origina%%" '%anned /ith e6ercises at the end o& each cha'ter. *or %ac( o& s'ace, these 'ractica% tas(s /i%% be the obCect o& a second o%ume. EE 96ce't &or the &irst ru%e o& method de&ined abo e. . summar" o& these ru%es and 'rinci'%es is gi en at the end o& the boo(. 666 &otnoter s%utt 666

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$art I. From 6eaker to Stronger 3hetori&

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CHA$ E3 (. ,iterature
1here are man" methods &or stud"ing the &abrication o& scienti&ic &acts and technica% arte&acts. Ho/e er, the &irst ru%e o& method /e decided u'on in the 'receding $ntroduction is the sim'%est o& a%%. 7e /i%% not tr" to ana%"se the &ina% 'roducts, a com'uter, a nuc%ear '%ant, a cosmo%ogica% theor", the sha'e o& a doub%e he%i6, a bo6 o& contrace'ti e 'i%%s, a mode% o& the econom"P instead /e /i%% &o%%o/ scientists and engineers at the times and at the '%aces /here the" '%an a nuc%ear '%ant, undo a cosmo%ogica% theor", modi&" the structure o& a hormone &or contrace'tion, or disaggregate &igures used in a ne/ mode% o& the econom". 7e go &rom &ina% 'roducts to 'roduction, &rom 5co%d5 stab%e obCects to 5/armer5 and unstab%e ones. $nstead o& b%ac( bo6ing the technica% as'ects o& science and then %oo(ing &or socia% in&%uences and biases, /e rea%ised in the $ntroduction ho/ much sim'%er it /as to be there before the bo6 c%oses and becomes b%ac(. 7ith this sim'%e method /e mere%" ha e to &o%%o/ the best o& a%% guides, scientists themse% es, in their e&&orts to c%ose one b%ac( bo6 and to o'en another. 1his re%ati ist and critica% stand is not im'osed b" us on the scientists /e stud"P it is /hat the scientists themse% es do, at %east &or the tin" 'art o& technoscience the" are /or(ing on.

1o start our en;uir", /e are going to begin &rom the sim'%est o& a%% 'ossib%e situations: /hen someone utters a statement, /hat ha''ens /hen the others be%ie e it or don5t be%ie e it. Starting &rom this most genera% situation, /e /i%% be gradua%%" %ed to more 'articu%ar settings. $n this cha'ter, as in the &o%%o/ing, /e /i%% &o%%o/ a character, /hom /e /i%% &or the moment dub 5the dissenter5. $n this &irst 'art o& the boo( /e /i%% obser e to /hat e6tremes a nai e outsider /ho /ishes to disbe%ie e a sentence is %ed.

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$art A. Contro"ersies
%(' $ositi"e and negati"e modalities
7hat ha''ens /hen someone disbe%ie es a sentence? Let me e6'eriment /ith three sim'%e cases: (1)0e/ So iet missi%es aimed against Minutemen si%os are accurate to 1>> metres. 1 ())Since Kne/ So iet missi%es are accurate /ithin 1>> metresL this means that Minutemen are not sa&e an" more, and this is the main reason /h" the M@ /ea'on s"stem is necessar". (+).d ocates o& the M@ in the #entagon c%e er%" %ea( in&ormation contending that Kne/ So iet missi%es are accurate /ithin 1>> metresL. $n statements ()) and (+) /e &ind the same sentence (1) but inserted. 7e ca%% these sentences modalities because the" modi&" (or ;ua%i&") another one. 1he e&&ects o& the moda%ities in ()) and (+) are com'%ete%" di&&erent. $n ()) the sentence (1) is su''osed to be so%id enough to ma(e the bui%ding o& the M@ necessar", /hereas in (+) the er" same statement is /ea(ened since its a%idit" is in ;uestion. 3ne moda%it" is %eading us, so to s'ea(, 5do/nstream5 &rom the e6istence o& accurate So iet missi%es to the necessit" o& bui%ding the M@P the other moda%it" %eads us 5u'stream5 &rom a be%ie& in the same sentence (1) to the uncertainties o& our (no/%edge about the accurac" o& So iet missi%es. $& /e insist /e ma" be %ed e en &urther u'stream, as in the ne6t sentence: (,)1he underco er agent >>9 in 0o osibirs( /his'ered to the housemaid be&ore d"ing that he had heard in bars that some o&&icers thought that some o& their Kmissi%esL in idea% test conditions might Kha e an accurac"L some/here bet/een K1>>L and 1>>> KmetresL or this is at %east ho/ the re'ort came to 7ashington. $n this e6am'%e, statement (1) is not inserted in another 'hrase an" more, it is bro(en a'art and each &ragment : /hich $ ha e 'ut in brac(ets : is brought bac( into a com'%e6 'rocess o&

construction &rom /hich it a''ears to ha e been e6tracted. 1he directions to/ards /hich the readers o& sentences ()) and (,) are in ited to go are stri(ing%" di&&erent. $n the &irst case, the" are %ed into the 0e ada desert o& the !nited States to %oo( &or a suitab%e site &or the M@P in the second case the" are %ed to/ards the #entagon si&ting through the C$. net/or( o& s'ies and disin&ormation. $n both cases the" are induced to as( di&&erent sets o& ;uestions. *o%%o/ing statement (1), the" /i%% as( i& the M@ is /e%% designed, ho/ much it /i%% cost and /here to %ocate itP be%ie ing statements ()) or (,), the" /i%% as( ho/ the C$. is organised, /h" the in&ormation has been %ea(ed, /ho (i%%ed agent >>9, ho/ the test conditions o& missi%es in 2ussia are set u', and so on. . reader /ho does not (no/ /hich sentence to be%ie e /i%% hesitate bet/een t/o attitudesP either demonstrating against the 2ussians &or the M@ or against the

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C$. &or a Congressiona% hearing on the inte%%igence estab%ishment. $t is c%ear that an"one /ho /ishes the reader o& these sentences to demonstrate against the 2ussians or against the C$. must ma(e one o& the statements more credib%e than the other. 7e /i%% ca%% positi"e modalities those sentences that %ead a statement a/a" &rom its conditions o& 'roduction, ma(ing it so%id enough to render some other conse;uences necessar". 7e /i%% ca%% negati"e modalities those sentences that %ead a statement in the other direction to/ards its conditions o& 'roduction and that e6'%ain in detai% /h" it is so%id or /ea( instead o& using it to render some other conse;uences more necessar". 0egati e and 'ositi e moda%ities are in no /a" 'articu%ar to 'o%itics. 1he second, and more serious, e6am'%e /i%% ma(e this 'oint c%ear: (8) 1he 'rimar" structure o& Oro/th Hormone 2e%easing Hormone ) (OH2H) is Ha%:His: Leu:S er:.%a:O %u:O%u:L"s:O %u:.%a. (-) 0o/ that 4r Scha%%" has disco ered Kthe 'rimar" structure o& OH2HL, it is 'ossib%e to start c%inica% studies in hos'ita% to treat certain cases o& d/ar&ism since OH2H shou%d trigger the Oro/th Hormone the" %ac(. (7) 4r .. Scha%%" has c%aimed &or se era% "ears in his 0e/ 3r%eans %aborator" that Kthe structure o& OH2H /as Ha%:His:Leu:Ser:.%a:O%u:O%u:L"s:O%u:.%aL. Ho/:e er, b" troub%ing coincidence this structure is a%so that o& haemog%obin, a common com'onent o& b%ood and a &re;uent contaminant o& 'uri&ied brain e6tract i& hand%ed b" incom'etent in estigators. Sentence (8) is de oid o& an" trace o& o/nershi', construction, time and '%ace. $t cou%d ha e been (no/n &or centuries or handed do/n b" Ood Himse%& together /ith the 1en Commandments. $t is, as /e sa", a &act. *u%% sto'. Li(e sentence (1) on the accurac" o& So iet

missi%es, it is inserted into other statements /ithout &urther modi&ication: no more is said about OH2HP inside this ne/ sentence, sentence (8) becomes a c%osed &i%e, an indis'utab%e assertion, a b%ac( bo6. $t is because no more has to be said about it that it can be used to %ead the reader some/here e%se do/nstream, &or instance to a hos'ita% /ard, he%'ing d/ar es to gro/. $n sentence (7) the origina% &act undergoes a di&&erent trans&ormation simi%ar to /hat ha''ened to the accurac" o& So iet missi%es in statements (+) and (,). 1he origina% statement (8) is uttered b" someone situated in time and s'aceP more im'ortant%", it is seen as something e6tracted &rom a com'%icated /or( situation, not as a gi&t &rom Ood but as a man:made 'roduct. 1he hormone is iso%ated out o& a sou' made o& man" ingredientsP it might be that 4r Scha%%" has mista(en a contaminant &or a genuine ne/ substance. 1he 'roo& o& that is the 5troub%ing coincidence5 bet/een the OH2H se;uence and that o& the beta:chain o& haemog%obin. 1he" might be homon"ms, but can "ou imagine an"bod" that /ou%d con&use the order to 5re%ease gro/th hormoneS5 /ith the command 5gi e me "our carbon dio6ideS5? 4e'ending on /hich sentence /e be%ie e, /e, the readers, are again induced to go in o''osite directions. $& /e &o%%o/ statement (-) that ta(es OH2H as a &act, then /e no/ %oo( into 'ossib%e cures &or d/ar&ism, /e e6'%ore /a"s o&

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industria%%" 'roducing masses o& OH2H, /e go into hos'ita%s to b%ind:test the drug, etc. $& /e be%ie e (7) /e are %ed bac( into 4r Scha%%"5s %aborator" in 0e/ 3r%eans, %earning ho/ to 'uri&" brain e6tracts, as(ing technicians i& some hitch has esca'ed their attention, and so on. .ccording to /hich direction /e go, the origina% sentence (8) /i%% change status: it /i%% be either a b%ac( bo6 or a &ierce contro ers"P either a so%id time%ess certaint" or one o& these short:%i ed arte&acts that a''ear in %aborator" /or(. $nserted inside statement (-), (8) /i%% 'ro ide the &irm ground to do something e%seP but the same sentence bro(en do/n inside (7) /i%% be one more em't" c%aim &rom /hich nothing can be conc%uded. . third e6am'%e /i%% sho/ that these same t/o &undamenta% directions ma" be recognised in engineers5 /or( as /e%%:

(8) 1he on%" /a" to ;uic(%" 'roduce e&&icient &ue% ce%%s + is to &ocus on the beha iour o& e%ectrodes. (9) Since Kthe on%" /a" &or our com'an" to end u' /ith e&&icient &ue% ce%%s is to stud" the beha iour o& e%ectrodesL and since this beha iour is too com'%icated, $ 'ro'ose to concentrate in our %aborator" ne6t "ear on the one:'ore mode%.

(1>) Iou ha e to be a meta%%urgist b" training to be%ie e "ou can tac(%e K&ue% ce%%sL through the Ke%ectrodeL 'rob%em. 1here are man" other /a"s the" cannot e en dream o& because the" don5t (no/ so%id state 'h"sics. 3ne ob ious /a" &or instance is to stud" e%ectrocata%"sis. $& the" get bogged do/n /ith their e%ectrode, the" /on5t mo e an inch.

Sentence (8) gi es as a matter o& &act the on%" research direction that /i%% %ead the com'an" to the &ue% ce%%s, and thence to the &uture e%ectric engine that, in the e"es o& the com'an", /i%% e entua%%" re'%ace most J i& not a%% J interna% combustion engines. $t is then ta(en u' b" statement (9) and &rom it a research 'rogramme is bui%t: that o& the one:'ore mode%. Ho/e er, in sentence (1>) the matter:o&:&act tone o& (8) is not borro/ed. More e6act%", it sho/s that (8) has not a%/a"s been a matter o& &act but is the resu%t o& a "ecision ta(en b" s'eci&ic 'eo'%e /hose training in meta%%urg" and /hose ignorance are out%ined. 1he same sentence then 'ro'oses another %ine o& research using another disci'%ine and other %aboratories in the same com'an". $t is im'ortant to understand that statement (1>) does not in an" /a" dis'ute that the com'an" shou%d get at &ast and e&&icient &ue% ce%%sP it e6tracts this 'art o& sentence (8) /hich it ta(es as a &act, and contests on%" the idea o& stud"ing the e%ectrode as the best /a" o& reaching that undis'uted goa%. $& the reader be%ie es in c%aim (9), then the be%ie& in (8) is rein&orcedP the /ho%e is ta(en as a 'ac(age and goes /here it %eads the research 'rogramme, dee' inside the meta%%urg" section o& the com'an", %oo(ing at one:'ore mode%s o& e%ectrodes and s'ending "ears there e6'ecting the brea(through. $& the reader be%ie es in c%aim (1>), then it is rea%ised that the origina% sentence (8) /as not one b%ac( bo6 but at %east t;o> the &irst is (e't c%osed J &ue% ce%%s are the right goa%P the other is o'ened J the one:'ore mode% is an absurdit"P in order to maintain the &irst, then the com'an" shou%d get into ;uantum 'h"sics and recruit ne/ 'eo'%e. 4e'ending on /ho is be%ie ed, the

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com'an" ma" go bro(e or notP the consumer, in the "ear )>>>, ma" dri e a &ue% ce%% e%ectric car or not. *rom these three much sim'%er and much %ess 'restigious e6am'%es than the ones /e sa/ in the $ntroduction, /e ma" dra/ the &o%%o/ing conc%usions. . sentence ma" be made more o& a &act or more o& an arte&act de'ending on ho/ it is inserted into other sentences. 3y itself a given sentence is neither a fact nor a fiction> it is ma"e so by others, later on) Iou ma(e it more o& a &act i& "ou insert it as a c%osed, ob ious, &irm and 'ac(aged 'remise %eading to some other %ess c%osed, %ess ob ious, %ess &irm and %ess united conse;uence. 1he &ina% sha'e o& the M@ is %ess determined in sentence ()) than is the accurac" o& So iet missi%esP the cure &or d/ar&ism is not "et as /e%% sett%ed in sentence (-) as is the OH2H structureP a%though in

sentence (9) it is certain that the right 'ath to/ards &ue% ce%%s is to %oo( at e%ectrodes, the one: 'ore mode% is %ess certain than this indis'utab%e &act. .s a conse;uence, %isteners ma(e sentences %ess o& a &act i& the" ta(e them bac( /here the" came &rom, to the mouths and hands o& /hoe er made them, or more o& a &act i& the" use it to reach another, more uncertain goa%. 1he di&&erence is as great as going u' or do/n a ri er. Ooing do/nstream, %isteners are %ed to a demonstration against the 2ussians J see ()), to c%inica% studies o& d/ar&ism J see (-), to meta%%urg" J see (9). !'stream, the" are directed to 'robe the C$. J see (+), to do research in 4r Scha%%"5s %aborator"J see (7), or to in estigations on /hat ;uantum 'h"sics can te%% us about &ue% ce%%sJsee (1>). 7e understand no/ /h" %oo(ing at ear%ier stages in the construction o& &acts and machines is more re/arding than remaining /ith the &ina% stages. 4e'ending on the t"'e o& moda%ities, 'eo'%e /i%% be ma"e to go a%ong com'%ete%" di&&erent 'aths. $& /e imagine someone /ho has %istened to c%aims ()), (-) and (9), and be%ie ed them, his beha iour /ou%d ha e been the &o%%o/ing: he /ou%d ha e oted &or 'ro:M@ congressmen, bought shares in OH2H:'roducing com'anies, and recruited meta%%urgists. 1he %istener /ho be%ie ed c%aims (+), (,), (7) and(1>) /ou%d ha e studied the C$., contested the 'uri&ication o& brain e6tracts, and /ou%d ha e recruited ;uantum 'h"sicists. Considering such ast%" di&&erent outcomes, /e can easi%" guess that it is around moda%ities that /e /i%% &ind the &iercest dis'utes since this is /here the beha iour o& other 'eo'%e /i%% be sha'ed. 1here are t/o added bonuses &or us in &o%%o/ing the ear%ier 'eriods o& &act construction. *irst, scientists, engineers and 'o%iticians constant%" o&&er us rich materia% b" trans&orming one another5s statements in the direction o& &act or o& &iction. 1he" brea( the ground &or our ana%"sis. 7e, %a"men, outsiders and citiGens, /ou%d be unab%e to discuss sentences (1) on the accurac" o& So iet missi%es, (8) on the amino acid structure o& gro/th hormone re%easing &actor, and (8) on the right /a" o& ma(ing &ue% ce%%s. But since others dis'ute them and 'ush them bac( into their conditions o& 'roduction, /e are e&&ort%ess%" %ed to the 'rocesses o& /or( that e6tract in&ormation &rom s'ies, brain sou' or e%ectrodesJ 'rocesses o& /or( /e /ou%d ne er ha e sus'ected be&ore. Second%", in the heat o& the contro ers", s'ecia%ists ma" themse% es e6'%ain /h" their o''onents thin( other/ise: sentence (+) c%aims that the M@ 'artisans are

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intereste" in be%ie ing the accurac" o& So iet missi%esP in sentence (1>) the be%ie& o& the others in one absurd research 'roCect is im'uted to their training as meta%%urgists. $n other /ords, /hen /e a''roach a contro ers" more c%ose%", ha%& o& the Cob o& inter'reting the reasons behind the be%ie&s is a%read" doneS

%5' he &olle&ti"e fate of fa&t7making

$& the t/o directions $ out%ined /ere so c%ear%" isib%e to the e"es o& someone a''roaching the construction o& &acts, there /ou%d be a ;uic( end to most debates. 1he 'rob%em is that /e are ne er con&ronted /ith such c%ear intersections. 1he three e6am'%es $ chose ha e been arbitrari%" interru'ted to re ea% on%" t/o neat%" distinct 'aths. $& "ou %et the ta'e go on a bit %onger the '%ot thic(ens and the inter'retation becomes much more com'%icated. Sentences (+) and (,) denied the re'orts about the accurac" o& the So iet missi%es. But (,) did so b" using a 'o%ice stor" that e6'osed the inner /or(ings o& the C$.. . re'%" to this e6'osition can easi%" be imagined: (11)1he C$.5s certaint" concerning the 1>>:metre accurac" o& 2ussian missi%es is not based on the agent >>95s re'ort, but on &i e inde'endent sources. Let me suggest that on%" grou's subsidised b" So iets cou%d ha e an interest in casting doubts on this incontro ertib%e &act. 0o/ the readers are not sure an" more /here the" shou%d go &rom here. $& sentence (,), den"ing the truth o& sentence (1), is itse%& denied b" (11), /hat shou%d the" do? Shou%d the" 'rotest against the disin&ormation s'ecia%ists 'aid b" the <OB /ho &orged sentence (,) and go on /ith the M@ 'roCect /ith sti%% more determination? Shou%d the", on the contrar", 'rotest against the disin&ormation s'ecia%ists 'aid b" the C$. /ho concocted (11), and continue their hearings on the inte%%igence gathering net/or( /ith more determination? $n both cases, the determination increases, but so does the uncertaint"S Her" ;uic(%", the contro ers" becomes as com'%e6 as the arms race: missi%es (arguments) are o''osed b" anti:ba%%istic missi%es (counter:arguments) /hich are in turn counter:attac(ed b" other, smarter /ea'ons (arguments). $& /e no/ turn to the second e6am'%e, it is er" eas" to go on a&ter sentence (7), /hich criticised 4r Scha%%"5s hand%ing o& OH2H, and retort: (1))$& there is a 5troub%ing coincidence5, it is in the &act that criticisms against Scha%%"5s disco er" o& OH2H are again %e e%%ed b" his o%d &oe, 4r Oui%%emin . . . .s to the homon"m" o& structure bet/een haemog%obin and OH2H, so /hat? $t does not 'ro e Scha%%" mistoo( a contaminant &or a genuine hormone, no more than 5he had a &it5 ma" be ta(en &or 5he /as &it5. 2eading (-), that assumed the e6istence o& OH2H, "ou, the reader, might ha e decided to in est mone" in 'harmaceutica% com'aniesP /hen %earning o& (7), "ou /ou%d ha e cance%%ed a%% '%ans and might ha e started in estigations on ho/ the Heterans .dministration cou%d su''ort such in&erior /or( /ith 'ub%ic &unds.

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But a&ter reading the counter c%aims in (1)), /hat do "ou do? 1o ma(e u' "our mind "ou shou%d no/ assess 4r Oui%%emin5s 'ersona%it". $s he a man /ic(ed enough to cast doubt on a

com'etitor5s disco er" out o& sheer Cea%ous"? $& "ou be%ie e so, then (7) is cance%%ed, /hich &rees the origina% sentence (8) &rom doubts. $&, on the contrar", "ou be%ie e in Oui%%emin5s honest", then it is sentence (1)) /hich is in Ceo'ard", and then the origina% c%aim (8) is again in danger .. $n this e6am'%e the on%" thing that stands &irm is this 'oint about homon"m". .t this 'oint, to ma(e u' "our mind "ou ha e to dig much &urther into 'h"sio%og": is it 'ossib%e &or the b%ood to carr" t/o homon"mous messages to the ce%%s /ithout /rea(ing ha oc in the bod"? .s(ing these t/o ;uestions : about Oui%%emin5s integrit" and about a 'rinci'%e o& 'h"sio%og": "ou might hear the retort (to the retort o& the retort): (1+) $m'ossib%eS $t cannot be an homon"m". $t is Cust a '%ain mista(e made b" Scha%%". .n"/a", Oui%%emin has a%/a"s been more credib%e than him. $ /ou%dn5t trust this OH2H an inch, e en i& it is a%read" manu&actured, ad ertised in medica% Courna%s, and e en so%d to 'h"siciansS 7ith such a sentence the reader is no/ /atching a game o& bi%%iards: i& (1+) is true, then (1)) /as bad%" /rong, /ith the conse;uence that (7), that dis'uted the er" e6istence o& Scha%%"5s substance, /as right, /hich means that (8): the origina% c%aim : is disa%%o/ed. 0atura%%", the ;uestion /ou%d no/ be to assess the credibi%it" o& sentence (1+) abo e. $& it is uttered b" an uncritica% admirer o& Oui%%emin or b" someone /ho (no/s nothing o& 'h"sio%og", then (1)) might turn out to be ;uite credib%e, /hich /ou%d (noc( (7) o&& the tab%e and /ou%d thus estab%ish (8) as an ascertained &actS 1o s'are the reader5s 'atience $ /i%% sto' the stor" here, but it is no/ ob ious that the debate cou%d go on. 1he &irst im'ortant %esson, here, is this: /ere the debate to continue, /e /ou%d de% e &urther into 'h"sio%og", &urther into Scha%%"5s and Oui%%emin5s 'ersona%ities, and much &urther into the detai%s through /hich hormone structures are obtained. 1he number o& ne/ conditions o& 'roduction to tac(%e /i%% ta(e us &urther and &urther &rom d/ar es and hos'ita% /ards. 1he second %esson is that /ith e er" ne/ retort added to the debate, the status o& the origina% disco er" made b" Scha%%" in c%aim (8) ;ill be mo"ifie") $nserted in (-) it becomes more o& a &actP %ess /hen it is dis%ocated in (7)P more /ith (1)) that destro"s (7)P %ess again /ith (1+)P and so on. 1he &ate o& the statement, that is the decision about /hether it is a &act or a &iction, de'ends on a se;uence o& debates %ater on. 1he same thing ha''ens not on%" &or (8), /hich $ arti&icia%%" chose as the origin o& the debate, but a%so /ith each o& the other sentences that ;ua%i&ies or modi&ies it. *or instance (7), /hich dis'uted Scha%%"5s abi%it", is itse%& made more o& a &act /ith (1+) that estab%ished Oui%%emin5s honest", but %ess /ith (1)) that doubted his Cudgment. 1hese t/o %essons are so im'ortant that this boo( is sim'%", $ cou%d argue, a de e%o'ment o& this essentia% 'oint: the status of a statement "epen"s on later statements) $t is made more o& a certaint" or %ess o& a certaint" de'ending on the ne6t sentence that ta(es it u'P this retros'ecti e

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attribution is re'eated &or this ne6t ne/ sentence, /hich in turn might be made more o& a &act or more o& a &iction b" a third, and so on .. . 1he same essentia% 'henomenon is isib%e in the third e6am'%e. Be&ore a machine is bui%t man" debates ta(e '%ace to determine its sha'e, &unction, or cost. 1he debate about the &ue% ce%%s ma" be easi%" re(ind%ed. Sentence (1>) /as dis'uting that the right a enue to &ue% ce%%s /as the one:'ore e%ectrode mode, but not that &ue% ce%%s /ere the right 'ath to/ards the &uture o& e%ectric cars. . retort ma" come: (1,).nd /h" get into ;uantum mechanics an"/a"? 1o s'end mi%%ions he%'ing 'h"sicists /ith their 'et 'roCects? 1hat5s boot%egging, not techno%ogica% inno ation, that5s /hat it is. 1he e%ectric automobi%e5s on%" &uture is a%% er" sim'%e: batteriesP the" are re%iab%e, chea' and a%read" there. 1he on%" 'rob%em is /eight, but i& research /ere done into that instead o& into 'h"sics, the" /ou%d be %ighter 'rett" soon. . ne/ 'ath/a" is 'ro'osed to the com'an". #h"sics, /hich &or sentence (1>) /as the 'ath to the brea(through, is no/ the archit"'ica% dead end. 1he &uture o& &ue% ce%%s, /hich in statements (8), (9) and (1>) /ere 'ac(aged together /ith the e%ectric car in one b%ac( bo6, no/ %ies o'en to doubt. *ue% ce%%s are re'%aced b" batteries. But in sentence (1,) e%ectric cars are sti%% acce'ted as an undis'utab%e 'remise. 1his 'osition is denied b" the ne6t c%aim: (18)Listen, 'eo'%e /i%% a%/a"s use interna% combustion engines, no matter /hat the cost o& 'etro%. .nd "ou (no/ /h"? Because it has got go. 9%ectric cars are s%uggishP 'eo'%e /i%% ne er bu" them. 1he" 're&er igorous acce%eration to e er"thing e%se. Su''ose that "ou ha e a '%ace on the com'an" board that has to decide /hether or not to in est in &ue% ce%%s. Iou /ou%d be rather 'uGG%ed b" no/. 7hen "ou be%ie ed (9) "ou /ere read" to in est in the one:'ore e%ectrode mode% as it /as con incing%" de&ined b" meta%%urgists. 1hen "ou shi&ted "our %o"a%ties /hen %istening to (1>) that criticised meta%%urgists and /ished to in est in ;uantum 'h"sics, recruiting ne/ 'h"sicists. But a&ter %istening to (1,), "ou decided to bu" shares in com'anies manu&acturing traditiona% batteries. .&ter %istening to (18), though, i& "ou be%ie e it, "ou /ou%d be better not se%%ing an" o& "our Oenera% Motors shares. 7ho is right? 7hom shou%d "ou be%ie e? 1he ans/er to this ;uestion is not in an" one o& the statements, but in /hat e er"one is going to do /ith them %ater on. $& "ou /ish to bu" a car, /i%% "ou be sto''ed b" the high 'rice o& 'etro%? 7i%% "ou shi&t to e%ectric cars, more s%uggish but chea'er? $& "ou do so, then sentence (18) is /rong, and (8), (9) or (1>) /as right, since the" a%% /anted e%ectric cars. $& the consumer bu"s an interna% combustion engine car /ithout an" hesitation and doubts, then c%aim (18) is right and a%% the others /ere /rong to in est mi%%ions in use%ess techno%ogies /ithout a &uture. 1his retros'ecti e trans&ormation o& the truth a%ue o& ear%ier sentences does not ha''en on%" /hen the a erage consumer at the end o& the %ine gets into the 'icture, but a%so /hen the Board o& 4irectors decides on a research strateg". Su''ose that "ou 5bought the argument5 'resented in statement (1>). Iou go &or e%ectric cars, "ou be%ie e in &ue% ce%%s, and in ;uantum 'h"sics as the on%" /a" to

(()9))

get at them. .%% the other statements are ma"e more ;rong b" this decision. 1he %in(ages bet/een the &uture o& the automobi%e, the e%ectric engine, the &ue% ce%%s, and e%ectro'h"sics are a%% con&%ated in one sing%e b%ac( bo6 /hich no one in the com'an" is going to dis'ute. 9 er"one in the com'an" /i%% start &rom there: 5Since sentence (1>) is right then %et5s in est so man" mi%%ions.5 .s /e /i%% see in Cha'ter +, this does not mean that "our com'an" /i%% /in. $t means that, as &ar as "ou cou%d, "ou sha'ed the other machines and &acts o& the 'ast so as to /in: the interna% combustion engine is /ea(ened b" "our decision and made more o& an obso%ete techno%og"P b" the same to(en e%ectro'h"sics is strengthened, /hi%e the meta%%urg" section o& the com'an" is gent%" e6c%uded &rom the 'icture. *ue% ce%%s no/ ha e one more 'o/er&u% a%%": the Board o& 4irectors. .gain $ interru't the contro ers" abru't%" &or 'ractica% reasonsP the com'an" ma" go bro(e, become the $BM o& the t/ent":&irst centur" or %inger &or "ears in %imbo. 1he 'oint o& the three e6am'%es is that the fate of ;hat ;e say an" make is in later users5 han"s) Bu"ing a machine /ithout ;uestion or be%ie ing a &act /ithout ;uestion has the same conse;uence: it strengthens the case o& /hate er is bought or be%ie ed, it ma(es it more o& a b%ac( bo6. 1o disbe%ie e or, so to s'ea(, 5dis:bu"5 either a machine or a &act is to /ea(en its case, interru't its s'read, trans&orm it into a dead end, reo'en the b%ac( bo6, brea( it a'art and rea%%ocate its com'onents e%se/here. B" themse% es, a statement, a 'iece o& machiner", a 'rocess are %ost. B" %oo(ing on%" at them and at their interna% 'ro'erties, "ou cannot decide i& the" are true or &a%se, e&&icient or /aste&u%, cost%" or chea', strong or &rai%. 1hese characteristics are on%" gained through incorporation into other statements, 'rocesses and 'ieces o& machiner". 1hese incor'orations are decided b" each o& us, constant%". Con&ronted /ith a b%ac( bo6, /e ta(e a series o& decisions. 4o /e ta(e it u'? 4o /e reCect it? 4o /e reo'en it? 4o /e %et it dro' through %ac( o& interest? 4o /e ma(e it more so%id b" gras'ing it /ithout an" &urther discussion? 4o /e trans&orm it be"ond recognition? 1his is /hat ha''ens to others5 statements, in our hands, and /hat ha''ens to our statements in others5 hands. 1o sum u', the construction o& &acts and machines is a collective 'rocess. (1his is the statement $ e6'ect you to be%ie eP its &ate is in "our hands %i(e that o& an" other statements.) 1his is so essentia% &or the continuation o& our tra e% through technoscience E that $ /i%% ca%% it our first prin&iple/ the remainder o& this boo( /i%% more than Custi&" this rather 'ortentous name.

666 &otnote start 666 E$n order to a oid end%ess 5science and techno%og"5 $ &orged this /ord, /hich /i%% be &u%%" de&ined in Cha'ter , on%". 666 &otnote s%utt 666

((+>))

$art B. 6hen &ontro"ersies flare up the literature be&omes te&hni&al

7hen /e a''roach the '%aces /here &acts and machines are made, /e get into the midst o& contro ersies. 1he c%oser /e are, the more contro ersia% the" become. 7hen /e go &rom 5dai%" %i&e5 to scienti&ic acti it", &rom the man in the street to the men in the %aborator", &rom 'o%itics to e6'ert o'inion, /e do not go &rom noise to ;uiet, &rom 'assion to reason, &rom heat to co%d. 7e go &rom contro ersies to &iercer contro ersies. $t is %i(e reading a %a/ boo( and then going to court to /atch a Cur" /a ering under the im'act o& contradictor" e idence. Sti%% better, it is %i(e mo ing &rom a %a/ boo( to #ar%iament /hen the %a/ is sti%% a bi%%. More noise, indeed, not %ess. $n the 're ious section $ sto''ed the contro ersies be&ore the" cou%d 'ro%i&erate. $n rea% %i&e "ou cannot sto' them or %et them go as "ou /ish. Iou ha e to decide /hether to bui%d the M@ or notP "ou ha e to (no/ i& OH2H is /orth in esting inP "ou ha e to ma(e u' "our mind as to the &uture o& &ue% ce%%s. 1here are man" /a"s to /in o er a Cur", to end a contro ers", to cross:e6amine a /itness or a brain e6tract. 3hetori& is the name o& the disci'%ine that has, &or mi%%ennia, studied ho/ 'eo'%e are made to be%ie e and beha e and taught 'eo'%e ho/ to 'ersuade others. 2hetoric is a &ascinating a%beit des'ised disci'%ine, but it becomes sti%% more im'ortant /hen debates are so e6acerbated that the" become scienti&ic and technica%. .%though this statement is s%ight%" counter:intuiti e, it &o%%o/s &rom /hat $ said abo e. Iou noticed in the three e6am'%es that the more $ %et the contro ersies go on, the more /e /ere %ed into /hat are ca%%ed Qtechnica%ities5. 1his is understandab%e since 'eo'%e in disagreement o'en more and more b%ac( bo6es and are %ed &urther and &urther u'stream, so to s'ea(, into the conditions that 'roduced the statements. 1here is a%/a"s a 'oint in a discussion /hen the %oca% resources o& those in o% ed are not enough to o'en or c%ose a b%ac( bo6. $t is necessar" to &etch &urther resources coming &rom other '%aces and times. #eo'%e start using te6ts, &i%es, documents, artic%es to &orce others to trans&orm /hat /as at &irst an o'inion into a &act. $& the discussion continues then the contenders in an oral dis'ute become the rea"ers o& technica% te6ts or re'orts. 1he more the" dissent, the more the %iterature that is read /i%% become scienti&ic and technica%. *or instance, i&, a&ter reading sentence (1)), /hich 'uts the accusations against the C$. into doubt, the M@ is sti%% dis'uted, the dissenter /i%% no/ be con&ronted /ith bo6es o& re'orts, hearings, transcri'ts and studies. 1he same thing ha''ens i& "ou are obstinate enough not to be%ie e in Scha%%"5s disco er". 1housands o& neuroendocrino%og" artic%es are no/ /aiting &or "ou. 9ither "ou gi e u' or "ou read them. .s &or &ue% ce%%s, the" ha e their o/n research %ibrar" /hose inde6 %ists o er +>,>>> items, not counting the 'atents. 1his is /hat "ou ha e to go through in order to disagree. Scienti&ic or technica% te6tsJ$ /i%% use the terms interchangeab%"J are not /ritten di&&erent%" b" di&&erent breeds o& /riters. 7hen "ou reach them, this does not mean that "ou ;uit

((+1))

rhetoric &or the ;uieter rea%m o& 'ure reason. $t means that rhetoric has become heated enough or is sti%% so acti e that man" more resources ha e to be brought in to (ee' the debates going. Let me e6'%ain this b" considering the anatom" o& the most im'ortant and the %east studied o& a%% rhetorica% ehic%es: the scienti&ic artic%e.

%(' Bringing friends in

7hen an ora% dis'ute becomes too heated, hard:'ressed dissenters /i%% er" ;uic(%" a%%ude to /hat others /rote or said. Let us hear one such con ersation as an e6am'%e: (1-) Mr .n"bod" (as i& resuming an o%d dis'ute): 5Since there is a ne/ cure &or d/ar&ism, ho/ can "ou sa" this?5 Mr Somebod": 5. ne/ cure? Ho/ do "ou (no/? Iou Cust made it u'.5 $ read it in a magaGine. Come onS $ su''ose it /as in a co%our su''%ement .. . :0o, it /as in The Times and the man /ho /rote it /as not a Courna%ist but someone /ith a doctorate. 7hat does that mean? He /as 'robab%" some unem'%o"ed 'h"sicist /ho does not (no/ the di&&erence bet/een 20. and 40.. But he /as re&erring to a 'a'er 'ub%ished in Nature b" the 0obe% #riGe /inner .ndre/ Scha%%" and si6 o& his co%%eagues, a big stud", &inanced b" a%% sorts o& big institutions, the 0ationa% $nstitute o& Hea%th, the 0ationa% Science *oundation, /hich to%d /hat the se;uence o& a hormone /as that re%eases gro/th hormone. 4oesn5t that mean something? 3hS Iou shou%d ha e said so &irst . . . that5s ;uite di&&erent. Ies, $ guess it does. Mr .n"bod"5s o'inion can be easi%" brushed aside. 1his is /h" he en%ists the su''ort o& a /ritten artic%e 'ub%ished in a ne/s'a'er. 1hat does not cut much ice /ith Mr Somebod". 1he ne/s'a'er is too genera% and the author, e en i& he ca%%s himse%& 5doctor5, must be some unem'%o"ed scientist to end u' /riting in The Times) 1he situation is sudden%" re ersed /hen Mr .n"bod" su''orts his c%aim /ith a ne/ set o& a%%ies: a Courna%, Nature> a 0obe% #riGe authorP si6 co:authorsP the granting agencies. .s the reader can easi%" image, Mr Somebod"5s tone o& oice has been trans&ormed. Mr .n"bod" is to be ta(en serious%" since he is not a%one an" more: a grou', so to s'ea(, accom'anies him. Mr .n"bod" has become Mr Man"bodiesS

1his a''ea% to higher and more numerous a%%ies is o&ten ca%%ed the argument from authority. $t is derided b" 'hi%oso'hers and b" scientists a%i(e because it creates a maCorit" to im'ress the dissenter e en though the dissenter 5might be right5. Science is seen as the o''osite o& the argument &rom authorit". . &e/ /in o er the man" because truth is on their side. 1he c%assica% &orm o& this derision is 'ro ided b" Oa%i%eo /hen he o&&ers a contrast bet/een rhetoric and rea% science. .&ter ha ing moc(ed the &%orid rhetoric o& the 'ast, Oa%i%eo o''osed it to /hat ha''ens in 'h"sics,:

((+)))

But in the 'h"sica% sciences /hen conc%usions are sure and necessar" and ha e nothing to do /ith human 're&erence, one must ta(e care not to '%ace onese%& in the de&ence o& errorP &or here, a thousand 4emosthenes and a thousand .ristot%es /ou%d be %e&t in the %urch b" an" a erage man /ho ha''ened to hit on the truth &or himse%&. 1his argument a''ears so ob ious at &irst that it seems there is nothing to add. Ho/e er, a care&u% %oo( at the sentence re ea%s t/o com'%ete%" di&&erent arguments mi6ed together. Here again the t/o &aces o& Fanus /e ha e encountered in the introduction shou%d not be con&used e en /hen the" s'ea( at once. 3ne mouth sa"s: 5science is truth that authorit" sha%% not o ercome5P the other as(s: 5ho/ can "ou be stronger than one thousand 'o%iticians and one thousand 'hi%oso'hers?5 3n the %e&t side rhetoric is o''osed to science Cust as authorit" is o''osed to reasonP but on the right, science is a rhetoric 'o/er&u% enough, i& /e ma(e the count, to a%%o/ one man to /in o er )>>> 'restigious authoritiesS

666 &igur 1.1. start 666 *igure 1.1 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =Science is not bent b" the mu%titude o& o'inions= .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =Ho/ to be stronger than the mu%titude o& o'inions?= 666 &igur 1.1. s%utt 666

5.uthorit"5, 5'restige5, 5status5 are too ague to account &or /h" Scha%%"5s artic%e in Nature is stronger than 4r 0obod"5s 'iece in The Times) $n 'ractice, /hat ma(es Mr Somebod" change his mind is e6act%" the o''osite o& Oa%i%eo5s argument. 1o doubt that there is a cure &or d/ar&ism, he at &irst has to resist his &riend5s o'inion '%us a &a(e doctor5s o'inion '%us a ne/s'a'er. $t is eas". But at the end, ho/ man" 'eo'%e does he ha e to o''ose? Let us count: Scha%%" and his co/or(ers '%us the board o& the 0e/ 3r%eans uni ersit" /ho ga e Scha%%" a 'ro&essorshi' '%us the 0obe% Committee /ho re/arded his /or( /ith the highest 'riGe '%us the man" 'eo'%e /ho secret%" ad ised the Committee '%us the editoria% board o& Nature and the re&erees /ho chose this artic%e '%us the scienti&ic boards o& the 0ationa% Science *oundation and o& the 0ationa% $nstitutes o& Hea%th /ho a/arded grants &or the research '%us the man" technicians and he%'ing hands than(ed in the ac(no/%edgements. 1hat5s a %ot o& 'eo'%e and a%% this is before reading the artic%e, Cust b" counting ho/ man" 'eo'%e are engaged in its

((++))

'ub%ication. *or Mr Somebod", doubting Mr .n"bod"5s o'inion ta(es no more than a shrug o& the shou%ders. But ho/ can "ou shrug o&& doGens o& 'eo'%e /hose honest", good Cudgment and hard /or( "ou must /ea(en be&ore dis'uting the c%aim? 1he adCecti e 5scienti&ic5 is not attributed to isolate" te6ts that are ab%e to o''ose the o'inion o& the mu%titude b" irtue o& some m"sterious &acu%t". . document becomes scienti&ic /hen its c%aims sto' being iso%ated and /hen the number o& 'eo'%e engaged in 'ub%ishing it are man" and e6'%icit%" indicated in the te6t. 7hen reading it, it is on the contrar" the reader /ho becomes isolate") 1he care&u% mar(ing o& the a%%ies5 'resence is the &irst sign that the contro ers" is no/ heated enough to generate technica% documents.

%5' 3eferring to former te2ts

1here is a 'oint in ora% discussions /hen in o(ing other te6ts is not enough to ma(e the o''onent change his or her mind. 1he te6t itse%& shou%d be brought in and read. 1he number o& e6terna% &riends the te6t comes /ith is a good indication o& its strength, but there is a surer sign: re&erences to other documents. 1he 'resence or the absence o& re&erences, ;uotations and &ootnotes is so much a sign that a document is serious or not that "ou can trans&orm a &act into &iction or a &iction into &act Cust b" adding or subtracting re&erences. 1he e&&ect o& re&erences on 'ersuasion is not %imited to that o& 5'restige5 or 5b%u&&5. .gain, it is a ;uestion o& numbers) . 'a'er that does not ha e re&erences is %i(e a chi%d /ithout an escort /a%(ing at night in a big cit" it does not (no/: iso%ated, %ost, an"thing ma" ha''en to it. 3n the contrar", attac(ing a 'a'er hea " /ith &ootnotes means that the dissenter has to /ea(en each o& the other 'a'ers, or /i%% at %east be threatened /ith ha ing to do so, /hereas attac(ing a na(ed 'a'er means that the reader and the author are o& the same /eight: &ace to &ace. 1he

di&&erence at this 'oint bet/een technica% and non:technica% %iterature is not that one is about &act and the other about &iction, but that the %atter gathers on%" a &e/ resources at hand, and the &ormer a %ot o& resources, e en &rom &ar a/a" in time and s'ace. *igure 1.) dre/ the re&erences rein&orcing another 'a'er b" Scha%%". 8 7hate er the te6t sa"s /e can see that it is a%read" %in(ed to the contents o& no %ess than thirt":&i e 'a'ers, &rom si6teen Courna%s and boo(s &rom 19,8 to 1971. $& "ou /ish to do an"thing to this te6t and i& there is no other /a" o& getting rid o& the argument "ou (no/ in ad ance that "ou might ha e to engage /ith a%% these 'a'ers and go bac( in time as man" "ears as necessar". Ho/e er, stac(ing masses o& re&erence is not enough to become strong i& "ou are con&ronted /ith a bo%d o''onent. 3n the contrar", it might be a source o& /ea(ness. $& "ou e6'%icit%" 'oint out the 'a'ers "ou attach "ourse%& to, it is then 'ossib%e &or the reader : i& there sti%% are an" readers : to trace each re&erence and to 'robe its degree o& attachment to "our c%aim. .nd i& the reader is courageous enough, the resu%t ma" be disastrous &or the author. *irst, man" re&erences ma"

((+,))

666 &igur 1.) start 666 *igure 1.) Bes(ri e%se: 9n matrise a Arsta%% %eder nedo er siden, ti% Aret 1971. 0ederst er en stor sort &%e((, som heter =Scha%%"5s artic%e=. !ten&or h ert Arsta%% i matrisen er en %inCe, og 'A disse stAr det '%assert &ors(Ce%%ige ta%%. 1a%%ene re&ererer ti% te(ster som re%aterer seg ti% =Scha%%"5s artic%e=. H ert a de nummererte 'un(tene er re%atert ti% den sorte &%e((en med en stre( D 'i%,. : 1egnet U ba( ta%%et bet"r at 'i%a gAr &ra &%e((en ti% ta%%et. : $((e noe tegn ba( ta%%et bet"r at 'i%a gAr &ra ta%%et ti% &%e((en, e%e%r at det i((e er mar(ert noen retning. : 1egnet V ba( ta%%et bet"r at 'i%a gAr begge eier me%%om ta%%et og &%e((en. *B%gende &or(%aring %edsager &iguren: J those going to the te6t are constituting the im'orted 'aradigmP

J those going &rom the te6t are discussing the re&erred 'a'ers (on%" one, +), is critica%) J those going both /a"s re&er to 're ious /or( b" the same grou' on the same ;uestion 0eden&or er matrisen gCengitt sA godt Ceg (an, men det har o&te Trt ans(e%ig A bedBme h i%(et Arsta%% det en(e%te arti((e%ta%%et s(a% sorteres under. 198+: 119,8: )-U 19,9: ++ 198-: 1987: 18 1988: +, 1989: 1) 19->: 19-1: +8 19-): 19 19-+: 19-,: 19-8: )> 19--: )1, )) 19-7: 1, + 19-8: )7, 1>, ),, 17 19-9: ), 1+, 18, )+ 197>: ,, 18, 7V 1971: )9U, )8U, +>U -V, )8, 8V, Scha%%"5s artic%e 1966: +1U, 9V +)U 666 &igur 1.) s%utt 666

be mis;uoted or /rongP second, man" o& the artic%es a%%uded to might ha e no bearing /hatsoe er on the c%aim and might be there Cust &or dis'%a"P third, other citations might be 'resent but on%" because the" are a%/a"s 'resent in the author5s artic%es, /hate er his c%aim, to mar( a&&i%iation and sho/ /ith /hich grou' o& scientists he identi&ies J these citations are ca%%ed perfun&tory. - .%% these %itt%e de&ects are much %ess threatening &or the author5s c%aim than the re&erences to 'a'ers /hich e6'%icit%" sa" the contrar" o& the author5s thesis. *or instance, *igure 1.) sho/s Scha%%" re&erring to the &o%%o/ing 'a'er (re&erence number +)): (17) +). Heber, 4.*., Bennett, C., Mi%(o/s(i, F.4., Oa%, O., 4en(e/a%ter, 2.4., and Hirschman, 2., in 3iochemistry an" 3iophysics ommunication, 67, %/7 (1971).

((+8))

1his is a ;uite an im'ressi e set o& a%%ies, if the" su''ort the c%aim. But the author shou%d not %et the un&%inching reader go to re&erence +) b" himse%&. 7h" not? Because in this 'a'er Heber et al) %in( the structure o&Scha%%"5s OH2H /ith that o& the beta:chain o& haemog%obin, %e e%%ing e6act%" the criticisms that /e ha e a%read" seen in sentence (7). . dangerous %in( indeed in an o''onent5s hands. 1o /ard it o&&, Scha%%" cites it but ;ua%i&ies the 'a'er /ithin his o/n te6t: (18)K0ote added in 'roo&.L 4.*. Heber et a%. ha e 'ointed out the simi%arit" bet/een the structure o& our deca'e'tide and the amino:termina% o& the Beta:chain o& 'orcine haemog%obin (re&. +)). 1he signi&icance o& this obser ation remains to be estab%ished. 1he artic%e is not on%" re&erred toP it is a%so ;ua%i&ied or, as /e said ear%ier, moda%ised. $n this case, the reader is /arned not to ta(e Heber5s artic%e as a &actP since its signi&icance is not estab%ished, it cannot be used against Scha%%" to destro" his OH2H (remember that i& Heber5s c%aims /ere turned into a &act, then Scha%%"5s o/n artic%e /ou%d become Cust a &iction). 7hat Scha%%" does to sentence (17) is done b" a%% artic%es to a%% their re&erences. $nstead o& 'assi e%" %in(ing their &ate to other 'a'ers, the artic%e actively modi&ies the status o& these 'a'ers. 4e'ending on their interests, the" turn them more into &acts or more into &ictions, thus re'%acing cro/ds o& uncertain a%%ies b" /e%%:arra"ed sets o& obedient su''orters. 7hat is ca%%ed the conte6t o& citation sho/s us ho/ one te6t acts on others to ma(e them more in (ee'ing /ith its c%aims. $n sentence (18) Scha%%" added the other artic%e re&erred to in e6cer't (17) to maintain it in a stage intermediate bet/een &act and &iction. But he a%so needs /e%%:estab%ished &acts so as to start his artic%e /ith a b%ac( bo6 /hich no one /ou%d dare to o'en. 1his so%id &oundation is o&&ered, not sur'rising%", at the beginning o& the artic%e: (19)1he h"'otha%amus contro%s the secretion o& gro/th hormone &rom the anterior 'ituitar" g%and (re&. 1 to #end Mu%%er, 9.9., Neuroen"ocrinology, 1, 8+7, 19-7). 1his contro% is

mediated b" a h"'otha%amic substance designated gro/th hormone re%easing hormone (re&. ) to Scha%%", ..H., .rimura, .., Bo/ers, C.I., <astin, ..F., Sa/ano, S., and 2edding, 1.7., Recent (rogress in ?ormone Research, ),, ,97, 19-8). 1he &irst re&erence is borro/ed as it stands /ith no indication o& doubt or uncertaint". Besides, it is a &i e:"ear:o%d citationWa er" %ong time &or these short:%i ed creatures. $& "ou, the reader, doubt this contro% o& the h"'otha%amus, then &orget it, "ou are out o& the game entire%". $nside neuroendocrino%og", this is the most so%id 'oint, or, as it is o&ten ca%%ed, the paradigm. 7 1he second re&erence is a%so borro/ed as a matter o& &act, a%though it is s%ight%" /ea(er than the &ormer. 4issent /as im'ossib%e to re&erence 1, at %east coming &rom a neuroendocrino%ogistP /ith re&erence ) it is 'ossib%e &or a co%%eague to nit'ic(: ma"be the contro% is mediated b" something other than a hormoneP ma"be, e en i& it is a hormone, it b%oc(s gro/th hormone instead o& triggering itP or, at the er" %east, the name Scha%%" ga e to this substance cou%d be criticised (Oui%%emin, &or

((+-))

instance, ca%%s it O2*). 0o matter /hat contro ers" cou%d start here, Scha%%" needs this re&erence in his artic%e as a &act, since /ithout it the /ho%e 'a'er /ou%d be 'ur'ose%ess: /h" %oo( &or a substance i& the 'ossibi%it" o& its e6istence is denied? Let us not &orget that, according to our &irst 'rinci'%e, b" borro/ing re&erences 1 and ) as matters o& &act he ma(es them more certain, strengthening their case as /e%% as his o/n. 1here are man" other 'a'ers this artic%e needs to borro/ /ithout ;uestion, es'ecia%%" the ones describing methods used in determining the se;uence o& 'e'tides in genera%. 1his is isib%e in another e6cer't &rom the same artic%e: ()>)1he 'orcine 'e'tide used in this /or( /as an essentia%%" homogeneous sam'%e iso%ated as described 're ious%" (re&s. 8, 9). (. . .) $n some cases 'roducts o& carbo6"'e'tidase B. /ere ana%"sed /ith the %ithium bu&&er s"stem o& Benson, Oordon and #atterson (re&. 1>). (. . .) 1he 9dman degradation /as 'er&ormed as re'orted b" Oott%ieb et a%. (re&. 1,). 1he method o& Ora" and Smith (re&. 18) /as a%so used. 0one o& these re&erences, contrar" to the others, are ;ua%i&ied either 'ositi e%" or negati e%". 1he" are sim'%" there as so man" sign'osts indicating to the readers, i& need be, the technica% resources that are under Scha%%"5s command. 1he reader /ho /ou%d doubt the hormone se;uence is directed to/ards another set o& 'eo'%e: Benson, 9dman, Oott%ieb, and e en Ora" and Smith. 1he /or( o& these 'eo'%e is not 'resent in the te6t, but it is indicated that the" cou%d be mobi%ised at once i& need be. 1he" are, so to s'ea(, in reser e, read" to bring /ith them the man" technica% su''orts Scha%%" needs to ma(e his 'oint &irm.

.%though it is con enient &or a te6t to borro/ re&erences that cou%d he%' in strengthening a case, it is a%so necessar" &or a te6t to attac( those re&erences that cou%d e6'%icit%" o''ose its c%aims. $n sentence (18) /e sa/ ho/ the re&erred 'a'er /as maintained in a state bet/een &act and &iction, but it /ou%d ha e been better to destro" it entire%" so as to c%ear the /a" &or the ne/ 'a'er. Such a destruction ha''ens in man" /a"s direct%" or ob%i;ue%" de'ending on the &ie%d and the authors. Here is an instructi e negati e moda%it" made b" Oui%%emin about a set o& 'a'ers, inc%uding the one /ritten b" Scha%%" that /e Cust studied: ()1)1he no/ /e%% estab%ished conce't o& a neurohumora% contro% o& adenoh"'oh"sea% secretions b" the h"'otha%amus indicates the e6istence o& a h"'otha%amic gro/th:hormone: re%easing &actor (O2*) (re&. 1) ha ing somatostatin as its inhibitor" counter'art (re&. )). So &ar h"'otha%amic O2* has not been une;ui oca%%" characteriGed, des'ite ear%ier c%aims to the contrar" (re&. +). 1his citation comes &rom a recent 'a'er b" Oui%%emin, 'resenting a ne/ structure &or the same OH2H, /hich he ca%%s O2*. 2e&erence + is to Scha%%"5s 'a'er. 1he beginning o& e6cer't ()1) is the same as that o& (19) in Scha%%"5s te6t: the h"'otha%amic contro% is the b%ac(est o& a%% b%ac( bo6es. 9 en i& the" are in dis'ute /ith one another Scha%%" and Oui%%emin acce't that no one can contest this contro% and ca%% him or herse%& a neuroendocrino%ogist. But Scha%%"5s artic%e in Oui%%emin5s hands is not a b%ac( bo6 at a%%. $& Scha%%"5s se;uence had been a

((+7))

&act, then the 198) artic%e b" Oui%%emin /ou%d be meaning%ess. $t /ou%d a%so be meaning%ess i& Scha%%"5s se;uence had an" re%ation /ith Oui%%emin5s. 1he %atter /ou%d Cust add to the &ormer5s /or(. 7ith sentence ()1) Oui%%emin5s 'a'er Cust 'ushes aside Scha%%"5s se;uence. $t /as not an une;ui oca% &act, but a er" e;ui oca% 5c%aim5. $t does not countP it /as a b%ind a%%e". 2ea% /or( starts &rom this 198) 'a'er, and rea% O2* (/rong%" ca%%ed b" Scha%%" OH2H) starts &rom this se;uence. .rtic%es ma" go sti%% &urther in trans&orming the &ormer %iterature to their ad antage. 1he" might combine 'ositi e and negati e moda%ities, strengthening &or instance a 'a'er @ in order to /ea(en a 'a'er I that /ou%d other/ise o''ose their c%aim. Here is an instance o& such a tactic: ())). structure has been 'ro'osed &or O2* Kre&erence to Scha%%"5s artic%eLP it has been recent%" sho/n, ho/e er Kre&erence to Heber et al)@ that it /as not OH2H but a minor contaminant, 'robab%" a 'iece o& hemog%obin. Heber5s artic%e, that Scha%%" himse%& cited in e6cer't (18), did not sa" e6act%" /hat it is ma"e to say hereP as &or Scha%%"5s artic%e it did not e6act%" c%aim to ha e &ound the OH2H structure. 1his does not matter &or the author o& sentence ()))P he sim'%" needs Heber as an estab%ished

&act to ma(e Scha%%"5s 'a'er more o& an em't" c%aim /hich, a&ter a rebound, gi es more so%idit" to sentence ()1) that 'ro'oses a ne/ rea% substance 5des'ite ear%ier c%aims to the contrar"5. .nother &re;uent tactic is to o''ose t/o 'a'ers so that the" disab%e one another. 1/o dangerous counter:c%aims are turned into im'otent ones. Scha%%", in the 'a'er under stud", uses one test in order to assa" his OH2H. 3ther /riters /ho tried to re'%icate his c%aim had used another t"'e o& test, ca%%ed the radioimmunoassa", and &ai%ed to re'%icate Scha%%"5s c%aim. 1hat is a maCor 'rob%em &or Scha%%", and in order to &ind a /a" out he retorts that: ()+)1his s"nthetic deca'e'tide materia% or the natura% materia% /ere (sic) on%" /ea(%" acti e in tests /here the re%ease o& gro/th hormone /as measured b" a radioimmunoassa" &or rat gro/th hormone (t/o re&s.). Ho/e er, the ade;uac" o& radioimmunoassa"s &or measuring rat gro/th hormone in '%asma has been ;uestioned recent%" (re&. 8). Cou%d the absence o& an" e&&ect o& OH2H in the assa" not sha(e Scha%%"5s c%aim? 0o, because another 'a'er is used to cast doubt on the assa" itse%&: the absence o& OH2H 'ro es nothing at a%%. Scha%%" is re%ie ed. $t /ou%d be 'ossib%e to go much &urther in the B"Gantine 'o%itica% schemes o& the conte6t o& citations. Li(e a good bi%%iard '%a"er, a c%e er author ma" ca%cu%ate shots /ith three, &our or &i e rebounds. 7hate er the tactics, the genera% strateg" is eas" to gras': do /hate er "ou need to the &ormer %iterature to render it as he%'&u% as 'ossib%e &or the c%aims "ou are going to ma(e. 1he ru%es are sim'%e enough: /ea(en "our enemies, 'ara%"se those "ou cannot /ea(en (as /as done in sentence (18)), he%' "our a%%ies i& the" are attac(ed, ensure sa&e communications /ith those /ho su''%" "ou /ith indis'utab%e instruments (as in ()>)), ob%ige "our enemies to &ight one another ()+)P i& "ou are not sure o& /inning, be humb%e and

((+8))

understated. 1hese are sim'%e ru%es indeed: the ru%es o& the o%dest 'o%itics. 1he resu%t o& this ada'tation o& the %iterature to the needs o& the te6t is stri(ing &or the readers. 1he" are not on%" im'ressed b" the sheer ;uantit" o& re&erencesP in addition, a%% o& these re&erences are aimed at s'eci&ic goa%s and arra"ed &or one 'ur'ose: %ending su''ort to the c%aim. 2eaders cou%d ha e resisted a cro/d o& disorder%" citationsP it is much harder to resist a 'a'er /hich has care&u%%" modi&ied the status o& a%% the other artic%es it 'uts to use. 1his acti it" o& the scienti&ic 'a'er is isib%e in *igure 1.+ in /hich the 'a'er under stud" is a 'oint re%ated b" arro/s to the other 'a'ers, each t"'e o& arro/ s"mbo%ising a t"'e o& action in the %iterature.

666 &igur 1.+ start 666

*igure 1.+ Bes(ri e%se: ni arti(%er er s"mbo%isert med smA runde &%e((er. 9n arti((e% er stBrre, sort&arget og sentra%t '%assert. 8 andre arti(%er er '%assert i i&te&ormasCon rundt om(ring denne. 4isse arti(%ene har &ors(Ce%%ig grAtone, og re%aterer seg ti% den sentra%e arti((e%en med &ors(Ce%%ige s%ags 'i%er og stre(er. Hed h er &%e(( er (onturen a en 'erson e%%er &%er, som Ceg o''&atter som &or&atterne a te(stene. 9n arti((e% er mar(ert med %"segrA &%e((, to 'ersoner stAr ed siden a , og en 'i% 'e(er mot denne &%e((en &ra den sentra%e. 9n annen arti((e% er mar(ert med en h it &%e((, en 'erson stAr ed siden a , og en stre( &orbinder denne &%e((en med den sentra%e. 9n tredCe arti((e% er mar(ert med en %"segrA &%e((, en 'erson ed siden a , og en 'i% 'e((er mot denne &%e((en &ra den sentra%e. 9n &Cerde arti((e% er mar(ert med en h it &%e((, en 'erson stAr ed siden a , mens en annen gAr sin ei(S), og en 'i% 'e(er &ra denne &%e((en ti% den sentra%e. 9n &emte arti((e% er mar(ert med en mBr(egrA &%e((, en 'erson stAr ed siden a , og en 'i% gAr ti% denne &%e((en &ra den sentra%e. 9n sCette arti((e% er mar(ert med en mBr(egrA &%e((, to 'ersoner stAr ed siden a ,og en stre( &orbinder denne &%e((en med den sentra%e. 9n s" ende arti((e% er mar(ert med en %"segrA &%e((, en 'erson stAr ed siden a , og en stre( &orbinder denne &%e((en med den sentra%e. 9n Attende arti((e% er mar(ert med en h it &%e((, to &igurer stAr ed siden a ,og en 'i% gAr &ra denne &iguren ti% den sentra%e. Hed siden a den sentra%e arti((e%en er det bi%de a et hode med hAret i hesteha%e, som sier: =$ am the author, and $ use a%% these artic%es to he%' me out=. Hed siden a er et s(a%%et hode, med et ansi(tsuttr"(( som Ceg to%(er som %"ttende. Borten&or er et hode med 'iggs eis og be("mret mine i ansi(tet, som sier: =$ am an iso%ated reader=. 666 &igur 1.+ s%utt 666

%8' Being referred to by later te2ts

1he goa% o& con incing the reader is not automatica%%" achie ed, e en i& the /riter has a high status, the re&erences are /e%% arra"ed, and the contrar" e idences are c%e er%" dis;ua%i&ied. .%% this /or( is not enough &or one good reason: /hate er a 'a'er does to the &ormer %iterature, the %ater %iterature /i%% do to it. 7e sa/ ear%ier that a statement /as &act or &iction not b" itse%& but on%" b" /hat the other sentences made o& it %ater on. 1o sur i e or to be turned into &act, a statement needs the ne#t generation o& 'a'ers ($ /i%% ca%% 5generation5 the s'an o& time necessar" &or another round o& 'a'ers to be 'ub%ished that re&ers to the &irst ones, that is bet/een t/o and &i e "ears). Meta'horica%%" s'ea(ing, statements, according to the &irst 'rinci'%e, are much %i(e genes that cannot sur i e i& the" do not manage to 'ass themse% es on to %ater bodies. $n the &ormer section /e sa/ ho/ Scha%%"5s 'a'er inserted other artic%es, distributing honour and shame,

((+9))

disab%ing some, strengthening others, borro/ing /ithout ;ua%i&ication &rom sti%% more 'a'ers, and so on. .%% o& the cited 'a'ers sur i e in Scha%%"5s 'a'er and are modi&ied b" its action. But no 'a'er is strong enough to sto' contro ersies. B" de&inition, a &act cannot be so /e%% estab%ished that no su''ort is necessar" an" more. 1hat /ou%d be %i(e sa"ing that a gene is so /e%% ada'ted that it does not need ne/ bodies to sur i eS Scha%%" ma" ada't the %iterature to his endP but each o& his assertions, in turn, needs other artic%es %ater on to ma(e it more o& a &act. Scha%%" cannot a oid this an" more than the 'a'ers he ;uoted cou%d sur i e /ithout his ta(ing them u'. 2emember ho/ in c%aim (18) Scha%%" needed the harsh criticisms &ormu%ated in Heber5s artic%e cited in (17) to remain uncertain so as to 'rotect his c%aim against a &ata% b%o/. But to maintain (17) in such a state, Scha%%" needs others to con&irm his action. .%though Scha%%" is ab%e to contro% most o& /hat he /rites in his 'a'ers, he has on%" /ea( contro% o er /hat others do. .re the" going to &o%%o/ him? 3ne /a" to ans/er this is to e6amine the re&erences in other articles subse;uent to Scha%%"5s 'a'er and to %oo( at their conte6t o& citation. 7hat did the" do /ith /hat Scha%%" did? $t is 'ossib%e to ans/er this ;uestion through a bib%iometric instrument ca%%ed the Science itation &n"e# )8 *or instance, statement (17) is not maintained b" %ater artic%es in bet/een &act and &iction. 3n the contrar", e er" %ater /riter /ho cites it ta(es it as a /e%%:estab%ished &act, and the" a%% sa" that haemog%obin and OH2H ha e the same structure, using this &act to undermine Scha%%"5s c%aim to ha e Qdisco ered5 OH2H (this is no/ '%aced in ;uotation mar(s). $&, in the &irst generation, Scha%%" /as stronger than Heber J see (18)J and since there /as no a%%" %ater on to maintain this strength, in the ne6t generation it is Heber /ho is

strong and Scha%%" /ho made a b%under b" ta(ing a tri ia% contaminant &or a %ong:sought:a&ter hormone. 1his re ersa% is im'osed b" the other 'a'ers and the /a" they in turn transform the earlier literature to suit their nee"s) $& /e add to *igure 1.+ a third generation /e obtain something %i(e /hat is sho/n in *igure 1.,. B" adding the %ater 'a'ers /e ma" ma' out ho/ the actions o& one 'a'er are su''orted or not b" other artic%es. 1he resu%t is a cascade o& trans&ormations, each o& them e6'ecting to be con&irmed %ater b" others. 7e no/ understand /hat it means /hen a contro ers" gro/s. $& /e /ished to continue to stud" the dis'ute /e /i%% not ha e sim'%" to read one 'a'er a%one and 'ossib%" the artic%es to /hich it re&ersP /e /i%% a%so be bound to read a%% the others that con ert each o& the o'erations made b" the &irst 'a'er to/ards the state o& &act or that o& &iction. 1he contro ers" s/e%%s. More and more 'a'ers are in o% ed in the mX%Me, each o& them 'ositioning a%% the others (&act, &iction, technica% detai%s), but no one being ab%e to &i6 these 'ositions ;ithout the help of the others) So more and more 'a'ers, enro%%ing more and more 'a'ers, are needed at each stage o& the discussion J and the disorder increases in 'ro'ortion. 1here is something /orse, ho/e er, than being criticised b" other artic%esP it is being mis;uoted. $& the conte6t o& citations is as $ ha e described, then this mis&ortune must ha''en ;uite o&tenS Since each artic%e ada'ts the &ormer

((,>))

%iterature to suit its needs, a%% de&ormations are &air. . gi en 'a'er ma" be cited b" others &or com'%ete%" di&&erent reasons in a manner &ar &rom its o/n interests. $t ma" be cited /ithout being read, that is 'er&unctori%"P or to su''ort a c%aim /hich is e6act%" the o''osite o& /hat its author intendedP or &or technica% detai%s so minute that the" esca'ed their author5s attentionP or because o& intentions attributed to the authors but not e6'%icit%" stated in the te6tP or &or man" other reasons. 7e cannot sa" that these de&ormations are un&air and that each 'a'er shou%d be read honest%" as it isP these de&ormations are sim'%" a conse;uence o& /hat $ ca%%ed the acti it" o& the 'a'ers on the %iteratureP the" a%% manage to do the same car ing out o& the %iterature to 'ut their c%aims into as &a ourab%e as 'ossib%e a state. $& an" o& these o'erations is ta(en u' and acce'ted b" the others as a &act, then that5s itP it is a &act and not a de&ormation, ho/e er much the author ma" 'rotest. (.n" reader /ho has e er /ritten a ;uotab%e artic%e in an" disci'%ine /i%% understand /hat $ mean.)

666 &igur 1., start 666 *igure 1.,

3 erb%i((: *iguren iser mottage%sen og den idere siteringen a en arti((e%. *ors(Ce%%ige arti(%er er re'resentert ed runde &%e((er: 9n stAr sentra%t, og er den sa(en dreier seg om. #A den ene siden &innes noen arti(%er er e%dre enn denne. #A den andre siden &innes andre arti(%er som er n"ere. 4isse har &or&atteren rer'esentert med (onturen a et mennes(e e%%er en s(isse a et ansi(t. *ra disse (ommer sna((ebob%er, som iser h ordan &or&atterne &orho%der seg ti% arti((e%en som &iguren &o(userer 'A.

1st generation: cited 'a'ers Her er s" &ors(Ce%%ige arti(%er mar(ert. *iguren iser &orbinde%ser &ra h er a disse ti% den sentra%e arti((e%en.

)nd generation: (den sentra%e arti((e%en) Her er den sentra%e arti((e%en. *ra denne gAr mange stre(er ba(o er i tid, ti% 1. generasCon, men (un &A gAr idere &ramo er i tid, ti% +. generasCon. *or&atteren er s"mbo%isert ed (onturen a et ansi(t, og i sna((ebob%en stAr det: $ am an iso%ated author.

+rd generation: citing 'a'ers Her ises se(s &ors(Ce%%ige runde &%e((er som re'resenterer arti(%er. <un tre a dem er &orbundet med den sentra%e. 9n arti((e% er ist ed en grA &%e((, og er i((e &orbundet med den sentra%e. 4en har to &or&atterer som sier: $ ha en5t read it. 9n annen arti((e% er ist med en grA &%e((, og er i((e &orbundet med den sentra%e. 4en har en &or&atter som sier: $ /ou%d not ;uote. 9n tredCe arti((e% er ist med en h it &%e((, og er &orbundet med den sentra%e. 4en har en &or&atter, som sier: $t is a good 'a'er... 9n &Cerde arti((e% er ist med en h ist &%e((, og er &orbundet med den sentra%e. 4en har to &or&attere som &ortsetter &orrige &or&atters re'%i((: ...$& it /ou%d ma(e a good im'ression.

9n &Cerde arti((e% er ist med en grA &%e((, og er i((e &orbundet med den sentra%e. 4en har en &or&atter, &orho%der seg taus. 9n &emte arti((e% er ist med en grA &%e((,og er &orbundet med den sentra%e. 4en har en &or&atter som sier: $ts a%% /rong. 666 &igur 1., s%utt 666

1here is something sti%% /orse, ho/e er, than being either criticised or dismant%ed b" care%ess readers: it is being ignore") Since the status o& a c%aim de'ends on %ater users5 insertions, /hat i& there are no %ater users /hatsoe er? 1his is the 'oint that 'eo'%e /ho ne er come c%ose to the &abrication o& science ha e the greatest di&&icu%t" in gras'ing. 1he" imagine that a%% scienti&ic artic%es are e;ua% and arra"ed in %ines %i(e so%diers, to be care&u%%" ins'ected one b" one. Ho/e er, most 'a'ers are ne er read at a%%. 0o matter /hat a 'a'er did to the &ormer %iterature, i& no one e%se does an"thing /ith it, then it is as i& it ne er e6isted at a%%. Iou ma" ha e /ritten a 'a'er that sett%es a &ierce contro ers" once and &or a%%, but i& readers ignore it, it cannot be turned into a &actP it sim'%" cannot)

((,1))

Iou ma" 'rotest against the inCusticeP "ou ma" treasure the certitude o& being right in "our inner heartP but it /i%% ne er go &urther than "our inner heartP "ou /i%% ne er go &urther in certitude /ithout the he%' o& others. *act construction is so much a co%%ecti e 'rocess that an iso%ated 'erson bui%ds on%" dreams, c%aims and &ee%ings, not &acts. .s /e /i%% see %ater in Cha'ter +, one o& the main 'rob%ems to so% e is to interest someone enough to be read at a%%P com'ared to this 'rob%em, that o& being be%ie ed is, so to s'ea(, a minor tas(. $n the turmoi% generated b" more and more 'a'ers acting on more and more 'a'ers, it /ou%d be /rong to imagine that e er"thing &%uctuates. Loca%%", it ha''ens that a &e/ 'a'ers are a%/a"s re&erred to b" %ater artic%es /ith simi%ar 'ositi e moda%ities, not on%" &or one generation o& artic%es but &or se era%. 1his e ent : e6treme%" rare b" a%% standards : is isib%e e er" time a c%aim made b" one artic%e is borro/ed /ithout an" ;ua%i&ication b" man" others. 1his means that an"thing it did to the &ormer %iterature is turned into &act b" /hoe er borro/s it %ater on. 1he discussion, at %east on this 'oint, is ended. . b%ac( bo6 has been 'roduced. 1his is the case o& the sentence 5&ue% ce%%s are the &uture o& e%ectric cars5 inserted inside statements (8), (9) and (1>). $t is a%so the case &or the contro% b" the h"'otha%amus o& gro/th hormone. .%though Scha%%" and Oui%%emin disagree on man" things, this c%aim is borro/ed b" both /ithout an" ;ua%i&ication or misgi ings: see sentences (19) and ()>). $n *igure 1.8 i%%ustrating the conte6t o&

666 &igur 1.8 start 666 *igure 1.8 3 erb%i((: 9n arti((e% b%ir hen ist ti% a tresenere =generasConer=. 4eta%Cert bes(ri e%se: 4en o''rinne%ige arti((e%en er s"mbo%isert med en s art, rund &%e((. #i%er &Brer &ra denne ti% a%%e andre arti(%er i &iguren. 1st generation 1re n"e arti(%er er s"mbo%isert med runde, mBr(egrA &%e((er. #i%er &Brer ti% h er a disse &ra den o''rinne%ige arti((e%en. )nd generation *ire n"ere arti(%er er s"mbo%isert med runde, %"segrA &%e((er. #i%er &Brer ti% h er a disse &ra den o''rinne%ige arti((e%en. +rd generation S" n"este arti(%er er s"mbo%isert med runde, h ite &%e((er. #i%er &Brer ti% h er a disse &ra den o''rinne%ige arti((e%en. 666 &igur 1.8 s%utt 666

((,)))

citations such an e ent /i%% be seen as a regu%ar &%o/ o& arro/s a%% a%igned in the same direction and %eading to more and more 'a'ers. 9 er" ne/ 'a'er getting into the &ra" 'ushes it one ste' &urther, adding its %itt%e &orce to the &orce o& the a%read" estab%ished &act, rather than re ersing the trend.

1his rare e ent is /hat 'eo'%e usua%%" ha e in mind /hen the" ta%( o& a 5&act5. $ ho'e it is c%ear b" no/ that this e ent does not ma(e it ;ua%itati e%" di&&erent &rom &ictionP a &act is /hat is co%%ecti e%" stabi%ised &rom the midst o& contro ersies /hen the acti it" o& %ater 'a'ers does not consist on%" o& criticism or de&ormation but a%so o& con&irmation. 1he strength o& the origina% statement does not %ie in itse%&, but is deri ed &rom an" o& the 'a'ers that incor'orate it. $n 'rinci'%e, an" o& the 'a'ers cou%d reCect it. 1he contro% o& gro/th hormone b" the h"'otha%amus cou%d be dis'uted, it has been, it /i%% be dis'utedP but to do so the dissenter /i%% be &aced not /ith one c%aim in one 'a'er, but /ith the same c%aims incor'orated in hundreds o& 'a'ers. $t is not im'ossib%e in 'rinci'%eP it is Cust enormous%" di&&icu%t in 'ractice. 9ach c%aim comes to the &uture author /ith its histor", that is /ith itse%& '%us a%% the 'a'ers that did something /ith it or to it. 1his acti it" o& each o& the 'a'ers that ma(es u' the strength o& a gi en artic%e is made isib%e not b" an" criticism J since in this case there is noneJ but b" the erosion the origina% statement submits to. 9 en in the er" rare cases /here a statement is continuous%" be%ie ed b" man" %ater te6ts and borro/ed as a matter o& &act, it does not sta" the same. 1he more 'eo'%e be%ie e it and use it as a b%ac( bo6 the more it undergoes trans&ormations. 1he &irst o& these trans&ormations is an e6treme stylisation) 1here is a mass o& %iterature on the contro% o& gro/th hormone, and Oui%%emin5s artic%e /hich $ re&erred to is &i e 'ages %ong. Later 'a'ers, ta(ing his artic%e as a &act, turn it into one sentence: (),)Oui%%emin et a%. (re&.) ha e determined the se;uence o& O2*: H 1"r .%a .s' .%a $%e #he 1hr .sn Ser 1"r .rg L"s Ha% Leu O%" O%n Leu Ser .%a .rg L"s Leu Leu O%n .s' $%e Met Ser .rg O%n O%n O%" O%" Ser .sn O%n O%u .rg O%" .%a .rg .%a .rg Leu 0H). Later on this sentence itse%& is turned into a one:%ine %ong statement /ith on%" one sim'%i&ied 'ositi e moda%it": 5@ (the author) has sho/n that I.5 1here is no %onger an" dis'ute. $& sentence (),) is to continue to be be%ie ed, as o''osed to (8), each successi e 'a'er is going to add to this st"%isation. 1he acti it" o& a%% the %ater 'a'ers /i%% resu%t in the name o& the author soon being dro''ed, and on%" the re&erence to Oui%%emin5s 'a'er /i%% mar( the origin o& the se;uence. 1his se;uence in turn is sti%% too %ong to /rite. $& it becomes a &act, it /i%% be inc%uded in so man" other 'a'ers that soon it /ou%d not be necessar" to /rite it at a%% or e en to cite such a /e%%:(no/n 'a'er. .&ter a &e/ doGen 'a'ers using statement (),) as an incontro ertib%e &act, it /i%% be trans&ormed into something %i(e: ()8)7e inCected si6t" )>:da":o%d S/iss a%bino ma%e mice /ith s"nthetic O2* .. . etc. 1he acce'ted statement is, so to s'ea(, eroded and 'o%ished b" those /ho

((,+))

acce't it. 7e are bac( to the sing%e sentence statements /ith /hich $ started this cha'ter J see (1), (8) and (8). 2etros'ecti e%", /e rea%ise that a %ot o& /or( /ent into this st"%isation and that a one:'hrase &act is ne er at the beginning o& the 'rocess (as $ had to im'%" in order to get our discussion going) but is a%read" a semi:&ina% 'roduct. Soon, ho/e er, the re&erence itse%& /i%% become redundant. 7ho re&ers to La oisier5s 'a'er /hen /riting the &ormu%a H)3 &or /ater? $& 'ositi e moda%ities continue acting on the same sentence (),), then it /i%% become so /e%% (no/n that it /i%% not be necessar" e en to ta%( about it. 1he origina% disco er" /i%% ha e become tacit kno;le"ge) O2* /i%% be one o& the man" ia%s o& chemica%s that an" &irst "ear uni ersit" student ta(es &rom the she%& at some 'oint in his or her training. 1his erosion and st"%isation ha''ens on%" /hen a%% goes /e%%P each successi e 'a'er ta(es the origina% sentence as a &act and enca'su%ates it, thereb" 'ushing it, so to s'ea(, one ste' &urther. 1he o''osite ha''ens, as /e sa/ ear%ier, /hen negati e moda%ities 'ro%i&erate. Scha%%"5s sentence (8) about a ne/ OH2H /as not st"%ised and /as sti%% %ess incor'orated into tacit 'ractice. 3n the contrar", more and more e%ements he /ou%d ha e %i(ed to maintain as tacit emerge and are ta%(ed about, %i(e the 'uri&ication 'rocedures o& statement (7) or his 're ious &ai%ures in (1+). 1hus, de'ending on /hether the other artic%es 'ush a gi en statement do/nstream or u'stream, it /i%% be incor'orated into tacit (no/%edge /ith no mar( o& its ha ing been 'roduced b" an"one, or it /i%% be o'ened u' and man" s'eci&ic conditions o& 'roduction /i%% be added. 1his doub%e mo e /ith /hich /e are no/ &ami%iar is summarised in *igure 1.- and a%%o/s us to ta(e our bearings in an" contro ers" de'ending on /hich stage the statement /e chose as our 'oint o& de'arture ha''ens to be and in /hich direction other scientists are 'ushing it. 0o/ /e start to understand the (ind o& /or%d into /hich the reader o& scienti&ic or technica% %iterature is gradua%%" %ed. 4oubting the accurac" o& So iet missi%es, (1), or Scha%%"5s disco er" o& OH2H, (8), or the best /a" to bui%d &ue% ce%%s, (8), /as at &irst an eas" tas(. Ho/e er, i& the contro ers" %asts, more and more e%ements are brought in, and it is no %onger a sim'%e erba% cha%%enge. 7e go &rom con ersation bet/een a &e/ 'eo'%e to te6ts that soon &orti&" themse% es, &ending o&& o''osition b" enro%%ing man" other a%%ies. 9ach o& these a%%ies itse%& uses man" di&&erent tactics on man" other te6ts en%isted in the dis'ute. $& no one ta(es u' a 'a'er, it is %ost &ore er, no matter /hat it did and /hat it cost. $& an artic%e c%aims to &inish the dis'ute once and &or a%% it might be immediate%" dismembered, ;uoted &or com'%ete%" di&&erent reasons, a""ing one more em't" c%aim to the turmoi%. $n the meantime, hundreds o& abstracts, re'orts and 'osters get into the &ra", adding to the con&usion, /hi%e %ong re ie/ 'a'ers stri e to 'ut some order into the debates though o&ten on the contrar" sim'%" adding more &ue% to the &ire. Sometimes a &e/ stab%e statements are borro/ed o er and o er again b" man" 'a'ers but e en in these rare cases, the statement is s%o/%" eroded, %osing its origina% sha'e, enca'su%ated into more and more &oreign statements, becoming so &ami%iar and routinised that it becomes 'art o& tacit 'ractice and disa''ears &rom ie/S

((,,))

666 &igur 1.- start 666 *igure 1.S" %inCer med h er sin setning. 2e((e&B%gen b%ir bes(re et a to 'i%er, en i h er margin, som ogsA 'e(er h er sin ei:

4e s" %inCene er: origina% statement (. is B) negati e moda%ities M:(. is B) 'ositi e and negati e moda%ities MY:(. is B) so and so (has sho/n that (. is B)) no moda%it" at a%% (. is B) N tacit (no/%edge (si%ence) ' incor'oration (instruments)

$ enstremargen er en 'i% som 'e(er samme ei som re((e&B%gen 'A setningene. 4enne 'i%a heter =137.24S *.C1=. Z hB"remargen er en 'i% som 'e(er motsatt ei a re((e&B%gen 'A setningene. 4enne 'i%a heter =137.24S .219*.C1=. 666 &igur 1.- s%utt 666

1his is the /or%d /ith /hich someone /ho /ishes to dissent and ma(e a contribution to the debates /i%% be con&ronted. 1he 'a'er he or she is reading has braced itse%& &or sur i a% in this /or%d. 7hat must it do in order to be read, to be be%ie ed, to a oid being misunderstood, destro"ed, dismembered, ignored? Ho/ can it ensure that it is ta(en u' b" others, incor'orated into %ater statements as a matter o& &act, ;uoted, remembered and ac(no/%edged? 1his is /hat has to be sought b" the authors o& a ne/ technica% 'a'er. 1he" ha e been %ed b" the heated contro ers" into reading more and more artic%es. 0o/ the" ha e to ;rite a ne/ one in order to 'ut to rest /hiche er issue the" started &rom: the M@ a&&air, the OH2H b%under, the &ue% ce%% &iasco. 0eed%ess to sa" that, b" no/, most "issenters ;ill have given up) Bringing &riends in, %aunching man" re&erences, acting on a%% these ;uoted artic%es, isib%" de'%o"ing this batt%e&ie%d, is a%read" enough to intimidate or to &orce most 'eo'%e out. *or instance, i& /e /ish to dis'ute the accurac" o& So iet missi%es as in (1), the disco er" o& OH2H as in (8) or the right /a" to get at &ue% ce%%s as in (8), /e /i%% be er", er" iso%ated. $ do not sa" that

because the %iterature is too technical it 'uts 'eo'%e o&&, but that, on the contrar", /e &ee% it necessar" to ca%% technica% or scienti&ic a %iterature that is made to iso%ate the reader b" bringing in man" more resources. 1he Qa erage man /ho ha''ens to hit the truth5, nai e%" 'ostu%ated b" Oa%i%eo, /i%% ha e no chance to /in o er the thousands o& artic%es, re&erees, su''orters and granting bodies /ho o''ose his c%aim. 1he 'o/er o& rhetoric %ies in ma(ing the dissenter &ee% %one%". 1his is indeed /hat ha''ens to the Qa erage man5 (or /oman) reading the masses o& re'orts on the contro ersies /e so innocent%" started &rom.

((,8))

$art C. 6riting te2ts that 1ithstand the assaults of a hostile en"ironment

.%though most 'eo'%e /i%% ha e been dri en a/a" b" the e6terna% a%%ies in o(ed b" the te6ts, Oa%i%eo is sti%% right, because a &e/ 'eo'%e ma" not be /i%%ing to gi e u'. 1he" ma" stic( to their 'osition and not be im'ressed b" the tit%e o& the Courna%, the names o& authors, or b" the number o& re&erences. 1he" /i%% read the artic%es and sti%% dis'ute them. 1he image o& the scienti&ic 4a id &ighting against the rhetorica% Oo%iath rea''ears and gi es some credence to Oa%i%eo5s 'osition. 0o matter ho/ im'ressi e the a%%ies o& a scienti&ic te6t are, this is not enough to con ince. Something e%se is needed. 1o &ind this something e%se, %et us continue our anatom" o& scienti&ic 'a'ers.

%(' Arti&les fortify themsel"es

*or a &e/ obstinate readers, a%read" 'ub%ished artic%es are not enough: more e%ements ha e to be brought in. 1he mobi%isation o& these ne/ e%ements trans&orms dee'%" the manner in /hich te6ts are /ritten: the" become more technica% and, to ma(e a meta'hor, stratified. $n sentence ()1), $ ;uoted the beginning o& a 'a'er /ritten b" Oui%%emin. *irst, this sentence mobi%ised a t/odecade:o%d &act, the contro% b" the h"'otha%amus o& the re%ease o& gro/th hormone, and then a decade:o%d &act, the e6istence o& a substance, somatostatin, that inhibits the re%ease o& gro/th hormone. $n addition, Scha%%"5s c%aim about this ne/ substance /as dismissed. But this is not enough to ma(e us be%ie e that Oui%%emin has done better than Scha%%" and that his c%aim shou%d be ta(en more serious%" than that o& Scha%%". $& the beginning o& his 'a'er /as '%a"ing on the e6isting %iterature in the manner $ ana%"sed abo e, it soon becomes er" di&&erent. 1he te6t announces, &or instance, more materia% &rom /hich to e6tract these e%usi e substances. 1he authors &ound a 'atient /ith enormous tumours &ormed in the course o& a rare disease, acromega%", these tumours 'roducing %arge ;uantities o& the sought:&or substance. 9 ()-) .t surger", t/o se'arate tumors /ere &ound in the 'ancreas (re&. -)P the tumor tissues /ere diced and co%%ected in %i;uid nitrogen /ithin ) or 8 minutes o& resection /ith the intent to e6tract them &or O2*. (...) 1he e6tract o& both tumors contained gro/th hormone re%easing

acti it" /ith the same e%ution o%ume as that o& h"'otha%amic O2* (<a [>,,+, /here <a is the e%ution on constant (re&. 8). 1he amounts o& O2* acti it" (re&. 9) /ere minute in one o& the tumors (>.>- O2* unit 'er mi%%igram (net /eight), but e6treme%" high in the other (18>> O2* units 'er mi%%igram (net /eight), 8>>> times more than /e had &ound in rat h"'otha%amus (re&. 8). 0o/, /e are in businessS Sentence ()-) a''ears to be the most di&&icu%t sentence

((,-))

/e ha e had to ana%"se so &ar. 7here does the di&&icu%t" come &rom? *rom the number o& obCections the authors ha e to 're ent. 2eading it a&ter the other sentences, /e ha e not sudden%" mo ed &rom o'inions and dis'utes to &acts and technica% detai%sP /e ha e reached a state /here the discussion is so tense that each /ord &ences o&& a 'ossib%e &ata% b%o/. Ooing &rom the other dis'utes to this one is %i(e going &rom the &irst e%imination rounds to the &ina% match at 7imb%edon. 9ach /ord is a mo e that re;uires a %ong commentar", not because it is 5technica%5, but because it is the &ina% match after so man" contests. 1o understand this, /e sim'%" ha e to add the reader5s obCection to the sentence that ans/ers it. 1his addition trans&orms sentence ()-) into the &o%%o/ing dia%ogue: ()7): Ho/ cou%d "ou do better than Scha%%" /ith such minute amounts o& "our substance in the h"'othama%i? 7e &ind tumours 'roducing masses o& substance ma(ing iso%ation much easier than an"thing Scha%%" cou%d do. .re "ou (idding? 1hese are 'ancreas tumours, and "ou are %oo(ing &or a h"'otha%amic substance that is su''osed to come &rom the brainS Man" re&erences indicate that o&ten substances &rom the h"'otha%amus are &ound in the 'ancreas too, but an"/a" the" ha e the same e%ution o%umeP this is not decisi e but it is ;uite a good 'roo&: enough, at an" rate, to acce't the tumour as it is, /ith an acti it" 8>>> times greater than h"'otha%amic. 0o one can den" that it is a godsend. Ho%d onS Ho/ can "ou be so sure o& this 8>>>P "ou cannot Cust conCure u' &igures? $s it dr" /eight or /et /eight? 7here does the standard come &rom? 3(a". *irst, it is dr" /eight. Second, one O2* unit is the amount o& a 'uri&ied O2* 're'aration o& rat h"'otha%amic origin that 'roduces a ha%&:ma6ima% stimu%ation o& gro/th hormone in the 'ituitar" ce%% mono%a"er bioassa". .re "ou satis&ied? Ma"be, but ho/ can /e be sure that these tumours ha e not deteriorated a&ter the surger"?

: 7e to%d "ou, the" /ere diced and 'ut in %i;uid nitrogen a&ter ) to 8 minutes. 7here cou%d "ou &ind better 'rotection? 2eading the sentences o& the 'a'er /ithout imagining the reader5s obCections is %i(e /atching on%" one '%a"er5s stro(es in the tennis &ina%. 1he" Cust a''ear as so man" em't" gestures. 1he accumu%ation o& /hat a''ears as technica% detai% is not meaning%essP it is Cust that it ma(es the o''onent harder to beat. 1he author 'rotects his or her te6t against the reader5s strength. . scienti&ic artic%e becomes more di&&icu%t to read, Cust as a &ortress is shie%ded and buttressedP not &or &un, but to a oid being sac(ed. .nother dee' trans&ormation occurs in the te6ts that /ant to be strong enough to resist dissent. So &ar, the sentences /e studied %in(ed themse% es to absent artic%es or e ents. 9 er" time the o''onent started to doubt, he or she /as sent bac( to other te6ts, the %in( being estab%ished either b" the re&erences or sometimes b" ;uotations. 1here is, ho/e er, a much more 'o/er&u% '%o", and it is to present the er" thing "ou /ant the readers to be%ie e in the te6t. *or instance:

((,7))

()8) *ina% 'uri&ication o& this materia% b" ana%"tica% re erse:'hase H#LC "ie%ded three high%" 'uri&ied 'e'tides /ith O2* acti it" (*ig. 1) 1he authors are not as(ing "ou to be%ie e them. 1he" do not send "ou bac( outside the te6ts to %ibraries to do "our home/or( b" reading stac(s o& re&erences, but to &igure 1 /ithin the artic%e: ()9) 666 &igur start 666 4ette sitatet er en &a(simi%e a en &igur &ra et natur&age%ig tidss(ri&t. 4en iser et 'eriodis( s"stem med en s Trt (rong%ete gra&, og &%er &ors(Ce%%ige dimensConer som den er de&inert i &orho%d ti%. Feg &inner noen begri'e%ige, ord som =immunoreacti e= og =gro/th hormone=. Som brBdte(sten indi(erer, er den ans(e%ig A &orstA umidde%bart. 4et er sanns"n%ig at Ceg mAtte Cobbe m"e med A s(CBnne den godt no( ti% A bes(ri e den. 4er&or. (CTre %eser, e%ger Ceg A %a Tr A ti%rette%egge den, inti%% beho et e entue%t s(u%%e me%de seg. Science, o%. )18, ''. 88- (b" 'ermission o& Science MagaAine and o& the author) 666 &igur s%utt 666

1his &igure sho;s /hat the te6t says, but is not ;uite trans'arent &or a%% readers, e en &or the &e/ /ho are %e&t in the contro ers". 1hen another te6t, the %egend, e6'%ains ho/ to read the &igure, as the name 5%egend5 indicates: (+>) *ina% 'uri&ication o& h'O2* b" re erse:'hase H#LC. 1he co%umn (!%tras'here C18), )8 b" >,,cm, 8:('u)m 'artic%e siGe, /as e%uted /ith a gradient o& acetonitri%e (::) in >.8 'ercent (b" o%ume) he'ta&%uorobut"ric acid at a &%o/:rate o& >.-mHmin. *ractions ()., m%) /ere co%%ected as indicated on the abscissa and 'ortions /ere used &or bioassa"s (re&. 7). 1he ertica% bars re'resent the amount o& gro/th hormone secreted in the assa" o& each &raction o& the e&&%uent, e6'ressed as 'ercentage o& the amount o& gro/th hormone secreted b" the 'ituitar" ce%%s recei ing no treatment. .!*S, absorbance units &u%% sca%e. 1he reader /as sent &rom statement ()8) to e6cer't ()9) and &rom there to the %egend (+>). 1he te6t said that 5three 'uri&ied 'e'tides had O2* acti it"5P /hat is seen in &igure 1 is the su'erim'osition o& 'ea(s and ertica% bars. 5#ea(s5 and 5bars5 are said in the %egend to be the isua% e;ui a%ents o& 5'urit"5 and 5acti it"5. Be%ie& in the author5s ;or" is re'%aced b" the ins'ection o& 5&igures5. $& there is an" doubt about /here the 'icture comes &rom, then sentence (+>), the %egend, /i%% o&&er a ne/ %ine o& su''ort. #ea(s are not a isua% dis'%a" chosen b" chanceP the"

((,8))

are /hat is dra/n b" an instrument (ca%%ed a High #ressure Li;uid Chromatogra'h)P i& the reader (no/s an"thing about the instrument and ho/ di&&erent 'ictures can be obtained &rom it, then detai%s are 'ro ided to ho%d the image stead": the siGe o& 'artic%es, the timing, the con entions &or dra/ing the %ines, and so on. 7hat is gained in 'ersuasion, b" arra"ing e6cer'ts ()8), ()9) and (+>) in tiers? 1he dissenter is no/ &aced not on%" /ith the author5s o'inion, not on%" /ith o%der artic%es5 'ositions, but a%so /ith /hat the te6t is about. 3&ten, /hen /e ta%(, /e designate absent things, /hich /e ca%% the referent o& our s'eech. QSi6 'each trees b%ooming5 is a 'hrase about trees /hich $ am not sho/ing "ou. 1he situation is com'%ete%" di&&erent /hen sentence ()8) c%aims that three acti e and 'ure substances e6ist. 1he re&erent o& this sentence is immediate%" added to the commentar"P it is the &igure sho/n in ()9), and so is the re&erent o& this re&erent, the %egend (+>). 1his trans&ormation o& the usua% %iterature is a sure indicator that /e are no/ &aced /ith a technica% or a scienti&ic te6t. $n this (ind o& %iterature "ou ma", so to s'ea(, ha e "our ca(e and eat it too. 1he e&&ects on con iction are enormous. 1he assertion Q/e disco ered O2*5 does not stand by itself) $t is su''orted &irst b" man" other te6ts and second b" the author5s

assertions. 1his is good, but not enough. $t is much more 'o/er&u% i& the su''orters are arra"ed in the te6t itse%&. Ho/ can "ou den" statement ()8)? Loo( &or "ourse%& at the 'ea(s in ()9)S Iou are doubt&u% about the meaning o& the &igure? 7e%%, read the %egend. Iou on%" ha e to be%ie e the e idence o& "our o/n e"esP this is not a ;uestion an" more o& be%ie&P this is seeing) 9 en doubting 1homas /ou%d abandon his doubts (e en though "ou cannot touch O2*Jbut /ait unti% the ne6t cha'ter ...). 7e are certain no/ that the te6ts /e ha e been %ed to b" the intensit" o& the contro ersies are scienti&ic. So &ar, Courna%ists, di'%omats, re'orters and %a/"ers cou%d ha e /ritten te6ts /ith re&erences and /ith care&u% %abe%%ing o& the authors5 ro%es, tit%es and sources o& su''ort. Here, /e enter another game entire%". 0ot because the 'rose is sudden%" /ritten b" e6traterrestria% minds, but because it tries to 'ac( inside the te6t as man" su''orters as 'ossib%e. 1his is /h" /hat is o&ten ca%%ed 5technica% detai%s5 'ro%i&erate. 1he di&&erence bet/een a regu%ar te6t in 'rose and a technica% document is the strati&ication o& the %atter. 1he te6t is arranged in %a"ers. 9ach c%aim is interru'ted b" re&erences outside the te6ts or inside the te6ts to other 'arts, to &igures, to co%umns, tab%es, %egends, gra'hs. 9ach o& these in turn ma" send "ou bac( to other 'arts o& the same te6ts or to more outside re&erences. $n such a strati&ied te6t, the reader, once interested in reading it, is as &ree as a rat in a maGe. 1he trans&ormation o& %inear 'rose into, so to s'ea(, a &o%ded arra" o& successi e de&ence %ines is the surest sign that a te6t has become scienti&ic. $ said that a te6t /ithout re&erences /as na(ed and u%nerab%e, but e en /ith them it is /ea( as %ong as it is not strati&ied. 1he sim'%est /a" to demonstrate this change in so%idit" is to %oo( at t/o artic%es in the same &ie%d ta(en at a t/ent":"ear inter a%. Com'are &or instance the &irst 'rimato%og" artic%es /ritten b" the 'ioneers o& this &ie%d t/ent" "ears ago /ith one recent a''%ication o& sociobio%og" to the stud" o& 'rimates /ritten b" #ac(er. 1> Hisua%%", and e en /ithout reading the artic%e, the

((,9))

di&&erence is stri(ing. $n both cases, it is about baboons, but the 'rose o& the &irst artic%e &%o/s /ith no interru'tion e6ce't s'arse re&erences and a &e/ 'ictures o& baboons (%i(e the ones "ou cou%d &ind in a Courna%ist5s tra e% account)P #ac(er5s artic%e, on the contrar", is strati&ied into man" %a"ers. 9ach obser ation o& baboons is coded, si&ted &or its statistica% signi&icanceP cur es and diagrams summarise co%umnsP no 'art o& the 'a'er stands b" itse%& but each is %in(ed b" man" re&erences to other %a"ers (Methods, 2esu%ts, 4iscussion). Com'aring Ha%%5s and #ac(er5s te6ts is %i(e com'aring a mus(et /ith a machine:gun. Fust b" %oo(ing at the di&&erences in 'rose "ou can imagine the sort o& /or%ds the" had to /rite in: Ha%% /as a%one, one o& the &irst baboon /atchersP #ac(er is in a 'ac( o& scientists /ho /atch c%ose%" not on%" baboons but a%so one anotherS His 'rose &o%ds itse%& into man" de&ensi e %a"ers to /ithstand their obCections.

0otice that neither in #ac(er5s nor in Oui%%emin5s and Scha%%"5s artic%es do "ou see the actua% &urr" creatures ca%%ed 5baboons5 or the 5OH2H5. 0e erthe%ess, through their strati&ication, these artic%es gi e the reader an im'ression o& "epth of vision> so man" %a"ers su''orting each other create a thic(et, something "ou cannot breach /ithout strenuous e&&orts. 1his im'ression is 'resent e en /hen the te6t is %ater turned into an arte&act b" co%%eagues. 0o one getting into the O2* business or into baboon stud" can no/ /rite in '%ain na(ed 'rose, no matter /hat he or she sees and /ants. $t /ou%d be %i(e &ighting tan(s /ith s/ords. 9 en 'eo'%e /ho /ish to de&raud ha e to 'a" an enormous 'rice in order to create this de'th that resemb%es rea%it". S'ector, a "oung bio%ogist con icted o& ha ing &udged his data, had to hide his &raud in a &our: 'age %ong section on Materia%s and Methods.11 $nside the arra" o& hundreds o& methodo%ogica% 'recautions on%" one sentence is &abricated. $t is, so to s'ea(, a homage rendered b" ice to irtue, since such a &raud is not /ithin the reach o& Cust an" croo(S .t the beginning o& this section, /e said that /e needed 5something other5 than Cust re&erences and authorities to /in o er the dissident. 7e understand no/ that going &rom the outer %a"ers o& the artic%es to the inner 'arts is not going &rom the argument o& authorit" to 0ature as it is going &rom authorities to more authorities, &rom numbers o& a%%ies and resources to sti%% greater numbers) Someone /ho disbe%ie es Oui%%emin5s disco er" /i%% no/ be &aced not on%" /ith big names and thic( re&erences, but a%so /ith 5O2* units5, 5e%ution o%ume5, 5'ea(s and bars5, 5re erse:'hase H#LC5. 4isbe%ie ing /i%% not on%" mean courageous%" &ighting masses o& re&erences, but a%so unra e%%ing end%ess ne/ %in(s that tie instruments, &igures and te6ts together. 9 en /orse, the dissenter /i%% be unab%e to o''ose the te6t to the rea% /or%d out there, since the te6t c%aims to bring /ithin it the rea% /or%d 5in there5. 1he dissenter /i%% indeed be iso%ated and %one%" since the re&erent itse%& has 'assed into the author5s cam'. Cou%d it ho'e to brea( the a%%iances bet/een a%% these ne/ resources inside the artic%e? 0o, because o& the &o%ded, con o%uted and strati&ied &orm the te6t has ta(en de&ensi e%", t"ing a%% its 'arts together. $& one doubts &igure 1 in e6cer't ()9), then one has to doubt re erse 'hase H#LC. 7ho /ishes to do so? 3& course, an" %in( can be untied, an" instrument doubted, an" b%ac( bo6 reo'ened, an" &igure dismissed, but the accumu%ation o& a%%ies in the author5s cam' is ;uite

((8>))

&ormidab%e. 4issenters are human tooP there is a 'oint /here the" cannot co'e against such high odds. $n m" anatom" o& scienti&ic rhetoric $ (ee' shi&ting &rom the iso%ated reader con&ronted b" a technica% document to the iso%ated author %aunching his document amidst a s/arm o& dissenting or indi&&erent readers. 1his is because the situation is s"mmetrica%: i& iso%ated, the author shou%d &ind ne/ resources to con ince readersP i& he or she succeeds then each reader is tota%%" iso%ated b" a scienti&ic artic%e that %in(s itse%& to masses o& ne/ resources. $n 'ractice,

there is on%" one re ersib%e situation, /hich is Cust the o''osite o& that described b" Oa%i%eo: ho/ to be )>>> against one.

%5' $ositioning ta&ti&s

1he more /e go into this strange %iterature generated b" contro ersies, the more it becomes di&&icu%t to read. 1his di&&icu%t" comes &rom the number o& e%ements simu%taneous%" gathered at one 'oint : the di&&icu%t" is heightened b" the acron"ms, s"mbo%s and shorthand used in order to stac( in the te6t the ma6imum number o& resources as ;uic(%" as 'ossib%e. But are numbers su&&icient to con ince the &i e or si6 readers %e&t? 0o, o& course head counts are no more su&&icient in scienti&ic te6ts than in /ar. Something more is needed: numbers must be arra"ed and dri%%ed. 7hat $ /i%% ca%% their positioning is necessar". Strange%", this is easier to understand than /hat /e ha e Cust described since it is much c%oser to /hat is common%" ca%%ed rhetoric.

(a) S AC9IN:
Bringing 'ictures, &igures, numbers and names into the te6t and then &o%ding them is a source o& strength, but it ma" a%so turn out to be a maCor /ea(ness. Li(e re&erences (see abo e #art B, section )), the" sho/ the reader /hat a statement is tied to, /hich a%so means the reader (no/s /here to 'u%% i& he or she /ishes to unra e% the statement. 9ach %a"er shou%d then be care&u%%" stac(ed on the &ormer to a oid ga's. 7hat ma(es this o'eration es'ecia%%" di&&icu%t is that there are indeed man" ga's. 1he &igure in e6cer't ()9) does not sho/ O2*P it sho/s t/o su'erim'osed 'ictures &rom one 'rotoco% in one %aborator" in 198)P these 'ictures are said to be re%ated to t/o tumours &rom one *rench 'atient in a L"on hos'ita%. So /hat is sho/n? O2* or meaning%ess scribb%es on the 'rintout o& an instrument hoo(ed u' to a 'atient? 0either the &irst, nor the second. $t de'ends on /hat ha''ens to the te6t %ater on. 7hat is sho/n is a stac( o& %a"ers, each one a""ing something to the &ormer. $n *igure 1.7 $ 'icture this stac(ing using another e6am'%e. 1he %o/est %a"er is made o& three hamster (idne"s, the highest, that is the tit%e, c%aims to sho/ 5the mamma% countercurrent structure in (idne"5. $n dar( %ines $ ha e s"mbo%ised the gain &rom one %a"er to the ne6t. . te6t is %i(e a ban(P it %ends more mone" than it has in its au%tS 1he meta'hor is a good one

((81))

666 &igur 1.7 starter 666 *igure 1.7 *em te(st%inCer med h er sin setning. 2e((e&B%gen b%ir bes(re et a to 'i%er, en i h er margin, som ogsA 'e(er h er sin ei: Me%%om te(st%inCene gAr stre(er a &ors(Ce%%ig t"((e%se og e%ngde.

4e &em te(st%inCene og de ti%s arende stre(ene: Mamma% countercurrent structure in the (idne" (4en t"((este stre(en i he%e &igurens bredde.) 2odent (idne" structures (4en nest t"((este stre(en, stre((er seg o er &ire &emde%er a &igurens bredde.) Hamster (idne" (9n sma%ere stre(, stre((er seg o er tre &emde%er a &igurens bredde.) 1hree hamster5s (idne" (4en nest sma%este stre(en, stre((er seg o er to &emtede%er a &igurens bredde.) S%ices o& &%esh (den sma%este stre(en, stre((er seg o er en &emtede% a &igurens bredde.)

$ enstremargen er en 'i% som 'e(er samme ei som re((e&B%gen 'A setningene. 4enne 'i%a heter =Lo/ induction=. Z hB"remargen er en 'i% som 'e(er motsatt ei a re((e&B%gen 'A setningene. 4enne 'i%a heter =High induction=. 666 &igur 1.7 s%utt 666

since te6ts, %i(e ban(s, ma" go ban(ru't i& a%% their de'ositors simu%taneous%" /ithdra/ their con&idence. $& a%% goes /e%%, then the artic%e s(etched in *igure 1.7 has sho/n mamma% (idne" structureP i& a%% goes bad%", it shrin(s to three hamsters in one %aborator" in 198,. $& on%" a &e/ readers /ithdra/ their con&idence, the te6t %ingers in an" o& the intermediate stages: it might sho/ hamster (idne" structure, or rodent (idne" structure, or %o/er mamma% (idne" structure. 7e recognise here the t/o directions in &act:bui%ding or &act:brea(ing that /e discussed ear%ier. 1his e6treme ariation bet/een the %o/er and the u''er %a"ers o& a 'a'er is /hat 'hi%oso'hers o&ten ca%% indu&tion. .re "ou a%%o/ed to go &rom a &e/ sni''ets o& e idence to the %argest and /i%dest c%aims? *rom three hamsters to the mamma%s? *rom one tumour to O2*? 1hese ;uestions ha e no ans/er in 'rinci'%e since it a%% de'ends on the intensit" o& the contro ersies /ith other /riters. $& "ou read Scha%%"5s artic%e no/, "ou do not see OH2H, but a &e/

meaning%ess bars and s'otsP his c%aim 5this is the OH2H structure5 /hich /as the content o& sentence (8), is no/ seen as an em't" b%u&&, %i(e a che;ue that bounced. 3n the contrar", reading Oui%%emin5s artic%e, "ou see O2* in the te6t because "ou be%ie e his c%aim e6'ressed in sentence (),). $n both cases the be%ie& and the disbe%ie& are ma(ing the c%aim more rea% or %ess rea% %ater on. 4e'ending on the &ie%d, on the intensit" o& the com'etition, on the di&&icu%t" o& the to'ic, on the author5s scru'%es, the stac(ing is going to be di&&erent. 0o matter ho/ di&&erent the cases /e cou%d %oo( at, the name o& the game is sim'%e enough. *irst ru%e: ne er stac( t/o %a"ers e6act%" one on to' o& the otherP i& "ou do so there is no gain, no increment, and the te6t (ee's re'eating itse%&. Second ru%e: ne er go straight &rom the &irst to the %ast %a"er (un%ess there is no one e%se in the &ie%d to ca%% "our b%u&&). 1hird ru%e (and the most im'ortant): 'ro e as much as "ou can /ith as %itt%e as "ou can considering the circumstances. $& "ou are too timid, "our 'a'er /i%% be %ost, as it /i%% i& "ou are too audacious. 1he stac(ing o& a 'a'er is simi%ar to

((8)))

the bui%ding o& a stone hutP each stone must go &urther than the one be&ore. $& it goes too &ar, the /ho%e au%t &a%%s do/nP i& not &ar enough, there /i%% be no au%t at a%%S 1he 'ractica% ans/ers to the 'rob%em o& induction are much more mundane than 'hi%oso'hers /ou%d /ish. 3n these ans/ers rests much o& the strength that a 'a'er is ab%e to o''ose to its readers5 hosti%it". 7ithout them, the man" resources /e ana%"sed abo e remain use%ess.

%b' S A:IN: AN- F3AMIN:

0o matter ho/ numerous and ho/ /e%% stac(ed its resources, an artic%e has not got a chance i& it is read Cust b" any 'assing reader. 0atura%%", most o& the readershi' has a%read" been de&ined b" the medium, the tit%e, the re&erences, the &igures and the technica% detai%s. Sti%%, e en /ith the remainder it is sti%% at the merc" o& ma%e o%ent readers. $n order to de&end itse%& the te6t has to e6'%ain ho/ and b" /hom it shou%d be read. $t comes, so to s'ea(, /ith its o/n user5s notice, or %egend. 1he image o& the idea% reader bui%t into the te6t is eas" to retrie e. 4e'ending on the author5s use o& %anguage, "ou immediate%" imagine to /hom he or she is ta%(ing (at %east "ou rea%ise that in most cases he or she is not ta%(ing to "ouS). Sentence (),), that de&ined the amino acid structure o& O2*, is not aimed at the same reader as the &o%%o/ing: (+1) 1here e6ists a substance that regu%ates bod" gro/thP this substance is itse%& regu%ated b" another one, ca%%ed O2*P it is made o& a string o& ,, amino acids (amino acids are the bui%ding b%oc( o& a%% 'roteins)P this string has recent%" been disco ered b" the 0obe% #riGe /inner 2oger Oui%%emin.

Such a sentence is addressed to a com'%ete%" di&&erent audience. More 'eo'%e are ab%e to read it than sentence (),) or ()-). More 'eo'%e but e;ui''ed /ith fe;er resources. 0otice that 'o'u%arisation &o%%o/s the same route as contro ers" but in the o''osite directionP it /as because o& the intensit" o& the debates that /e /ere s%o/%" %ed &rom non:technica% sentences, &rom %arge numbers o& i%%:e;ui''ed erba% contestants to sma%% numbers o& /e%%:e;ui''ed contestants /ho /rite artic%es. $& one /ishes to increase the number o& readers again, one has to decrease the intensit" o& the contro ers", and reduce the resources. 1his remar( is use&u% because the di&&icu%t" o& /riting 5'o'u%ar5 artic%es about science is a good measure o& the accumu%ation o& resources in the hands o& &e/ scientists. $t is hard to 'o'u%arise science because it is designed to &orce out most 'eo'%e in the &irst '%ace. 0o /onder teachers, Courna%ists and 'o'u%arisers encounter di&&icu%t" /hen /e /ish to bring the e6c%uded readershi' bac( in. 1he (ind o& /ords authors use is not the on%" /a" o& determining the idea% reader at /hom the" are aiming. .nother method is to antici'ate readers5 obCections in ad ance. 1his is a tric( common to a%% rhetoric, scienti&ic or not. 5$ (ne/ "ou /ou%d obCect to this, but $ ha e a%read" thought o& it and this is m" ans/er.5 1he reader is not on%" chosen in ad ance, but /hat it is going to sa" is

((8+))

ta(en out o& its o/n mouth, as $ sho/ed &or instance in e6cer't ()7) ($ use 5it5 instead o& 5he or she5 because this reader is not a 'erson in the &%esh but a 'erson on 'a'er, a semioti& &hara&ter). 1) 1han(s to this 'rocedure, the te6t is care&u%%" aimedP it e6hausts a%% 'otentia% obCections in ad ance and ma" er" /e%% %ea e the reader s'eech%ess since it can do nothing e%se but ta(e the statement u' as a matter o& &act. 7hat sort o& obCections shou%d be ta(en into account b" the author? .gain, this is a ;uestion that 'hi%oso'hers tr" to ans/er in 'rinci'%e a%though it on%" has 'ractica% ans/ers, de'ending on the batt%e&ie%d. 1he on%" ru%e is to as( the (imaginar") reader /hat sort o& tria%s it /i%% re;uire be&ore be%ie ing the author. 1he te6t bui%ds a %itt%e stor" in /hich something incredib%e (the hero) becomes gradua%%" more credib%e because it /ithstands more and more terrib%e tria%s. 1he im'%icit dia%ogue bet/een authors and readers then ta(es something o& this &orm: (+,):$& m" substance triggers gro/th hormone in three di&&erent assa"s, /i%% "ou be%ie e it to be O2*? :0o, this is not enough, $ a%so /ant "ou to sho/ me that "our stu&& &rom a 'ancreas tumour is the same as the genuine O2* &rom the h"'otha%amus. :7hat do "ou mean 5the same5P /hat tria%s shou%d m" stu&&, as "ou sa", undergo to be ca%%ed 5genuine O2*5?

1he cur es o& "our stu&& &rom the 'ancreas and O2* &rom the h"'otha%amus shou%d be su'erim'osedP this is the tria% $ /ant to see /ith m" o/n e"es be&ore $ be%ie e "ou. $ /on5t go a%ong /ith "ou /ithout it. 1his is /hat "ou /ant? .nd a&ter that "ou gi e u'? Iou s/ear? Here it is: see &igure ), 'er&ect su'erim'ositionS Ho%d onS 0ot so &astS 1his is not &airP /hat did "ou do /ith the cur es to get them to &it? 9 er"thing that cou%d be done gi en the 'resent (no/%edge o& statistics and toda"5s com'uters. 1he %ines are theoretica%, com'uter:ca%cu%ated and dra/n, &rom the &our:'arameter %ogistic e;uations &or each set o& dataS 4o "ou gi e u' no/? Ies, "es, certain%", $ be%ie e "ouS 5$t5 gi es u', the imaginar" reader /hose obCections and re;uirements ha e been antici'ated b" the master authorS Scienti&ic te6ts %oo( boring and drab &rom the most su'er&icia% 'oint o& ie/. $& the reader recom'oses the cha%%enge the" ta(e u', the" are as thri%%ing as stor" te%%ing. 57hat is going to ha''en to the hero? $s it going to resist this ne/ ordea%? 0o, it is too much e en &or the best. Ies, it did /in? Ho/ incredib%e. $s the reader con inced? 0ot "et. .h hah, here is a ne/ testP im'ossib%e to meet these re;uirements, too tough. !n&air, this is un&air.5 $magine the cheering cro/ds and the boos. 0o character on stage is /atched /ith such 'assion and as(ed to train and rehearse as is, &or instance, this O2* stu&&. 1he more /e get into the niceties o& the scienti&ic %iterature, the more e6traordinar" it becomes. $t is no/ a rea% o'era. Cro/ds o& 'eo'%e are mobi%ised b" the re&erencesP &rom o&&stage hundreds o& accessories are brought in. $maginar" readers are conCured u' /hich are not as(ed on%" to be%ie e the author

((8,))

but to s'e%% out /hat sort o& tortures, ordea%s and tria%s the heroes shou%d undergo be&ore being recognised as such. 1hen the te6t un&o%ds the dramatic stor" o& these tria%s. $ndeed, the heroes trium'h o er a%% the 'o/ers o& dar(ness, %i(e the #rince in The Magic <lute) 1he author adds more and more im'ossib%e tria%s Cust, it seems, &or the '%easure o& /atching the hero o ercoming them. 1he authors cha%%enge the audience and their heroes sending a ne/ bad gu", a storm, a de i%, a curse, a dragon, and the heroes &ight them. .t the end, the readers, ashamed o& their &ormer doubts, ha e to acce't the author5s c%aim. 1hese o'eras un&o%d thousands o& times in the 'ages of Nature or the (hysicalRevie; (&or the bene&it, $ admit, o& er", er" &e/ s'ectators indeed).

1he authors o& scienti&ic te6ts do not mere%" bui%d readers, heroes and tria%s into the 'a'er. 1he" a%so ma(e c%ear /ho the" are. 1he authors in the &%esh become the authors on 'a'er, adding to the artic%e more semiotic characters, more 5its5. 1he si6 authors o& /hat $ ca%%ed Oui%%emin5s 'a'er did not, o& course, /rite it. 0o one cou%d remember ho/ man" dra&ts the 'a'er 'assed through. 1he attribution o& these si6 names, the order in /hich the" enter, a%% that is care&u%%" staged, and since this is one 'art o& the /riting o& the '%ot, it does not te%% us ;ho /rites the '%ot. 1his ob ious staging is not the on%" sign o& the authors5 'resence. .%though technica% %iterature is said to be im'ersona%, this is &ar &rom being so. 1he authors are e er"/here, bui%t into the te6t. 1his can be sho/n e en /hen the 'assi e oice is usedJ this trait being o&ten in o(ed to de&ine scienti&ic st"%e. 7hen "ou /rite: 5a 'ortion o& tissue &rom each tumour /as e6tracted, a 'icture o& the author is dra/n as much as i& "ou /rite 54r Scha%%" e6tracted5 5 or 5m" "oung co%%eague Fimm" e6tracted5. $t is Cust another 'ictureP a gre" bac(dro' on a stage is as much a bac(dro' as a co%oured one. $t a%% de'ends on the e&&ects one /ishes to ha e on the audience. 1he 'ortra"a% o& the author is im'ortant because it 'ro ides the imaginar" counter'art o& the readerP it is ab%e to contro% ho/ the reader shou%d read, react and be%ie e. *or instance, it o&ten 'ositions itse%& in a genea%og" /hich a%read" 'resages the discussion: (++)3ur conce'tion o& the hamster (idne" structure has recent%" been dramatica%%" a%tered b" 7irG5s obser ations (re&erence). 7e /ish to re'ort a ne/ additiona% obser ation. 1he author o& this sentence does not 'ortra" itse%& as a re o%utionar", but as a &o%%o/erP not as a theoretician, but as a humb%e obser er. $& a reader /ishes to attac( the c%aim or the theor", it is redirected to the 5dramatic5 trans&ormations 7irG made and to the 5conce'tions5 he had. 1o sho/ ho/ such a sentence ma(es u' a certain image o& the author, %et us re/rite it: (+,)7irG (re&erence) recent%" obser ed a 'uGG%ing 'henomenon he cou%d not inter'ret /ithin the c%assica% &rame/or( o& (idne" structure. 7e /ish to 'ro'ose a ne/ inter'retation o& his data. 1he artic%e has immediate%" changed tac(. $t is no/ a re o%utionar" artic%e and

((88))

a theoretica% one. 7irG5s 'osition has been a%tered. He /as the masterP he is no/ a 'recursor /ho did not (no/ &or sure /hat he /as doing. 1he reader5s e6'ectations /i%% be modi&ied de'ending on /hich ersion the author chooses. 1he same changes /i%% occur i& /e &idd%e /ith sentence ()1), /hich /as the introduction to the 'a'er /ritten b" Oui%%emin to announce the disco er" o& O2*. 2emember that Scha%%"5s ear%ier endea ours /ere dismissed /ith the

sentence: 5so &ar, h"'otha%amic O2* has not been une;ui oca%%" characterised, des'ite ear%ier c%aims to the contrar"5. 7hat does the reader &ee% i& /e no/ trans&orm sentence ()1) into this one: (+8)Scha%%" (re&erence) ear%ier 'ro'osed a characterisation o& h"'otha%amic O2*P the 'resent /or( 'ro'oses a di&&erent se;uence /hich might so% e some o& the di&&icu%ties o& the &ormer characterisation. 1he reader o& sentence ()1) is e6'ecting truth at %ast a&ter man" sense%ess attem'ts at &inding O2*, /hereas the reader o& (+8) is 're'ared to read a ne/ tentati e 'ro'osition that situates itse%& in the same %ineage as the &ormer. Scha%%" is a nonentit" in the &irst case, an honourab%e co%%eague in the second. .n" change in the author5s 'osition in the te6t ma" modi&" the readers5 'otentia% reactions. 9s'ecia%%" im'ortant is the staging b" the author o& /hat shou%d be discussed, /hat is rea%%" interesting (/hat is es'ecia%%" im'ortantS) and /hat is, admitted%", dis'utab%e. 1his hidden agenda, bui%t into the te6t, 'a es the /a" &or the discussion. *or instance, Scha%%", at the end o& the artic%e that $ ha e used a%% a%ong as an e6am'%e, is sudden%" not sure o& an"thing an" more. He /rites: (+-)7hether this mo%ecu%e re'resents the hormone /hich is res'onsib%e &or the stimu%ation o& gro/th hormone re%eased under 'h"sio%ogica% conditions can on%" be 'ro en b" &urther studies. 1his is %i(e ta(ing out an insurance 'o%ic" against the une6'ected trans&ormation o& &acts into arte&acts. Scha%%" did not sa" that he &ound 5the5 OH2H, but on%" 5a5 mo%ecu%e that %oo(ed %i(e OH2H. Later on, /hen he /as so io%ent%" criticised &or his b%under, he /as then ab%e to sa" that he ne er c%aimed that OH2H /as the mo%ecu%e cited in c%aim (8). 1his caution is o&ten seen as the sign o& scienti&ic st"%e. !nderstatement /ou%d then be the ru%e and the di&&erence bet/een technica% %iterature and %iterature in genera% /ou%d be the mu%ti'%ication o& negati e moda%ities in the &ormer. 7e no/ (no/ this to be as absurd as sa"ing that one /a%(s on%" /ith one5s %e&t %eg. #ositi e moda%ities are as necessar" as negati e ones. 9ach author a%%ocates /hat sha%% not be discussed and /hat ought to be discussed (see again ()1)). 7hen it is necessar" not to dis'ute a b%ac( bo6 there is no understatement /hatsoe er. 7hen the author is on dangerous ground, understatement 'ro%i&erates. Li(e a%% the e&&ects /e ha e seen in this section, it a%% de'ends on circumstances. $t is im'ossib%e to sa" that technica% %iterature a%/a"s errs on the side o& cautionP it a%so errs on the side o& audacit"P or rather it does not err, it GigGags through obstac%es, and e a%uates the ris(s as best it can. Oui%%emin, &or instance, at the end o& his 'a'er runs hot and co%d at the same time:

((8-))

(+9) 7hat can certain%" be said is that the mo%ecu%e /e ha e no/ characteriGed has a%% the attributes e6'ected &rom the %ong:sought h"'otha%amic re%easing &actor &or gro/th hormone. Scha%%"5s caution is gone. 1he ris( is ta(enP certaint" is on their side: the ne/ substance does e er"thing that O2* does. 1he author sim'%" sto's short o& sa"ing 5this is O2*5. (0ote that the author ha''i%" uses 5/e5 and the acti e oice /hen summarising its ictor".) But the ne6t 'aragra'h ado'ts entire%" di&&erent tactics: (+8) $n (ee'ing /ith other 'ast e6'erience, 'robab%" the most interesting ro%e, e&&ect, or use o& O2* is current%" tota%%" unsus'ected. 1his is indeed an insurance 'o%ic" against the un(no/n. 0o one /i%% be ab%e to criticise the author &or its %ac( o& ision, since the une6'ected is e6'ected. B" using such a &ormu%a, the author 'rotects itse%& against /hat ha''ened in the 'ast /ith another substance, somatostatin. 1+ 3rigina%%" iso%ated in the h"'otha%amus to inhibit the re%ease o& gro/th hormone, it turned out to be in the 'ancreas and to '%a" a ro%e in diabetes. But Oui%%emin5s grou' missed this disco er" that others made /ith their o/n substance. So, is the author cautious or not? 0either. $t care&u%%" /rites to 'rotect its c%aims as best as it can and to &ence o&& the reader5s obCections. 3nce a 'a'er is /ritten, it is er" di&&icu%t to retrie e the care&u% tactics through /hich it /as cra&ted, a%though a %oo( at the dra&ts o& scienti&ic artic%es /i%% be enough to sho/ that the rea% authors are ;uite se%&:conscious about a%% o& this. 1he" (no/ that /ithout re/riting and 'ositioning, the strength o& their 'a'er /i%% be s'oi%ed, because the authors and the readers bui%t into the te6t do not match. 9 er"thing is at the merc" o& a &e/ i%%:chosen /ords. 1he c%aim ma" become /i%d, the 'a'er contro ersia%, or, on the contrar", so timid and o er: cautious, so 'o%ite and tame that it %ets others rea' the maCor disco eries.

%C' CA$ A I!N

$t ma" be discouraging &or those o& us /ho /ant to /rite 'o/er&u% te6ts ab%e to in&%uence contro ersies, but e en the enormous amount o& /or( sho/n abo e is not enoughS Something is sti%% missing. 0o matter ho/ man" re&erences the author has been ab%e to musterP no matter ho/ man" resources, instruments and 'ictures it has been ca'ab%e o& mobi%ising in one '%aceP no matter ho/ /e%% arra"ed and dri%%ed its troo's areP no matter ho/ c%e er its antici'ation o& /hat the readers /i%% do and ho/ subt%e the 'resentation o& itse%&P no matter ho/ ingenious the choice o& /hich ground shou%d be he%d and /hich ma" be abandonedP regard%ess o& a%% these strategies, the rea% reader, the reader in the &%esh, the 5he5 or 5she5 ma" sti%% reach "ifferent conclusions) 2eaders are de ious 'eo'%e, obstinate and un'redictab%e W e en the &i e or si6 %e&t to read the 'a'er &rom beginning to end. $so%ated, surrounded, besieged b" a%% "our a%%ies, the" can sti%% esca'e and conc%ude that So iet missi%es are accurate to /ithin 1>> metres,

((87))

that "ou ha e not 'ro en the e6istence o& OH2H or O2*, or that "our 'a'er on &ue% ce%%s is a mess. 1he 'a'er:reader, the 5it5 o&, &or instance, statement (+)), ma" ha e sto''ed discussing and admitted the /riter5s credibi%it"P but /hat about the rea% reader? He or she might ha e s(i''ed a 'assage entire%", &ocused on a detai% margina% to the author. 1he author to%d them in c%aim ()1) that h"'otha%amus contro% o& gro/th hormone is indis'utab%e: are the" going to &o%%o/ him? $t to%d them in (+-) /hat /as to be discussedP are the" going to acce't this agenda? 1he /riter dra/s so man" 'ath/a"s going &rom one '%ace to another and as(s the reader to &o%%o/ themP the readers ma" cross these 'aths and then esca'e. 1o come bac( to Oa%i%eo5s sentence, )>>> 4emosthenes and .ristot%es are sti%% /ea( i& one a erage reader is a%%o/ed to brea( a/a" and &%ee. .%% the numbers amassed b" the technica% %iterature are not enough i& the reader is a%%o/ed to stro%% and /ander. .%% the obCectors5 mo es shou%d then be contro%%ed so that the" encounter massi e numbers and are de&eated. $ ca%% &aptation (or ca'tatio in the o%d rhetoric) this subt%e contro% o& the obCectors5 mo es. 1, 2emember that the authors need the readers5 /i%%ingness to ha e their o/n c%aims turned into &acts (see #art ., section )). $& the readers are 'ut o&&, the" are not going to ta(e u' the c%aimP but i& the" are %e&t &ree to discuss the c%aim, it /i%% be dee'%" a%tered. 1he /riter o& a scienti&ic te6t is then in a ;uandar": ho/ to %ea e someone com'%ete%" &ree and ha e them at the same time com'%ete%" obedient. 7hat is the best /a" to so% e this 'arado6? 1o %a" out the te6t so that /here er the reader is there is on%" one ;ay to go. But ho/ can this resu%t be achie ed, since b" de&inition the rea% reader ma" dis'ute e er"thing and go in an" direction? B" ma(ing it more di&&icu%t &or the reader to go in a%% the other directions. Ho/ can this be achie ed? B" care&u%%" stac(ing more b%ac( bo6es, %ess easi%" dis'utab%e arguments. 1he nature o& the game is e6act%" %i(e that o& bui%ding a dam. $t /ou%d be &oo%ish &or a dam engineer to su''ose that the /ater /i%% obe" his /ishes, abstaining &rom o er&%o/ing or 'o%ite%" running &rom bottom to to'. 3n the contrar", an" engineer shou%d start /ith the 'rinci'%e that i& /ater can %ea( a/a" it /i%%. Simi%ar%" /ith readers, i& "ou %ea e the sma%%est out%et o'en to them the" /i%% rush outP i& "ou tr" to &orce them to go u'stream the" /i%% not. So /hat "ou ha e to do is to ma(e sure the reader a%/a"s &%o/s &ree%" but in a "eep enough valleyB Since the beginning o& this cha'ter /e ha e obser ed this digging, trenching and damming man" times o er. .%% the e6am'%es mo ed &rom a better:(no/n statement to a %esser:(no/n oneP a%% /ere using a %ess easi%" dis'utab%e c%aim to start or to sto' discussion on a statement easier to dis'ute. 9ach contro ers" aimed at re ersing the &%o/ b" shi&ting negati e and 'ositi e moda%ities. Ca'tation is a genera%isation o& the same 'henomenon inducing readers to mo e &ar a/a" &rom /hat the" /ere read" to acce't at &irst. $& the digging and damming is /e%% set u', the reader, a%though ta(en in, /i%% &ee% entire%" &ree (see *igure 1.8). 1he h"drau%ic meta'hor is an a't one since the sca%e o& 'ub%ic /or( to be underta(en de'ends on ho/ &ar "ou /ish to &orce the /ater to go, on the intensit" o& the &%o/, on the s%o'e and on /hat (ind o& %andsca'e "ou ha e to buttress the dams and the ducts. $t is the same thing /ith 'ersuasion. $t is an eas" Cob i& "ou

((88))

666 &igur 1.8 start 666 *igure 1.8 *rom uncon incing to incontro ertib%e e idence... Bes(ri e%se: *iguren iser &ire&ors(Ce%%ige snitt gCennom sCBer e%%er e% er. Situation 1 Bunnen under annmassen er meget grunn, og terrenget har i((e dannet egger 'A sidene. Situation ) Bunnen under annmassen er %i(e grunn, men (onstruerte demninger danner egger 'A sidene. Situation + Bunnen under annmassen er noe d"'ere, terrenget danner egg 'A den ene siden a en (onstruert demning 'A den andre. Situation , Bunnen under nnmassen er d"', og terrenget danner hB"e egger 'A begge sider. 666 &igur 1.8 s%utt 666 annet,

/ant to con ince a &e/ 'eo'%e o& something that is a%most ob iousP it is much harder i& "ou /ish to con ince a %arge number o& 'eo'%e o& something er" remote &rom or e en contrar" to their current be%ie&s (see Cha'ter 8, #art C). 1his meta'hor sho/s that the re%ation bet/een the amount o& /or( and 'ersuasion de'ends on the circumstances. Con incing is not Cust a matter o& thro/ing /ords about. $t is a race bet/een the authors and the readers to contro% each other5s mo es. $t /ou%d be enormous%" di&&icu%t &or one 5a erage man5 to &orce o&& their 'aths 5)>>> 4emosthenes and .ristot%es5 in a matter /here, at &irst sight, e er" direction is e;ua%%" 'ossib%eP the on%" /a" to decrease the di&&icu%t" is to dam u' a%% the a%ternati e channe%s. 0o matter /here the reader is in the te6t, he or she is con&ronted /ith instruments harder to discuss, &igures more di&&icu%t to doubt, re&erences that are harder to dis'ute, arra"s o& stac(ed b%ac( bo6es. He or she &%o/s &rom the introduction to the conc%usion %i(e a ri er &%o/ing bet/een arti&icia% ban(s.

7hen such a resu%t is attained : it is er" rare : a te6t is said to be logi&al. Li(e the /ords 5scienti&ic5 or 5technica%5, it seems that 5%ogica%5 o&ten means a di&&erent %iterature &rom the i%%ogica% t"'e that /ou%d be /ritten b" 'eo'%e /ith di&&erent (inds o& minds &o%%o/ing di&&erent methods or more stringent standards. But there is no abso%ute brea( bet/een %ogica% and i%%ogica% te6tsP there is a /ho%e gamut o& nuances that de'end as much on the reader as on the author. Logic re&ers not to a ne/ subCect matter but to sim'%e 'ractica% schemes: Can the reader get out? Can he easi%" s(i' this 'art? $s she ab%e, once there, to ta(e another 'ath? $s the conc%usion esca'ab%e? $s the &igure /ater'roo&? $s the 'roo& tight enough? 1he /riter arra"s /hate er is at hand in tiers so that these ;uestions &ind 'ractica% ans/ers. 1his is /here style starts to countP a good scienti&ic /riter ma" succeed in being 5more %ogica%5 than a bad one.

((89))

1he most stri(ing as'ect o& this race bet/een the reader and the /riter is /hen the %imits are reached. $n 'rinci'%e, o& course, there is no %imit since the &ate o& the statement is, as $ said, in %ater users5 hands (see Cha'ter ), #art C). $t is a%/a"s 'ossib%e to discuss an artic%e, an instrument, a &igureP it is a%/a"s 'ossib%e &or a reader:in:the:&%esh to mo e o&& the 'ath e6'ected o& the reader:in:the:te6t. $n 'ractice, ho/e er, %imits are reached. 1he author obtains this resu%t b" stac(ing so man" tiers o& b%ac( bo6es that at one 'oint the reader, obstinate enough to dissent, /i%% be con&ronted /ith &acts so o%d and so unanimous%" acce'ted that in order to go on doubting he or she /i%% be left alone) Li(e a c%e er engineer /ho decides to bui%d her dam on so%id bedroc(, the /riter /i%% manage to %in( the &ate o& the artic%e to that o& harder and harder &acts. 1he 'ractica% %imit is reached /hen the a erage dissenter is no %onger &aced /ith the author5s o'inion but /ith /hat thousands and thousands o& 'eo'%e ha e thought and asserted. Contro ersies ha e an end a&ter a%%. 1he end is not a natura% one, but a care&u%%" cra&ted one %i(e those o& '%a"s or mo ies. $& "ou sti%% doubt that the M@ shou%d be bui%t (see (1)), or that OH2H has been disco ered b" Scha%%" (see (8)), or that &ue% ce%%s are the &uture o& the e%ectric engine (see (8)), then "ou /i%% be a%% b" "ourse%&, /ithout su''ort and a%%", a%one in "our 'ro&ession, or, e en /orse, iso%ated &rom the communit", or ma"be, sti%% more a/&u%, sent to an as"%umS $t is a 'o/er&u% rhetoric5 that /hich is ab%e to dri e the dissenter mad.

%8' he se&ond rule of method

$n this cha'ter /e ha e %earned a se&ond rule of method in addition to the &irst one that re;uired us to stud" science and techno%og" in action. 1his second ru%e as(s us not to %oo( &or the intrinsic ;ua%ities o& an" gi en statement but to %oo( instead &or a%% the trans&ormations it undergoes %ater in other hands. 1his ru%e is the conse;uence o& /hat $ ca%%ed our &irst 'rinci'%e: the &ate o& &acts and machines is in the hands o& %ater users.

1hese t/o ru%es o& method ta(en together a%%o/ us to continue our tri' through technoscience /ithout being intimidated b" the technica% %iterature. 0o matter /hat contro ers" /e start &rom, /e /i%% a%/a"s be ab%e to ta(e our bearings: (a)b" %oo(ing at the stage the c%aim /e chose as our de'arture 'oint is atP (b)b" &inding the 'eo'%e /ho are stri ing to ma(e this c%aim more o& a &act and those /ho are tr"ing to ma(e it %ess o& a &actP (c)b" chec(ing in /hich direction the c%aim is 'ushed b" the o''osite actions o& these t/o grou's o& 'eo'%eP is it u' the %adder dra/n in *igure 1.8 or do/n? 1his initia% en;uir" /i%% gi e us our &irst bearing (our %atitude so to s'ea(). 1hen, i& the statement /e &o%%o/ is ;uic(%" destro"ed, /e /i%% ha e to see ho/ it is trans&ormed and /hat ha''ens to its ne/ ersion: is it more easi%" acce'ted or %ess? 1he ne/ en;uir" /i%% o&&er us:

((->))

*igure 1.9

<ommentar: *iguren er ans(e%ig A &orstA, men Ceg s(a% gCBre mitt beste &or A bes(ri e den. 3 erb%i((: *iguren er de% is en tabe%%. *em (o%onner re'resenterer &ors(Ce%%ige 'Astander, =*rom one statement to another= i (rono%ogis( re((e&B%ge &ra enstre mot hB"re. S" %inCer re'resenterer s" &ors(Ce%%ige n"anser a o erganger &ra =arte&act= (B erst= ti% =&act= nederst. 3mtrent midt me%%om "tter%ighetene =arte&act= og =&act= gAr en bu(tet %inCe gCennom tabe%%en, &ra enstre ti% hB"re. 4enne bu(tede %inCen heter =&ront%ine=. 3 en&or denne %inCen er ce%%ene &"%t med bo(sta (oder, som Ceg to%(er som begi enheter ti%(n"ttet h er a (o%onne: 'Astandene. 0eden&or &ront%inCa (ommer en re((e i((e na ngitte 'i%er neden&ra, som ender i &ront%inCa. <ans(Ce er disse e(torere som s"mbo%iserer at &ront%inCa "ter motstand e%%er &ri(sCon mot be ege%sen &ra =arte&act= ti% =&act=? 4eta%Cert bes(ri e%se:

$ det &B%gende tar Ceg &or meg h er en(e%t (o%onne, =&rom one statement to another=, i (rono%ogis( re((e&B%ge. H er (o%onne har b%itt en egen tabe%%, som har &Att titte% etter den a(tue%%e (o%onnens nummer i (rono%ogis( re((e&B%ge. H er a de smA tabe%%ene har &Att %i(e mange %inCer som den ti%s arende (o%onnen be eger seg nedo er i tabe%%en, =&rom arte&act to &act=. #A h er a disse %inCene D ce%%ene stAr det angitt en hende%se med en bo(sta (ode. 4en siste hende%sen er a%%tid =*ront%ine=, men denne inntre&&er 'A &ors(Ce%%ig rad D %inCe &or h er (o%onne. 0eden&or &ront%inCen har inten a (o%onnene noen hende%ser a mer(et. 1. (%onne: ..B M:(..B) MY(..B) *ront%ine

). (o%onne: ..C M:(..C) MY(..C) H(..C) *ront%ine

+. (o%onne: ..4 M:(..4) *ront%ine

,. (o%onne 9.4 M:(9.4)

MY(9.4) H(9.4) *ront%ine

8. (o%onne: 9.* M:(9.*) MY(9.*) H(9.*) 9.* () *ront%ine 666 &igur 1.9 s%utt 666

(d) a measure o& the distance bet/een the origina% c%aim and the ne/ ones, as /e sa/ &or instance bet/een Scha%%"5s sentence (8) about OH2H made in 1971, and Oui%%emin5s c%aim made in 198) about the same substance named O2* and /ith a com'%ete%" di&&erent amino acid se;uence. 1his dri&t /i%% 'ro ide us /ith our second bearing, our %ongitude. *ina%%", the t/o dimensions 'ut together /i%% dra/: (e) the &ront %ine o& the contro ers" as summariGed in *igure 1.9.

Con&lusion. Numbers. more numbers

Ha ing reached the end o& this cha'ter, it shou%d be c%ear no/ /h" most 'eo'%e do not /rite and do not read scienti&ic te6ts. 0o /onderS $t is a 'ecu%iar trade in a merci%ess /or%d. Better read no e%sS 7hat $ /i%% ca%% fa&t71riting in o''osition to &iction:/riting %imits the number o& 'ossib%e readings to three: gi ing u', going a%ong, /or(ing through. 1iving up is the most usua% one. #eo'%e gi e u' and do not read the te6t, /hether the" be%ie e the author or not, either because the" are 'ushed out o& the contro ers" a%together or because the" are not interested in reading the artic%e (%et us estimate this to be 9> 'er cent o& the time). 1oing along is the rare reaction, but it is the norma% outcome o& scienti&ic rhetoric: the reader be%ie es the author5s c%aim and he%'s him to turn it into a &act b" using it &urther /ith no dis'ute (ma"be 9 'er cent o& the time?). 1here is sti%% one more 'ossib%e outcome, but such a

rare and cost%" one that it is a%most neg%igib%e as &ar as numbers are concerned: re!enacting e er"thing that the authors /ent through. 1his %ast issue remains o'en because there is a%/a"s at %east one &%a/ e en in the best /ritten scienti&ic te6t: man" resources mobi%ised in it are said to come &rom

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instruments, anima%s, 'ictures, &rom things out of the te#t) 1he adamant obCector cou%d then tr" to 'ut the te6t in Ceo'ard" b" unt"ing these su''%" %ines. He or she /i%% then be %ed &rom the te6t to /here the te6t c%aims to come &rom: 0ature or the %aborator". 1his is 'ossib%e on one condition: that the dissenter is e;ui''ed /ith a %aborator" or /ith /a"s to get straight at 0ature more or %ess simi%ar to that o& the author. 0o /onder this /a" o& reading a scienti&ic 'a'er is rareS Iou ha e to ha e a /ho%e machiner" o& "our o/n. 2esuming the contro ers", reo'ening the b%ac( bo6 is achie ed at this 'rice, and on%" at this 'rice. $t is this rare remaining strateg" that /e /i%% stud" in the ne6t cha'ter. 1he 'ecu%iarit" o& the scienti&ic %iterature is no/ c%ear: the on%" three 'ossib%e readings a%% %ead to the demise o& the te6t. $& "ou gi e u', the te6t does not count and might as /e%% not ha e been /ritten at a%%. $& "ou go a%ong, "ou be%ie e it so much that it is ;uic(%" abstracted, abridged, st"%ised and sin(s into tacit 'ractice. Last%", i& "ou /or( through the authors5 tria%s, "ou ;uit the te6t and enter the %aborator". 1hus the scienti&ic te6t is chasing its readers a/a" /hether or not it is success&u%. Made &or attac( and de&ence, it is no more a '%ace &or a %eisure%" sta" than a bastion or a bun(er. 1his ma(es it ;uite di&&erent &rom the reading o& the Bib%e, Stendha% or the 'oems o& 1.S. 9%iot. Ies, Oa%i%eo /as ;uite mista(en /hen he 'ur'orted to o''ose rhetoric and science b" 'utting big numbers on one side and one 5a erage man5 /ho ha''ened to 5hit u'on the truth5 on the other. 9 er"thing /e ha e seen since the beginning indicates e6act%" the o''osite. .n" a erage man starting o&& a dis'ute ends u' being con&ronted /ith masses o& resources, not Cust )>>>, but tens o& thousands. So /hat is the di&&erence bet/een rhetoric, so much des'ised, and science, so much admired? 2hetoric used to be des'ised because it mobi%ised e#ternal allies in &a our o& an argument, such as 'assion, st"%e, emotions, interests, %a/"ers5 tric(s and so on. $t has been hated since .ristot%e5s time because the regu%ar 'ath o& reason /as un&air%" distorted or re ersed b" an" 'assing so'hist /ho in o(ed 'assion and st"%e. 7hat shou%d be said o& the 'eo'%e /ho in o(e so man" more e6terna% a%%ies besides 'assion and st"%e in order to re erse the 'ath o& common reasoning? 1he di&&erence bet/een the o%d rhetoric and the ne/ is not that the &irst ma(es use o& e6terna% a%%ies /hich the second re&rains &rom usingP the di&&erence is that the &irst uses on%" a fe; o& them and the second very many) 1his distinction a%%o/s me to a oid a /rong /a" o& inter'reting this cha'ter /hich /ou%d be to sa" that /e studied the Qrhetorica% as'ects5 o& technica% %iterature, as i& the other as'ects cou%d be %e&t to reason, %ogic and technica% detai%s. M" contention is that on the contrar" /e must e entua%%"

come to ca%% scienti&ic the rhetoric ab%e to mobi%ise on one s'ot more resources than o%der ones (see Cha'ter -). $t is because o& this de&inition in terms o& the number o& a%%ies that $ abstained &rom de&ining this %iterature b" its most ob ious trait: the 'resence o& numbers, geometrica% &igures, e;uations, mathematics, etc. 1he 'resence o& these obCects /i%% be e6'%ained on%" in Cha'ter because their &orm is im'ossib%e to understand /hen se'arated &rom this mobi%isation 'rocess made necessar" b" the intensit" o& the rhetoric. So the reader shou%d not be /orried either b" the

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'resence or b" the absence o& &igures in the technica% %iterature. So &ar it is not the re%e ant &eature. 7e ha e to understand &irst ho/ man" e%ements can be brought to bear on a contro ers"P once this is understood, the other 'rob%ems /i%% be easier to so% e. B" stud"ing in this cha'ter ho/ a contro ers" gets &iercer, $ e6amined the anatom" o& technica% %iterature and $ c%aimed that it /as a con enient /a" to ma(e good m" origina% 'romise to sho/ the heterogeneous com'onents that ma(e u' technoscience, inc%uding the social ones. But $5d rather antici'ate the obCection o& m" (semiotic) reader: 57hat do "ou mean =socia%=?5 it indignant%" sa"s. 57here is ca'ita%ism, the 'ro%etarian c%asses, the batt%e o& the se6es, the strugg%e &or the emanci'ation o& the races, 7estern cu%ture, the strategies o& /ic(ed mu%tinationa% cor'orations, the mi%itar" estab%ishment, the de ious interests o& 'ro&essiona% %obbies, the race &or 'restige and re/ards among scientists? .%% these e%ements are socia% and this is /hat "ou did not sho; /ith a%% "our te6ts, rhetorica% tric(s and technica%itiesS5 $ agree, /e sa/ nothing o& that sort. 7hat $ sho/ed, ho/e er, /as something much more ob ious, much %ess &ar:&etched, much more 'er asi e than an" o& these traditiona% socia% actors. 7e sa/ a %iterature becoming more technica% b" bringing in more and more resources. $n 'articu%ar, /e sa/ a dissident dri en into iso%ation because o& the number o& e%ements the authors o& scienti&ic artic%es mustered on their side. .%though it sounds counter:intuiti e at &irst, the more technica% and s'ecia%ised a %iterature is, the more 5socia%5 it becomes, since the number of associations necessar" to dri e readers out and &orce them into acce'ting a c%aim as a &act increase. Mr .n"bod"5s c%aim /as eas" to den"P it /as much harder to shrug o&& Scha%%"5s artic%e on OH2H, sentence (1-), not because the &irst is socia% and the second technica%, but because the &irst is one man5s /ord and the second is man" /e%%:e;ui''ed men5s /ordsP the &irst is made o& a &e/ associations, the second o& man". 1o sa" it more b%unt%", the &irst is a %itt%e socia%, the second e#tremely so) .%though this /i%% become understandab%e much %ater, it is a%read" c%ear that i& being iso%ated, besieged, and %e&t /ithout a%%ies and su''orters is not a socia% act, then nothing is. 1he distinction bet/een the technica% %iterature and the rest is not a natura% boundar"P it is a border created b" the dis'ro'ortionate amount o& %in(ages, resources and a%%ies %oca%%" a ai%ab%e. 1his %iterature is so hard to read and ana%"se

not because it esca'es &rom a%% norma% socia% %in(s, but because it is more socia% than so:ca%%ed norma% socia% ties.

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CHA$ E3 5. ,aboratories
7e cou%d sto' our en;uir" /here /e %e&t it at the end o& the 're ious cha'ter. *or a %a"'erson, stud"ing science and techno%og" /ou%d then mean ana%"sing the discourse o& scientists, or counting citations, or doing arious bib%iometric ca%cu%ations, or 'er&orming semiotic studies 1 o& scienti&ic te6ts and o& their iconogra'h", that is, e6tending %iterar" criticism to technica% %iterature. 0o matter ho/ interesting and necessar" these studies are, the" are not su&&icient i& /e /ant to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers at /or(P a&ter a%%, the" do not dra&t, read and /rite 'a'ers t/ent":&our hours a da". Scientists and engineers in ariab%" argue that there is something behind the technica% te6ts /hich is much more im'ortant than an"thing the" /rite. .t the end o& the 're ious cha'ter, /e sa/ ho/ the artic%es &orced the reader to choose bet/een three 'ossib%e issues: gi ing u' (the most %i(e%" outcome), going a%ong, or /or(ing again through /hat the author did. !sing the too%s /e de ised in Cha'ter 1, it is no/ eas" to understand the &irst t/o issues, but /e are as "et unab%e to understand the third. Later, in the second 'art o& this boo(, /e /i%% see man" other /a"s to a oid this issue and sti%% /in o er in the course o& a contro ers". *or the sa(e o& c%arit", ho/e er, $ ma(e the su''osition in this 'art that the dissenter has no other esca'e but to /or( through /hat the author o& the 'a'er did. .%though it is a rare outcomeP it is essentia% &or us to isit the '%aces /here the 'a'ers are said to originate. 1his ne/ ste' in our tri' through technoscience is much more di&&icu%t, because, /hi%st the technica% %iterature is accessib%e in %ibraries, archi es, 'atent o&&ices or cor'orate documentation centres, it is much %ess eas" to snea( into the &e/ '%aces /here the 'a'ers are /ritten and to &o%%o/ the construction o& &acts in their most intimate detai%s. 7e ha e no choice, ho/e er, i& /e /ant to a''%" our &irst ru%e o& method: i& the scientists /e shado/ go inside %aboratories, then /e too ha e to go there, no matter ho/ di&&icu%t the Courne".

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$art A. From te2ts to things/ a sho1do1n

5Iou doubt /hat $ /rote? Let me sho/ "ou.5 1he er" rare and obstinate dissenter /ho has not been con inced b" the scienti&ic te6t, and /ho has not &ound other /a"s to get rid o& the author, is %ed &rom the te6t into the '%ace /here the te6t is said to come &rom. $ /i%% ca%% this '%ace the %aborator", /hich &or no/ sim'%" means, as the name indicates, the '%ace /here scientists ;ork) $ndeed, the %aborator" /as 'resent in the te6ts /e studied in the 're ious cha'ter: the artic%es /ere a%%uding to Q'atients5, to Qtumours5, to QH#LC5, to Q2ussian s'ies5, to Qengines5P dates and times o& e6'eriments /ere 'ro ided and the names o& technicians ac(no/%edged. .%% these a%%usions ho/e er /ere made /ithin a 'a'er /or%dP the" /ere a set o& semiotic actors 'resented in the te6t but not present in the &%eshP the" /ere a%%uded to as i& the" e6isted inde'endent%" &rom the te6tP the" cou%d ha e been in ented.

%(' Ins&riptions
7hat do /e &ind /hen /e 'ass through the %oo(ing g%ass and accom'an" our obstinate dissenter &rom the te6t to the %aborator"? Su''ose that /e read the &o%%o/ing sentence in a scienti&ic Courna% and, &or /hate er reason, do not /ish to be%ie e it: (1) 5*ig.% sho/s a t"'ica% 'attern. Bio%ogica% acti it" o& endor'hin /as &ound essentia%%" in t/o Gones /ith the acti it" o& Gone ) being tota%%" re ersib%e, or statistica%%" so, b" na%o6one.5 7e, the dissenters, ;uestion this &igure 1 so much, and are so interested in it, that /e go to the author5s %aborator" ($ /i%% ca%% him 5the #ro&essor5). 7e are %ed into an air:conditioned, bright%" %it room. 1he #ro&essor is sitting in &ront o& an arra" o& de ices that does not attract our attention at &irst. 5Iou doubt /hat $ /rote? Let me sho/ "ou.5 1his %ast sentence re&ers to an image s%o/%" 'roduced b" one o& these de ices (*igure ).1):

()) 666 &igur ).1 start 666 *igure ).1 *iguren iser en gra& som be eger seg r"tmis( o'' og ned borto er en tidsa(se. Be ege%sene s inger stort sett rundt samme ariasConsbredde he%e eien, og gCennomsnittet (an man dermed ten(e seg som en nogen%unde rett:tru((en stre(. 666 &igur ).1 s%utt 666

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53<. 1his is the base %ineP no/, $ am going to inCect endor'hin, /hat is going to ha''en? See?S5 (*igure ).)) 666 &igur ).). start *igure ).) Samme &igur som i ).1, men denne gangen med &orst"rre%ser i r"tmen. *igur ).1 iste en gra& som be eget seg r"tmis( o'' og ned borto er en tidsa(se. Be ege%sene s inget stort sett rundt samme ariasConsbredde he%e eien. *igur ).) iser at r"tmen &a%%er brAtt ed 'un(tet som er mar(ert som =$nCection endor'hin=. 2"tmen &ortsetter A be ege seg, men s ingningene b%ir stadig mindre, og nTrmer seg det nedre "tter'un(tet i den o''rinne%ige gra&ens ariasConsbredde. 1i% s%utt b%ir gra&en &%at, men da inntre&&er =$nCection na%o6on=, og ras(t gAr gra&en ti%ba(e ti% sin o''rinne%ige r"tme. 666 &igur ).). s%utt 666 5$mmediate%" the %ine dro's dramatica%%". .nd no/ /atch na%o6one. See?S Bac( to base %ine %e e%s. $t is &u%%" re ersib%e.5

7e no/ understand that /hat the #ro&essor is as(ing us to /atch is re%ated to the &igure in the te6t o& sentence (1). 7e thus rea%ise /here this &igure comes &rom. $t has been e#tracte" &rom the instruments in this room, cleane", re"ra;n, and "isplaye") 7e no/ seem to ha e reached the source o& a%% these images that /e sa/ arra"ed in the te6t as the &ina% 'roo&s o& a%% the arguments in Cha'ter 1. 7e a%so rea%ise, ho/e er, that the images that /ere the %ast %a"er in the te6t, are the en" result o& a %ong 'rocess in the %aborator" that /e are no/ starting to obser e. 7atching the gra'h 'a'er s%o/%" emerging out o& the 'h"siogra'h, /e understand that /e are at the Cunction o& t/o /or%ds: a 'a'er /or%d that /e ha e Cust %e&t, and one o& instruments that /e are Cust entering. . h"brid is 'roduced at the inter&ace: a ra/ image, to be used %ater in an artic%e, that is emerging &rom an instrument. *or a time /e &ocus on the st"%us 'u%sating regu%ar%", in(ing the 'a'er, scribb%ing cr"'tic notes. 7e remain &ascinated b" this &ragi%e &i%m that is in bet/een te6t and %aborator". Soon, the #ro&essor dra/s our attention beneath and be"ond the traces on the 'a'er, to the 'h"siogra'h &rom /hich the image is s%o/%" being emitted. Be"ond the st"%us a massi e 'iece o& e%ectronic hard/are records, ca%ibrates, am'%i&ies and regu%ates signa%s coming &rom another instrument, an arra" o& g%ass/are. 1he #ro&essor 'oints to a g%ass chamber in /hich bubb%es are regu%ar%" &%o/ing around a tin" 'iece o& something that %oo(s %i(e e%astic. $t is

indeed e%astic, the #ro&essor intones. $t is a 'iece o& gut, guinea 'ig gut (5m"enteric '%e6us: %ongitudina% musc%e o& the guinea 'ig i%eum5, are his /ords). 1his gut has the 'ro'ert" o& contracting regu%ar%" i& maintained a%i e. 1his regu%ar 'u%sation is easi%" disturbed b" man" chemica%s. $& one hoo(s the gut u' so that each contraction sends out an e%ectric 'u%se, and i& the 'u%se is made to mo e a st"%us o er gra'h 'a'er, then the guinea 'ig gut /i%% be induced to 'roduce regu%ar scribb%es o er a %ong 'eriod. $& "ou then add a chemica% to the chamber "ou see the 'ea(s dra/n b" the in(ed st"%us s%o/ do/n or acce%erate at the other end. 1his 'erturbation, in isib%e in the chamber, is isib%e on 'a'er: the

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chemica%, no matter /hat it is, is gi en a shape on 'a'er. 1his sha'e 5te%%s "ou something5 about the chemica%. 7ith this set:u' "ou ma" no/ as( ne/ ;uestions: i& $ doub%e the dose o& chemica% /i%% the 'ea(s be doub%" decreased? .nd i& $ tri'%e it, /hat /i%% ha''en? $ can no/ measure the /hite sur&ace %e&t b" the decreasing scribb%es direct%" on the gra'h 'a'er, thereb" de&ining a ;uantitati e re%ation bet/een the dose and the res'onse. 7hat i&, Cust a&ter the &irst chemica% is added, $ add another one /hich is (no/n to counteract it? 7i%% the 'ea(s go bac( to norma%? Ho/ &ast /i%% the" do so? 7hat /i%% be the 'attern o& this return to the base %ine %e e%? $& t/o chemica%s, one (no/n, the other un(no/n, trace the same s%o'e on the 'a'er, ma" $ sa", in this res'ect at %east, that the" are the same chemica%s? 1hese are some o& the ;uestions the #ro&essor is tac(%ing /ith endor'hin (un(no/n), mor'hine (/e%% (no/n) and na%o6one ((no/n to be an antagonist o& mor'hine). 7e are no %onger as(ed to be%ie e the te6t that /e read in Nature> /e are no/ as(ed to be%ie e our o;n eyes, /hich can see that endor'hin is beha ing e6act%" %i(e mor'hine. 1he obCect /e %oo(ed at in the te6t and the one /e are no/ contem'%ating are identica% e6ce't &or one thing. 1he gra'h o& sentence (1), /hich /as the most concrete and isua% e%ement o& the te6t, is no/ in ()) the most abstract and te6tua% e%ement in a be/i%dering arra" o& e;ui'ment. 4o /e see more or %ess than be&ore? 3n the one hand /e can see more, since /e are %oo(ing at not on%" the gra'h but a%so the 'h"siogra'h, and the e%ectronic hard/are, and the g%ass/are, and the e%ectrodes, and the bubb%es o& o6"gen, and the 'u%sating i%eum, and the #ro&essor /ho is inCecting chemica%s into the chamber /ith his s"ringe, and is /riting do/n in a huge 'rotoco% boo( the time, amount o& and reactions to the doses. 7e can see more, since /e ha e be&ore our e"es not on%" the image but /hat the image is made o&. 3n the other hand /e see less because no/ each o& the e%ements that ma(es u' the &ina% gra'h cou%d be modi&ied so as to 'roduce a di&&erent isua% outcome. .n" number o& incidents cou%d b%ur the tin" 'ea(s and turn the regu%ar /riting into a meaning%ess dood%e. Fust at the time /hen /e &ee% com&orted in our be%ie& and start to be &u%%" con inced b" our o/n e"es /atching the image, /e sudden%" &ee% uneas" because o& the &ragi%it" o& the /ho%e set u'. 1he #ro&essor, &or instance, is s/earing at the gut sa"ing it is a 5bad gut5. 1he technician /ho sacri&iced the guinea 'ig is he%d res'onsib%e and the #ro&essor decides to ma(e a &resh start

/ith a ne/ anima%. 1he demonstration is sto''ed and a ne/ scene is set u'. . guinea 'ig is '%aced on a tab%e, under surgica% &%ood%ights, then anaesthetised, cruci&ied and s%iced o'en. 1he gut is %ocated, a tin" section is e6tracted, use%ess tissue 'ee%ed a/a", and the 'recious &ragment is de%icate%" hoo(ed u' bet/een t/o e%ectrodes and immersed in a nutrient &%uid so as to be maintained a%i e. Sudden%", /e are much &urther &rom the 'a'er /or%d o& the artic%e. 7e are no/ in a 'udd%e o& b%ood and iscera, s%ight%" nauseated b" the e6traction o& the i%eum &rom this %itt%e &urr" creature. $n the %ast cha'ter, /e admired the rhetorica% abi%ities o& the #ro&essor as an author. 0o/, /e rea%ise that man" other manua% abi%ities are re;uired in order to /rite a con incing 'a'er %ater on. 1he guinea 'ig a%one /ou%d not ha e been ab%e to te%% us an"thing

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about the simi%arit" o& endor'hin to mor'hineP it /as not mobi%isab%e into a te6t and /ou%d not he%' to con ince us. 3n%" a 'art o& its gut, tied u' in the g%ass chamber and hoo(ed u' to a 'h"siogra'h, can be mobi%ised in the te6t and add to our con iction. 1hus, the #ro&essor5s art o& con incing his readers must e6tend be"ond the 'a'er to 're'aring the i%eum, to ca%ibrating the 'ea(s, to tuning the 'h"siogra'h. .&ter hours o& /aiting &or the e6'eriment to resume, &or ne/ guinea 'igs to become a ai%ab%e, &or ne/ endor'hin sam'%es to be 'uri&ied, /e rea%ise that the in itation o& the author (5%et me sho/ "ou5) is not as sim'%e as /e thought. $t is a s%o/, 'rotracted and com'%icated staging o& tin" images in &ront o& an audience. 5Sho/ing5 and 5seeing5 are not sim'%e &%ashes o& intuition. 3nce in the %ab /e are not 'resented outright /ith the rea% endor'hin /hose e6istence /e doubted. 7e are 'resented /ith another /or%d in /hich it is necessar" to 're'are, &ocus, &i6 and rehearse the ision o& the rea% endor'hin. 7e came to the %aborator" in order to sett%e our doubts about the 'a'er, but /e ha e been %ed into a %ab"rinth. 1his une6'ected un&o%ding ma(es us shi er because it no/ da/ns on us that i& /e disbe%ie e the traces obtained on the 'h"siogra'h b" the #ro&essor, /e /i%% ha e to gi e u' the to'ic a%together or go through the same e6'erimenta% chores a%% o er again. 1he sta(es ha e increased enormous%" since /e &irst started reading scienti&ic artic%es. $t is not a ;uestion o& reading and /riting bac( to the author an" more. $n order to argue, /e /ou%d no/ need the manua% s(i%%s re;uired to hand%e the sca%'e%s, 'ee% a/a" the guinea 'ig i%eum, inter'ret the decreasing 'ea(s, and so on. <ee'ing the contro ers" a%i e has a%read" &orced us through man" di&&icu%t moments. 7e no/ rea%ise that /hat /e /ent through is nothing com'ared to the sca%e o& /hat /e ha e to undergo i& /e /ish to continue. $n Cha'ter 1, /e on%" needed a good %ibrar" in order to dis'ute te6ts. $t might ha e been cost%" and not that eas", but it /as sti%% &easib%e. .t this 'resent 'oint, in order to go on, /e need guinea 'igs, surgica% %am's and tab%es, 'h"siogra'h", e%ectronic hard/are, technicians and mor'hine, not to mention the scarce &%as(s o& 'uri&ied endor'hinP /e a%so need the s(i%%s to use a%% these e%ements and to turn them into a 'ertinent obCection to the #ro&essor5s c%aim. .s /i%% be made c%ear in Cha'ter

,, %onger and %onger detours /i%% be necessar" to &ind a %aborator", bu" the e;ui'ment, hire the technicians and become ac;uainted /ith the i%eum assa". .%% this /or( Cust to start ma(ing a con incing counter:argument to the #ro&essor5s origina% 'a'er on endor'hin. (.nd /hen /e ha e made this detour and &ina%%" come u' /ith a credib%e obCection, /here /i%% the #ro&essor be?) 7hen /e doubt a scienti&ic te6t /e do not go &rom the /or%d o& %iterature to 0ature as it is. 0ature is not direct%" beneath the scienti&ic artic%eP it is there in"irectly at best (see #art C). Ooing &rom the 'a'er to the %aborator" is going &rom an arra" o& rhetorica% resources to a set o& ne/ resources de ised in such a /a" as to 'ro ide the %iterature /ith its most 'o/er&u% too%: the isua% dis'%a". Mo ing &rom 'a'ers to %abs is mo ing &rom %iterature to con o%uted /a"s o& getting this %iterature (or the most signi&icant 'art o& it). 1his mo e through the %oo(ing g%ass o& the 'a'er a%%o/s me to de&ine an instrument. a de&inition /hich /i%% gi e us our bearings /hen entering an"

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laboratory. $ /i%% ca%% an instrument (or ins&ription de"i&e' an" set:u', no matter /hat its siGe, nature and cost, that 'ro ides a isua% dis'%a" o& an" sort in a scienti&ic te6t. 1his de&inition is sim'%e enough to %et us &o%%o/ scientists5 mo es. *or instance an o'tica% te%esco'e is an instrument, but so is an arra" o& se era% radio:te%esco'es e en i& its constituents are se'arated b" thousands o& (i%ometers. 1he guinea 'ig i%eum assa" is an instrument e en i& it is sma%% and chea' com'ared to an arra" o& radiote%esco'es or the Stan&ord %inear acce%erator. 1he de&inition is not 'ro ided b" the cost nor b" the so'histication but on%" b" this characteristic: the set:u' 'ro ides an inscri'tion that is used as the &ina% %a"er in a scienti&ic te6t. .n instrument, in this de&inition, is not e er" set:u' /hich ends /ith a %itt%e /indo/ that a%%o/s someone to ta(e a reading. . thermometer, a /atch, a Oeiger counter, a%% 'ro ide readings but are not considered as instruments as %ong as these readings are not used as the &ina% %a"er o& technica% 'a'ers (but see Cha'ter -). 1his 'oint is im'ortant /hen /atching com'%icated contri ances /ith hundreds o& intermediar" readings ta(en b" doGens o& /hite: coated technicians. 7hat /i%% be used as isua% 'roo& in the artic%e /i%% be the &e/ %ines in the bubb%e chamber and not the 'i%es o& 'rintout ma(ing the intermediate readings. $t is im'ortant to note that the use o& this de&inition o& instrument is a re%ati e one. $t de'ends on time. 1hermometers ;ere instruments and er" im'ortant ones in the eighteenth centur", so /ere Oeiger counters bet/een the *irst and Second 7or%d 7ars. 1hese de ices 'ro ided crucia% resources in 'a'ers o& the time. But no/ the" are on%" 'arts o& %arger set:u's and are on%" used so that a ne/ isua% 'roo& can be dis'%a"ed at the end. Since the de&inition is re%ati e to the use made o& the Q/indo/5 in a technica% 'a'er, it is a%so re%ati e to the intensit" and nature o& the associated contro ers". *or instance, in the guinea 'ig i%eum assa" there is a bo6 o& e%ectronic hard/are /ith man" readings that $ /i%% ca%% Qintermediate5 because the" do

not constitute the isua% dis'%a" e entua%%" 'ut to use in the artic%e. $t is un%i(e%" that an"one /i%% ;uibb%e about this because the ca%ibration o& e%ectronic signa%s is no/ made through a b%ac( bo6 'roduced industria%%" and so%d b" the thousand. $t is a di&&erent matter /ith the huge tan( bui%t in an o%d go%d mine in South 4a(ota at a cost o& U->>,>>> (19-, do%%arsS) b" 2a"mond 4a is ) to detect so%ar neutrinos. $n a sense the /ho%e set:u' ma" be considered as one instrument 'ro iding one &ina% /indo/ in /hich astro'h"sicists can read the number o& neutrinos emitted b" the sun. $n this case a%% the other readings are intermediate ones. $& the contro ers" is &iercer, ho/e er, the set:u' is bro(en do/n into several instruments, each 'ro iding a s'eci&ic isua% dis'%a" /hich has to be inde'endent%" e a%uated. $& the contro ers" heats u' a bit /e do not see neutrinos coming out o& the sun. 7e see and hear a Oeiger counter that c%ic(s /hen .rgon +7 deca"s. $n this case the Oeiger counter, /hich ga e on%" an intermediate reading /hen there /as no dis'ute, becomes an instrument in its o/n right /hen the dis'ute is raging. 1he de&inition $ use has another ad antage. $t does not ma(e 'resu''ositions about /hat the instrument is made o&. $t can be a 'iece o& hard/are %i(e a te%esco'e, but it can a%so be made o& so&ter materia%. . statistica% institution that

((-9))

em'%o"s hundreds o& 'o%%sters, socio%ogists and com'uter scientists gathering a%% sorts o& data on the econom" is an instrument i& it "ie%ds inscri'tions &or 'a'ers /ritten in economic Courna%s /ith, &or instance, a gra'h o& the in&%ation rate b" month and b" branch o& industr". 0o matter ho/ man" 'eo'%e /ere made to 'artici'ate in the construction o& the image, no matter ho/ %ong it too(, no matter ho/ much it cost, the /ho%e institution is used as one instrument (as %ong as there is no contro ers" that ca%%s its intermediate readings into ;uestion). .t the other end o& the sca%e, a "oung 'rimato%ogist /ho is /atching baboons in the sa annah and is e;ui''ed on%" /ith binocu%ars, a 'enci% and a sheet o& /hite 'a'er ma" be seen as an instrument i& her coding o& baboon beha iour is summed u' in a gra'h. $& "ou /ant to den" her statements, "ou might (e er"thing e%se being e;ua%) ha e to go through the same ordea%s and /a%( through the sa annah ta(ing notes /ith simi%ar constraints. $t is the same i& "ou /ish to den" the in&%ation rate b" month and industr", or the detection o& endor'hin /ith the i%eum assa". 1he instrument, /hate er its nature, is /hat %eads "ou &rom the 'a'er to /hat su''orts the 'a'er, &rom the man" resources mobi%ised in the te6t to the man" more resources mobi%ised to create the isua% dis'%a"s o& the te6ts. 7ith this de&inition o& an instrument, /e are ab%e to as( man" ;uestions and to ma(e com'arisons: ho/ e6'ensi e the" are, ho/ o%d the" are, ho/ man" intermediate readings com'ose one instrument, ho/ %ong it ta(es to get one reading, ho/ man" 'eo'%e are mobi%ised to acti ate them, ho/ man" authors are using the inscri'tions the" 'ro ide in their 'a'ers, ho/ contro ersia% are those readings . . . !sing

this notion /e can de&ine more 'recise%" than ear%ier the %aborator" as an" '%ace that gathers one or se era% instruments together. 7hat is behind a scienti&ic te6t? $nscri'tions. Ho/ are these inscri'tions obtained? B" setting u' instruments. 1his other /or%d Cust beneath the te6t is in isib%e as %ong as there is no contro ers". . 'icture o& moon a%%e"s and mountains is 'resented to us as i& /e cou%d see them direct%". 1he te%esco'e that ma(es them isib%e is in isib%e and so are the &ierce contro ersies that Oa%i%eo had to /age centuries ago to 'roduce an image o& the Moon. Simi%ar%", in Cha'ter 1, the accurac" o& So iet missi%es /as Cust an obvious statementP it became the outcome o& a com'%e6 s"stem o& sate%%ites, s'ies, <rem%ino%ogists and com'uter simu%ation, on%" after the contro ers" got started. 3nce the &act is constructed, there is no instrument to ta(e into account and this is /h" the 'ainsta(ing /or( necessar" to tune the instruments o&ten disa''ears &rom 'o'u%ar science. 3n the contrar", /hen science in action is &o%%o/ed, instruments become the crucia% e%ements, immediate%" a&ter the technica% te6tsP the" are /here the dissenter is ine itab%" %ed. 1here is a coro%%ar" to this change o& re%e ance on the inscri'tion de ices de'ending on the strength o& the contro ers", a coro%%ar" that /i%% become more im'ortant in the ne6t cha'ter. $& "ou consider on%" &u%%":&%edged &acts it seems that e er"one cou%d acce't or contest them e;ua%%". $t does not cost an"thing to contradict or acce't them. $& "ou dis'ute &urther and reach the &rontier /here &acts are made, instruments become isib%e and /ith them the cost o& continuing the discussion rises. $t a''ears that arguing is costly) 1he e;ua% /or%d o& citiGens

((7>))

ha ing o'inions about things becomes an une;ua% /or%d in /hich dissent or consent is not 'ossib%e /ithout a huge accumu%ation o& resources /hich 'ermits the co%%ection o& re%e ant inscri'tions. 7hat ma(es the di&&erences bet/een author and reader is not on%" the abi%it" to uti%ise a%% the rhetorica% resources studied in the %ast cha'ter, but a%so to gather the man" de ices, 'eo'%e and anima%s necessar" to 'roduce a isua% dis'%a" usab%e in a te6t.

%5' Spokesmen and 1omen

$t is im'ortant to scrutinise the e6act settings in /hich encounters bet/een authors and dissenters ta(e '%ace. 7hen /e disbe%ie e the scienti&ic %iterature, /e are %ed &rom the man" %ibraries around to the very fe; '%aces /here this %iterature is 'roduced. Here /e are /e%comed b" the author /ho sho/s us /here the &igure in the te6t comes &rom. 3nce 'resented /ith the instruments, /ho does the ta%(ing during these isits? .t &irst, the authors: the" tell the isitor /hat to see: Qsee the endor'hin e&&ect?5, Q%oo( at the neutrinosS5 Ho/e er, the authors are not %ecturing the isitor. 1he isitors ha e their &aces turned to/ards the instrument and are /atching the '%ace /here the thing is /riting itse%& do/n (inscri'tion in the &orm o& co%%ection o& s'ecimens, gra'hs, 'hotogra'hs, ma's J "ou name it). 7hen the

dissenter /as reading the scienti&ic te6t it /as di&&icu%t &or him or her to doubt, but /ith imagination, shre/dness and do/nright a/(/ardness it /as a%/a"s 'ossib%e. 3nce in the %ab, it is much more di&&icu%t because the dissenters see /ith their o/n e"es. $& /e %ea e aside the man" other /a"s to a oid going through the %aborator" that /e /i%% stud" %ater, the dissenter does not ha e to be%ie e the 'a'er nor e en the scientist5s /ord since in a se%&:e&&acing gesture the author has ste''ed aside. QSee &or "ourse%&5 the scientist sa"s /ith a subdued and ma"be ironic smi%e. Q.re "ou con inced no/?5 *aced /ith the thing itse%& that the technica% 'a'er /as a%%uding to, the dissenters no/ ha e a choice bet/een either acce'ting the &act or doubting their o/n sanit" J the %atter is much more 'ain&u%. 7e no/ seem to ha e reached the end o& a%% 'ossib%e contro ersies since there is nothing %e&t &or the dissenter to dis'ute. He or she is right in &ront o& the thing he or she is as(ed to be%ie e. 1here is a%most no human intermediar" bet/een thing and 'ersonP the dissenter is in the er" '%ace /here the thing is said to ha''en and at the er" moment /hen it ha''ens. 7hen such a 'oint is reached it seems that there is no &urther need to ta%( o& 5con&idence5: the thing im'resses itse%& direct%" on us. !ndoubted%", contro ersies are sett%ed once and &or a%% /hen such a situation is set u'J/hich again is er" rare%" the case. 1he dissenter becomes a be%ie er, goes out o& the %ab, borro/ing the author5s c%aim and con&essing that 5@ has incontro ertib%" sho/n that . is B5. . ne/ &act has been made /hich /i%% be used to modi&" the outcome o& some other contro ersies (see #art B. Section +). $& this /ere enough to sett%e the debate, it /ou%d be the end o& this boo(. But .. . there is someone sa"ing 5but, /ait a minute . . .5 and the contro ers" resumesS

((71))

7hat /as im'rinted on us /hen /e /ere /atching the guinea 'ig i%eum assa"? 59ndor'hin o& course,5 the #ro&essor sai") But /hat did /e seeC 1his

(+) 666 &igur ).+ start 666 *igure ).+ *iguren har tre e%ementer: (a) 9n mas(in med en s(Cerm, (b) en (ontur a en s(i((e%se som heter =#ro&essor=, (c) en 'ro&i% a et ansi(t som heter =Hisitor=. (a) Hed mas(inen stAr det =Hard/are=. 4en ene de%en er en sCerm som iser gra&en &ra &igur ).1, den andre de%en bestAr a rBr og g%ass, og heter =#h"siogra'h=.

(b) =#ro&essor= sier: =See?...Here is endor'hin=. (c) =Hisitor= er re%atert ti% (b) med en stre( som gAr &ra Bret ti% Hisitor ti% re'%i((en ti% #ro&essorP er ogsA re%atert ti% (a) gCennom en stre( som gAr &ra B"et ti% Hisitor ti% s(Cermen 'A Hard/are. Hisitor sier: =...?=.

666 &igur ).+ s%utt 666

7ith a minimum o& training /e see 'ea(sP /e gather there is a base %ine, and /e see a de'ression in re%ation to one coordinate that /e understand to indicate the time. 1his is not endor'hin "et. 1he same thing occurred /hen /e 'aid a isit to 4a is5s go%d and neutrino mine in South 4a(ota. 7e sa/, he said, neutrinos counted straight out o& the huge tan( ca'turing them &rom the sun. But /hat "i" /e see? S'%urges on 'a'er re'resenting c%ic(s &rom a Oeiger counter. 0ot neutrinos, "et. 7hen /e are con&ronted /ith the instrument, /e are attending an 5audio: isua%5 s'ectac%e. 1here is a visual set o& inscri'tions 'roduced b" the instrument and a verbal commentar" uttered b" the scientist. 7e get both together. 1he e&&ect on con iction is stri(ing, but its cause is mi6ed because /e cannot di&&erentiate /hat is coming &rom the thing inscribed, and /hat is coming &rom the author. 1o be sure, the scientist is not tr"ing to in&%uence us. He or she is sim'%" commenting, under%ining, 'ointing out, dotting the i5s and crossing the t5s, not adding an"thing. But it is a%so certain that the gra'hs and the c%ic(s b" themse% es /ou%d not ha e been enough to &orm the image o& endor'hin coming out o& the brain or neutrinos coming out o& the sun. $s this not a strange situation? 1he scientists do not sa" an"thing more than /hat is inscribed, but /ithout their commentaries the inscri'tions sa" considerab%" %essS 1here is a /ord to describe this strange situation, a er" im'ortant /ord &or e er"thing that &o%%o/s, that is the /ord spokesman (or spokes1oman, or spokesperson, or mouth'iece). 1he author beha es as i& he or she /ere the mouth'iece o& /hat is inscribed on the /indo/ o& the instrument. 1he s'o(es'erson is someone /ho s'ea(s &or others /ho, or /hich, do not s'ea(. *or instance a sho' ste/ard is a s'o(esman. $& the /or(ers /ere gathered

((7)))

together and the" a%% s'o(e at the same time there /ou%d be a Carring caco'hon". 0o more meaning cou%d be retrie ed &rom the tumu%t than i& the" had remained si%ent. 1his is /h" the" designate (or are gi en) a de%egate /ho s'ea(s on their beha%&, and in their name. 1he

de%egate : %et us ca%% him Bi%% : does not s'ea( in his name and /hen con&ronted /ith the manager does not s'ea( 5as Bi%%5 but as the 5/or(ers5 oice5. So Bi%%5s %onging &or a ne/ Fa'anese car or his note to get a 'iGGa &or his o%d mother on his /a" home are not the right to'ics &or the meeting. 1he oice o& the &%oor, articu%ated b" Bi%%, /ants a 5+ 'er cent 'a" rise Jand the" are dead%" serious about it, sir, the" are read" to stri(e &or it,5 he te%%s the manager. 1he manager has his doubts: 5$s this rea%%" /hat the" /ant? .re the" rea%%" so adamant?=$& "ou do not be%ie e me,5 re'%ies Bi%%, 5$5%% sho/ "ou, but don5t as( &or a ;uic( sett%ement. $ to%d "ou the" are read" to stri(e and "ou /i%% see more than "ou /antS5 7hat does the manager see? He does not see /hat Bi%% said. 1hrough the o&&ice /indo/ he sim'%" sees an assemb%ed cro/d gathered in the ais%es. Ma"be it is because o& Bi%%5s inter'retation that he reads anger and determination on their &aces. *or e er"thing that &o%%o/s, it is er" im'ortant not to %imit this notion o& s'o(es'erson and not to im'ose an" c%ear distinction bet/een 5things5 and 5'eo'%e5 in ad ance. Bi%%, &or instance, re'resents 'eo'%e /ho cou%d ta%(, but /ho, in &act, cannot a%% ta%( at once. 4a is re'resents neutrinos that cannot ta%(, in 'rinci'%e, but /hich are made to /rite, scribb%e and sign than(s to the de ice set u' b" 4a is. So in 'ractice, there is not much di&&erence bet/een 'eo'%e and things: the" both need someone to ta%( &or them. *rom the s'o(es'erson5s 'oint o& ie/ there is thus no distinction to be made bet/een re'resenting 'eo'%e and re'resenting things. $n each case the s'o(es'erson %itera%%" does the ta%(ing &or /ho or /hat cannot ta%(. 1he #ro&essor in the %aborator" s'ea(s &or endor'hin %i(e 4a is &or the neutrinos and Bi%% &or the sho'&%oor. $n our de&inition the crucia% e%ement is not the ;ua%it" o& the re'resented but on%" their number and the unit" o& the re'resentati e. 1he 'oint is that con&ronting a s'o(es'erson is not %i(e con&ronting an" a erage man or /oman. Iou are con&ronted not /ith Bi%% or the #ro&essor, but /ith Bi%% and the #ro&essor plus the man" things or 'eo'%e on beha%& o& /hom the" are ta%(ing. Iou do not address Mr .n"bod" or Mr 0obod" but Mr or Messrs Man"bodies. .s /e sa/ in the cha'ter on %iterature, it ma" be eas" to doubt one 'erson5s /ord. 4oubting a s'o(es'erson5s /ord re;uires a much more strenuous e&&ort ho/e er because it is no/ one 'erson : the dissenter : against a cro/d : the author. 3n the other hand, the strength o& a s'o(es'erson is not so great since he or she is b" de&inition one man or /oman /hose /ord cou%d be dismissed : one Bi%%, one #ro&essor, one 4a is. 1he strength comes &rom the re'resentati es5 /ord /hen the" do not ta%( b" and &or themse% es but in the presence o&/hat the" re'resent. 1hen, and on%" then, the dissenter is con&ronted simu%taneous%" /ith the s'o(es'ersons and /hat the" s'ea( &or: the #ro&essor and the endor'hin made isib%e in the guinea 'ig assa"P Bi%% and the assemb%ed /or(ersP 4a is and his so%ar neutrinos. 1he so%idit" o& /hat the re'resentati e sa"s is direct%" su''orted

((7+))

b" the si%ent but e%o;uent 'resence o& the re'resented. 1he resu%t o& such a set:u' is that it seems as though the mouth'iece does not 5rea%%" ta%(5, but that he or she is Cust commenting on

/hat "ou "ourse%& direct%" see, 5sim'%"5 'ro iding "ou /ith the /ords "ou /ou%d ha e used an"/a". 1his situation, ho/e er, is the source o& a maCor /ea(ness. 7ho is s'ea(ing? 1he things or the 'eo'%e through the re'resentati e5s oice? 7hat does she (or he, or the", or it) sa"? 3n%" /hat the things the" re'resent /ou%d sa" i& the" cou%d ta%( direct%". But the 'oint is that the" cannot. So /hat the dissenter sees is, in 'ractice, rather di&&erent &rom /hat the s'ea(er sa"s. Bi%%, &or instance, sa"s his /or(ers /ant to stri(e, but this might be Bi%%5s o/n desire or a union decision re%a"ed b" him. 1he manager %oo(ing through the /indo/ ma" see a cro/d o& assemb%ed /or(ers /ho are Cust 'assing the time and can be dis'ersed at the sma%%est threat. .t an" rate do the" rea%%" /ant + 'er cent and not , 'er cent or ) 'er cent? .nd e en so, is it not 'ossib%e to o&&er Bi%% this Fa'anese car he so dear%" /ants? $s the 5 oice o& the /or(er5 not going to change hisDits mind i& the manager o&&ers a ne/ car to Bi%%? 1a(e endor'hin as another instance. 7hat /e rea%%" sa/ /as a tin" de'ression in the regu%ar s'i(es &orming the base %ine. $s this the same as the one triggered b" mor'hine? Ies it is, but /hat does that 'ro e? $t ma" be that a%% sorts o& chemica%s gi e the same sha'e in this 'ecu%iar assa". 3r ma"be the #ro&essor so dear%" /ishes his substance to be mor'hine:%i(e that he un/itting%" con&used t/o s"ringes and inCected the same mor'hine t/ice, thus 'roducing t/o sha'es that indeed %oo( identica%. 7hat is ha''ening? 1he contro ers" &%ares e en a&ter the s'o(es'erson has s'o(en and dis'%a"ed to the dissenter /hat he or she /as ta%(ing about. Ho/ can the debate be sto''ed &rom 'ro%i&erating again in a%% directions? Ho/ can a%% the strength that a s'o(esman musters be retrie ed? 1he ans/er is eas": b" %etting the things and 'ersons re'resented say for themselves the same thing that the representatives claime" they ;ante" to say) 3& course, this ne er ha''ens since the" are designated because, b" de&inition, such direct communication is im'ossib%e. Such a situation ho/e er ma" be con incing%" staged. Bi%% is not be%ie ed b" the manager, so he %ea es the o&&ice, c%imbs onto a 'odium, seiGes a %ouds'ea(er and as(s the cro/d, 54o "ou /ant the + 'er cent rise?5 . roaring 5Ies, our + 'er centS 3ur + 'er centS5 dea&ens the manager5s ears e en through the /indo/ 'ane o& his o&&ice. 5Hear them?5 as(s Bi%% /ith a modest but trium'hant tone /hen the" are sitting do/n again at the negotiating tab%e. Since the /or(ers themse% es said e6act%" /hat the 5/or(ers5 oice5 had said, the manager cannot dissociate Bi%% &rom those he re'resents and is rea%%" con&ronted /ith a cro/d acting as one sing%e man. 1he same is true &or the endor'hin assa" /hen the dissenter, %osing his tem'er, accuses the #ro&essor o& &abricating &acts. 54o it "ourse%&,5 the #ro&essor sa"s, irritated but eager to '%a" &air. 51a(e the s"ringe and see &or "ourse%& /hat the assa" reaction /i%% be .5 1he isitor acce'ts the cha%%enge, care&u%%" chec(s the %abe%s on the t/o ia%s and &irst inCects mor'hine into the tin" g%ass chamber. Sure enough, a &e/ seconds %ater the s'i(es start decreasing and a&ter a minute or so

((7,))

the" return to the base %ine. 7ith the ia% %abe%%ed endor'hin, the er" same resu%t is achie ed /ith the same timing. . unanimous, incontro ertib%e ans/er is thus obtained b" the dissenter himse%&. 7hat the #ro&essor said the endor'hin assa" /i%% ans/er, i& as(ed direct%", is ans/ered b" the assa". 1he #ro&essor cannot be dissociated &rom his c%aims. So the isitor has to go bac( to the 5negotiating tab%e5 con&ronted not /ith the #ro&essor5s o/n /ishes but /ith a #ro&essor sim'%" transmitting /hat endor'hin rea%%" is. 0o matter ho/ man" resources the scienti&ic 'a'er might mobi%ise, the" carr" %itt%e /eight com'ared /ith this rare demonstration o& 'o/er: the author o& the c%aim ste's aside and the doubter sees, hears and touches the inscribed things or the assemb%ed 'eo'%e that re ea% to him or to her e6act%" the same c%aim as the author.

%8' rials of strength

*or us /ho are sim'%" &o%%o/ing scientists at /or( there is no e6it &rom such a set:u', no bac( door through /hich to esca'e the incontro ertib%e e idence. 7e ha e a%read" e6hausted a%% sources o& dissentP indeed /e might ha e no energ" %e&t to maintain the mere idea that contro ers" might sti%% be o'en. *or us %a"men, the &i%e is no/ c%osed. Sure%", the dissenter /e ha e shado/ed since the beginning o& Cha'ter 1 /i%% gi e u'. $& the things sa" the same as the scientist, /ho can den" the c%aim an" %onger? Ho/ can "ou go an" &urther? 1he dissenter goes on, ho/e er, /ith more tenacit" than the %a"men. 1he identica% tenor o& the re'resentati e5s /ords and the ans/ers 'ro ided b" the re'resented /ere the resu%t o& a care&u%%" staged situation. 1he instruments needed to be /or(ing and &ine%" tuned, the ;uestions to be as(ed at the right time and in the right &ormat. 7hat /ou%d ha''en, as(s the dissenter, i& /e sta"ed %onger than the sho/ and /ent bac(stageP or /ere to a%ter an" o& the man" e%ements /hich, e er"one agrees, are necessar" to ma(e u' the /ho%e instrument? 1he unanimit" bet/een re'resented and constituenc" is %i(e /hat an ins'ector sees o& a hos'ita% or o& a 'rison cam' /hen his ins'ection is announced in ad ance. 7hat i& he ste's outside his itinerar" and tests the so%id ties that %in( the re'resented and their s'o(esmen? 1he manager, &or instance, heard the roaring a''%ause that Bi%% recei ed, but he %ater obtains the &oremen5s o'inion: 51he men are not &or the stri(e at a%%, the" /ou%d sett%e &or ) 'er cent. $t is a union orderP the" a''%auded Bi%% because that5s the /a" to beha e on the sho'&%oor, but distribute a &e/ 'a" rises and %a" o&& a &e/ ring%eaders and the" /i%% sing an a%together di&&erent song.5 $n '%ace o& the unanimous ans/er gi en b" the assemb%ed /or(ers, the manager is no/ &aced /ith an aggregate o& 'ossib%e ans/ers. He is no/ a/are that the ans/er he got ear%ier through Bi%% /as e6tracted &rom a com'%e6 setting /hich /as at &irst in isib%e. He a%so rea%ises that there is room &or action and that each /or(er ma" be made to beha e di&&erent%" i& 'ressures other than Bi%%5s are e6erted on them.

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1he ne6t time Bi%% screams 5Iou /ant the + 'er cent don5t "ou?5 on%" a &e/ ha%&:hearted ca%%s o& agreement /i%% interru't a dea&ening si%ence. Let us ta(e another e6am'%e, this time &rom the histor" o& science. .t the turn o& the centur", B%ond%ot, a 'h"sicist &rom 0anc", in *rance, made a maCor disco er" %i(e that o& @:ra"s. + 3ut o& de otion to his cit" he ca%%ed them 50:ra"s5. *or a &e/ "ears, 0:ra"s had a%% sorts o& theoretica% de e%o'ments and man" 'ractica% a''%ications, curing diseases and 'utting 0anc" on the ma' o& internationa% science. . dissenter &rom the !nited States, 2obert 7. 7ood, did not be%ie e B%ond%ot5s 'a'ers e en though the" /ere 'ub%ished in re'utab%e Courna%s, and decided to isit the %aborator". *or a time 7ood /as con&ronted /ith incontro ertib%e e idence in the %aborator" at 0anc". B%ond%ot ste''ed aside and %et the 0:ra"s inscribe themse% es straight onto a screen in &ront o& 7ood. 1his, ho/e er, /as not enough to get rid o& 7ood, /ho obstinate%" sta"ed in the %ab as(ing &or more e6'eriments and himse%& mani'u%ating the 0:ra" detector. .t one 'oint he e en surre'titious%" remo ed the a%uminium 'rism /hich /as generating the 0:ra"s. 1o his sur'rise, B%ond%ot on the other side o& the dim%" %it room (e't obtaining the same resu%t on his screen e en though /hat /as deemed the most crucia% e%ement had been remo ed. 1he direct signatures made b" the 0:ra"s on the screen /ere thus made b" something e%se. 1he unanimous su''ort became a caco'hon" o& dissent. B" remo ing the 'rism, 7ood se ered the so%id %in(s that attached B%ond%ot to the 0: ra"s. 7ood5s inter'retation /as that B%ond%ot so much /ished to disco er ra"s (at a time /hen a%most e er" %ab in 9uro'e /as christening ne/ ra"s) that he un/itting%" made u' not on%" the 0:ra"s, but a%so the instrument to inscribe them. Li(e the manager abo e, 7ood rea%ised that the coherent /ho%e he /as 'resented /ith /as an aggregate o& man" e%ements that cou%d be induced to go in man" di&&erent directions. .&ter 7ood5s action (and that o& other dissenters) no one 5sa/5 0:ra"s an" more but on%" smudges on 'hotogra'hic '%ates /hen B%ond%ot 'resented his 0:ra"s. $nstead o& en;uiring about the '%ace o& 0:ra"s in 'h"sics, 'eo'%e started en;uiring about the ro%e o& auto:suggestion in e6'erimentationS 1he ne/ &act had been turned into an arte&act. $nstead o& going do/n the %adder o& *igure 1.9, it /ent u' the %adder and anished &rom ie/. 1he /a" out, &or the dissenter, is not on%" to dissociate and disaggregate the man" su''orters the technica% 'a'ers /ere ab%e to muster. $t is a%so to sha(e u' the com'%icated set:u' that 'ro ides gra'hs and traces in the author5s %aborator" in order to see ho/ resistant the arra" is /hich has been mobi%ised in order to con ince e er"one. 1he /or( o& disbe%ie ing the %iterature has no/ been turned into the di&&icu%t Cob o& mani'u%ating the hard/are. 7e ha e no/ reached another stage in the esca%ation bet/een the author o& a c%aim and the disbe%ie er, one that %eads them &urther and &urther into the detai%s o& /hat ma(es u' the inscri'tions used in technica% %iterature. Let us continue the ;uestion:and:ans/er session staged abo e bet/een the #ro&essor and the dissenter. 1he isitor /as as(ed to inCect mor'hine and endor'hin himse%& in order to chec( that there /as no &ou% '%a". But the isitor is

((7-))

no/ more de ious and does not ma(e an" e&&ort to be 'o%ite. He /ants to chec( /here the ia% %abe%%ed endor'hin comes &rom. 1he #ro&essor, unru&&%ed, sho/s him the 'rotoco% boo( /ith the same code number as on the ia%, a code that corres'onds to a 'uri&ied sam'%e o& brain e6tract. But this is a te6t, another 'iece o& %iterature, sim'%" an account boo( that cou%d ha e been either &a%si&ied or accidenta%%" mis%abe%%ed. B" no/, /e ha e to imagine a dissenter boorish enough to beha e %i(e a 'o%ice ins'ector sus'ecting e er"one and be%ie ing no one and &ina%%" /anting to see the rea% endor'hin /ith his o/n e"es. He then as(s, 57here do $ go &rom this %abe% in the boo( to /here the contents o& the ia% comes &rom?5 96as'erated, the author %eads him to/ards another 'art o& the %aborator" and into a sma%% room occu'ied b" g%ass co%umns o& arious siGes, &i%%ed /ith a /hite substance, through /hich a %i;uid is s%o/%" 'erco%ating. !nderneath the co%umns, a sma%% 'iece o& a''aratus mo es a rac( o& tin" &%as(s in /hich the 'erco%ated %i;uid is co%%ected e er" &e/ minutes. 1he continous &%o/ at the to' o& the co%umns is co%%ected, at the bottom, into a discrete set o& &%as(s, each o& /hich contains the 'art o& the %i;uid that too( the same gi en amount o& time to tra e% through the co%umn. (,) W Here it is, sa"s the guide, here is "our endor'hin. W .re "ou (idding, re'%ies the dissenter, /here is endor'hin? $ don5t see a thing? W H"'otha%amic brain e6tract is de'osited on the to' o& the Se'hade6 co%umn. $t is a sou'. 4e'ending on /hat /e &i%% it /ith, the co%umn disassociates the mi6ture, sie es itP it ma" be done b" gra it", or e%ectrica% charge, an"thing. .t the end "ou get rac(s that co%%ect sam'%es /hich ha e beha ed simi%ar%" in the co%umn. 1his is ca%%ed a &raction co%%ector. 9ach &raction is then chec(ed &or 'urit". Dour ia% o& endor'hin came &rom this rac( t/o da"s ago, no. )+D1-D,8-. W .nd this is /hat "ou ca%% 'ure? Ho/ do $ (no/ it is 'ure? Ma"be there are hundreds o& brain e6tracts that tra e% through the co%umn at the same 'ace e6act%" and end u' in the same &raction. 1he 'ressure is mounting. 9 er"one in the %ab is e6'ecting an outburst o& rage, but the #ro&essor 'o%ite%" %eads the isitor to/ards another 'art o& the %aborator". (8)W Here is our ne/ High #ressure Li;uid Chromatogra'h (H#LC). See these tin" co%umns? 1he" are %i(e the ones "ou Cust sa/, but each &raction co%%ected there is submitted to an enormous 'ressure here. 1he co%umn de%a"s the 'assage and at this 'ressure it strong%" di&&erentiates the mo%ecu%es. 1he ones that arri e at the same time at the end are the same mo%ecu%es, the same, m" dear co%%eague. 9ach &raction is read through an o'tica% de ice that measures its o'tica% s'ectrum. Here is the chart that "ou get .... See? 0o/, /hen "ou get a sing%e 'ea( it means the materia% is 'ure, so 'ure that a substance /ith on%" one di&&erent amino:acid in a hundred /i%% gi e "ou another 'ea(. $s not that ;uite con incing? W (si%ence &rom the dissenter)

W 3h, $ (no/S Ma"be "ou are uncertain that $ did the e6'eriment /ith your ia% o& endor'hin? Loo( here in the H#LC boo(. Same code, same time. Ma"be "ou c%aim that $ as(ed this gent%eman here to &a(e the boo(s, and obtain this 'ea( &or me /ith another substance? 3r ma"be "ou doubt the measurement o& o'tica% s'ectra. Ma"be

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"ou thin( it is an obso%ete 'iece o& 'h"sics. 0o such %uc(, m" dear co%%eague, 0e/ton described this 'henomenon ;uite accurate%" W but ma"be he5s not good enough &or "ou. 1he #ro&essor5s oice is ;ui ering /ith hard%" su''ressed rage but he sti%% beha es. 3& course the dissenter cou%d start doubting the H#LC or the &raction co%%ector as he did /ith the guinea 'ig i%eum assa", con erting them &rom b%ac( bo6es into a &ie%d o& contention. He coul" in 'rinci'%e, but he cannot in 'ractice since time is running out and he is sensiti e to the e6as'eration in e er"one5s oice. .nd /ho is he an"/a" to mount a dis'ute against 7ater .ssociates, the com'an" /ho de ised this H#LC 'rotot"'e? $s he read" to cast doubt on a resu%t that has been acce'ted un;uestioning%" &or the 'ast +>> "ears, one that has been embedded in thousands o& contem'orar" instruments? 7hat he /ants is to see endor'hin. 1he rest, he must &ace it, cannot be dis'uted. He has to com'romise and to admit that the Se'hade6 co%umn, and the H#LC, are indis'utab%e. $n a conci%iator" tone he sa"s: (-) W 1his is er" im'ressi eP ho/e er $ must con&ess a s%ight disa''ointment. 7hat $ see here is a 'ea( /hich, $ admit, means that the brain e6tract is no/ 'ure. But ho/ do $ (no/ that this 'ure substance is endor'hin? 7ith a sigh, the isitor is %ed bac( to the assa" room /here the %itt%e guinea 'ig gut is sti%% regu%ar%" contracting. (7) W 9ach o& the &ractions deemed 'ure b" the H#LC is tried out here, in this assa". 3& a%% the 'ure &ractions on%" t/o dis'%a" an" acti it", $ re'eat on%" t/o. 7hen the /ho%e 'rocess is re'eated in order to get 'urer materia%, this acti it" dramatica%%" increases. 1he sha'e ma" be e6act%" su'erim'osed onto that o& commercia%%" a ai%ab%e mor'hine. $s that insigni&icant? 7e did it thirt":t/o timesS $s that nothing? 9ach modi&ication o& the s'i(es has been tested &or statistica% signi&icance. 3n%" endor'hin and mor'hine ha e an" signi&icant e&&ect. 4oes a%% o& that count &or nothing? $& "ou are so c%e er, can "ou gi e me an a%ternati e e6'%anation /h" mor'hine and this 'ure substance @ /ou%d beha e identica%%"? Can "ou e en imagine another e6'%anation? W 0o, $ must admit, /his'ers the be%ie er, $ am er" im'ressed. 1his rea%%" %oo(s %i(e genuine endor'hin. 1han( "ou so much &or the isit. 4on5t troub%e "ourse% es, $ /i%% &ind m" o/n /a" out .... (e6it the dissenter)

1his e6it is not the same as that o& the semiotic character o& Cha'ter 1, '.8+. 1his time it is &or good. 1he dissenter tried to disassociate the #ro&essor &rom his endor'hin, and he &ai%ed. 7h" did he &ai%? Because the endor'hin constructed in the #ro&essor5s %ab resiste" a%% his e&&orts at modi&ication. 9 er" time the isitor &o%%o/ed a %ead he reached a 'oint /here he had either to ;uit or start a ne/ contro ers" about a sti%% o%der and more genera%%" acce'ted &act. 1he #ro&essor5s c%aim /as tied to the brain, to the H#LC, to the guinea 'ig i%eum assa". 1here is something in his c%aim that is connected to c%assic c%aims in 'h"sio%og", 'harmaco%og", 'e'tide chemistr", o'tics, etc. 1his means that /hen the doubter tries out the connections, a%% these other &acts, sciences and b%ac( bo6es come to

((78))

the #ro&essor5s rescue. 1he dissenter, i& he doubts endor'hin, has a%so to doubt Se'hade6 co%umns, H#LC technics, gut 'h"sio%og", the #ro&essor5s honest", that o& his /ho%e %ab, etc. .%though 5enough is ne er enough5 J see the introduction J there is a 'oint /here no matter ho/ 'ig:headed the dissenter cou%d be, enough is enough. 1he dissenter /ou%d need so much more time, so man" more a%%ies and resources to continue to dissent that he has to ;uit, acce'ting the #ro&essor5s c%aim as an estab%ished &act. 7ood, /ho did not be%ie e in 0:ra"s, a%so tried to sha(e the connection bet/een B%ond%ot and his ra"s. !n%i(e the &ormer dissenter he succeeded. 1o dis%ocate the b%ac( bo6es assemb%ed b" B%ond%ot, 7ood did not ha e to con&ront the /ho%e o& 'h"sics, on%" the /ho%e o& one %aborator". 1he manager /ho sus'ected the /or(ers5 determination tried out the connections bet/een them and their union boss. 1hese connections did not resist a &e/ c%assic c%e er tric(s &or %ong. $n the three cases the dissenters im'osed a sho/do/n running &rom the c%aim to /hat su''orts the c%aim. 7hen im'osing such a trial of strength the" are &aced /ith s'o(es'ersons and /hat (or /hom) these 'ersons s'ea( &or. $n some cases the dissenters iso%ate the re'resentati e &rom his or her Qconstituenc"5, so to s'ea(P in other cases such a se'aration is im'ossib%e to obtain. $t cannot be obtained /ithout a tria% o& strength, an" more than a bo6er can c%aim to be a /or%d cham'ion /ithout con incing%" de&eating the 're ious /or%d cham'ion. 7hen the dissenter succeeds, the s'o(es'erson is trans&ormed &rom someone /ho s'ea(s &or others into someone /ho s'ea(s &or him or herse%&, /ho re'resents on%" him or herse%&, his or her /ishes and &ancies. 7hen the dissenter &ai%s, the s'o(es'erson is seen not rea%%" as an indi idua% but as the mouth'iece o& man" other mute 'henomena. 4e'ending on the tria%s o& strength, s'o(es'ersons are turned into sub;e&ti"e indi idua%s or into ob;e&ti"e re'resentati es. Being obCecti e means that no matter ho/ great the e&&orts o& the disbe%ie ers to se er the %in(s bet/een "ou and /hat "ou s'ea( &or, the %in(s resist. Being subCecti e means that /hen "ou ta%( in the name o& 'eo'%e or things, the %isteners understand that "ou re'resent on%" "ourse%&. *rom Mr Man"bodies "ou are bac( to being Mr. .n"bod". $t is crucia% to gras' that these t/o adCecti es (5obCecti e5, 5subCecti e5) are relative to tria%s o& strength in s'eci&ic settings. 1he" cannot be used to ;ua%i&" a s'o(es'erson or the things he or

she is ta%(ing about once and &or a%%. .s /e sa/ in Cha'ter 1, each dissenter tries to trans&orm a statement &rom obCecti e to subCecti e status, to trans&orm, &or instance, an interest in 0:ra"s inside 'h"sics into an interest in se%&:suggestion in 'ro incia% %aboratories. $n the endor'hin e6am'%e, the dissenter seemed to be tr"ing er" hard to con ert the #ro&essor5s c%aim into a subCecti e &%ight o& &anc". $n the end it /as the %one%" dissenter /ho sa/ his nai e ;uestioning turned into a tri ia% &%ight o& &anc", i& not an obsessi e dri e to see( &raud and &ind &au%t e er"/here. $n the tria% o& strength the #ro&essor5s endor'hin /as made more ob=ective E going do/n the %adder J and the dissenter5s counter:c%aim /as made more sub=ectiveE 'ushed u' the %adder. Q3bCecti it"5 and QsubCecti it"5 are re%ati e to tria%s o& strength and the" can shi&t

((79))

gradua%%", mo ing &rom one to the other, much %i(e the ba%ance o& 'o/er bet/een t/o armies. . dissenter accused b" the author o& being subCecti e must no/ /age another strugg%e i& he or she /ishes to go on dissenting /ithout being iso%ated, ridicu%ed and abandoned.

$art B. Building up &ounter7laboratories

Let me summarise our tri' &rom the discussion at the beginning o& Cha'ter 1 u' to this 'oint. 7hat is behind the c%aims? 1e6ts. .nd behind the te6ts? More te6ts, becoming more and more technica% because the" bring in more and more 'a'ers. Behind these artic%es? Ora'hs, inscri'tions, %abe%s, tab%es, ma's, arra"ed in tiers. Behind these inscri'tions? $nstruments, /hate er their sha'e, age and cost that end u' scribb%ing, registering and Cotting do/n arious traces. Behind the instruments? Mouth'ieces o& a%% sorts and manners commenting on the gra'hs and 5sim'%"5 sa"ing /hat the" mean. Behind them? .rra"s o& instruments. Behind those? 1ria%s o& strength to e a%uate the resistance o& the ties that %in( the re'resentati es to /hat the" s'ea( &or. $t is not on%" /ords that are no/ %ined u' to con&ront the dissenter, not on%" gra'hs to su''ort the /ords and re&erences to su''ort the /ho%e assemb%" o& a%%ies, not on%" instruments to generate end%ess numbers o& ne/er and c%earer inscri'tions, but, behind the instruments, ne/ obCects are %ined u' /hich are de&ined b" their resistance to tria%s. 4issenters ha e no/ done a%% the" can do to disbe%ie e, disaggregate and disassociate /hat is mustered behind the c%aim. 1he" ha e come a %ong /a" since barging into the &irst discussion at the beginning o& Cha'ter 1. 1he" became readers o& technica% %iterature, then isitors to the &e/ %aboratories &rom /hich the 'a'ers /ere coming, then im'o%ite ins'ectors mani'u%ating the instruments to chec( ho/ &aith&u% the" /ere to the author. .t this 'oint the" ha e to ta(e another ste'W either gi e u', or &ind other resources to o ercome the author5s c%aim. $n the second 'art o& this boo( /e /i%% see that there e6ist man" /a"s to reCect the %aborator" resu%ts (Cha'ter ,)P but &or this cha'ter /e /i%% concentrate on the rarest outcome, /hen, a%% e%se being e;ua%, there is no other /a" o'en to the dissenters than to buil" another laboratory) 1he 'rice o& dissent increases dramatica%%" and the number

o& 'eo'%e ab%e to continue decreases according%". 1his 'rice is entire%" determined b" the authors /hose c%aims one /ishes to dis'ute. 1he dissenters cannot do %ess than the authors. 1he" ha e to gather more &orces in order to untie /hat attaches the s'o(esmen and their c%aims. 1his is /h" a%% %aboratories are counter!laboratories Cust as a%% technica% artic%es are counter:artic%es. So the dissenters do not sim'%" ha e to get a %aborator"P the" ha e to get a better %aborator". 1his ma(es the 'rice sti%% higher and the conditions to be met sti%% more unusua%.

((8>))

%(' Borro1ing more bla&k bo2es

Ho/ is it 'ossib%e to obtain a better %aborator", that is a %aborator" 'roducing %ess dis'utab%e c%aims and a%%o/ing the dissenter: no/ head o& a %ab : to disagree and be be%ie ed? 2emember /hat ha''ened to the isitor to the #ro&essor5s %aborator". 9 er" time a ne/ &%a/ a''eared /hich the disbe%ie er tried to e6'%oit, the #ro&essor 'resented him /ith a ne/ and seeming%" incontro ertib%e b%ac( bo6: a Se'hade6 co%umn, an H#LC machine, basic 'h"sics, or c%assic 'h"sio%og", etc. $t might ha e been 'ossib%e to dis'ute each o& these, but it /as not 'ractica% because the same energ" /ou%d ha e been needed to reo'en each o& these b%ac( bo6es. $ndeed, more energ" /ou%d ha e been a''%ied because each o& these &acts in turn /ou%d ha e %ed to more tight%" sea%ed b%ac( bo6es: the micro'rocessors treating the data &rom the H#LC, the &abrication o& the ge% in the co%umns, the raising o& guinea 'igs in the anima% ;uarters, the 'roduction o& mor'hine at an 9%":Li%" &actor", etc. 9ach &act cou%d be made the de'arture 'oint o& a ne/ contro ers" that /ou%d ha e %ed to man" more acce'ted &acts, and so on a" infinitum)

666 &igur )., start 666 *igure )., 1he c%aim is tied to too man" b%ac(bo6es &or the dissenter to untie them a%% Mode%%en iser et bi%de a et rots"stem &ra et tre, som meta&or &or en trerot:%ogi(( som bes(ri er genea%ogien ti% den bestemte 'Astanden. H er &orgreining to%(er Ceg som et %ogis( resonnement der re&eranser ti% &ors(Ce%%ige 'Astander, obser asConer e%%er a(se'terte innsi(ter b%ir &orenet i et resonnement. Mange a disse &orgreiningene er mar(ert med sir(e%er. 4isse ti%(er Ceg som mar(eringer a a(se'terte innsi(ter e%%er =b%ac( bo6es=. 666 &igur )., s%utt 666

1he dissenter /as thus con&ronted b" an e6'onentia% cur e, a s%o'e simi%ar to the one dra/n in *igure 1.8. 0o/ that he has become the head o& a brand ne/ %aborator", one o& the /a"s to ma(e it a better counter:%ab is to disco er /a"s either o& %e e%%ing the s%o'e or o& con&ronting his o''onents /ith an e en stee'er one. *or instance Scha%%", in order to bac( u' his i%%:&ated OH2H : see Cha'ter 1, statement (8) : used a bioassa" ca%%ed the rat tibia carti%age assa". Oui%%emin, /ho disagreed /ith OH2H, started to tr" out the tibia assa" in e6act%" the /a" our dissenter tried out his guinea 'ig i%eum assa". , $n the &ace o& this cha%%enge, Scha%%"5s tibia assa" /as made to sa" ;uite di&&erent things b" Oui%%emin. 1he gro/th o& tibia carti%age in the rat might be caused b" a gro/th hormone sub:stance but might Cust as ;ell ha e been caused b" a ariet" o& other chemica%s, or

((81))

indeed not ha e occurred at a%%. $n se era% harsh 'a'ers, Oui%%emin said the 5resu%ts /ere so erratic that Scha%%"5s c%aims shou%d be ta(en /ith the most e6treme 'recaution5. 1hus Scha%%" /as cut o&& &rom his su''%" %ine. He c%aimed the e6istence o& OH2H, but nothing &o%%o/ed. $so%ated, his c%aim /as made more subCecti e b" the dissenter5s action. 7h" shou%d an"one be%ie e Oui%%emin5s counter:c%aim rather than Scha%%"5s c%aim? 3ne ob ious /a" to strengthen this be%ie& is to modi&" the bioassa" to ma(e it im'ossib%e &or an"one to ma(e it sa" di&&erent things &rom Oui%%emin. Oui%%emin discarded the rat tibia assa" and shi&ted to a rat 'ituitar" ce%% cu%ture. $nstead o& seeing the gro/th o& carti%age /ith the na(ed e"e, /hat is 5seen5 is the amount o& hormone re%eased b" the &e/ 'ituitar" ce%%s maintained in a cu%tureP this amount is measured b" an instrumentJ in the sense $ ga e this term ear%ierJ ca%%ed radio:immunoassa". 1he ne/ assa" is much more com'%icated than Scha%%"5s o%der onesJin itse%& the radio:immunoassa" re;uires se era% technicians and ta(es u' to a /ee( to com'%eteJ but it gi es inscri'tions at the end that ma" be said to be more c%ear:cut, that is the" %itera%%" cut sha'es out o& the bac(ground. $n other /ords, e en /ithout understanding a /ord o& the issue, the 'erce'ti e Cudgment to be made on one is easier than on the other. 1he ans/ers are %ess e;ui oca% than the 5erratic5 ones gi en b" the tibia assa"J that is, the" %ea e %ess room &or the dissenter to ;uibb%eJ and the /ho%e instrument is less easi%" dis'utab%e. .%though it is com'%icated, the ce%% cu%ture assa" can be ta(en as a single black bo# /hich 'ro ides a sing%e /indo/ &rom /hich to read the amount o& OH2H. 0atura%%", it can be dis'uted in 'rinci'%e. $t is Cust that it5s harder to do so in 'ractice. . 'h"sio%ogist /ith a %itt%e training ma" nit'ic( at the carti%age assa", ma" ;uibb%e about the %ength &rom gro/th in the tibia. He or she needs much more than a %itt%e training to dis'ute Oui%%emin5s ne/ &igures.

1he assa" is no/ tied to basic ad ances in mo%ecu%ar bio%og", immuno%og" and the 'h"sics o& radioacti it". 0it'ic(ing at the inscri'tions is 'ossib%e but %ess reasonab%e, the hec(%er needing more resources and becoming more iso%ated. 1he gain in con iction is c%ear: &rom Scha%%"5s &irst /ords a &ierce dis'ute ensues about the assa" /hich is su''osed to re ea% the er" e6istence o& OH2H. $n Oui%%emin5s counter:'a'er this 'art o& the discussion at least has been sea%ed o&& since his detection s"stem is made indis'utab%e, and the range o& 'ossib%e dis'utes has shifte" to other as'ects o& the same c%aims. .nother e6am'%e is 'ro ided b" the contro ers" about the detection o& gra itationa% /a es.8 3ne 'h"sicist, 7eber, bui%t a massi e antenna made o& a %arge a%uminium a%%o" bar /eighing se era% tons that ibrated at a certain &re;uenc". 1o detect a gra itationa% /a e the antenna must be insu%ated &rom a%% other in&%uencesJ idea%%" it shou%d be in a acuum, &ree &rom seismic ibrations and radio inter&erence, at a tem'erature at or near abso%ute Gero, etc. 1a(en as an instrument, the /ho%e set:u' 'ro ides a /indo/ /hich a%%o/s one to read the 'resence o& gra itationa% /a es. 1he 'rob%em is that the 'ea(s abo e the noise thresho%d are so tin" that an" 'assing 'h"sicist cou%d dis'ute 7eber5s c%aim. $ndeed, an" 'assing 'h"sicist cou%d set the instrument o&&S 7eber argues that

((8)))

the" re'resent gra itation but e er" dissenter ma" c%aim that the" re'resent man" other things as ;ell) 1his %itt%e e6'ression Qas /e%%5 is /hat (i%%s most so%id c%aims. .s %ong as it is 'ossib%e to sa" Qas /e%%5, there is no estab%ished %ine &rom the gra itation /a es to 7eber ia the antenna. 1he &igure o&&ered b" 7eber ma" re'resent either Qgra itationa% /a es5 or meaning%ess scribb%es registering terrestria% noise. 1o be sure, there are man" /a"s out o& the contro ers" so as to shrug o&& 7eber5s c%aim as a mere o'inion. But the /a" out o& the contro ers" that interests us here is to bui%d another antenna, one, &or instance, that is a thousand mi%%ion times more sensiti e than 7eber5s so that this 'art o& the detection at %east is not dis'uted. 1he aim o& this ne/ antenna is to con&ront the sce'tic /ith an incontro ertib%e b%ac( bo6 earlier in the 'rocess. .&ter this, sce'tics ma" sti%% discuss the amount o& gra itation, and /hat it does to the re%ati it" theor" or to astro'h"sics, but the" /i%% not argue that there are 'ea(s that cannot be e6'%ained b" terrestria% inter&erences. 7ith the &irst antenna a%one, 7eber might be the &rea( and the dissenters the sensib%e 'ro&essiona%s. 7ith the ne/ antenna, those /ho den" the 'resence o& the 'ea(s are the iso%ated sce'tics and it is 7eber /ho is the sensib%e 'ro&essiona%. .%% other things being e;ua% the ba%ance o& 'o/er /ou%d ha e been ti''ed. ($n this case, ho/e er, it did not ma(e the s%ightest di&&erence because man" other a enues &or dissent /ere o'ened.) Borro/ing more b%ac( bo6es and situating them ear%ier in the 'rocess is the &irst ob ious strateg" &or bui%ding a better counter:%aborator". 1he discussion is di&&racted and shunted a/a". .n" one %aborator" gets an edge on a%% the others i& it &inds a /a" to de%a" the 'ossib%e discussions unti% %ater. $n the ear%" da"s o& microbe cu%tures, &or e6am'%e, the microbes /ere

gro/n in a %i;uid %i(e urine. 1he" /ere isib%e in the &%as(s but "ou needed (een and trained e"esight to detect them. 4issent cou%d ensue because the construction o& the &act /as interru'ted &rom the start b" a 're%iminar" discussion on /hether or not microbes /ere 'resent in the &%as(. 7hen <och in ented the so%id mi%ieu cu%ture, acute e"esight /as no %onger needed to see the %itt%e microbes: the" made nice %itt%e co%oured 'atches /hich contrasted c%ear%" /ith the /hite bac(ground. 1he isibi%it" /as dramatica%%" enhanced /hen s'eci&ic d"es co%oured certain microbes or their 'arts. 1he %aborator" endo/ed /ith these techni;ues made dissent more di&&icu%t: a s%o'e /as dee'ened, a trench /as dug. .%though man" other as'ects /ere sti%% o'en to dis'ute, the 'resence o& the microbes /as made indis'utab%e. .t this 'oint, it is eas" to imagine the gro/ing di&&erences bet/een good and bad (counter:) %aboratories. $magine a %ab that starts ma(ing c%aims based on the carti%age tibia assa", 7eber5s &irst antenna and the %i;uid microbe cu%ture. $& the head o& this %aborator" /anted to be be%ie ed he /ou%d ha e an end%ess tas(. 9 er" time he o'ened his mouth, an" number o& his dear co%%eagues /ou%d start sha(ing their heads, and suggesting man" a%ternati es Cust as '%ausib%e as the &irst. 1o do so, the" /ou%d on%" need a bit o& imagination. Li(e .chi%%es in Reno5s 'arado6, the cha%%enger /i%% ne er reach the end o& his argument since each 'oint /i%% be the start o& an inde&inite regression. $n contrast, c%aims 'roduced b" the good %aborator" cannot be o''osed sim'%" /ith a bit o& imagination. 1he cost o&

((8+))

dis'uting the c%aims increases 'ro'ortiona%%" /ith the number o& b%ac( bo6es assemb%ed b" the author. *aced /ith the 'ituitar" cu%ture assa", the ne/ antenna /hich is one thousand mi%%ion times more sensiti e and the so%id mi%ieu cu%ture, the dissenters are &orced to assent or, at %east, to re"irect their dissent to/ard some other as'ect o& the c%aims. 1he" can sti%% mount a contro ers" but the magnitude o& the mobi%isation needed to do so has increased. 1he" need an e en better e;ui''ed %aborator" /ith more and more b%ac( bo6es, thus de%a"ing the dis'ute sti%% &urther. 1he icious (or irtuous) circ%e o& %ab construction is no/ %aunched and there is no /a" to sto' it: a'art &rom gi ing u' the 'roduction o& credib%e arguments a%together, or recruiting more 'o/er&u% a%%ies e%se/here.

%5' Making a&tors betray their representati"es

1he com'etition bet/een scientists: /hom $ /i%% treat in this section as a%ternate%" authors and dissenters:to turn one another5s c%aims into subCecti e o'inion %eads to e6'ensi e %aboratories e;ui''ed /ith more and more b%ac( bo6es introduced as ear%" as 'ossib%e into the discussion. 1his game, ho/e er, /ou%d soon sto' i& on%" e6isting b%ac( bo6es /ere mobi%ised. .&ter a time dissenters and authors:a%% things remaining e;ua%:/ou%d ha e access to the same e;ui'ment, /ou%d tie their c%aims to the same harder, co%der and o%der &acts and none /ou%d be ab%e to get an edge on the other: their c%aims /ou%d be thus %e&t in %imbo, in intermediar"

stages bet/een &act and arte&act, obCecti it" and subCecti it". 1he on%" /a" to brea( this sta%emate is to &ind either ne/ and une6'ected resources (see the ne6t section) or, more sim'%", to &orce the o''onent5s a%%ies to change camp) 1his /ou%d ha''en, &or instance, i& the manager o& our %itt%e ignette abo e cou%d organise a secret ba%%ot to decide about the continuation o& the stri(e. 2emember that Bi%%, the sho' ste/ard, c%aimed that 5a%% the /or(ers /ant a + 'er cent 'a" rise5. 1his c%aim /as con&irmed at meetings during /hich the re'resented said the same things as their mouth'iece. 9 en i& the manager sus'ects that the /or(ers are not so unanimous, each 'ub%ic meeting %oud%" con&irms Bi%%5s c%aim. Ho/e er, in organising a secret ba%%ot, the manager tests the same actors in a di&&erent /a", b" e6erting a ne/ set o& 'ressures on them: iso%ation, secrec", recounting o& the ba%%ots, sur ei%%ance. Submitted to these ne/ tria%s, on%" 9 'er cent o& the same /or(ers oted &or the continuation o& the stri(e, and 8> 'er cent /ere read" to sett%e &or ) 'er cent. 1he re'resented ha e changed cam'. 1he" no/ sa" /hat the manager said the" /ou%d sa". 1he" ha e a ne/ s'o(es'erson. 1his, natura%%", does not sto' the contro ers", but the dis'ute /i%% no/ bear on the e%ection 'rocess itse%&. Bi%% and his union accuse the manager o& intimidation, un&air 'ressure, o& ha ing stu&&ed the ba%%ot bo6es and so on. 1his sho/s that e en the most &aith&u% su''orters o& a s'o(esman ma" be made to betray) .s $ sho/ed abo e, both 'eo'%e ab%e to ta%( and things unab%e to ta%( ha e

((8,))

s'o(esmen (#art ., section )). $ 'ro'ose to ca%% /hoe er and /hate er is re'resented a&tant. 7hat the manager did to Bi%%, a dissenter ma" do &or the a%%" o& his o''onent5s %aborator". #ouchet, engaged in a bitter strugg%e against Louis #asteur5s c%aim that there is no s'ontaneous generation, bui%t a nice counter:e6'eriment.- #asteur argued that it is a%/a"s germs introduced &rom the outside that generate micro:organisms. Long s/an:nec(ed o'en g%ass &%as(s containing steri%ised in&usion /ere contaminated at %o/ a%titude but sta"ed steri%e in the High .%'s. 1his im'ressi e series o& demonstrations estab%ished an incontro ertib%e %in( bet/een a ne/ actor, the micro:organisms, and /hat #asteur said the" cou%d do: microbes cou%d not come &rom ;ithin the in&usion but on%" &rom outsi"e) #ouchet, /ho reCected #asteur5s conc%usion, tried out the connection and &orced the micro:organisms to emerge &rom /ithin. 2e'eating #asteur5s e6'eriment #ouchet sho/ed that g%ass &%as(s containing a steri%e ha" in&usion /ere er" soon s/arming /ith micro:organisms e en in the Qgerm:&ree5 air o& the #"renees Mountains. 1he micro:organisms on /hich #asteur de'ended /ere made to betra" him: the" a''eared s'ontaneous%" thus su''orting #ouchet5s 'osition. $n this case, the actants change cam's and t/o s'o(esmen are su''orted at once. 1his change o& cam' does not sto' the contro ers", because it is 'ossib%e to accuse #ouchet o& ha ing un(no/ing%" introduced micro:organisms &rom outside e en though he steri%ised e er"thing. 1he meaning o& Qsteri%e5 becomes ambiguous and has to be renegotiated. #asteur, no/ in the ro%e o& dissenter, sho/ed that the mercur" used b" #ouchet /as contaminated. .s a resu%t #ouchet /as cut o&& &rom his

su''%" %ines, betra"ed b" his s'ontaneous micro:organisms, and #asteur becomes the trium'hant s'o(esman, a%igning Qhis5 micro:organisms /hich act on command. #ouchet &ai%ed in his dissent and ended u' iso%ated, his Qs'ontaneous generation5 reduced b" #asteur to a sub=ective idea, to be e6'%ained not b" the beha iour o& microbes but b" the in&%uence o& Qideo%og"5 and Qre%igion5. 7 1he same %uring o& a%%ies a/a" &rom their s'o(es'erson occurred among the Samoans. .s mobi%ised in the 19+>s b" Margaret Mead to act on 0orth .merican idea%s o& education and se6ua% beha iour, Samoan gir%s /ere more %iberated than 7estern ones and &ree &rom the crises o& ado%escence .8 1his /e%%:estab%ished &act /as attributed not to MeadJ acting as the anthro'o%ogist mouth'iece o& the SamoansJ but to the Samoans. 2ecent%" another anthro'o%ogist, 4ere( *reeman, attac(ed Mead, se ering a%% %in(s bet/een the Samoan gir%s and Margaret Mead. She /as turned into an iso%ated %ibera% .merican %ad" /ithout an" serious contact /ith Samoa and /riting a 5nob%e sa age5 &iction o&& the to' o& her head. *reeman, the ne/ s'o(esman o& the Samoans, said the gir%s there /ere se6ua%%" re'ressed, assau%ted and o&ten ra'ed and that the" /ent through a terrib%e ado%escence. 0atura%%", this 5(idna''ing5, so to s'ea(, o& Samoan teenagers b" a ne/ re'resentati e does not bring the contro ers" to an end an" more than in our other e6am'%es. 1he ;uestion is no/ to decide i& *reeman is a boorish and insensiti e ma%e in&%uenced b" sociobio%og", and i& he has more Samoan a%%ies on his side than Margaret Mead, a high%" thought o& &ema%e

((88))

anthro'o%ogist, sensiti e to a%% the subt%e cues o& her Samoan in&ormants. 1he 'oint &or us is that the most sudden re ersa% in the tria%s o& strength bet/een authors and dissenters ma" be obtained sim'%" b" cutting the %in(s t"ing them to their su''orters. . subt%er strateg" than *reeman5s to cut these %in(s /as em'%o"ed b" <ar% #earson in his dis'ute /ith Oeorge Iu%e5s statistics. 9 Iu%e had de ised a coe&&icient to measure the strength o& an association bet/een t/o "iscrete ariab%es. 1his crude but robust coe&&icient a%%o/ed him to decide /hether or not there /as an association bet/een, &or instance, accination and the death rate. Iu%e /as not interested in de&ining %in(s more 'recise%". .%% he /anted to be ab%e to determine /as /hether accination decreased the death rate. #earson, on the other hand, obCected to Iu%e5s coe&&icient because /hen "ou /anted to decide ho; close the %in(s /ere, it o&&ered a /ide range o& 'ossib%e so%utions. 7ith Iu%e5s coe&&icient "ou /ou%d ne er (no/, in #earson5s o'inion, i& "ou had "our data a%% sa&e%" arra"ed behind "our c%aims. Iu%e did not bother because he /as treating on%" discrete entities. #earson, ho/e er, had a much more ambitious 'roCect and /anted to be ab%e to mobi%ise a %arge number o& continuous ariab%es such as height, co%our o& s(in, inte%%igence . . . 7ith Iu%e5s coe&&icient he /ou%d ha e been ab%e to de&ine on%" /ea( associations bet/een genetic ariab%es. 1his meant that an" dissenter cou%d easi%" ha e se ered him &rom his data and turned one o& the most im'ressi e arra"s on genetic determinism e er com'i%ed into a mi6ed and disorder%" cro/d o&

unc%ear re%ations. #earson de ised a corre%ation coe&&icient /hich made an" discrete ariab%e the outcome o& a continuous distribution. Iu%e /as %e&t /ith on%" /ea( associations and #earson, t"ing his data together /ith his Qtetrachoric coe&&icient o& corre%ation5, cou%d trans&orm an" continuous ariab%e into a strong%" associated /ho%e o& discrete ariab%es and so soli"ly attach inte%%igence to heredit". 1his o& course did not mar( the end o& the contro ers". Iu%e tried out the #earson coe&&icient sho/ing that it arbitrari%" trans&ormed continuous ariab%es into discrete ones. $& success&u%, Iu%e /ou%d ha e de'ri ed #earson o& the su''ort o& his data. .%though this contro ers" has been continuing &or near%" a hundred "ears, the %esson &or us is that, /ith the same e;ui'ment and data, the sta%emate bet/een dissenting authors ma" be bro(en b" a sim'%e modi&ication o& /hat it is that ties the data together (/e sha%% see more o& this 'henomenon in Cha'ter -). $n each o& the e6am'%es abo e $ sho/ed ho/ a%%ies /ere enticed a/a" &rom their re'resentati e in order to ti' the ba%ance, but $ a%so indicated that this need not sett%e the debate. 3&ten it modi&ies the &ie%d o& contention enough to bu" time : not enough to /in. 1his strateg" must in genera% be combined /ith that o& section 1 in order to succeed : borro/ing more b%ac( bo6es and 'ositioning them ear%ier in the 'rocess : and /ith that o& the third section, /hich is the most daring and the most di&&icu%t to gras' &or the isiting %a"'erson.

((8-))

%8' Shaping up ne1 allies

1he dissenter, no/ the head o& a (counter:) %aborator", has im'orted as man" b%ac(:bo6ed instruments as 'ossib%e and has tried to entice his o''onent5s su''orters a/a". 9 en combining these t/o strategies he or she /i%% not &are er" /e%% since a%% scientists are '%a"ing /ith a limite" set o& instruments and actants. .&ter a &e/ mo es the contro ers" /i%% reach a ne/ sta%emate /ith the su''orters continua%%" changing cam': &or and against the manager, &or and against #asteur, &or and against Margaret Mead, &or and against #earson, /ith no end in sight. 0o credib%e &act /i%% be 'roduced in such con&usion since no third 'art" /i%% be ab%e to borro/ an" statement as a b%ac( bo6 to 'ut it to use e%se/here. $n order to brea( the sta%emate, other a%%ies /hich are not yet de&ined ha e to be brought in. Let me go bac( to the e6am'%e o& OH2H disco ered b" Scha%%" using his rat tibia carti%age assa". 7e sa/ ho/ Oui%%emin, reCecting this 5disco er"5 J no/ in ;uotation mar(sJ de ised a ne/, %ess contro ertib%e assa", the 'ituitar" ce%% cu%ture (Cha'ter 1, section )). 7ith it, he induced the OH2H su''orting Scha%%"5s c%aim to shi&t a%%iances. 2emember that /hen Scha%%" thought he had &ound a ne/ im'ortant hormone, Oui%%emin inter ened and sho/ed that this 5ne/ im'ortant hormone5 /as a contaminant, a 'iece o& haemog%obin. B" &o%%o/ing the t/o strategies /e ha e Cust de&ined, Oui%%emin /on but on%" negatively) .%though he o ercame his com'etitor, his o/n c%aims about OH2H J /hich he ca%%s O2* J are not made more credib%e. *or a third 'art" the /ho%e to'ic is sim'%" a mess &rom /hich no credib%e &act

emerges. $n the search &or the &ina% coup "e grFce, the dissenter needs something more, a su''%ement, a %itt%e 5Ce ne sais ;uoi5 that, e er"thing being e;ua%, /i%% ensure ictor" and con ince the third 'art" that the contro ers" has indeed been sett%ed. $n the (counter:) %aborator" the 'uri&ied e6tracts o& O2* are inCected into the ce%% cu%ture. 1he resu%t is a''a%%ing: nothing ha''ens. 7orse than nothing, because the resu%ts are negati e: instead o& being triggered b" O2* the gro/th hormone is decreased. Oui%%emin gi es his co%%aborator, #au% BraGeau, /ho has done the e6'eriment, a good dressing do/n. 1> 1he /ho%e instrument, su''osed to be a 'er&ect b%ac( bo6, is ca%%ed into doubt, and the /ho%e career o& BraGeau, su''osed to be a s(i%%ed and honest /or(er, is Ceo'ardised. 1he dissenterDauthor strugg%e has no/ shi&ted inside the %aborator" and the" are both tr"ing out the assa", the 'uri&ication scheme and the radio:immunoassa" e6act%" as the isitor did abo e &or endor'hin ($n #art ., section +). .t the third tria% BraGeau sti%% obtained the same resu%t. 1hat is, no matter ho/ much e&&ort he /as ma(ing, the same negati e resu%ts /ere 'roduced. 0o matter ho/ strong%" Oui%%emin attac(ed him, he /as %ed e er" time to the same sort o& ;uandar" /ith /hich $ &inished #art .: either to ;uit the game or to start discussing so man" basic, o%d and acce'ted b%ac( bo6es that the /ho%e %ab /ou%d ha e to be dismant%ed. Since the negati e resu%ts resisted a%% tria%s o& strength, since the ce%% cu%ture assa" /as %e&t indis'utab%e, and since BraGeau5s honest" and s(i%% /ere /ithstanding the shoc(, some other /ea( 'oint had to gi e /a". 1he hormone the" /ere %oo(ing &or

((87))

release" gro/th hormoneP in their hands it "ecrease" gro/th hormone. Since the" cou%d no %onger doubt that their Qhands5 /ere good, the" had to doubt the &irst de&inition or ;uit the game a%together: the" had got their hands on a hormone that "ecrease" the 'roduction o& gro/th hormone. 1he" had, in other /ords, tried out a ne; hormone, a ne/, une6'ected and sti%% unde&ined a%%" to su''ort another c%aim. 7ithin a &e/ months the" had obtained a decisi e ad antage o er Scha%%". 0ot on%" had he con&used OH2H /ith a 'iece o& haemog%obin, but he had sought the /rong substance a%% a%ong. 7e ha e reached a 'oint /hich is one o& the most de%icate o& this boo(, because, b" &o%%o/ing dissenting scientists, /e ha e access to their most decisi e arguments, to their u%timate source o& strength. Behind the te6ts, the" ha e mobi%ised inscri'tions, and sometimes huge and cost%" instruments to obtain these inscri'tions. But something e%se resists the tria%s o& strength behind the instruments, something that $ /i%% ca%% 'ro isiona%%" a ne1 ob;e&t. 1o understand /hat this is, /e shou%d stic( more care&u%%" than e er to our method o& &o%%o/ing on%" scientists5 'ractice, dea& to e er" other o'inion, to tradition, to 'hi%oso'hers, and e en to /hat scientists sa" about /hat the" do (see /h" in the %ast 'art o& this cha'ter). 7hat is a ne/ obCect in the hands o& a scientist? Consider the O2* that Oui%%emin and BraGeau /ere e6'ecting to &ind: it /as de&ined b" its e&&ect on tibia carti%age assa" and in ce%%

cu%tures. 1he e&&ect /as uncertain in the &irst assa", certain and negati e in the second. 1he de&inition had to change. 1he ne/ obCect, at the time o& its ince'tion, is sti%% unde&ined. More e6act%", it is de&ined b" /hat it does in the %aborator" tria%s, nothing more, nothing less: its tendenc" to decrease the re%ease o& gro/th hormone in the 'ituitar" ce%%s cu%ture. 1he et"mo%og" o& Qde&inition5 /i%% he%' us here since de&ining something means 'ro iding it /ith %imits or edges GfinisH, gi ing it a sha'e. O2* had a sha'eP this sha'e /as &ormed b" the ans/ers it ga e to a series o& tria%s inscribed on the /indo/ o& an instrument. 7hen the ans/ers changed and cou%d not be ignored a ne/ sha'e /as 'ro ided, a ne/ thing emerged, a something, sti%% unnamed, that did e6act%" the o''osite o& O2*. 3bser e that in the %aborator", the ne/ obCect is name" after ;hat it "oes: Qsomething that inhibits the re%ease o& gro/th hormone5. Oui%%emin then in ents a ne/ /ord that summarises the actions de&ining the thing. He ca%%s it Qsomatostatin5 J that /hich b%oc(s the bod" (im'%"ing bod" gro/th). 0o/ that somatostatin is named and acce'ted, its 'ro'erties ha e changed and are not o& interest to us at this 'oint. 7hat counts &or us is to understand the ne/ obCect Cust at the moment o& its emergence. $nside the %aborator" the ne/ obCect is a list of ;ritten ans;ers to trials) 9 er"one toda" ta%(s &or instance o& 5enG"mes5 /hich are /e%%:(no/n obCects. 7hen the strange things %ater ca%%ed 5enG"mes5 /ere emerging among com'eting %aboratories, scientists s'o(e o& them in er" di&&erent terms: 11 (8) *rom the %i;uid 'roduced b" macerating ma%t, #a"en and #ersoG are %earning to e6tract, through the action o& a%coho%, a so%id, /hite, amor'hous, neutra%, more or

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%ess taste%ess substance that is inso%ub%e in a%coho%, so%ub%e in /ater and /ea( a%coho%, and /hich cannot be 'reci'itated b" sub:%ead acetate. 7armed &rom -8\ to 78\ /ith starch in the 'resence o& /ater, it se'arates o&& a so%ub%e substance, /hich is de6trin. .t the time o& its emergence, "ou cannot do better than e6'%ain /hat the ne/ obCect is b" re'eating the %ist o& its constituti e actions: 5/ith . it does this, /ith C it does that.5 $t has no other shape than this list) 1he 'roo& is that i& "ou add an item to the %ist "ou re"efine the ob=ect, that is, "ou gi e it a ne/ sha'e. 5Somatostatin5 &or instance /as de&ined b" the no/ /e%%:estab%ished &act that, coming &rom the h"'otha%amus, it inhibited the re%ease o& gro/th hormone. 1he disco er" $ summarised abo e /as described in this /a" &or a &e/ months a&ter its construction. 7hen another %aborator" added that somatostatin /as a%so &ound in the 'ancreas and inhibited not on%" gro/th hormone but a%so g%ucagon and insu%in 'roduction, the de&inition o& somatostatin had to be changed, in the same /a" as the de&inition o& O2* had to be a%tered /hen BraGeau &ai%ed to get 'ositi e resu%ts in his assa". 1he ne/ obCect is com'%ete%e" de&ined b" the %ist o& ans/ers in %aborator" tria%s. 1o re'eat this essentia% 'oint in a %ighter /a", the ne/ obCect is a%/a"s ca%%ed a&ter a name o& actions summarising the tria%s it

/ithstood %i(e the o%d 2ed $ndian a''e%%ations 5Bear <i%%er5 or 54read 0othing5 or 5Stronger than a Bison5S $n the strategies /e ha e ana%"sed so &ar, the s'o(es'erson and the actants he or she re'resented /ere a%read" 'resent, arra"ed and /e%% dri%%ed. $n this ne/ strateg" the re'resentati es are %oo(ing &or actants the" do not (no/ and the on%" thing the" can sa" is to %ist the ans/ers the actants ma(e under tria%s. #ierre and Marie Curie origina%%" had no name &or the 5substance 65 the" tried out. $n the %aborator" o& the 9co%e de Chimie the on%" /a" to sha'e this ne/ obCect is to mu%ti'%" the tria%s it undergoes, to attac( it b" a%% sorts o& terrib%e ordea%s (acids, heat, co%d, 'resure). 1) 7i%% something resist a%% these tria%s and tribu%ations? $& so, then here it is, the ne/ obCect. .t the end o& their %ong %ist o& 5su&&erings5 undergone b" the ne/ substance (and a%so b" the un&ortunate Curies attac(ed b" the dead%" ra"s so care%ess%" hand%ed) the authors 'ro'ose a ne/ name : 5'o%onium5. 1oda" 'o%onium is one o& the radioacti e e%ementsP at the time o& its ince'tion it /as the %ong %ist o& tria%s success&u%%" /ithstood in the Curies5 %aborator": (9) #ierre and Marie Curie: :Here is the ne/ substance emerging &rom this mi6ture, 'itchb%ende, see? $t ma(es the air become conducti e. Iou can e en measure its acti it" /ith the instrument that #ierre de ised, a ;uartG e%ectrometer, right here. 1his is ho/ /e &o%%o/ our hero5s &ate through a%% his ordea%s and tribu%ations. Scienti&ic 3bCector: 1his is &ar &rom ne/, uranium and thorium are a%so acti e. J Ies, but /hen "ou attac( the mi6ture /ith acids, "ou get a %i;uor. 1hen, /hen "ou treat this %i;uor /ith su%'hurated h"drogen, uranium and thorium sta" /ith the %i;uor, /hi%e our "oung hero is 'reci'itated as a su%'huride. J 7hat does that 'ro e? Lead, bismuth, co''er, arsenic and antimon" a%% 'ass this

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tria% as /e%%, the" too are 'reci'itatedS J But i& "ou tr" to ma(e a%% o& them so%ub%e in ammonium su%'hate, the acti e something resists .. . J 3(a", $ admit it is not arsenic, nor antimon", but it might be one o& the /e%%:(no/n heroes o& the 'ast, %ead, co''er or bismuth. J $m'ossib%e, dear, since %ead is 'reci'itated b" su%'huric acid /hi%e the substance sta"s in so%utionP as &or co''er, ammoniac 'reci'itates it.

J So /hat? 1his means that "our so:ca%%ed 5acti e substance5 is sim'%" bismuth. $t adds a 'ro'ert" to good o%d bismuth, that o& acti it". $t does not de&ine a ne/ substance. J $t does not? 7e%%, te%% us /hat /i%% ma(e "ou acce't that there is a substance? J Sim'%" sho/ me one tria% in /hich bismuth reacts di&&erent%" &rom "our 5hero5. J 1r" heating it in a Boheme tube, under acuum, at 7>>\ centigrade. .nd /hat ha''ens? Bismuth sta"s in the hottest area o& the tube, /hi%e a strange b%ac( soot gathers in the coo%er areas. 1his is more acti e than the materia% /ith /hich /e started. .nd "ou (no/ /hat? $& "ou do this se era% times, the 5something5 that "ou con&use /ith bismuth ends u' being &our hundred times more acti e than uraniumS J ... J .h, "ou remain si%ent .... 7e there&ore be%ie e that the substance /e ha e e6tracted &rom 'itchb%ende is a hitherto un(no/n meta%. $& the e6istence o& this ne/ meta% is con&irmed /e 'ro'ose to name it 'o%onium a&ter Marie5s nati e countr". 7hat are these &amous things /hich are said to be behind the te6ts made o&? 1he" are made o& a %ist o& ictories: it de&eated uranium and thorium at the su%'hurated h"drogen gameP it de&eated antimon" and arsenic at the ammonium su%'hur gameP and then it &orced %ead and co''er to thro/ in the s'onge, on%" bismuth /ent a%% the /a" to the semi:&ina%, but it too got beaten do/n during the &ina% game o& heat and co%dS .t the beginning o& its de&inition the 5thing5 is a score list &or a series o& tria%s. Some o& these tria%s are im'osed on it either b" the scienti&ic obCector and tradition J &or instance to de&ine /hat is a meta% J or tai%ored b" the authors J %i(e the tria% b" heat. 1he 5things5 behind the scienti&ic te6ts are thus simi%ar to the heroes o& the stories /e sa/ at the end o& Cha'ter 1: the" are a%% de&ined b" their performan&es. Some in &air" ta%es de&eat the ug%iest se en:headed dragons or against a%% odds the" sa e the (ing5s daughterP others inside %aboratories resist 'reci'itation or the" trium'h o er bismuth . . . . .t &irst, there is no other /a" to (no/ the essence o& the hero. 1his does not %ast %ong ho/e er, because each 'er&ormance 'resu''oses a &ompeten&e 1+ /hich retros'ecti e%" e6'%ains /h" the hero /ithstood a%% the ordea%s. 1he hero is no %onger a score %ist o& actionsP he, she or it is an essence s%o/%" un ei%ed through each o& his, her or its mani&estations. $t is c%ear b" no/ to the reader /h" $ introduced the /ord 5actant5 ear%ier to describe /hat the s'o(es'erson re'resents. Behind the te6ts, behind the instruments, inside the %aborator", /e do not ha e 0ature J not "et, the reader /i%% ha e to /ait &or the ne6t 'art. 7hat /e ha e is an arra" a%%o/ing ne/ e6treme constraints to be im'osed on 5something5. 1his 5something5 is 'rogressi e%" sha'ed b" its re:actions to these conditions. 1his is /hat is behind a%% the

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arguments /e ha e ana%"sed so &ar. 7hat /as the endor'hin tried out b" the dissenter in #art ., section +? 1he su'erim'osition o& the traces obtained b": a sacri&iced guinea 'ig /hose gut /as then hoo(ed u' to e%ectric /ires and regu%ar%" stimu%atedP a h"'otha%amus sou' e6tracted a&ter man" tria%s &rom s%aughtered shee' and then &orced through H#LC co%umns under a er" high 'ressure. 9ndor'hin, be&ore being named and &or as %ong as it is a ne/ obCect, is this %ist rea"able on the instruments in the #ro&essor5s %aborator". So is a microbe %ong be&ore being ca%%ed such. .t &irst it is something that trans&orms sugar into a%coho% in #asteur5s %ab. 1his something is narro/ed do/n b" the mu%ti'%ication o& &eats it is as(ed to do. *ermentation sti%% occurs in the absence o& air but sto's /hen air is reintroduced. 1his e6'%oit de&ines a ne/ hero that is (i%%ed b" air but brea(s do/n sugar in its absence, a hero that /i%% be ca%%ed, %i(e the $ndians abo e, Q.naerobic5 or QSur i or in the .bsence o& .ir5. Laboratories generate so man" ne/ obCects because the" are ab%e to create e6treme conditions and because each o& these actions is obsessi e%" inscribed. 1his naming a&ter /hat the ne/ obCect does is in no /a" %imited to actants %i(e hormones or radioacti e substances, that is to the %aboratories o& /hat are o&ten ca%%ed 5e6'erimenta% sciences5. Mathematics a%so de&ines its subCects b" /hat the" "o) 7hen Cantor, the Oerman mathematician, ga e a sha'e to his trans&inite numbers, the sha'e o& his ne/ obCects /as obtained b" ha ing them undergo the sim'%est and most radica% tria%: 1, is it 'ossib%e to estab%ish a one:to:one connection bet/een, &or instance, the set o& 'oints com'rising a unit s;uare and the set o& rea% numbers bet/een > and 1? $t seems absurd at &irst since it /ou%d mean that there are as man" numbers on one side o& a s;uare as in the /ho%e s;uare. 1he tria% is de ised so as to see i& t/o di&&erent numbers in the s;uare ha e di&&erent images on the side or not (thus &orming a one:to:one corres'ondence) or i& the" ha e on%" one image (thus &orming a t/o:to:one corres'ondence). 1he /ritten ans/er on the /hite sheet o& 'a'er is incredib%e: 5$ see it but $ don5t be%ie e it,5 /rote Cantor to 4ede(ind. 1here are as man" numbers on the side as in the s;uare. Cantor creates his trans&inites &rom their 'er&ormance in these e6treme, scarce%" concei ab%e conditions. 1he act o& de&ining a ne/ obCect b" the ans/ers it inscribes on the /indo/ o& an instrument 'ro ides scientists and engineers /ith their &ina% source o& strength. $t constitutes our se&ond basi& prin&iple. as im'ortant as the &irst in order to understand science in the ma(ing: scientists and engineers s'ea( in the name o& ne/ a%%ies that the" ha e sha'ed and enro%%edP re'resentati es among other re'resentati es, the" add these une6'ected resources to ti' the ba%ance o& &orce in their &a our. Oui%%emin no/ s'ea(s &or endor'hin and somatostatin, #asteur &or isib%e microbes, the Curies &or 'o%onium, #a"en and #ersoG &or enG"mes, Cantor &or trans&inites. 7hen the" are cha%%enged, the" cannot be iso%ated, but on the contrar" their constituenc" stands behind them arra"ed in tiers and read" to sa" the same thing.

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%<' ,aboratories against laboratories

3ur good &riend, the dissenter, has no/ come a %ong /a". He or she is no %onger the sh" %istener to a technica% %ecture, the timid on%oo(er o& a scienti&ic e6'eriment, the 'o%ite contradictor. He or she is no/ the head o& a 'o/er&u% %aborator" uti%ising a%% a ai%ab%e instruments, &orcing the 'henomena su''orting the com'etitors to su''ort him or her instead, and sha'ing a%% sorts o& une6'ected obCects b" im'osing harsher and %onger tria%s. 1he 'o/er o& this %aborator" is measured b" the e6treme conditions it is ab%e to create: huge acce%erators o& mi%%ions o& e%ectron o%tsP tem'eratures a''roaching abso%ute GeroP arra"s o& radio: te%esco'es s'anning (i%ometresP &urnaces heating u' to thousands o& degreesP 'ressures e6erted at thousands o& atmos'heresP anima% ;uarters /ith thousands o& rats or guinea 'igsP gigantic number crunchers ab%e to do thousands o& o'erations 'er mi%%isecond. 9ach modi&ication o& these conditions a%%o/s the dissenter to mobi%ise one more actant. . change &rom micro to 'hentogram, &rom mi%%ion to bi%%ion e%ectron o%tsP %enses going &rom metres to tens o& metresP tests going &rom hundreds to thousands o& anima%sP and the sha'e o& a ne/ actant is thus rede&ined. .%% e%se being e;ua%, the 'o/er o& the %aborator" is thus 'ro'ortionate to the number o& actants it can mobi%ise on its beha%&. .t this 'oint, statements are not borro/ed, trans&ormed or dis'uted b" em't":handed %a"'eo'%e, but b" scientists /ith /ho%e %aboratories behin" them. Ho/e er, to gain the &ina% edge on the o''osing %aborator", the dissenter must carr" out a &ourth strateg": he or she must be ab%e to trans&orm the ne/ obCects into, so to s'ea(, o%der obCects and &eed them bac( into his or her %ab. 7hat ma(es a %aborator" di&&icu%t to understand is not /hat is 'resent%" going on in it, but /hat has been going on in it and in other %abs. 9s'ecia%%" di&&icu%t to gras' is the /a" in /hich ne/ obCects are immediate%" trans&ormed into something e%se. .s %ong as somatostatin, 'o%onium, trans&inite numbers, or anaerobic microbes are sha'ed b" the %ist o& tria%s $ summarised abo e, it is eas" to re%ate to them: te%% me /hat "ou go through and $ /i%% te%% "ou /hat "ou are. 1his situation, ho/e er, does not %ast. 0e/ obCects become things: 5somatostatin5, 5'o%onium5, 5anaerobic microbes5, 5trans&inite numbers5, 5doub%e he%i65 or I*agle com'uters5, things iso%ated &rom the %aborator" conditions that sha'ed them, things /ith a name that no/ seem inde'endent &rom the tria%s in /hich the" 'ro ed their mett%e. 1his 'rocess o& trans&ormation is a er" common one and occurs constant%" both &or %a"'eo'%e and &or the scientist. .%% bio%ogists no/ ta(e 5'rotein5 &or an obCectP the" do not remember the time, in the 19)>s, /hen 'rotein /as a /hitish stu&& that /as se'arated b" a ne/ u%tracentri&uge in S edberg5s %aborator". 18 .t the time 'rotein /as nothing but the action o& di&&erentiating ce%% contents b" a centri&uge. 2outine use ho/e er trans&orms the naming o& an actant a&ter /hat it does into a common name. 1his 'rocess is not m"sterious or s'ecia% to science. $t is the same /ith the can o'ener /e routine%" use in our (itchen. 7e consider the o'ener and the s(i%% to hand%e it as one b%ac( bo6 /hich means that it is un'rob%ematic and does not re;uire '%anning and

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attention. 7e &orget the man" tria%s /e had to go through (b%ood, scars, s'i%%ed beans and ra io%i, shouting 'arent) be&ore /e hand%ed it 'ro'er%", antici'ating the /eight o& the can, the reactions o& the o'ener, the resistance o& the tin. $t is on%" /hen /atching our o/n (ids sti%% %earning it the hard /a" that /e might remember ho/ it /as /hen the can o'ener /as a 5ne/ obCect5 &or us, de&ined b" a %ist o& tria%s so %ong that it cou%d de%a" dinner &or e er. 1his 'rocess o& routinisation is common enough. 7hat is %ess common is the /a" the same 'eo'%e /ho constant%" generate ne/ obCects to /in in a contro ers" are a%so constant%" trans&orming them into re%ati e%" o%der ones in order to /in sti%% &aster and irre ersib%". .s soon as somatostatin has ta(en sha'e, a ne/ bioassa" is de ised in /hich sosmatostatin ta(es the ro%e o& a stab%e, un'rob%ematic substance in a tria% set u' &or trac(ing do/n a ne/ 'rob%ematic substance, O2*. .s soon as S edberg has de&ined 'rotein, the u%tracentri&uge is made a routine too% o& the %aborator" bench and is em'%o"ed to de&ine the constituents o& 'roteins. 0o sooner has 'o%onium emerged &rom /hat it did in the %ist o& ordea%s abo e than it is turned into one o& the /e%%:(no/n radioacti e e%ements /ith /hich one can design an e6'eriment to iso%ate a ne/ radioacti e substance &urther do/n in Mende%ee 5s tab%e. 1he %ist o& tria%s becomes a thingP it is %itera%%" reifie") 1his 'rocess o& rei&ication is isib%e /hen going &rom ne/ obCects to o%der ones, but it is a%so re ersib%e a%though %ess isib%e /hen going &rom "ounger to o%der ones. .%% the ne/ obCects /e ana%"sed in the section abo e /ere &ramed and de&ined b" stab%e b%ac( bo6es /hich had earlier been ne/ obCects be&ore being simi%ar%" rei&ied. 9ndor'hin /as made isib%e in 'art because the i%eum /as (no/n to go on 'u%sating %ong a&ter guinea 'igs are sacri&iced: /hat /as a ne/ obCect se era% decades ear%ier in 'h"sio%og" /as one o& the b%ac( bo6es 'artici'ating in the endor'hin assa", as /as mor'hine itse%&. Ho/ cou%d the ne/ un(no/n substance ha e been com'ared i& mor'hine had not been (no/n? Mor'hine, /hich had been a ne/ obCect de&ined b" its tria%s in Seguin5s %aborator" sometime in 18>,, /as used b" Oui%%emin in conCunction /ith the guinea 'ig i%eum to set u' the conditions de&ining endor'hin. 1his a%so a''%ies to the 'h"siogra'h, in ented b" the *rench 'h"sio%ogist Mare" at the end o& the nineteenth centur". 7ithout it, the trans&ormation o& gut 'u%sation /ou%d not ha e been made gra'hica%%" isib%e. Simi%ar%" &or the e%ectronic hard/are that enhanced the signa%s and made them strong enough to acti ate the 'h"siogra'h st"%us. 4ecades o& ad anced e%ectronics during /hich man" ne/ 'henomena had been de ised /ere mobi%ised here b" Oui%%emin to ma(e u' another 'art o& the assa" &or endor'hin. .n" ne/ obCect is thus sha'ed b" simu%taneous%" im'orting man" o%der ones in their rei&ied &orm. Some o& the im'orted obCects are &rom "oung or o%d disci'%ines or 'ertain to harder or so&ter ones. 1he 'oint is that the ne/ obCect emerges &rom a com'%e6 set:u' o& sedimented e%ements each o& /hich has been a ne/ obCect at some 'oint in time and s'ace. 1he genea%og" and the archaeo%og" o& this sedimented 'ast is a%/a"s 'ossib%e in theor" but becomes more and more di&&icu%t as time goes b" and the number o& e%ements mustered increases.

((9+))

$t is Cust as di&&icu%t to go bac( to the time o& their emergence as it is to contest them) 1he reader /i%% ha e certain%" noticed that /e ha e gone &u%% circ%e &rom the &irst section o& this 'art (borro/ing more b%ac( bo6es) to this section (b%ac(bo6ing more obCects). $t is indeed a circ%e /ith a &eedbac( mechanism that creates better and better %aboratories b" bringing in as man" ne/ obCects as 'ossib%e in as rei&ied a &orm as 'ossib%e. $& the dissenter ;uic(%" re: im'orts somatostatin, endor'hin, 'o%onium, trans&inite numbers as so man" incontro ertib%e b%ac( bo6es, his or her o''onent /i%% be made a%% the /ea(er. His or her abi%it" to dis'ute /i%% be decreased since he or she /i%% no/ be &aced /ith 'i%es o& b%ac( bo6es, ob%iged to untie the %in(s bet/een more and more e%ements coming &rom a more and more remote 'ast, &rom harder disci'%ines, and 'resented in a more rei&ied &orm. Has the shi&t been noticed? $t is no/ the author /ho is /ea(er and the dissenter stronger. 1he author must no/ either bui%d a better %aborator" in order to dis'ute the dissenter5s c%aim and ti' the ba%ance o& 'o/er bac( again, or ;uit the game J or a''%" one o& the man" tactics to esca'e the 'rob%em a%together that /e /i%% see in the second 'art o& this boo(. 1he end%ess s'ira% has tra e%%ed one more %oo'. Laboratories gro/ because o& the number o& e%ements &ed bac( into them, and this gro/th is irre ersib%e since no dissenterDauthor is ab%e to enter into the &ra" %ater /ith &e/er resources at his or her dis'osa% J e er"thing e%se being e;ua%. Beginning /ith a &e/ chea' e%ements borro/ed &rom common 'ractice, %aboratories end u' a&ter se era% c"c%es o& contest /ith cost%" and enormous%" com'%e6 set:u's er" remote &rom common 'ractice. 1he di&&icu%t" o& gras'ing /hat goes on inside their /a%%s thus comes &rom the sediment o& /hat has been going on in other %aboratories ear%ier in time and e%se/here in s'ace. 1he tria%s current%" being undergone b" the ne/ obCect the" gi e sha'e to are 'robab%" eas" to e6'%ain to the %a"'erson J and /e are a%% %a"'eo'%e so &ar as disci'%ines other than our o/n are concernedJbut the o%der obCects ca'ita%ised in the man" instruments are not. 1he %a"man is a/ed b" the %aborator" set:u', and right%" so. 1here are not man" '%aces under the sun /here so man" and such hard resources are gathered in so great numbers, sedimented in so man" %a"ers, ca'ita%ised on such a %arge sca%e. 7hen con&ronted ear%ier b" the technica% %iterature /e cou%d brush it asideP con&ronted b" %aboratories /e are sim'%" and %itera%%" im'ressed. 7e are %e&t /ithout 'o/er, that is, /ithout resource to contest, to reo'en the b%ac( bo6es, to generate ne/ obCects, to dis'ute the s'o(esmen5s authorit". Laboratories are no/ 'o/er&u% enough to de&ine reality. 1o ma(e sure that our tra e% through technoscience is not sti&%ed b" com'%icated de&initions o& rea%it", /e need a sim'%e and sturd" one ab%e to /ithstand the Courne": rea%it" as the %atin /ord res indicates, is /hat resists) 7hat does it resist? Trials of strength) &f, in a gi en situation, no dissenter is ab%e to modi&" the sha'e o& a ne/ obCect, then that5s it, it is rea%it", at %east &or as %ong as the tria%s o& strength are not modi&ied. $n the e6am'%es abo e so man" resources ha e been mobi%ised in the %ast t/o cha'ters b" the dissenters to su''ort these c%aims that, /e must admit, resistance /i%% be ain: the c%aim has to be true. 1he minute the contest sto's, the minute $

((9,))

/rite the /ord 5true5, a ne/, &ormidab%e a%%" sudden%" a''ears in the /inner5s cam', an a%%" in isib%e unti% then, but beha ing no/ as i& it had been there a%% a%ong: 0ature.

$art C. Appealing %to' Nature

Some readers /i%% thin( that it is about time $ ta%(ed o& 0ature and the rea% obCects behin" the te6ts and behind the %abs. But it is not $ /ho am %ate in &ina%%" ta%(ing about rea%it". 2ather, it is 0ature /ho a%/a"s arri es %ate, too %ate to e6'%ain the rhetoric o& scienti&ic te6ts and the bui%ding o& %aboratories. 1his be%ated, sometimes &aith&u% and sometimes &ic(%e a%%" haU com'%icated the stud" o& technoscience unti% no/ so much that /e need to understand it i& /e /ish to continue our tra e% through the construction o& &acts and arte&acts.

%(' =Natur mit uns4

5Be%ated?5 5*ic(%e?5 $ can hear the scientists $ ha e shado/ed so &ar becoming incensed b" /hat $ ha e Cust /ritten. 5.%% this is %udicrous because the reading and the /riting, the st"%e and the b%ac( bo6es, the %aborator" set:u'sJindeed a%% e6isting 'henomena J are sim'%" means to e6'ress something, ehic%es &or con e"ing this &ormidab%e a%%". 7e might acce't these ideas o& 5inscri'tions5, "our em'hasis on contro ersies, and a%so 'erha's the notions o& 5a%%"5, 5ne/ obCect5, 5actant5 and 5su''orter5, but "ou ha e omitted the on%" im'ortant one, the on%" su''orter /ho rea%%" counts, 0ature herse%&. Her 'resence or absence e6'%ains it a%%. 7hoe er has 0ature in their cam' /ins, no matter /hat the odds against them are. 2emember Oa%i%eo5s sentence, 51>>> 4emosthenes and 1>>> .ristot%es ma" be routed b" an" a erage man /ho brings 0ature in.5 .%% the &%o/ers o& rhetoric, a%% the c%e er contra'tions set u' in the %aboratories "ou describe, a%% /i%% be dismant%ed once /e go &rom contro ersies about 0ature to /hat 0ature is. 1he Oo%iath o& rhetoric /ith his %aborator" set:u' and a%% his attendant #hi%istines /i%% be 'ut to &%ight b" one 4a id a%one using sim'%e truths about 0ature in his s%ingshotS So %et us &orget a%% about /hat "ou ha e been /riting &or a hundred 'ages : e en i& "ou c%aim to ha e been sim'%" &o%%o/ing usJ and %et us see 0ature &ace to &aceS5 $s this not a re&reshing obCection? $t means that Oa%i%eo /as right a&ter a%%. 1he dreadnoughts $ studied in Cha'ters 1 and ) ma" be easi%" de&eated in s'ite o& the man" associations the" (nit, /ea e and (not. .n" dissenter has got a chance. 7hen &aced /ith so much scienti&ic %iterature and such huge %aboratories, he or she has Cust to %oo( at 0ature in order to /in. $t means that there is a supplement, something more /hich is no/here in the scienti&ic 'a'ers and no/here in the %abs /hich is ab%e to sett%e a%% matters o& dis'ute. 1his obCection is a%% the more

((98))

re&reshing since it is made b" the scientists themse% es, a%though it is c%ear that this rehabi%itation o& the a erage /oman or man, o& Ms or Mr .n"bod", is a%so an indictment o& these cro/ds o& a%%ies mustered b" the same scientists. Let us acce't this '%easant obCection and see ho/ the a''ea% to 0ature he%'s us to distinguish bet/een, &or instance, Scha%%"5s c%aim about OH2H and Oui%%emin5s c%aim about O2*. 1he" both /rote con incing 'a'ers, arra"ing man" resources /ith ta%ent. 3ne is su''orted b" 0atureJ so his c%aim /i%% be made a &actJ and the other is not J it ensues that his c%aim /i%% be turned into an arte&act b" the others. .ccording to the abo e obCections, readers /i%% &ind it eas" to gi e the casting ote. 1he" sim'%" ha e to see /ho has got 0ature on his side. $t is Cust as eas" to se'arate the &uture o& &ue% ce%%s &rom that o& batteries. 1he" both contend &or a s%ice o& the mar(etP the" both c%aim to be the best and most e&&icient. 1he 'otentia% bu"er, the in estor, the ana%"st are %ost in the mist o& a contro ers", reading stac(s o& s'ecia%ised %iterature. .ccording to the abo e obCection, their %i&e /i%% no/ be easier. Fust /atch to see on /hose beha%& 0ature /i%% ta%(. $t is as sim'%e as in the strugg%es sung in the $%iad: /ait &or the goddess to ti' the ba%ance in &a our o& one cam' or the other. . &ierce contro ers" di ides the astro'h"sicists /ho ca%cu%ate the number o& neutrinos coming out o& the sun and 4a is, the e6'erimenta%ist /ho obtains a much sma%%er &igure. $t is eas" to distinguish them and 'ut the contro ers" to rest. Fust %et us see &or ourse% es in /hich cam' the sun is rea%%" to be &ound. Some/here the natura% sun /ith its true number o& neutrinos /i%% c%ose the mouths o& dissenters and &orce them to acce't the &acts no matter ho/ /e%% /ritten these 'a'ers /ere. .nother io%ent dis'ute di ides those /ho be%ie e dinosaurs to ha e been co%d:b%ooded (%aG", hea ", stu'id and s'ra/%ing creatures) and those /ho thin( that dinosaurs /ere /arm: b%ooded (s/i&t, %ight, cunning and running anima%s). 1- $& /e su''ort the obCection, there /ou%d be no need &or the 5a erage man5 to read the 'i%es o& s'ecia%ised artic%es that ma(e u' this debate. $t is enough to /ait &or 0ature to sort them out. 0ature /ou%d be %i(e Ood, /ho in medie a% times Cudged bet/een t/o dis'utants b" %etting the innocent /in. $n these &our cases o& contro ers" generating more and more technica% 'a'ers and bigger and bigger %aboratories or co%%ections, 0ature5s oice is enough to sto' the noise. 1hen the ob ious ;uestion to as(, i& $ /ant to do Custice to the obCection abo e, is 5/hat does 0ature sa"?5 Scha%%" (no/s the ans/er 'rett" /e%%. He to%d us in his 'a'er, OH2H is this amino:acid se;uence, not because he imagined it, or made it u', or con&used a 'iece o& haemog%obin &or this %ong:sought:a&ter hormone, but because this is /hat the mo%ecu%e is in 0ature, inde'endent%" o& his /ishes. 1his is a%so /hat Oui%%emin sa"s, not o& Scha%%"5s se;uence, /hich is a mere arte&act, but o& his substance, O2*. 1here is sti%% doubt as to the e6act nature o& the rea% h"'otha%amic O2* com'ared /ith that o& the 'ancreas, but on the /ho%e it is certain that O2* is indeed the amino:acid se;uence cited in Cha'ter 1. 0o/, /e ha e got a 'rob%em. Both contenders ha e 0ature in their cam' and sa" /hat it

((9-))

sa"s. Ho%d itS 1he cha%%engers are su''osed to be re&ereed b" 0ature, and not to start another dis'ute about /hat 0ature5s oice rea%%" said. 7e are not going to be ab%e to sto' this ne/ dis'ute about the re&eree, ho/e er, since the same con&usion arises /hen &ue% ce%%s and batteries are o''osed. 51he technica% di&&icu%ties are not insurmountab%e,5 sa" the &ue% ce%%5s su''orters. 5$t5s Cust that an in&initesima% amount has been s'ent on their reso%ution com'ared to the interna% combustion engine5s. *ue% ce%%s are 0ature5s /a" o& storing energ"P gi e us more mone" and "ou5%% see.5 7ait, /aitS 7e /ere su''osed to Cudge the technica% %iterature b" ta(ing another outsider5s 'oint o& ie/, not to be dri en bac( insi"e the %iterature and "eeper into %aboratories. Iet it is not 'ossib%e to /ait outside, because in the third e6am'%e a%so, more and more 'a'ers are 'ouring in, dis'uting the mode% o& the sun and modi&"ing the number o& neutrinos emitted. 1he rea% sun is a%ternate%" on the side o& the theoreticians /hen the" accuse the e6'erimenta%ists o& being mista(en and on the side o& the %atter /hen the" accuse the &ormer o& ha ing set u' a &ictiona% mode% o& the sun5s beha iour. 1his is too un&air. 1he rea% sun /as as(ed to te%% the t/o contenders a'art, not to become "et another bone o& contention. More bones are to be &ound in the 'a%eonto%ogists5 dis'ute /here the rea% dinosaur has 'rob%ems about gi ing the casting ote. 0o one (no/s &or sure /hat it /as. 1he ordea% might end, but is the /inner rea%%" innocent or sim'%" stronger or %uc(ier? $s the /arm:b%ooded dinosaur more %i(e the rea% dinosaur, or is it Cust that its 'ro'onents are stronger than those o& the co%d:b%ooded one? 7e e6'ected a &ina% ans/er b" using 0ature5s oice. 7hat /e got /as a ne/ &ight o er the com'osition, content, e6'ression and meaning o& that oice. 1hat is, /e get more technica% %iterature and larger co%%ections in bigger 0atura% Histor" Museums, not %essP more debates and not %ess. $ interru't the e6ercise here. $t is c%ear b" no/ that a''%"ing the scientists5 obCection to an" contro ers" is %i(e 'ouring oi% on a &ire, it ma(es it &%are ane/. 0ature is not outside the &ighting cam's. She is, much %i(e Ood in not:so:ancient /ars, as(ed to su''ort a%% the enemies at once. 50atur mit uns5 is embroidered on a%% the banners and is not su&&icient to 'ro ide one cam' /ith the /inning edge. So /hat is su&&icient?

%5' he double7talk of the t1o7fa&ed >anus

$ cou%d be accused o& ha ing been a bit disingenuous /hen a''%"ing scientists5 obCections. 7hen the" said that something more than association and numbers is needed to sett%e a debate, something outside a%% our human con&%icts and inter'retations, something the" ca%% 50ature5 &or /ant o& a better term, something that e entua%%" /i%% distinguish the /inners and the %osers, the" did not mean to sa" that /e (no/ /hat it is. 1his su''%ement be"ond the %iterature and %aborator" tria%s is un(no/n and this is /h" the" %oo( &or it, ca%% themse% es 5researchers5, /rite so man" 'a'ers and mobi%ise so man" instruments.

((97))

5$t is %udicrous,5 $ hear them arguing, 5to imagine that 0ature5s oice cou%d sto' Oui%%emin and Scha%%" &rom &ighting, cou%d re ea% /hether &ue% ce%%s are su'erior to batteries or /hether 7atson and Cric(5s mode% is better than that o& #au%ing. $t is absurd to imagine that 0ature, %i(e a goddess, /i%% isib%" ti' the sca%e in &a our o& one cam' or that the Sun Ood /i%% barge into an astro'h"sics meeting to dri e a /edge bet/een theoreticians and e6'erimenta%istsP and sti%% more ridicu%ous to imagine rea% dinosaurs in ading a 0atura% Histor" Museum in order to be com'ared /ith their '%aster mode%sS 7hat /e meant, /hen contesting "our obsession /ith rhetoric and mobi%isation o& b%ac( bo6es, /as that once the controversy is settle", it is Nature the final ally that has settle" it and not an" rhetorica% tric(s and too%s or an" %aborator" contra'tions.5 $& /e sti%% /ish to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers in their construction o& technoscience, /e ha e got a maCor 'rob%em here. 3n the one hand scientists hera%d 0ature as the on%" 'ossib%e adCudicator o& a dis'ute, on the other the" recruit count%ess a%%ies /hi%e /aiting &or 0ature to dec%are herse%&. Sometimes 4a id is ab%e to de&eat a%% the #hi%istines /ith on%" one s%ingshotP at other times, it is better to ha e s/ords, chariots and man" more, better:dri%%ed so%diers than the #hi%istinesS $t is crucia% &or us, %a"'eo'%e /ho /ant to understand technoscience, to decide /hich ersion is right, because in the &irst ersion, as 0ature is enough to sett%e a%% dis'utes, /e ha e nothing to do since no matter ho/ %arge the resources o& the scientists are, the" do not matter in the end J on%" 0ature matters. 3ur cha'ters ma" not be a%% /rong, but the" become use%ess since the" mere%" %oo( at tri&%es and addenda and it is certain%" no use going on &or &our other cha'ters to &ind sti%% more tri ia. $n the second ersion, ho/e er, /e ha e a %ot o& /or( to do since, b" ana%"sing the a%%ies and resources that sett%e a contro ers" /e understand everything that there is to understand in technoscience. $& the &irst ersion is correct, there is nothing &or us to do a'art &rom catching the most su'er&icia% as'ects o& scienceP i& the second ersion is maintained, there is e er"thing to understand e6ce't 'erha's the most su'er&%uous and &%ash" as'ects o& science. Oi en the sta(es, the reader /i%% rea%ise /h" this 'rob%em shou%d be tac(%ed /ith caution. 1he /ho%e boo( is in Ceo'ard" here. 1he 'rob%em is made a%% the more tric(" since scientists simultaneously assert the t/o contradictor" ersions, dis'%a"ing an ambi a%ence /hich cou%d 'ara%"se a%% our e&&orts to &o%%o/ them. 7e /ou%d indeed be 'ara%"sed, %i(e most o& our 'redecessors, i& /e /ere not used to this doub%e:ta%( or the t/o:&aced Fanus (see introduction). 1he t/o ersions are contradictor" but the" are not uttered b" the same &ace o& Fanus. 1here is again a c%ear:cut distinction bet/een /hat scientists sa" about the co%d sett%ed 'art and about the /arm unsett%ed 'art o& the research &ront. .s %ong as contro ersies are ri&e, 0ature is ne er used as the &ina% arbiter since no one (no/s /hat she is and sa"s. But once the controversy is settle", 0ature is the u%timate re&eree.

1his sudden in ersion o& /hat counts as re&eree and /hat counts as being re&ereed, a%though counter:intuiti e at &irst, is as eas" to gras' as the ra'id

((98))

'assage &rom the 5name o& action5 gi en to a ne/ obCect to /hen it is gi en its name as a thing (see abo e). .s %ong as there is a debate among endocrino%ogists about O2* or OH2H, no one can inter ene in the debates b" sa"ing, 5$ (no/ /hat it is, 0ature to%d me so. $t is that amino:acid se;uence.5 Such a c%aim /ou%d be greeted /ith derisi e shouts, un%ess the 'ro'onent o& such a se;uence is ab%e to sho/ his &igures, cite his re&erences, and ;uote his sources o& su''ort, in brie&, /rite another scienti&ic 'a'er and e;ui' a ne/ %aborator", as in the case /e ha e studied. Ho/e er, once the co%%ecti e decision is ta(en to turn Scha%%"5s OH2H into an arte&act and Oui%%emin5s O2* into an incontro ertib%e &act, the reason &or this decision is not im'uted to Oui%%emin, but is immediate%" attributed to the inde'endent e6istence o& O2* in 0ature. .s %ong as the contro ers" %asted, no a''ea% to 0ature cou%d bring an" e6tra strength to one side in the debate (it /as at best an in ocation, at /orst a b%u&&). .s soon as the debate is sto''ed, the su''%ement o& &orce o&&ered b" 0ature is made the e6'%anation as to /h" the debate did sto' (and /h" the b%u&&s, the &rauds and the mista(es /ere at %ast unmas(ed). So /e are con&ronted /ith t/o a%most simu%taneous su''ositions: 0ature is the &ina% cause o& the sett%ement o& a%% contro ersies, once controversies are settle") .s %ong as the" %ast Nature ;ill appear simply as the final conse9uence of the controversies) 7hen "ou /ish to attac( a co%%eague5s c%aim, criticise a /or%d: ie/, moda%ise a statement "ou cannot =ust sa" that 0ature is /ith "ouP 5Cust5 /i%% ne er be enough. Iou are bound to use other a%%ies besides 0ature. $& "ou succeed, then 0ature /i%% be enough and a%% the other a%%ies and resources /i%% be made redundant. . 'o%itica% ana%og" ma" be o& some he%' at this 'oint. 0ature, in scientists5 hands, is a constitutiona% monarch, much %i(e Nueen 9%iGabeth the Second. *rom the throne she reads /ith the same tone, maCest" and con iction a s'eech /ritten b" Conser ati e or Labour 'rime ministers de'ending on the e%ection outcome. $ndeed she a""s something to the dis'ute, but on%" a&ter the dis'ute has endedP as %ong as the e%ection is going on she does nothing but /ait. 1his sudden re ersa% o& scientists5 re%ations to 0ature and to one another is one o& the most 'uGG%ing 'henomena /e encounter /hen &o%%o/ing their trai%s. $ be%ie e that it is the di&&icu%t" o& gras'ing this sim'%e re ersa% that has made technoscience so hard to 'robe unti% no/. 1he t/o &aces o& Fanus ta%(ing together ma(e, /e must admit, a start%ing s'ectac%e. 3n the %e&t side 0ature is cause, on the right side conse;uence o& the end o& contro ers". 3n the %e&t side

scientists are realists, that is the" be%ie e that re'resentations are sorted out b" /hat rea%%" is outside, b" the on%" inde'endent re&eree there is, 0ature. 3n the right side, the same scientists are relativists, that is, the" be%ie e re'resentations to be sorted out among themse% es and the actants the" re'resent, /ithout inde'endent and im'artia% re&erees %ending their /eight to an" one o& them. 7e (no/ /h" the" ta%( t/o %anguages at once: the %e&t mouth s'ea(s about sett%ed 'arts o& science, /hereas the right mouth ta%(s about

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unsett%ed 'arts. 3n the %e&t side 'o%onium /as disco ered %ong ago b" the CuriesP on the right side there is a %ong %ist o& actions e&&ected b" an un(no/n actant in #aris at the 9co%e de Chimie /hich the Curies 'ro'ose to ca%% 5'o%onium5. 3n the %e&t side a%% scientists agree, and /e hear on%" 0ature5s oice, '%ain and c%earP on the right side scientists disagree and no oice can be heard o er theirs.

666 &igur ).8 start 666 *igure ).8 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =0ature is the cause that a%%o/ed contro ersies to be sett%ed=. .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =0ature /i%% be the conse;uence o& the sett%ement=. 666 &igur ).8 s%utt 666

%8' he third rule of method

$& /e /ish to continue our Courne" through the construction o& &acts, /e ha e to ada't our method to scientists5 doub%e:ta%(. $& not, /e /i%% a%/a"s be caught on the /rong &oot: unab%e to /ithstand either their &irst (rea%ist) or their second (re%ati ist) obCection. 7e /i%% then need to ha e t/o di&&erent discourses de'ending on /hether /e consider a sett%ed or an unsett%ed 'art o& technoscience. 7e too /i%% be re%ati ists in the %atter case and rea%ists in the &ormer. 7hen stud"ing contro ers"Jas /e ha e so &arJ/e cannot be less re%ati ist than the er" scientists and engineers /e accom'an"P the" do not use 0ature as the e6terna% re&eree, and /e ha e no reason to imagine that /e are more c%e er than the" are. *or these 'arts o& science our

third rule of method /i%% read: since the sett%ement o& a contro ers" is the cause o& 0ature5s re'resentation not the conse;uence, /e can never use the outcomeENatureE to e#plain ho; an" ;hy a controversy has been settle") 1his 'rinci'%e is eas" to a''%" as %ong as the dis'ute %asts, but is di&&icu%t to bear in mind once it has ended, since the other &ace o& Fanus ta(es o er and does the ta%(ing. 1his is /hat ma(es the stud" o& the 'ast o& technoscience so di&&icu%t and unre/arding. Iou ha e to hang onto the /ords o& the right &ace o& Fanus J no/ bare%" audib%eJ and ignore the c%amours o& the %e&t side. $t turned out &or instance that the 0:ra"s /ere s%o/%" trans&ormed into arte&acts much %i(e Scha%%"5s OH2H. Ho/ are /e going to stud" this innocent e6'ression 5it turned out5?

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!sing the 'h"sics o& the 'resent da" there is unanimit" that B%ond%ot /as bad%" mista(en. $t /ou%d be eas" enough &or historians to sa" that B%ond%ot &ai%ed because there /as 5nothing rea%%" behind his 0:ra"s5 to su''ort his c%aims. 1his /a" o& ana%"sing the 'ast is ca%%ed 7hig histor", that is, a histor" that cro/ns the /inners, ca%%ing them the best and the brightest and /hich sa"s the %osers %i(e B%ond%ot %ost sim'%" because the" /ere /rong. 7e recognise here the %e&t side o& Fanus5 /a" o& ta%(ing /here 0ature herse%& discriminates bet/een the bad gu"s and the good gu"s. But, is it 'ossib%e to use this as the reason /h" in #aris, in London, in the !nited States, 'eo'%e s%o/%" turned 0:ra"s into an arte&act? 3& course not, since at that time toda"5s 'h"sics ob ious%" cou%d not be used as the touchstone, or more e6act%" since toda"5s state is, in 'art, the conse9uence o& sett%ing man" contro ersies such as the 0:ra"sS 7hig historians had an eas" %i&e. 1he" came a&ter the batt%e and needed on%" one reason to e6'%ain B%ond%ot5s demise. He /as /rong a%% a%ong. 1his reason is 'recise%" /hat does not ma(e the s%ightest di&&erence /hi%e "ou are searching &or truth in the midst o& a 'o%emic. 7e need, not one, but many reasons to e6'%ain ho/ a dis'ute sto''ed and a b%ac( bo6 /as c%osed. 17 Ho/e er, /hen ta%(ing about a co%d 'art o& technoscience /e shou%d shi&t our method %i(e the scientists themse% es /ho, &rom hard:core re%ati ists, ha e turned into d"ed:in:the:/oo% rea%ists. 0ature is no/ ta(en as the cause o& accurate descri'tions o& herse%&. 7e cannot be more re%ati ist than scientists about these 'arts and (ee' on den"ing e idence /here no one e%se does. 7h"? Because the cost o& dis'ute is too high &or an a erage citiGen, e en i& he or she is a historian and socio%ogist o& science. $& there is no contro ers" among scientists as to the status o& &acts, then it is use%ess to go on ta%(ing about inter'retation, re'resentation, a biased or distorted /or%d: ie/, /ea( and &ragi%e 'ictures o& the /or%d, un&aith&u% s'o(esmen. 0ature ta%(s straight, &acts are &acts. *u%% sto'. 1here is nothing to add and nothing to subtract. 1his di ision bet/een re%ati ists and rea%ist inter'retation o& science has caused ana%"sts o& science to be 'ut o&& ba%ance. 9ither the" /ent on being re%ati ists e en about the sett%ed 'arts

o& scienceJ/hich made them %oo( %udicrousP or the" continued being rea%ists e en about the /arm uncertain 'arts J and the" made &oo%s o& themse% es. 1he third ru%e o& method stated abo e shou%d he%' us in our stud" because it o&&ers us a good ba%ance. 7e do not tr" to undermine the so%idit" o& the acce'ted 'arts o& science. 7e are rea%ists as much as the 'eo'%e /e tra e% /ith and as much as the %e&t side o& Fanus. But as soon as a contro ers" starts /e become as re%ati ist as our in&ormants. Ho/e er /e do not &o%%o/ them 'assi e%" because our method a%%o/s us to document both the construction o& &act and o& arte&act, the co%d and the /arm, the demoda%ised and the moda%ised statements, and, in 'articu%ar, it a%%o/s us to trace /ith accurac" the sudden shi&ts &rom one &ace o& Fanus to the other. 1his method o&&ers us, so to s'ea(, a stereo'honic rendering o& &act:ma(ing instead o& its mono'honic 'redecessorsS

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$art II. From 6eak $oints to Strongholds

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CHA$ E3 8. Ma&hines
Introdu&tion/ he ?uandary of the fa&t7builder
$n the &irst 'art o& this boo( /e ha e %earned ho/ to tra e% through technoscience /ithout being intimidated either b" the technica% %iterature or b" the %aboratories. 7hen an"

contro ers" heats u', /e (no/ ho/ to &o%%o/ the accumu%ation o& 'a'ers and ho/ to ta(e our bearings through the %aboratories that stand behind the 'a'ers. 1o ac;uire this (no/%edge, though, /e had to 'a" a 'rice /hich can be summed u' b" the three 'rinci'%es o& method $ 'resented: &irst, /e had to gi e u' an" discourse or o'inion about science as it is made, and &o%%o/ scientists in action insteadP second, /e had to gi e u' an" decision about the subCecti it" or the obCecti it" o& a statement based sim'%" on the ins'ection o& this statement, and /e had to &o%%o/ its tortuous histor" instead, as it /ent &rom hand to hand, e er"one trans&orming it into more o& a &act or more o& an arte&actP &ina%%", /e had to abandon the su&&icienc" o& 0ature as our main e6'%anation &or the c%osure o& contro ersies, and /e had instead to count the %ong heterogeneous %ist o& resources and a%%ies that scientists /ere gathering to ma(e dissent im'ossib%e. 1he 'icture o& technoscience re ea%ed b" such a method is that o& a /ea( rhetoric becoming stronger and stronger as time 'asses, as %aboratories get e;ui''ed, artic%es 'ub%ished and ne/ resources brought to bear on harder and harder contro ersies. 2eaders, /riters and co%%eagues are &orced either to gi e u', to acce't 'ro'ositions or to dis'ute them b" /or(ing their /a" through the %aborator" again. 1hese three 'ossib%e outcomes cou%d be e6'%ored in much more detai% b" more studies o& the scienti&ic %iterature and %aboratories.1 1hese studies, ho/e er, no matter ho/ necessar", /ou%d not o ercome one o& the main %imitations o& the &irst 'art o& this boo(: dissenters are er" rare%" engaged in a con&rontation such that, everything else being e9ual, the /inner is the one /ith the bigger %aborator" or the better artic%e. *or the sa(e o& c%arit", $ started /ith the three outcomes abo e as i& technoscience /as simi%ar to a bo6ing match. 1here is, in 'ractice, a &ourth set o& outcomes, /hich is much more common: everything

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not being e9ual, it is 'ossib%e to /in /ith man" other resources than artic%es and %aboratories. $t is 'ossib%e, &or instance, ne er to encounter an" dissenter, ne er to interest an"one, ne er to acce't the su'erior strength o& the others. $n other /ords, the 'ossession o& man" strongho%ds has &irst to be secured &or the stronger rhetoric o& science to gain an" strength at a%%. 1o 'icture this 're%iminar" ground/or( /e ha e to remember our &irst 'rinci'%e: the &ate o& a statement de'ends on others5 beha iour. Iou ma" ha e /ritten the de&initi e 'a'er 'ro ing that the earth is ho%%o/ and that the moon is made o& green cheese but this 'a'er /i%% not become de&initi e i& others do not ta(e it u' and use it as a matter o& &act %ater on. Iou need them to ma(e your 'a'er a decisi e one. $& the" %augh at "ou, i& the" are indi&&erent, i& the" shrug it o&&, that is the end o& "our 'a'er. . statement is thus a%/a"s in Ceo'ard", much %i(e the ba%% in a game o& rugb". $& no '%a"er ta(es it u', it sim'%" sits on the grass. 1o ha e it mo e again "ou need an action, &or someone to seiGe and thro/ itP but the thro/ de'ends in turn on the hosti%it", s'eed, de&tness or tactics o& the others. .t an" 'oint, the traCector" o& the ba%% ma" be interru'ted, de&%ected or di erted b" the other teamJ'%a"ing here the ro%e o& the

dissenters J and interru'ted, de&%ected or di erted b" the '%a"ers o& "our o/n team. 1he tota% mo ement o& the ba%%, o& a statement, o& an arte&act, /i%% de'end to some e6tent on "our action but to a much greater e6tent on that o& a cro/d o er /hich "ou ha e %itt%e contro%. 1he construction o& &acts, %i(e a game o& rugb", is thus a co%%ecti e 'rocess. 9ach e%ement in the chain o& indi idua%s needed to 'ass the b%ac( bo6 a%ong ma" act in mu%ti&arious /a"s: the 'eo'%e in ;uestion ma" dro' it a%together, or acce't it as it is, or shi&t the moda%ities that accom'an" it, or modi&" the statement, or a''ro'riate it and 'ut it in a com'%ete%" di&&erent conte6t. $nstead o& being conductors, or semi:conductors, the" are a%% multi!con"uctors, and un'redictab%e ones at that. 1o 'icture the tas( o& someone /ho /ishes to estab%ish a &act, "ou ha e to imagine a chain o& the thousands o& 'eo'%e necessar" to turn the &irst statement into a b%ac( bo6 and /here each o& them ma" or ma" not un'redictab%" transmit the statement, modi&" it, a%ter it or turn it into an arte&act. Ho/ is it 'ossib%e to master the &uture &ate o& a statement that is the outcome o& the beha iour o& a%% these &aith%ess a%%ies? 1his ;uestion is a%% the more di&&icu%t since a%% the actors are doing something to the b%ac( bo6. 9 en in the best o& cases the" do not sim'%" transmit it, but add e%ements o& their o/n b" modi&"ing the argument, strengthening it and incor'orating it into ne/ conte6ts. 1he meta'hor o& the rugb" game soon brea(s do/n since the ba%% remains the sameJa'art &rom a &e/ abrasionsJa%% a%ong, /hereas in this technoscience game /e are /atching, the obCect is modi&ied as it goes a%ong &rom hand to hand. $t is not on%" co%%ecti e%" transmitted &rom one actor to the ne6t, it is co%%ecti e%" compose" b" actors. 1his co%%ecti e action then raises t/o more ;uestions. 1o /hom can the res'onsibi%it" &or the game be attributed? 7hat is the obCect that has been 'assed a%ong? .n e6am'%e /i%% ma(e the &act:bui%der5s 'rob%em easier to gras'. 4iese% is (no/n as the &ather o& the diese% engine.) 1his &atherhood, ho/e er, is not as

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direct as that o& .thena &rom Reus5 head. 1he engine did not emerge one morning &rom 4iese%5s mind. 7hat emerged /as an idea o& a 'er&ect engine /or(ing according to Carnot5s thermod"namic 'rinci'%es. 1his /as an engine /here ignition cou%d occur /ithout an increase in tem'erature, a 'arado6 that 4iese% so% ed b" in enting ne/ /a"s o& inCecting and burning &ue%. .t this 'oint in the stor", /e ha e a boo( he 'ub%ished and a 'atent he too( outP thus, /e ha e a 'a'er /or%d simi%ar to those /e studied ear%ier. . &e/ re ie/ers, inc%uding Lord <e% in, /ere con inced /hi%e others &ound the idea im'racticab%e. 4iese% is no/ &aced /ith a 'rob%em. He needs others to trans&orm the t/o:dimensiona% 'roCect and 'atent into the &orm o& a three:dimensiona% /or(ing 'rotot"'e. He &errets out a &e/ &irms that bui%d machinesJMaschinen&abri( .ugsburg:0]rnberg, (no/n as M.0, and <ru'' J /hich are interested because o& the ho'e o& increased e&&icienc" and ersati%it" o& a 'er&ect

Carnot machine, the e&&icienc" o& the steam engine in the 189>s being 'iti&u%%" %o/. .s /e /i%% see, rea%it" has man" hues, %i(e obCecti it", and entire%" de'ends on the number o& e%ements tied to the c%aim. *or &our "ears, 4iese% tried to get one engine /or(ing, bui%ding it /ith the he%' o& a &e/ engineers and machine too%s &rom M.0. 1he 'rogressi e realisation o& the engine /as made b" im'orting a%% a ai%ab%e resources into the /or(sho', Cust as in an" %aborator". 1he s(i%%s and too%s &or ma(ing 'istons and a% es /ere the resu%t o& thirt" "ears o& 'ractice at M.0 and /ere a%% %oca%%" a ai%ab%e as a matter o& routine. 1he ;uestion o& &ue% combustion soon turned out to be more 'rob%ematic, since air and &ue% ha e to be mi6ed in a &raction o& a second. . so%ution entai%ing com'ressed air inCection /as &ound, but this re;uired huge 'um's and ne/ c"%inders &or the airP the engine became %arge and e6'ensi e, unab%e to com'ete in the mar(et o& sma%% ersati%e engines. B" modi&"ing the /ho%e design o& the engine man" times, 4iese% dri&ted a/a" &rom the origina% 'atent and &rom the 'rinci'%es 'resented in his boo(. 1he number o& e%ements no/ tied to 4iese%5s engine is increasing. *irst, /e had Carnot5s thermod"namics '%us a boo( '%us a 'atent '%us Lord <e% in5s encouraging comments. 7e no/ ha e in addition M.0 '%us <ru'' '%us a &e/ 'rotot"'es '%us t/o engineers he%'ing 4iese% '%us %oca% (no/:ho/ '%us a &e/ interested &irms '%us a ne/ air inCection s"stem, and so on. 1he second series is much %arger, but the 'er&ect engine o& the &irst has been trans&ormed in the 'rocessP in 'articu%ar, constant tem'erature has been abandoned. $t is no/ a constant 'ressure engine and in a ne/ edition o& his boo( 4iese% has to strugg%e to reconci%e the dri&t &rom the &irst more 5theoretica%5 engine to the one being s%o/%" rea%ised. But ho/ rea% is rea%? $n Fune 1897 the engine is so%emn%" 'resented to the 'ub%ic. 1he /orries o& a b%ac( bo6 bui%der no/ ta(e on a ne/ dimension. 4iese% needs others to ta(e u' his engine and to turn it into a b%ac( bo6 that runs smooth%" in thousands o& co'ies a%% o er the /or%d, incor'orated as an un'rob%ematic e%ement in &actories, shi's and %orries. But /hat are these others going to do /ith it? Ho/ much shou%d the 'rotot"'e be transforme" be&ore being transferre" &rom .ugsburg to 0e/cast%e, #aris or Chicago? .t &irst, 4iese% thin(s

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that it does not ha e to be trans&ormed at a%%: it /or(s. Fust bu" the %icence, 'a" the ro"a%t", and /e send "ou b%ue'rints, a &e/ engineers to he%' "ou, a &e/ mechanics to tend the engine, and i& "ou are not satis&ied "ou get "our mone" bac(S $n 4iese%5s hands the engine is a c%osed b%ac( bo6 in e6act%" the same /a" that O2* /as a de&initi e%" estab%ished &act &or Scha%%", sim'%" /aiting to be borro/ed b" %ater scienti&ic artic%es (see Cha'ter 1). Ho/e er, this /as not the o'inion o& the &irm that had bought the 'rotot"'es. 1he" /ished it to be un'rob%ematic, but the engine (e't &a%tering, sta%%ing, brea(ing a'art. $nstead o& remaining c%osed, the b%ac( bo6 &e%% o'en, and had to be o erhau%ed e er" da" b" 'uGG%ed mechanics and engineers arguing /ith one another, e6act%" %i(e Scha%%"5s readers e er" time

the" tried to get his O2* to increase the %ength o& tibias in their o/n %aboratories. 3ne a&ter the other, the %icensees returned the 'rotot"'es to 4iese% and as(ed &or their mone" bac(. 4iese% /ent ban(ru't and had a ner ous brea(do/n. $n 1899, the number o& e%ements tied to the 4iese% engine "ecrease" instead o& increased. 1he rea%it" o& the engine receded instead o& 'rogressed. 1he engine, much %i(e Scha%%"5s O2*, be:came less rea%. *rom a &actua% arte&act it became, i& $ ma" use the t/o meanings at once, an arte&actua% arte&act, one o& those dreams the histor" o& technics is so &u%% o&. . &e/ engineers &rom M.0, ho/e er, continued /or(ing on a ne/ 'rotot"'e. 4iese% is no %onger in command o& their actions. . great number o& modi&ications are made to one e6em'%ar /hich o'erates during the da" in a match &actor" and is o erhau%ed e er" night. 9ach engineer adds something to the design and 'ushes it &urther. 1he engine is not "et a b%ac( bo6, but it can be made to mo e through more co'ies to man" more '%aces, undergoing incrementa% modi&ications. $t is trans&erred &rom '%ace to '%ace /ithout ha ing to be redesigned. .round 19>8, /hen 4iese%5s 'atent &a%%s into the 'ub%ic domain, M.0 is ab%e to o&&er a diese% engine &or sa%e, /hich can be bought as an un'rob%ematic, a%beit ne/, item o& e;ui'ment and incor'orated as one 'iece o& industr". Mean/hi%e, the %icensees /ho had ear%ier /ithdra/n &rom the 'roCect ta(e it u', adding their contribution b" designing 'ur'ose: bui%t engines. Fust be&ore 4iese% committed suicide b" Cum'ing &rom a shi' on the /a" to 9ng%and, diese% engines had at %ast s'readP but /ere they Jiesel5s engine? So man" 'eo'%e had modi&ied it since the 1887 'atent that no/ a 'o%emic de e%o'ed about /ho /as res'onsib%e &or the co%%ecti e action that made the engine rea%. .t a 191) meeting o& the Oerman Societ" o& 0a a% .rchitects, 4iese% c%aimed that it /as his origina% engine /hich had been sim'%" de e%o'ed b" others. Ho/e er, se era% o& 4iese%5s co%%eagues argued at the same meeting that the ne/ rea% engine and the ear%ier 'atent had, at best, a /ea( re%ation, and that most o& the credit shou%d go to the hundreds o& engineers /ho had been ab%e to trans&orm an un/or(ab%e idea into a mar(etab%e 'roduct. 4iese%, the" argued, might be the eponym &or the co%%ecti e action, but he /as not the cause o& this actionP he /as at best the ins'iration, not, so to s'ea(, the motor behind his engine. Ho/ are /e to &o%%o/ these mo ing obCects that are trans&ormed &rom hand to hand and /hich are made u' b" so man" di&&erent actors, be&ore ending u' as a

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b%ac( bo6 sa&e%" concea%ed beneath the bonnet o& a car, acti ated at the turn o& a (e" b" a dri er /ho does not ha e to (no/ an"thing about Carnot5s thermod"namics. M.05s (no/: ho/ or 4iese%5s suicide?

. series o& terms are traditiona%%" used to te%% these stories. *irst, one ma" consider that a%% diese% engines %ie a%ong one tra=ectory going through di&&erent 'hases &rom ideas to mar(et. 1hese admitted%" &uGG" 'hases are then gi en di&&erent names. 4iese%5s idea o& a 'er&ect engine in his mind is ca%%ed invention) But since, as /e sa/, the idea needs to be de e%o'ed into a /or(ab%e 'rotot"'e, this ne/ 'hase is ca%%ed "evelopment E hence the e6'ression 2esearch and 4e e%o'ment that /e /i%% see in Cha'ter ,. &nnovation is o&ten the /ord used &or the ne6t 'hase, through /hich a &e/ 'rotot"'es are 're'ared so as to be co'ied in thousands o& e6em'%ars so%d throughout the /or%d. Ho/e er, these terms are o& no great use. 2ight &rom the start, 4iese% had an o era%% notion not on%" o& his engine, but a%so o& the economic /or%d in /hich it shou%d /or(, o& the /a" to se%% %icenses, o& the organisation o& the research, o& the com'anies to be set u' to bui%d it. $n another boo( 4iese% e en designed the t"'e o& societ", based on so%idarit", that /ou%d be best &it &or the sort o& technica% no e%ties he /ished to introduce. So no c%ear:cut distinction ma" be made bet/een in ention and inno ation. $n 1897 the M.0 manager, 4iese% and the &irst in estors a%% thought that de e%o'ment had ended and that inno ation /as starting, e en though it too( ten more "ears to reach such a stage, and in the meantime 4iese% /ent ban(ru't. 1hus this distinction bet/een 'hases is not immediate%" gi en. 3n the contrar", ma(ing se'arations bet/een the 'hases and en&orcing them is one o& the in entor5s 'rob%ems: is the b%ac( bo6 rea%%" b%ac(? 7hen is the dissenting going to sto'? Can $ no/ &ind be%ie ers and bu"ers? *ina%%", it is not e en sure that the &irst in ention shou%d be sought in 4iese%5s o/n mind. Hundreds o& engineers /ere %oo(ing &or a more e&&icient combustion engine at the same time. 1he &irst &%ash o& intuition might not be in one mind, but in man" minds. $& the notion o& discrete 'hases is use%ess, so, too, is that o& traCector". $t does not describe an"thing since it is again one o& the 'rob%ems to be so% ed. 4iese% indeed c%aimed that there /as one traCector" /hich %in(s his semina% 'atent to rea% engines. 1his is the on%" /a" &or his 'atents to be 5semina%5. But this /as dis'uted b" hundreds o& engineers c%aiming that the engine5s ancestr" /as di&&erent. .n"/a", i& 4iese% /as so sure o& his o&&s'ring, then /h" not ca%% it a Carnot engine since it is &rom Carnot that he too( the origina% idea? But since the origina% 'atent ne er /or(ed, /h" not ca%% it a M.0 engine, or, a constant 'ressure air inCection engine? 7e see that ta%(ing o& 'hases in a traCector" is %i(e ta(ing s%ices &rom a '^tM made &rom hundreds o& morse%s o& meat. .%though it might be 'a%atab%e, it has no re%ation /hatsoe er to the natura% Coints o& the anima%. 1o use another meta'hor, em'%o"ing these terms /ou%d be %i(e /atching a rugb" game on 1H /here on%" a 'hos'horescent ba%% /as sho/n. .%% the running, the cunning, the e6cited '%a"ers /ou%d be re'%aced b" a meaning%ess GigGagging s'ot.

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0o matter ho/ c%ums" these traditiona% terms are in describing the bui%ding o& &acts, the" are use&u% in accounting, that is &or measuring ho/ much mone" and ho/ man" 'eo'%e are

in ested (as /e /i%% see in the ne6t cha'ter). *rom in ention to de e%o'ment and &rom there to inno ation and sa%e, the money to be in ested increases e6'onentia%%", as does the time to be s'ent on each 'hase and the number o& 'eo'%e 'artici'ating in the construction. 1he s'read in s'ace and time o& b%ac( bo6es is 'aid &or b" a &antastic increase in the number o& e%ements to be tied together. Bragg, 4iese% or 7est (see $ntroduction) ma" ha e ;uic( and chea' ideas that (ee' a &e/ co%%aborators bus" &or a &e/ months. But to bui%d an engine or a com'uter &or sa%e, "ou need more 'eo'%e, more time, more mone". 1he obCect o& this cha'ter is to &o%%o/ this dramatic increase in numbers. 1his increase in numbers is necessari%" %in(ed to the 'rob%em o& the &act:bui%der: ho/ to s'read out in time and s'ace. $& Scha%%" is the on%" 'erson /ho be%ie es in O2*, then O2* remains in one '%ace in 0e/ 3r%eans, under the guise o& a %ot o& /ords in an o%d re'rint. $& 4iese% is the on%" 'erson /ho be%ie es in his 'er&ect engine, the engine sits in an o&&ice dra/er in .ugsburg. $n order to s'read in s'ace and to become %ong:%asting the" a%% need (/e a%% need) the actions o& others. But /hat /i%% these actions be? Man" things, most o& them un'redictab%e, /hich /i%% trans&orm the trans'orted obCect or statement. So /e are no/ in a ;uandar": either the others /i%% not ta(e u' the statement or the" /i%%. $& the" don5t, the statement /i%% be %imited to a 'oint in time and s'ace, m"se%&, m" dreams, m" &antasies .... But i& the" do ta(e it u', the" might trans&orm it be"ond recognition. 1o get out o& this ;uandar" /e need to do t/o things at once: to enrol others so that the" 'artici'ate in the construction o& the &actP to control their behaviour in order to ma(e their actions 'redictab%e. .t &irst sight, this so%ution seems so contradictor" as to %oo( un&easib%e. $& others are enro%%ed the" /i%% trans&orm the c%aims be"ond recognition. 1hus the er" action o& in o% ing them is %i(e%" to ma(e contro% more di&&icu%t. 1he so%ution to this contradiction is the centra% notion o& translation. $ /i%% ca%% trans%ation the inter'retation gi en b" the &act:bui%ders o& their interests and that o& the 'eo'%e the" enro%. Let us %oo( at these strategies in more detai%.

$art A. ranslating interests

%(' ranslation one/ I 1ant 1hat you 1ant
7e need others to he%' us trans&orm a c%aim into a matter o& &act. 1he &irst and easiest /a" to &ind 'eo'%e /ho /i%% immediate%" be%ie e the statement, in est in the 'roCect, or bu" the 'rotot"'e is to tai%or the obCect in such a /a" that it caters to these 'eo'%e5s e2pli&it interests. .s the name inter:esse5 indicates, 5interests5 are /hat %ie in bet;een actors and their goa%s, thus creating a tension that /i%%

((1>9))

ma(e actors se%ect on%" /hat, in their o/n e"es, he%'s them reach these goa%s amongst man" 'ossibi%ities. $n the 'receding cha'ters, &or instance, /e sa/ man" contenders engaged in 'o%emics. $n order to resist their o''onents5 cha%%enges the" needed to &asten their 'osition to %ess contro ertib%e arguments, to sim'%er b%ac( bo6es, to %ess dis'utab%e &ie%ds, gathering around themse% es huge and e&&icient %aboratories. $& "ou /ere ab%e to 'ro ide a contender /ith one o& these b%ac( bo6es, it is %i(e%" it /i%% be eager%" seiGed and more ra'id%" trans&ormed into a &act. Su''ose, &or instance, that /hi%e 4iese% tin(ers /ith his 'rotot"'e, someone comes a%ong /ith a ne/ instrument that de'icts on a sim'%e indicator card ho/ 'ressure changes /ith changing o%ume as the 'iston mo es inside the c"%inder so that the area on the diagram measures the /or( done. 4iese% /i%% Cum' at it, because it o&&ers a neater /a" o& 5seeing5 ho/ the in isib%e 'iston mo es and because it gra'hica%%" de'icts, &or e er"one to see, that his engine co ers a %arger area than an" other. 1he 'oint is that, b" borro/ing the indicator card in order to &urther his goa%s, 4iese% %ends his &orce to its in entor, &u%&i%%ing the %atter5s goa%s. 1he more such e%ements 4iese% is ab%e to %in( himse%& to, the more %i(e%" he is to trans&orm his o/n 'rotot"'e into a /or(ing engine. But this mo ement does the same &or the indicator card, /hich no/ becomes a routine 'art o& the testing bench. 1he t/o interests are mo ing in the same direction. Su''ose, to ta(e another e6am'%e, that Boas, the .merican anthro'o%ogist, is engaged in a &ierce contro ers" against eugenicists, /ho ha e so con inced the !nited States Congress o& bio%ogica% determinism that it has cut o&& the immigration o& those /ith 5de&ecti e5 genes. + Su''ose, no/, that a "oung anthro'o%ogist demonstrates that, at %east in one Samoan is%and, bio%og" cannot be the cause o& crisis in ado%escent gir%s because cu%tura% determinism is too strong. $s not Boas going to be 5interested5 in Mead5s re'ort J a%% the more so since he sent her there? 9 er" time eugenicists criticise his cu%tura% determinism, Boas /i%% &asten his threatened 'osition to Mead5s counter:e6am'%e. But e er" time Boas and other anthro'o%ogists do so, the" turn Mead5s stor" into more o& a &act. Iou ma" imagine Mead5s re'ort interesting nobod", being 'ic(ed u' b" no one, and remaining &or e er in the (#aci&ic) %imbo. B" %in(ing her thesis to Boas5s strugg%e, Mead &orces a%% the other cu%tura% determinists to become her &e%%o/ bui%ders: the" a%% /i%%ing%" turn her c%aims into one o& the hardest &acts o& anthro'o%og" &or man" decades. 7hen *reeman, another anthro'o%ogist, /ished to undermine Mead5s &act, he a%so had to %in( his strugg%e to a /ider one, that o& the sociobio%ogists. !nti% then, e er" time the sociobio%ogists &ought against cu%tura% determinism, the" stumb%ed against this &act o& Mead5s, /hich had been made &ormidab%e b" the co%%ecti e action o& successi e generations o& anthro'o%ogists. Sociobio%ogists eager%" Cum'ed at *reeman5s thesis since it a%%o/ed them to get rid o& this irritating counter:e6am'%e, and %ent him their &ormidab%e &orces (their 'ub%ishing &irms, their %in(s /ith the media). 7ith their he%' /hat cou%d ha e been a 5%udicrous attac(5 became 5a courageous re o%ution5 that threatened to destro" Mead5s re'utation. .s $ stress in Cha'ter ), none o& these borro/ings /i%% be enough a%one to sto'

((11>))

the contro ers": 'eo'%e ma" contest the indicator card borro/ed b" 4iese%, or Mead5s re'ort, or *reeman5s 5courageous re o%ution5. 1he 'oint here is that the easiest means to enro% 'eo'%e in the construction o& &acts is to %et onese%& be enro%%ed b" themS B" 'ushing their e6'%icit interests, "ou /i%% a%so &urther "ours. 1he ad antage o& this 'igg":bac( strateg" is that "ou need no other &orce to trans&orm a c%aim into a &actP a /ea( contender can thus 'ro&it &rom a ast%" stronger one.

666 &igur +.1 start 666 *igure +.1 *iguren iser tre &ors(Ce%%ige mAter A inngA a%%ianser me%%om &orsC(e%%ige interesser. #i%ene i &iguren iser interesser som er rettet mot et mA%. 9n rett 'i% retter seg rett mot mA%et, mens en bB"d 'i% =s(i&ter retning= henimot et nTr%iggende mA%. 9n t"(( 'i% bet"r en ster( i%Ce e%%er en ster(t ir(ende (ra&t, mens en t"nn 'i% er s a(ere. 1rans%ation 1: 9n t"(( 'i% gAr rett &ram. 9n t"nn 'i% s(i&ter retning, og s%utter seg ti% den t"((e 'i%en. 1rans%ation ): 9n t"nn 'i% gAr rett &ram. 9n t"(( 'i% s(i&ter retning, sog s%utter seg ti% den t"nne 'i%en. 1rans%ation +: 9n t"(( 'i% stBter 'A et 'un(t som heter =$nterru'tion=. 9n t"nn 'i% s inger inn ti% 'un(tet h or den t"((e har stanset. 4en t"nne 'i%en sta(er ut (ursen idere: en %ang s ing ut i den retningen h or den t"nne 'i%en o''rinne%ig hadde (ursen, deretter ti% det 'un(tet der den t"((e o''rinne%ig hadde (ursen. 4enne manB eren (a%%es =4etour=.

4en t"((e 'i%en %ar seg bB"e a , og gCBr en s ing:manB er med samme tendens som den t"nne 'i%ens =4etour=, &Br den ende%ig nAr &ram dit den o''rinne%ig ar rettet, som (a%%es =2eturn=. 666 &igur +.1 s%utt 666

1here are disad antages as /e%%. *irst, since so man" 'eo'%e are he%'ing "ou to bui%d "our c%aim, ho/ /i%% "our o/n contribution be e a%uated? 7i%% it not be made margina%? 3r /orse, /i%% it not be a''ro'riated b" others /ho sa" the" did most o& the /or(, as ha''ened /ith 4iese%? Second, since the contenders are the ones /ho ha e to go out o& their /a" to &o%%o/ the direction o& the others (see *igure +.1, 1rans%ation 1) the" ha e no contro% on /hat the cro/d the" &o%%o/ is going to do /ith their c%aims. 1his is es'ecia%%" di&&icu%t /hen others are so easi%" con inced that the" turn "our tentati e statements into c%aims o& gigantic siGe. 7hen #asteur e%aborated a accine against &o/% cho%era that cured a &e/ hens, he interested so man" 'o/er&u% grou's o& hea%th o&&icers, eterinar" surgeons and &arm interests that the" Cum'ed to the conc%usion that 5this /as the beginning o& the end o& a%% in&ectious diseases in men and anima%s5. , 1his ne/ c%aim /as a composition made in sma%% measure &rom #asteur5s stud" o& a &e/ hens and in much %arger measure &rom the interests o& the enro%%ed grou's. 1he 'roo& that this e6tension /as not due to #asteur5s stud" but rather to se'arate interests is that man" other 'ro&essions that #asteur had not "et succeeded in interestingJthe a erage 'h"sician &or instance J &ound the er" same e6'eriments to be de&icient, doubt&u%, 'remature and inconc%usi e. 2iding 'igg":bac( is thus 'recarious: sometimes "ou ha e to o ercome the indi&&erence o& the other grou's (the" re&use to be%ie e "ou and to %end "ou their &orces), and sometimes "ou ha e to restrain their sudden enthusiasm. *or instance, one o& the 'eo'%e /ho /as not con inced b" #asteur /as <och, his Oerman ri a%. But %ater in his career <och had to gi e a %ecture at the 189>

((111))

$nternationa% Medica% .ssociation meeting in Ber%in 8. He had been so success&u% in interesting e er"one in his stud" o& tubercu%osis, so c%e er in %in(ing his science to the nationa%ism o& <aiser 7i%%iam, that e er"one /as read" to be%ie e him. So read" indeed that /hen during his s'eech he a%%uded to a 'ossib%e accine against tubercu%osis e er"one heard him sa"ing that he ha" his accine. 9 er"one Cum'ed to their &eet and a''%auded &rantica%%" and <och, 'uGG%ed b" this co%%ecti e trans&ormation o& his c%aim into a &act, did not dare sa" that he had not got a accine at a%%. 7hen 'atients /ith tubercu%osis &%oc(ed to Ber%in &or inCections, the" /ere bitter%" disa''ointed, because <och cou%d not de%i er on his ostensib%e

'romise . . . Catering to other e6'%icit interests is not a sa&e strateg". 1here must be better /a"s.

%5' ranslation t1o/ I 1ant it. 1hy don4t you@

$t /ou%d be much better i& the 'eo'%e mobi%ised to construct our c%aims /ere to &o%%o/ us rather than the other /a" around. . good idea indeed, but there seems to be no reason on earth /h" 'eo'%e shou%d go out o& their /a" and &o%%o/ "ours instead (*igure +.1, 1rans%ation )) es'ecia%%" i& "ou are sma%% and 'o/er%ess /hi%e the" are strong and 'o/er&u%. $n &act, there is on%" one reason: it is if their usual ;ay is cut off *or instance, a rich businessman /ith an interest in 'hi%oso'h" /ishes to estab%ish a *oundation to stud" the origins o& %ogica% abi%ities in man. His 'et 'roCect is to ha e scientists disco er the s'eci&ic neurons &or induction and deduction. 1a%(ing to scientists he soon rea%ises that the" consider his dream as 'remature, the" cannot he%' him reach his goa% "et: but the" ne erthe%ess as( him to in est his mone" : no/ /ithout a goa% : into their research. He then o'ens a 'ri ate *oundation /here 'eo'%e stud" neurons, chi%dren5s beha iour, rats in maGes, mon(e"s in tro'ica% &orests and so on . . . Scientists do /hat the" /ant /ith his mone", and not /hat he /anted. 1his strateg", as "ou ma" see &rom *igure +.1, is s"mmetrica% /ith the &ormer. 1he mi%%ionaire, shi&ting his interests, ta(es u' those o& the scientists. Such a dis'%acement o& e6'%icit interest is not er" &easib%e and is rare. Something e%se is needed to ma(e it 'ractica%.

%8' ranslation three/ if you ;ust make a short detour . . .

Since the second strateg" is on%" rare%" 'ossib%e, a much more 'o/er&u% one needs to be de ised, as irresistib%e as the ad ice o& the ser'ent to 9 e: 5Iou cannot reach "our goa% straight a/a", but i& "ou come m" /a", "ou /ou%d reach it faster, it /ou%d be a short cut.5 $n this ne/ rendering o& others5 interests, the contenders do not tr" to shi&t them a/a" &rom their goa%s. 1he" sim'%" o&&er to guide them through a short cut. 1his is a''ea%ing i& three conditions are &u%&i%%ed: the main

((11)))

road is c%ear%" cut o&&P the ne/ detour is /e%% sign'ostedP the detour a''ears short. 1he brain scientists /ou%d ne er ha e ans/ered in the /a" $ suggested /hen 'robed b" the businessman abo e. 3n the contrar", the" /ou%d ha e argued that the mi%%ionaire5s goa% is indeed attainab%e, but not right no/. . %itt%e detour through their neuro%og" is necessar" &or a &e/ "ears be&ore the neurons o& induction and deduction /hich he is aiming at are e entua%%"

disco ered. $& he agrees to &inance studies on acet"%cho%ine beha iour in t/o s"na'ses, he /i%% soon be ab%e to understand human %ogica% abi%ities. Fust &o%%o/ the guide and be con&ident. .t the beginning o& this centur" na a% architects had %earned to bui%d bigger and stronger batt%eshi's b" using more and more stee%. Ho/e er, the magnetic com'asses o& these dreadnoughts /ent /i%d /ith so much iron around. 9 en though the" /ere stronger and bigger, the batt%eshi's /ere on the /ho%e ;eaker than be&ore since the" got %ost at sea. - $t /as at this 'oint that a grou' /ith a so%ution, %ed b" S'err", suggested that na a% architects gi e u' the magnetic com'ass and use instead g"rocom'asses that did not de'end on magnetic &ie%ds. 4id the" ha e the g"rocom'ass? 0ot ;uite. $t /as not "et a b%ac( bo6 o&&ered &or sa%e: this is /h" a detour had to be negotiated. 1he 0a " must in est in S'err"5s research in order to con ert his idea into a /or(ab%e g"rosco'e, so that, in the end, their batt%eshi's can steer a straight course again. S'err" has 'ositioned himse%& so that a common trans%ation o& his interests and that o& the 0a " no/ reads: 5Iou cannot na igate "our shi's 'ro'er%"P $ can5t ma(e m" g"rocom'ass a rea% thingP /ait a %itt%e, come m" /a", and a&ter a /hi%e "our shi's /i%% ma(e &u%% use o& their terri&"ing 'o/ers again and m" g"rocom'asses /i%% s'read in shi's and '%anes in the &orm o& /e%%:c%osed b%ac( bo6es.5 1his communit" o& interests is the resu%t o& a di&&icu%t and tense negotiation that ma" brea( do/n at an" 'oint. $n 'articu%ar, it is based on a sort o& im'%icit contract: there shou%d be a return to the main road, and the detour shou%d be short. 7hat ha''ens i& it becomes %ong, so %ong indeed that it no/ a''ears in the e"es o& the enro%%ed grou's as a de iation rather than a short cut? $magine that &or a decade the mi%%ionaire (ee's reading 'a'ers on the &iring o& s"na'ses, e6'ecting the disco er" o& the neurons &or induction and deduction an" da". He might die o& boredom be&ore seeing his dreams &u%&i%%ed. He might thin( that this is not the detour the" had agreed u'on, but a ne/ direction a%together. He might e en rea%ise that it is the secon" strategy /hich has been 'ractised, not the third and then decide to se er the negotiations, to cut the mone" o&&, and to dismiss the scientists /ho /ere not on%" 'u%%ing his %eg but a%so using his mone". 1his is /hat occurred /ith 4iese%. M.0 /as read" to /ait &or a &e/ "ears, to %end engineers, /ith the idea that the" /ou%d soon resume their usua% business o& manu&acturing engines but on a %arger sca%e. $& the return is de%a"ed, the management ma" &ee% cheated, as i& the" /ere 'ercei ing the second t"'e o& trans%ation through the ei% o& the third. $& the" start thin(ing this /a", then 4iese% is ta(en as a 'arasite on M.0 di erting its resources to &urther his o/n egotistica% dreams. $nterests are e%astic, but %i(e rubber, there is a 'oint /here

((11+))

the" brea( or s'ring bac(.

So, e en i& this third /a" o& trans%ating the interest o& others is better than the second, it has its shortcomings. $t is a%/a"s o'en to the accusation o& boot%egging J to use the e6'ression o& .merican scientists J that is, the siGe o& the detour and the %ength o& the de%a" being &uGG", a detour might be seen as an outright di ersion, or e en as a hiCac(ing. Su''ort ma" thus be cut o&& before 7atson and Cric( disco er the doub%e he%i6 structure, 4iese% has time to ma(e his engine, 7est to bui%d his *agle com'uter, S'err" his g"rocom'ass, and the brain scientists to &ind ho/ a s"na'se &ires. 1here is no acce'ted standard &or measuring detours because the 5acce'tab%e5 %ength o& the detour is a resu%t o& negotiation. M.0, &or instance, became /orried a&ter on%" a &e/ "ears, but the 'ri ate medica% &oundations that in ested in La/rence5s huge acce%erators at Ber(e%e" did not, e en though La/rence /as &urthering 'artic%e 'h"sics b" arguing that he /as bui%ding bigger radiation sources &or cancer thera'"S 7 4e'ending on the negotiators5 abi%ities, a &e/ hundred do%%ars ma" a''ear to be an into%erab%e /aste o& mone", /hi%e bui%ding c"c%otrons %oo(s %i(e the on%" straight 'ath to a cure &or cancer. 1here are t/o other %imitations to this third strateg". *irst, /hene er the usua% road is not b%oc(ed, /hene er it is not c%ear%" a''arent to the e"es o& a grou' that the" cannot &o%%o/ their usua% route, it becomes im'ossib%e to con ince them to ma(e a detour. Second, once the detour has been com'%eted and e er"one is ha''", it is er" hard to decide /ho is res'onsib%e &or the mo e. Since the 0a " he%'ed S'err", it can c%aim credit &or the /ho%e g"rocom'ass, /hich /ou%d other/ise ha e remained a ague s(etch or an engineer5s b%ue'rint. But since /ithout his g"rocom'ass the 0a " &eared that its dreadnoughts /ou%d be %ost at sea, S'err" ma" er" /e%% c%aim to be the acti e &orce behind the 0a ". 1here ma" be a bitter strugg%e to a%%ocate credit, e en /hen e er"thing goes /e%%.

%<' ranslation four/ reshuffling interests and goals.

. &ourth strateg" is needed to o ercome the shortcomings o& the third: (a) the %ength o& the detour shou%d be im'ossib%e to e a%uate &or those /ho are en%istedP (b) it shou%d be 'ossib%e to enro% others e en i& their usua% course is not ob ious%" cut o&&P (c) it shou%d be im'ossib%e to decide /ho is en%isted and /ho does the en%istingP (d) ne erthe%ess, the &act:bui%ders shou%d a''ear as the on%" dri ing &orce. 1o carr" o&& /hat /ou%d seem to be a ;uite im'ossib%e tas(, there is one obstac%e that seems at &irst to be unsurmountab%e: 'eo'%e5s e#plicit interests. So &ar $ ha e used the term 5e6'%icit interest5 in a non:contro ersia% /a": the 0a " has interests, so has the mi%%ionaire, so has M.0, so ha e a%% the other actors /e ha e &o%%o/ed. .%% o& them (no/ more or %ess /hat the" /ant, and a %ist o& their goa%s

((11,))

ma", at %east in 'rinci'%e, be set u', either b" them or b" obser ers. .s %ong as the goa%s o& a%% these actors are e6'%icit, the &act:bui%der5s degree o& &reedom is %imited to the narro/ circ%e de%ineated b" the three strategies abo e. 1he en%isted grou's (no/ that the" are a grou'P (no/ /here the" /ant to goP (no/ i& their usua% /a" is interru'tedP (no/ ho/ &ar the" are read" to de iate &rom itP (no/ /hen the" ha e returned to itP and &ina%%", (no/ ho/ much credit shou%d go to those /ho he%'ed them &or a /hi%e. 1he" (no/ a %otS 8 1he" (no/ too much because this (no/%edge %imits the mo es o& the contenders and 'ara%"ses negotiations. .s %ong as a grou' 'ossesses such (no/%edge, it /i%% be e6treme%" hard to enro% it in the &act: bui%ding and, sti%% more, to contro% its beha iour. But ho/ to b"'ass this obstac%e? 1he ans/er is sim'%e and radica%. B" &o%%o/ing &act:bui%ders in action /e are going to see one o& their most e6traordinar" &eats: the" are going to "o a;ay /ith e6'%icit interests so as to increase their margin &or manoeu re.

%A' AC IC !NE/ -IS$,ACIN: :!A,S

9 en i& the" are e6'%icit, the meanings o& 'eo'%e5s goa%s ma" be di&&erent%" inter'reted. . grou' /ith a so%ution is %oo(ing &or a 'rob%em but no one has a 'rob%em....7e%%, /h" not ma(e them ha e a 'rob%em? $& a grou' &ee%s that its usua% /a" is not at a%% interru'ted, is it not 'ossib%e to o&&er it another scenario in /hich it has got a big 'rob%em? 7hen Leo SGi%ard &irst entered into discussion /ith the #entagon in the ear%" 19,>5s, the genera%s /ere not interested in his 'ro'osa% to bui%d an atomic /ea'on 9. 1he" argued that it a%/a"s ta(es a generation to in ent a ne/ /ea'on s"stem, that 'utting mone" into this 'roCect might be good &or 'h"sicists &or doing 'h"sics but not so%diers &or /aging /ar. 1hus the" sa/ SGi%ard5s 'ro'osa% as a t"'ica% case o& boot%egging: 'h"sicists /ou%d be better occu'ied 'er&ecting o%der /ea'on s"stems. Since the" did not &ee% their usua% /a" o& in enting /ea'ons /as cut o&&, the genera%s had no reason to see SGi%ard5s 'ro'osa% as a so%ution to a non:e6istent 'rob%em. 1hen SGi%ard started to /or( on the o&&icers5 goa%s. 57hat i& the Oermans got the atom bomb &irst? Ho/ /i%% "ou manage to /in the /ar:"our e6'%icit aim : /ith a%% "our o%der and obso%ete /ea'ons?5 1he genera%s had to /in a /ar:5a /ar5 in its usua% rendering means a c%assica% one: a&ter SGi%ard5s inter ention the" sti%% had to /in the /ar : meaning no/ a ne/ atomic one. 1he shi&t in meaning is s%ight but su&&icient to change the standing o& the atomic 'h"sicists: use%ess in the &irst ersion, the" become necessary in the second. 1he /ar machine is not being in aded b" boot%egging 'h"sicists an" more. $t is no/ geared &u%% s'eed to/ards the 'rogressi e rea%isation o& SGi%ard5s ague 'atent into a not so ague bomb...

%B' AC IC 6!/ INAEN IN: NE6 :!A,S

4is'%acing the goa%s o& the grou's to be en%isted so as to create the 'rob%em and

((118))

then o&&ering a 'ossib%e so%ution is nice, but sti%% %imited b" the origina% aims. 1hus, in this e6am'%e, SGi%ard cou%d con ince the #entagon to /age a nuc%ear /ar, but not to %ose it or to su''ort c%assica% dance. 1he margin o& &reedom /ou%d be much increased i& ne/ goa%s cou%d be de ised. 7hen Oeorge 9astman tried to mo e into the business o& se%%ing 'hotogra'hic '%ates, he soon rea%ised that he cou%d con ince on%" a &e/, /e%%:e;ui''ed amateurs to bu" his '%ates and his 'a'er 1>. 1he" /ere used to /or(ing in semi:'ro&essiona% %aboratories bui%t in their homes. 3thers /ere unintereste" in ta(ing 'ictures themse% es. 1he" did not /ant to bu" cost%" and cumbersome b%ac( bo6es J this time in the %itera% sense o& the /ordS 9astman then de ised the notion o& 5amateur 'hotogra'h"5: e er"one &rom - to 9- "ears o%d might, cou%d, shou%d, /ant to ta(e 'hotogra'hs. Ha ing this idea o& a mass mar(et, 9astman and his &riends had to de&ine the obCect that /ou%d con ince e er"bod" to ta(e 'hotogra'hs. 3n%" a &e/ 'eo'%e /ere read" &or a %ong detour through e6'ensi e %aboratories. 1he 9astman Com'an" had to ma(e the detour e6treme%" sma%% to en%ist e er"one. So that no one shou%d hesitate to ta(e a 'icture, the obCect shou%d be chea', and eas", so eas" that, as 9astman 'ut it: 5Iou 'ress the button, /e do the rest5, or as /e sa" in *rench, 5C%ic, c%ac, merci <oda(5. 1he camera /as not "et there, but 9astman a%read" sensed the contours o& the obCect /hich /ou%d ma(e his com'an" indis'ensab%e. #re ious%" &e/ 'eo'%e had had the goa% o& ta(ing 'hotogra'hs. $& 9astman /as success&u%, e er"one /ou%d ha e this goa%, and the on%" /a" to &u%&i% this cra ing /ou%d be to bu" camera and &i%ms &rom the %oca% 9astman Com'an" dea%er.

%C' AC IC H3EE/ INAEN IN: NE6 :3!#$S

1his is easier said than done. $nterests are the conse;uence o& /hate er grou's ha e been 're ious%" engaged to do. M.0 bui%ds steam enginesP it ma" be 'ersuaded to bui%d diese% engines, but not easi%" 'ersuaded to ma(e "oghurt. 1he #entagon /ishes to /in the /arP the" might be 'ersuaded to /in an atomic one, but not easi%" to dance, and so on. 1he abi%it" to in ent ne/ goa%s is limite" b" the e6istence o& a%read" de&ined grou's. $t /ou%d be much better to "efine ne/ grou's that cou%d then be en"o;e" /ith ne/ goa%s, goa%s /hich cou%d, in turn, be reached on%" b" he%'ing the contenders to bui%d their &acts. .t &irst sight, it seems im'ossib%e to in ent ne/ grou'sP in 'ractice, it is the easiest and b" &ar the most e&&icient strateg". *or instance, 9astman cou%d not im'ose a ne/ goa%Jta(ing 'ictures J /ithout de ising a ne/ grou' &rom scratch, the amateur 'hotogra'her &rom age - to 9-. $n the mid:nineteenth centur", rich and 'oor, ca'ita%ist and 'ro%etariat /ere some o& the most so%id%" de&ined grou's because o& the c%ass strugg%e. Hea%th o&&icers /ho /ished to o erhau% 9uro'ean and .merican cities to ma(e them sa&e and h"gienic /ere constant%" sta%%ed b" c%ass hosti%it" bet/een 'oor and rich 11. 1he sim'%est regu%ation &or hea%th /as considered either to be too radica%, or, on the contrar", to be one more stic( &or the rich to beat the 'oor /ith. 7hen

((11-))

#asteur and the h"gienists introduced the notion o& a microbe as the essentia% cause o& in&ectious disease, the" did not ta(e the societ" to be made u' o& rich and 'oor, but o& a rather di&&erent %ist o& grou's: sic( contagious 'eo'%e, hea%th" but dangerous carriers o& the microbes, immunised 'eo'%e, accinated 'eo'%e, and so on. $ndeed, the" added a %ot o& non! human actors to the de&inition o& the grou's as /e%%: mos;uitoes, 'arasites, rats, &%eas, '%us the mi%%ions o& &erments, bacteria, micrococci and other %itt%e bugs. .&ter this reshu&&%ing, the re%e ant grou's /ere not the same: a er" rich man5s son cou%d die sim'%" because the er" 'oor maid /as carr"ing t"'hoid. .s a conse;uence, a di&&erent t"'e o& so%idarit" emerged. .s %ong as societ" /as made u' Cust o& c%asses, h"gienists did not (no/ ho/ to become indis'ensab%e. 1heir ad ice /as not &o%%o/ed, their so%utions /ere not a''%ied. .s soon as ne/%" &ormed grou's /ere threatened b" the ne/%" in ented enem", common interest /as created, and so /as a cra ing &or the bio%ogists5 so%utionsP h"gienists a%%ied /ith microbio%ogists /ere 'ositioned at the centre o& a%% regu%ations. Haccines, &i%ters, antise'tics, (no/:ho/ that had unti% then been con&ined to a &e/ %aboratories s'read to e er" househo%d.

%-' AC IC F!#3/ 3EN-E3IN: HE -E !#3 INAISIB,E

1he third tactic has its shortcomings as /e%%. .s %ong as a grou'Je en made u' J is ab%e to detect a /idening ga' bet/een its goa%s J e en dis'%aced J and that o& the enro%%ing grou's the margin o& negotiation o& the %atter is much restrained. #eo'%e can sti%% see the di&&erence bet/een /hat the" /anted and /hat the" got, the" sti%% can &ee% the" ha e been cheated. . &ourth mo e is thus necessar" that turns the detour into a 'rogressi e dri&t, so that the enro%%ed grou' sti%% thin(s that it is going a%ong a straight %ine /ithout e er abandoning its o/n interests. $n Cha'ter 1 /e studied such a dri&t. 1he managers o& a big com'an" /ere a&ter ne/, more e&&icient, cars. 1he" had been con inced b" their research grou' that e%ectric cars using &ue% ce%%s /ere the (e" to the &uture. 1his /as the &irst trans%ation: 5more e&&icient cars5 e;ua%s 5&ue% ce%%s5. But since nothing /as (no/n o& &ue% ce%%s the" /ere con inced b" the research director that the crucia% enigma to be tac(%ed /as the beha iour o& e%ectrodes in cata%"sis 1). 1his 'ro ided the second trans%ation. 1he 'rob%em, the" /ere %ater to%d b" engineers, /as that the e%ectrode is so com'%e6 that the" shou%d stud" a sing%e 'ore o& a sing%e e%ectrode. 1he third trans%ation no/ reads: 5stud" o& cata%"sis5 [ 5stud" o& one 'ore5 (see Cha'ter 1, sentence (8)). But since the series o& trans%ations is a transitive re%ation the &ina% ersion u'he%d b" the Board o& 4irectors /as: 5ne/ e&&icient cars5 _ 5research into the one:'ore mode%5. 0o matter ho/ &ar the dri&t might a''ear, it is not &e%t as a detour an" more. 3n the contrar", it has become the on%" straight /a" to get at the car. 1he Board5s interests ha e to go through this one 'ore %i(e the came% through the e"e o& the need%eS 1o ta(e another e6am'%e, a *rench co%umnist argued, in 1871, a&ter the *ranco:#russian /ar, that i& the *rench had been beaten, this /as due to the Oerman so%diers5 better state o& hea%th. 1his is the &irst trans%ation that o&&ers a

((117))

666 &igur +.) start 666 *igure +.) 1rans%ation , *iguren iser en &Cerde mAte A inngA a%%ianser me%%om &ors(Ce%%ige interesser, i ti%%egg ti% de tre angitt i &igur +.1. #i%ene i &iguren iser interesser som er rettet mot et mA%. 9n rett 'i% retter seg rett mot mA%et, mens en bB"d 'i% =s(i&ter retning= henimot et nTr%iggende mA%. 9n t"(( 'i% bet"r en ster( i%Ce e%%er en ster(t ir(ende (ra&t, mens en t"nn 'i% er s a(ere. Mode%%en er en '%an &%ate, der en retning er (a%t =4istance &rom origina% interest=, mens retningen 9> grader 'A denne (a%%es =0umber o& interests enro%%ed=. 0Tr 3rigo starter en rett, t"nn 'i%, som 'e(er i retning a =0umber o& interests enro%%ed=. 4enne %i%%e 'i%en &ungerer som e(tor, og &Ar en t"((ere 'i% ti% A bB"e a . 4enne &Ar en enda t"((ere 'i% ti% A bB"e a , som igCen &Ar den t"(este 'i%en i &iguren ti% A bB"e a . S%i( s(Cer en bB%gebege%se &ra den ene 'i%a som er bB"et a ti% den neste. 1i% sammen be eger 'i%ene seg i en retning som gAr diagona%t, midt me%%om (d s. ,8 grader me%%om) &igurens to ho edretninger =4istance &rom origina% interest= og =0umber o& interests enro%%ed=. 4en n"e og tredCe retningen i midten (a%%es =2esu%ting 4ri&t=

666 &igur +.) s%utt 666

ne/ rendering o& the mi%itar" disaster. 1hen he goes on b" arguing that this better hea%th /as due to Oerman su'eriorit" in science) 1rans%ation t/o e6'ounds a ne/ inter'retation o& the use&u%ness o& basic science. He then e6'%ained that science /as su'erior in Oerman" because it /as better &unded. 1hird trans%ation. He ne6t te%%s the reader that the *rench .ssemb%" /as, at that moment, cutting &unds &or basic science. 1his ma(es &or a &ourth dis'%acement: no re enge /ou%d e er be 'ossib%e i& /e had no mone", since there is no science /ithout mone", no hea%th" so%diers /ithout science and no re enge /ithout so%diers. $n the end he suggests to the reader /hat to do: /rite to "our re'resentati e to ma(e him change his ote. .%% the s%ight dis'%acements are smooth%" nested, one in another, so that the same reader /ho /as read" to 'ic( u' his ri&%e and march on the .%satian &rontier to beat the Oermans, /as no/, ;ith the same energy, and ;ithout ha ing esche/ed his goa%, /riting an indignant %etter to his re'resentati eS

$t shou%d no/ be c%ear /h" $ used the /ord translation) $n addition to its %inguistic meaning (re%ating ersions in one %anguage to ersions in another one) it has a%so a geometric meaning (mo ing &rom one '%ace to another). 1rans%ating interests means at once o&&ering ne/ inter'retations o& these interests and channe%%ing 'eo'%e in di&&erent directions. 51a(e "our re enge5 is made to mean 5/rite a %etter5P 5bui%d a ne/ car5 is made to rea%%" mean 5stud" one 'ore o& an e%ectrode5. 1he resu%ts o& such renderings are a s%o/ mo ement &rom one '%ace to another. 1he main ad antage o& such a s%o/ mobi%isation is that 'articu%ar issues (%i(e that o& the science budget or o& the one:'ore mode%) are no/ soli"ly tie" to much %arger ones (the sur i a% o& the countr", the &uture o& cars), so /e%% tied indeed that threatening the &ormer is tantamount to threatening the %atter. Subt%" /o en and care&u%%" thro/n, this er" &ine net can be er" use&u% at (ee'ing grou's in its meshes.

((118))

%E' AC IC FIAE/ 6INNIN: 3IA,S !F A

3IB# I!N

.%% the abo e mo es enormous%" increase the contender5s room &or manoeu re, es'ecia%%" the %atter, /hich disso% es the notion o& e6'%icit interest. $t is no %onger 'ossib%e to te%% /ho is enro%%ed and /ho is enro%%ing, /ho is going out o& his /a" and /ho is not. But this success brings its o/n 'rob%ems /ith it. Ho/ can /e decide /ho did the Cob, or indeed, ho/ can the &act:bui%ders determine i& the &acts e entua%%" bui%t are their o;nC .%% a%ong /e meet this 'rob%em: /ith 4iese%5s engine, /ith #asteur5s accine, /ith S'err"5s g"rocom'ass. 1he /ho%e 'rocess o& enro%ment, no matter ho/ c%e er%" managed, ma" be /asted i& others gain credit &or it. Con erse%", enormous gains ma" be made sim'%" b" so% ing it, e en i& the 'rocess o& enro%ment has been bad%" managed. .&ter reading a &amous /or( b" #asteur on &ermentation, an 9ng%ish surgeon, Lister, 5had the idea5 that /ound in&ectionsJthat (i%%ed most i& not a%% o& his 'atientsJmight be simi%ar to &ermentation 1+. $mitating #asteur5s hand%ing o& &ermenting /ine, Lister then imagined that b" (i%%ing the germs in the /ounds and b" %etting o6"gen 'ass through the dressing, in&ection /ou%d sto' and the /ound hea% c%ean%". .&ter man" "ears o& tria%s, he in ented ase'sis and antise'sis. Ho%d onS 4id he in ent them? . ne/ discussion starts. 0o he did not, because man" surgeons had had the idea o& %in(ing in&ection and &ermentation be&ore, and o& %etting air through the bandageP man" co%%eagues /or(ed /ith and against him &or man" "ears be&ore ase'sis became a routine b%ac( bo6 in a%% surgica% /ards. Besides, in man" %ectures Lister grace&u%%" attribute" his origina% ideas to #asteur5s memoir. So, in a sense he 5sim'%" de e%o'ed5 /hat /as in germ, so to s'ea(, in #asteur5s in ention. But #asteur ne er made ase'sis and antise'sis a /or(ab%e 'ractice in surger"P Lister did. So, in another sense, Lister did e er"thing. Historians, as much as the actors themse% es, de%ight in deciding /ho in&%uenced /hom, /ho had on%" a margina% contribution and /ho made the most signi&icant

contribution. 7ith each ne/ /itness, someone e%se, or some other grou', ta(es credit &or 'art or &or a%% o& the mo e. So as not to be con&used, /e shou%d distinguish the recruiting o& a%%ies so as to bui%d a &act or a machine co%%ecti e%", &rom the attributions of responsibility to those /ho did most o& the /or(. B" de&inition, and according to our &irst 'rinci'%e, since the construction o& &acts is co%%ecti e, e er"one is as necessar" as an"one e%se. 0e erthe%ess, it is 'ossib%e, in s'ite o& this necessit", to ma(e e er"one acce't a &e/ 'eo'%e, or e en one 'erson, as the main cause &or their co%%ecti e /or(. #asteur, &or instance, not on%" recruited man" sources o& su''ort, but a%so stro e to maintain his %aborator" as the source o& the genera% mo ement that /as made u' o& man" scientists, o&&icia%s, engineers and &irms. .%though he had to acce't their ie/s and &o%%o/ their mo es J so as to e6tend his %ab J he a%so had to &ight so that the" a%% a''eared as sim'%" 5a''%"ing5 his ideas and &o%%o/ing his %eads. 1he t/o mo ements must be care&u%%" distinguished because, a%though the" are com'%ementar" &or a success&u% strateg", the" %ead in o''osite directions: the recruitment o& a%%ies su''oses that "ou go as &ar and

((119))

ma(e as man" com'romises as 'ossib%e, /hereas the attribution o& res'onsibi%it" re;uires "ou to limit the number o& actors as much as 'ossib%e. 1he ;uestion o& (no/ing /ho &o%%o/s and /ho is &o%%o/ed shou%d in no /a" be as(ed i& the &irst mo ement is to succeed, and ne erthe%ess shou%d be sett%ed &or the second mo ement to be com'%eted. .%though 4iese% &o%%o/ed man" o& the 'eo'%e he recruited, trans%ating their common interest in an ambiguous mi6ture, in the end he had to ma(e them consider his science as the %eader they follo;e") $ /i%% ca%% the primary me&hanism that /hich ma(es it 'ossib%e to so% e the enro%ment 'rob%em and ma(e the co%%ecti e action o& man" 'eo'%e turn &rom 5germs5 into rea%it" ase'sis, g"rocom'asses, O2* or diese% engines. 1o this me&hanism a se&ondary me&hanism has to be added /hich might ha e no re%ation at a%% /ith the &irst and /hich is as contro ersia% and as bitter as the other ones. . mi%itar" meta'hor /i%% he%' us remember this essentia% 'oint. 7hen an historian sa"s that 0a'o%eon lea"s the Oreat .rm" through 2ussia e er" reader (no/s that 0a'o%eon /ith his o/n bod" is not strong enough to /in, sa", the batt%e o& Borodino 1,. 4uring the batt%e ha%& a mi%%ion 'eo'%e are ta(ing initiati es, mi6ing u' the commands, ignoring orders, &%eeing or courageous%" d"ing. 1his gigantic mechanism is much bigger than /hat 0a'o%eon can hand%e or e en see &rom the to' o& a hi%%. 0e erthe%ess, a&ter the batt%e, his so%diers, the 1sar, <utuGo /ho commands the 2ussian arm", the 'eo'%e o& #aris, the historians, a%% attribute to him and on%" to him the res'onsibi%it" &or the ictor" J /hich in this case turned out %ater to be a de&eat. 9 er"one /i%% agree that there ma" be some re%ation bet/een /hat 0a'o%eon did during the batt%e and /hat the hundreds o& thousands o& others did, but the" /i%% a%so agree that these re%ations cannot be ca'tured b" the sentence 50a'o%eon /on because he had the

'o/er and the others obe"ed5. 96act%" the same is true o& the re%ations bet/een the hand&u% o& scientists and the mi%%ions o& others. 1heir com'%icated and un'redictab%e re%ations cannot be ca'tured b" a sim'%e order o& command that /ou%d go &rom basic science to the rest o& societ" ia a''%ied science and de e%o'ment. 3ther 'eo'%e /i%% decide that 4iese% /as a mere 'recursor, or that #asteur did a%% the basic /or( on ase'sis, or that S'err" had on%" a margina% in'ut into the g"rocom'ass. 9 en /hen a%% these ;uestions are %ater tac(%ed b" historians, their research a""s an im'ortant e6'ert testimon" to the tria%s, but it does not en" the tria%s and does not ta(e the '%ace o& the court. $n 'ractice, ho/e er, 'eo'%e ma(e some ersions more credib%e than others. 9 er"one ma" &ina%%" acce't that 4iese% 5had the idea5 o& his engine, that Lister 5in ented5 ase'sis /ith the he%' o& #asteur5s memoirs, or that 0a'o%eon 5%ed5 the Oreat .rm". *or a reason that /i%% become sti%% c%earer in #art C, this secondar" distribution o& &%ags and meda%s shou%d ne er be con&used /ith the 'rimar" 'rocess.

%B' ranslation fi"e/ be&oming indispensable

1he contenders no/ ha e a %ot o& %ee/a" /ith these &i e tactics in their attem'ts

((1)>))

to interest 'eo'%e in the outcome o& their c%aims. 7ith gui%e and 'atience it shou%d be 'ossib%e to see e er"one contributing to the s'read o& a c%aim in time and s'aceJ/hich /i%% then become a routine b%ac( bo6 in e er"one5s hands. $& such a 'oint /ere reached, then no &urther strateg" /ou%d be necessar": the contenders /ou%d ha e sim'%" become in"ispensable) 1he" /ou%d not ha e to cater to others5 interests J &irst trans%ation J nor to con ince them that their usua% /a"s /ere cut o&&J second trans%ationJ nor seduce them through a %itt%e detour Jthird trans%ationP it /ou%d no %onger e en be necessar" to in ent ne/ grou's, ne/ goa%s, to surre'titious%" bring about dri&t in interests, or to &ight bitter strugg%es &or attribution o& res'onsibi%ities. 1he contenders /ou%d sim'%" sit at a 'articu%ar '%ace, and the others /ou%d &%o/ e&&ort%ess%" through them, borro/ing their c%aims, bu"ing their 'roducts, /i%%ing%" 'artici'ating in the construction and s'read o& b%ac( bo6es. #eo'%e /ou%d sim'%" rush to bu" 9astman <oda( cameras, to ha e #asteur5s inCections, to tr" 4iese%5s ne/ engines, to insta%% ne/ g"rocom'asses, to be%ie e Scha%%"5s c%aims /ithout a shado/ o& a doubt, and to duti&u%%" ac(no/%edge the o/nershi' rights o& 9astman, #asteur, 4iese%, S'err" and Scha%%". 1he ;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der /ou%d not sim'%" be 'recarious%" 'atched u'. $t /ou%d be entire%" reso% ed. 0o negotiation, no dis'%acement /ou%d be necessar" since the others ;oul" "o the moving, the begging, the com'romising and the negotiation. 1he" are the ones /ho /ou%d go out o& their /a". $n *igures +.1 and +.) $ 'ictured the &our trans%ations. 1he" a%% %ead to the &i&th trans%ation that %itera%%" sums them u'. $n the geometric sense o& trans%ation it

means that /hate er "ou do, and /here er "ou go, "ou have to 'ass through the contenders5 'osition and to he%' them &urther their interests. $n the %inguistic sense o& the

666 &igur ).+ start 666 *igure +.+ *iguren iser &em mAter A inngA a%%ianser me%%om &ors(Ce%%ige interesser, bAde de tre &ra &igur ).1, den ene &ra &igur ).), og en n". #i%ene i &iguren iser interesser som er rettet mot et mA%. 9n rett 'i% retter seg rett mot mA%et, mens en bB"d 'i% =s(i&ter retning= henimot et nTr%iggende mA%. 9n t"(( 'i% bet"r en ster( i%Ce e%%er en ster(t ir(ende (ra&t, mens en t"nn 'i% er s a(ere. 3 ersette%se1:,: *iguren iser sti%iserte utga er a henho%ds is &igur +.1 (s. 11>), og &igur +.) (side 117). 3 ersette%se 8: Mange smA 'i%er %B'er sammen i et 'un(t og b%ir ti% en t"((. $%%ustrasConen %i(ner en sti%isert ariant a et s%u( i bunnen a en as(eser ant, der annstrBmmer render ned i s%u(et. 666 &igur ).+ s%utt 666

((1)1))

/ord trans%ation, it means that one ersion trans%ates e er" other, ac;uiring a sort o& hegemon": /hate er "our /ant, "ou /ant this as /e%%. 1he diagram ma(es c%ear that, &rom the &irst to the %ast, the contenders ha e shi&ted &rom the most e6treme /ea(nessJthat &orced them to &o%%o/ the othersJto the greatest strength J that &orces a%% the others to &o%%o/ them. $s such a strateg" &easib%e? Shado/ing scientists and engineers /i%% sho/ us that it is common 'ractice, but that, in order to succeed, other a%%ies ha e to be brought in and most o& them do not %oo( %i(e men or /omen.

$art B. 9eeping the interested groups in line

7e sa/ in the introduction to this cha'ter that t/o things are needed in order to bui%d a b%ac( bo6: &irst it is necessar" to enrol others so that the" be%ie e it, bu" it and disseminate it across time and s'aceP second, it is necessar" to control them so that /hat the" borro/ and s'read remains more or %ess the same. $& 'eo'%e are not interested, or i& the" do something entire%" di&&erent /ith the c%aim, the s'read o& a &act or o& a machine in time and s'ace does not ta(e '%ace. . &e/ 'eo'%e to" /ith an idea &or a &e/ da"s, but it soon disa''ears, to be re'%aced b" another. #roCects /hich trigger enthusiasm are ;uic(%" 'ut bac( into a dra/er. 1heories that had started to in&ect the /or%d shrin( bac( to become the i"Ke fi#e o& some %unatic in an as"%um. 9 en co%%eagues /ho had been Quna%terab%"5 con inced b" a %aborator" demonstration can change their minds a month %ater. 9stab%ished &acts are ;uic(%" turned into arte&acts, and 'uGG%ed 'eo'%e as(, QHo/ cou%d /e ha e be%ie ed such an absurdit"?5 9stab%ished industries that %oo(ed as i& the" /ere to %ast &or e er sudden%" become obso%ete and start &a%%ing a'art, dis'%aced b" ne/er ones. 4issenters /ho interru't the s'read o& an" &act or arte&act 'ro%i&erate. $n #art . /e ha e seen ho/ to do ha%& the Cob, that is, ho/ to interest others. 0o/ /e ha e to tac(%e the other ha%&: ho/ to ma(e their beha iour 'redictab%e. 1his is a much harder tas(.

%(' A &hain is only as strong as its 1eakest link

Let us &irst assess the di&&icu%t" o& the tas(. 7hen 4iese% succeeded in interesting M.0 in his 'roCect &or a 'er&ect engine, he /as %ent mone", /or(sho's, assistants, and /as granted some time. His 'rob%em /as to ho%d those e%ements together /ith the ones he /as bringing into the contract: Carnot5s thermod"namics, the 'rinci'%e o& ignition at constant tem'erature and his o/n ie/s on the &uture mar(et. $nitia%%" a%% these e%ements are sim'%" assemble" in one '%ace at .ugsburg. 7hat cou%d bind them more &irm%" together? . /or(ing 'rotot"'e /hich might %ater be used as a single piece o& standard e;ui'ment in

((1))))

other settings W a submarine or a truc(, &or e6am'%e. 7hat /i%% ha''en i& 4iese% cannot ho%d a%% these e%ements at once? 1he ans/er is sim'%e: the" /i%% be "isban"e" as easi%" as the" ha e been assemb%ed. 9ach o& the e%ements /i%% go its o/n /a": M.0 /i%% go on bui%ding steam engines, assistants /i%% be mo ed to other Cobs, mone" /i%% &%o/ e%se/here, Carnot5s thermod"namics /i%% remain a cr"'tic 'iece o& basic 'h"sics, ignition at constant tem'erature /i%% be remembered as a techno%ogica% dead end, and 4iese% /i%% occu'" himse%& /ith other tas(s, %ea ing %itt%e trace in the histor" boo(s. So the number o& en%isted interests is im'ortant but &ar &rom enough, because (nitting and t"ing them together ma" be undone. #asteur had been ab%e to con ince &armers /ho raised catt%e that the on%" /a" to so% e the terrib%e anthra6 '%ague /as to 'ass through his %aboratories at the 9co%e 0orma%e Su'Mrieure in 2ue d5!%m in #aris. Breathing do/n #asteur5s

nec( /ere thousands o& interests nested into one another, a%% read" to acce't his short cut through the microsco'e, the arti&icia% cu%ture o& microbes, and the 'romised accine. Ho/e er there is a considerab%e dri&t bet/een an interest in raising catt%e on a &arm and /atching microbes gro/ in #etri dishes: the gathering cro/d might disband ra'id%". .&ter a &e/ months o& ho'e the" might a%% %ea e disa''ointed, bitter%" accusing #asteur o& ha ing &oo%ed them b" creating arte&acts in his %aborator" o& %itt%e re%e ance to &arms and catt%e. #asteur /ou%d then become a mere 'recursor &or the anthra6 accine, his ro%e in histor" being according%" diminished. Something e%se is needed to tie the di erted resources and investe" interests together in a durab%e /a". 9astman had the bright idea o& in enting a ne/ grou' o& -: to 9-:"ear:o%ds that /as endo/ed /ith a cra ing &or ta(ing 'ictures. 1his en%istment de'ended on a camera that /as sim'%e to o'erate, /hich meant a camera /ith &i%m and not the e6'ensi e &ragi%e and cumbersome g%ass '%ates then used. But /hat /ou%d ha''en i& the &i%m s%ac(ened so much that a%% the 'ictures /ere &uGG"? 7hat i& the coating o& the &i%m b%istered? 0o matter ho/ man" 'eo'%e &ound 'hotogra'h" a''ea%ing, no matter ho/ big the 9astman Com'an", not matter ho/ c%e er and interested 9astman might be, the associated interests /ou%d disassociate. 9astman, /ith his dream o& a mass mar(et, /ou%d become one o& the man" 'recursors in the %ong histor" o& 'o'u%ar 'hotogra'h". 3thers /ou%d ta(e u' his 'atents, e en 'erha's bu" his com'an". Something more is needed to turn the tem'orar" Cu6ta'osition o& interests into a durab%e /ho%e. 7ithout this 5%itt%e something5, the assemb%" o& 'eo'%e necessar" to turn a c%aim into a b%ac( bo6 /i%% beha e un'redictab%": the" /i%% dissent, the" /i%% o'en it, tin(er /ith itP /orse, the" /i%% %ose interest and dro' it a%together. 1his 5dangerous5 beha iour shou%d be made im'ossib%eP e en better, it shou%d be made unthin(ab%e. 7e (no/ the ans/er since /e ha e been ta%(ing about it &or three cha'ters: the on%" /a" to (ee' the dissenters at ba" is to %in( the &ate o& the c%aim /ith so man" assemb%ed e%ements that it resists a%% tria%s to brea( it a'art. 1he &irst 'rotot"'e that 4iese% assemb%es is much %i(e Scha%%"5s O2* or

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B%ond%ot5s i%% &ated 0:2a"s: each ne/ tria% ma(es it &a%ter. .t the start, 4iese% ties the &ate o& his engine to that o& any &ue%, thin(ing that the" /ou%d a%% ignite at a er" high 'ressure. 1his, to him, is /hat made his engine so ersati%e. He needs er" high 'ressure to obtain such a resu%t, /ith 'istons, c"%inders and a% es strong enough to /ithstand more than ++ atmos'heres. M.0 /as ab%e to 'ro ide him /ith e6ce%%ent machine too%s and (no/:ho/ so that it soon became 'ossib%e to obtain such high 'ressure. But then, nothing ha''ened. 0ot e er" &ue% ignited. 1his a%%" /hich he had e6'ected to be un'rob%ematic and &aith&u% betra"ed him. 3n%" (erosene ignited, and then on%" erratica%%". Ho/ cou%d the ignition o& (erosene be

(e't in %ine? 4iese% disco ered that it de'ended on the right mi6ture o& air and &ue%. 1o (ee' this mi6ture constant he had to introduce the &ue% and the air into the c"%inder at a er" high 'ressure. But 4iese% had to add 'o/er&u% 'um's, sturd" a% es and a %ot o& e6tra '%umbing to his origina% design to obtain such a resu%t. His engine ma" run, but it becomes %arge and e6'ensi e. So /hat is ha''ening? 4iese% has to shift his system of alliances: high 'ressure '%us an" &ue% '%us so%id inCection %ead to engines o& an" siGe /hich interest e er"one and s'read e er"/here. But this series o& associations is dismant%ed in the .ugsburg /or(sho', as soon as it is tried out. 1he engine does not e en turn one stro(e. So, a ne/ series o& a%%iances is tried out: high 'ressure '%us (erosene '%us air inCection /hich means a %arge and cost%" engine that id%es &or a &e/ seconds. $ hear the reader5s obCection: 5But do /e rea%%" ha e to go into these detai%s to understand ho/ others are to be contro%%ed?5 Ies, because /ithout these %itt%e detai%s others are not controlle"B Li(e the dissenter o& Cha'ter ), the" a''%" 'ressure to the ne/ design, and the /ho%e thing brea(s a'art. 1o resist dissent, that is to resist tria%s o& &orce, 4iese% has to in ent an inCection 'um' that ho%ds air and (erosene together, a%%o/s the high 'ressure to ignite the mi6ture, ma(es the engine run, and thus (ee's M.0 in %ine. But i& the (erosene, the air, and M.0 are (e't in %ine, this is not the case &or the ast mar(et antici'ated b" 4iese%. 1his has to be gi en u'. Oro'ing in the dar( inside his /or(sho', 4iese% has to choose a%%iances. He has to decide /hat he most /ishes to (ee' in %ine. 1here is at &irst no engine that can a%%" itse%& to air, to an" &ue% and to e er"one5s needs. Something has to give ;ay: a &ue%, the (erosene, so%id inCection, Carnot5s 'rinci'%es, the mass mar(et, 4iese%5s stamina, M.05s 'atience, rights to 'atents . . . Something. 1he same choice goes on in #asteur5s %aborator". $s there an"thing that can be used to tie in the &armers5 interests be&ore the" a%% go a/a" bitter and scorn&u%? . tin" baci%%us inside a urine medium /i%% not do, e en i& it is isib%e under the microsco'e. $t is on%" o& margina% interest to 'eo'%e /ho ha e been attracted to the %ab b" the 'romise that the" /i%% soon be bac( on their &arms, mi%(ing hea%thier co/s and shearing hea%thier shee'. $& #asteur /as using his baci%%us to do biochemistr" or ta6onom", deciding i& it /as an anima% or a %ichen, others %i(e biochemists or ta6onomists /ou%d be interested, but not the &armers. 7hen #asteur sho/s that shee' &ed o%der cu%tures o& the baci%%us resist the disease e en /hen the" are %ater &ed iru%ent cu%tures, biochemists and ta6onomists are on%"

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casua%%" interested but &armers are er" interested. $nstead o& %osing interest, the" gain it. 1his is a accine to 're ent in&ection, something eas" to re%ate to the &arm conditions. But /hat i& the accine /or(s erratica%%"? .gain, interest ma" s%ac(en and disa''ointment return. #asteur then needs a ne/ re%iab%e method to turn the 'roduction o& accine into a routine, a b%ac( bo6

that ma" be inCected b" an" et. His co%%aborators disco er that it a%% de'ends on the tem'erature o& the cu%ture: ,,\ &or a &e/ da"s is &ine, the cu%ture ages and ma" be used as a accineP at ,8\, the baci%%us diesP at ,1\ it changes &orm, s'oru%ates and becomes use%ess as a accine. 1hese %itt%e detai%s are /hat c%am' together the /a ering interests o& the enro%%ed &armers. #asteur has to &ind /a"s to ma(e both the &armers and the baci%%us 'redictab%e. .nd he has to (ee' on disco ering ne/ /a"s, or at %east &or as %ong as he /ishes to tie these &armers and these microbes together. 1he tiniest %oose end in this lash!up 18 and a%% his e&&orts are /asted. 1he ca'tation o& 'eo'%e5s interests, and their trans%ation to ma(e them /or( in the construction o& a b%ac( bo6, %eads, $ ha e to admit, to tri&%es. But i& "ou bui%d a %ong chain, it sti%% remains on%" as strong as its /ea(est %in( no matter ho/ grandiose some o& its e%ements ma" be. Litt%e matter that 9astman has mobi%ised his /ho%e com'an" to ca'ture the amateur mar(etP %itt%e matter that he has in ented a ne/ bo6, a ne/ ro%%er, a ne/ &i%m, a ne/ ratchet &or the ne/ s'ring ho%ding the negati esP i& the coating o& the &i%m blisters, then that is the end o& the /ho%e enter'rise. 1here is one missing %in( in the %ong chain 1-. 3ne neg%igib%e a%%" de&au%ts. Shi&ting &rom 'a'er to ce%%u%oid a%%o/s 9astman to so% e these irritating b%isters. 1his 'art o& the camera at %east becomes indis'utab%e. 1he camera no/ mo es &rom hand to hand as one ob=ect, and ma" start to interest the 'eo'%e it has been de ised to interest. 0o/ attention shi&ts to another missing %in(, to the ne/ machines that ha e to be in ented to ma(e %ong stri's o& ce%%u%oid. 1o (ee' them in %ine, other a%%ies ha e in turn to be &etched and assemb%ed, and so on.

%5' ying up 1ith ne1 une2pe&ted allies

7e no/ start to understand that there is no /a" o& t"ing together interested grou's J mobi%ised in 'art . J un%ess other e%ements are tied /ith them: 'iston, air, (erosene, urine medium, microbes, ro%%er, coating, ce%%u%oid, etc. But /e a%so understand that it is not 'ossib%e to tie an" e%ement to another at random. Choices ha e to be made. 4iese%5s decision to go in &or air inCection means that man" 'otentia% bu"ers ha e to be abandoned and that Carnot5s 'rinci'%es ma" n`t be that easi%" a''%ied. #asteur5s search &or a ne/ medium &or his accine entai%s the abandonment o& other interests in biochemistr" and ta6onom". .mateurs ma" be ca'tured b" 9astman5s ne/ <oda( camera, but the semi:'ro&essiona%s /ho do their o/n '%ates and de e%o'ment are %e&t to one side and the ne/ &i%m coating had better not b%ister. .s in Machia e%%i5s (rince, the 'rogressi e bui%ding u' o& an em'ire is a series o& decisions about a%%iances: 7ith /hom can $ co%%aborate? 7hom shou%d $ /rite o&&? Ho/ can $ ma(e this one

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&aith&u%? $s this other one re%iab%e? $s this one a credib%e s'o(es'erson? But /hat did not occur to Machia e%%i is that these a%%iances can cut across the boundaries bet/een human beings and 5things5. 9 er" time an a%%" is abandoned, re'%acements need to be recruitedP e er" time a

sturd" %in( disru'ts an a%%iance that /ou%d be use&u%, ne/ e%ements shou%d be brought in to brea( it a'art and ma(e use o& the dismant%ed e%ements. 1hese 5machia e%%ian5 strategies are made more isib%e /hen /e &o%%o/ scientists and engineers. 2ather, /e ca%% 5scientists5 and 5engineers5 those subt%e enough to inc%ude in the same re'ertoire o& '%o"s human and non: human resources, thus increasing their margin &or negotiation. 1a(e &or instance the Be%% Com'an" 17. 1e%e'hone %ines in the ear%" da"s /ere ab%e to carr" a oice on%" a &e/ (i%ometres. Be"ond this %imit the oice became garb%ed, &u%% o& static, inaudib%e. 1he message /as corru'ted and not transmitted. B" 5boosting5 the signa%s e er" thirteen (i%ometres, the distance cou%d be increased. $n 191>, mechanica% re'eaters /ere in ented to re%a" the message. But these cost%" and unre%iab%e re'eaters cou%d be insta%%ed on%" on a &e/ %ines. 1he Be%% Com'an" /as ab%e to e6'and, but not er" &ar, and certain%" not through the desert, or the Oreat #%ains o& the !nited States /here a%% sorts o& sma%% com'anies /ere thri ing in the midst o& com'%ete chaos. Ma Be%%, as it is nic(named b" .mericans, /as indeed in the business o& %in(ing 'eo'%e together, but /ith the mechanica% re'eater man" 'eo'%e /ho might /ish to 'ass through her net/or( cou%d not do so. .n e6hibition in San *rancisco in 191+ o&&ered Be%% a cha%%enge. 7hat i& /e cou%d %in( the 7est and the 9ast Coast /ith one te%e'hone %ine? Can "ou imagine that? . transcontinenta% %ine t"ing the !S together and rendering Be%% the indis'ensab%e go:bet/een o& a hundred mi%%ion 'eo'%e, e%iminating a%% the sma%% com'anies? .%as, this is im'ossib%e because o& the cost o& the o%d re'eater. $t becomes the missing %in( in this ne/ a%%iance '%anned bet/een Ma Be%% and e er"one in the !S. 1he 'roCect &a%%s a'art, becomes a dream. 0o transcontinenta% %ine &or the time being. Better send "our messages through the #ost 3&&ice. Fe/ett, one o& the directors o& Be%%, %oo(s &or ne/ 'ossib%e a%%iances that /i%% he%' the com'an" out o& its 'redicament. He remembers that he /as taught b" Mi%%i(an, /hen the %atter /as a "oung %ecturer. 0o/ a &amous 'h"sicist, Mi%%i(an /or(s on the e%ectron, a ne/ obCect at the time, that is s%o/%" being bui%t u' in his %aborator" %i(e a%% the other actants /e sa/ in Cha'ter ). 3ne o& the &eatures o& the e%ectron is that it has %itt%e inertia. Fe/ett, /ho himse%& has a doctorate in 'h"sics, is read" &or a %itt%e detour. Something /hich has no inertia %oses %itt%e energ". 7h" not as( Mi%%i(an about a 'ossib%e ne/ re'eater? Mi%%i(an5s %aborator" has nothing to o&&er, "et. 0othing read" &or sa%e. 0o b%ac( bo6 re'eating %ong:distance messages chea'%" and sa&e%". 7hat Mi%%i(an can do, ho/e er, is to %end Fe/ett a &e/ o& his best students, to /hom Be%% o&&ers a /e%%:e;ui''ed %aborator". .t this 'oint Mi%%i(an5s 'h"sics is in 'art connected /ith Be%%5s &ate, /hich is 'art%" connected /ith the cha%%enge o& the San *rancisco &air, according to a chain o& trans%ations %i(e the ones /e studied abo e. 1hrough a series o& s%ight dis'%acements, e%ectrons, Be%%, Mi%%i(an and the continenta% %ine

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are c%oser to one another than the" /ere be&ore. But it is sti%% a mere Cu6ta'osition. 1he Be%% Com'an" managers ma" soon rea%ise that basic 'h"sics is good &or 'h"sicists but not &or

businessmenP e%ectrons ma" re&use to Cum' &rom one e%ectrode o& the ne/ triodes to the ne6t /hen the tension gets too high, and &i%% the acuum /ith a b%ue c%oudP the urge &or a transcontinenta% %ine ma" no %onger be &e%t b" the Board o& 4irectors. 1his mere Cu6ta'osition is trans&ormed /hen .rno%d, one o& the recruited 'h"sicists, trans&orms a triode 'atented b" another in entor. $n a er" high acuum, e en at er" high tension, the s%ightest ibration at one end triggers a strong ibration at the other. . ne/ obCect is then created through ne/ tria%s in the ne/%" o'ened %aborator": e%ectrons that great%" am'%i&" signa%s. 1his ne/ e%ectronic re'eater is soon trans&ormed into a b%ac( bo6 b" the co%%ecti e /or( o& Ma Be%%, and incor'orated as a routine 'iece o& e;ui'ment in si6 %ocations a%ong the 88>> (i%ometres o& cab%e %aid across the continent. $n 191,, the transcontinenta% %ine, im'ossib%e /ith the other re'eater, becomes rea%. .%e6ander Be%% ca%%s Mr 7atson, /ho is no %onger do/nstairs but thousands o& mi%es a/a". 1he Be%% Com'an" is no/ ab%e to e6'and o er the /ho%e continent: consumers /ho had not be&ore had the s%ightest interest in te%e'honing the other coast no/ routine%" do so, 'assing through the Be%% net/or( and contributing to its e6'ansionJas antici'ated &rom the &i&th trans%ation described abo e. But the boundaries o& 'h"sics ha e been trans&ormed as /e%%, &rom a &e/ modest%" e;ui''ed %aboratories in uni ersities to man" /e%%:endo/ed %aboratories in industr"P &rom no/ on man" students cou%d ma(e a career in industria% 'h"sics. .nd Mi%%i(an? He has changed too, since man" e&&ects &irst stabi%ised in his %ab are no/ routine%" used a%ong te%e'hone %ines, e er"/here, thus 'ro iding his %aborator" /ith a &antastic e6'ansion. Something e%se has mo ed too. 1he e%ectrons. 1he %ist o& actions that de&ined their being has been dramatica%%" increased /hen a%% these %aboratories submitted them to ne/ and une6'ected tria%s. 4omesticated e%ectrons ha e been made to '%a" a ro%e in a con o%uted a%%iance that a%%o/s the Be%% Com'an" to trium'h o er its ri a%s. $n the end, each actor in this %itt%e stor" has been 'ushed out o& its usua% /a" and made to be di&&erent, because o& the ne/ a%%iances it has been &orced to enter. 7e, the %a"'eo'%e, &ar a/a" &rom the 'ractice o& science and the s%o/ bui%d:u' o& arte&acts, ha e no idea o& the ersati%it" o& the a%%iances scientists are read" to ma(e. 7e (ee' nice c%ean boundaries that e6c%ude 5irre%e ant5 e%ements: e%ectrons ha e nothing to do /ith big businessP microbes in %aboratories ha e nothing to do /ith &arms and catt%eP Carnot5s thermod"namics is in&inite%" &ar &rom submarines. .nd /e are right. 1here is at &irst a ast distance bet/een these e%ementsP at the beginning the" are indeed irre%e ant. But 5re%e ance5, %i(e e er"thing e%se, can be ma"e) Ho/? B" the series o& trans%ations $ ha e s(etched. 7hen Fe/ett &irst &etches Mi%%i(an, the e%ectrons are too &eeb%e to ha e an" eas" connection /ith Ma Be%%. .t the end, inside the triode redesigned b" .rno%d, the" re%iab%" transmit .%e6ander Be%%5s order to Mr 7atson. 1he sma%%er com'anies might ha e thought that Ma Be%% /ou%d ne er beat them since it /as im'ossib%e to

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bui%d a transcontinenta% %ine. 1his /as counting ;ithout the e%ectrons. B" adding e%ectrons and Mi%%i(an and his students and a ne/ %ab to the %ist o& its a%%ies, Ma Be%% modi&ies the re%ations o& &orces. 7here it /as /ea( o er %onger distances, it is no/ stronger than an"one e%se. 7e a%/a"s &ee% it is im'ortant to decide on the nature of the alliances: are the e%ements human or non:human? .re the" technica% or scienti&ic? .re the" obCecti e or subCecti e? 7hereas the on%" ;uestion that rea%%" matters is the &o%%o/ing: is this ne; association ;eaker or stronger than that one) Heterinar" science had not the s%ightest re%ation /ith the bio%og" done in %aboratories /hen #asteur began his stud". 1his does not mean that this connection cannot be bui%t. 1hrough the estab%ishment o& a %ong %ist o& a%%ies, the tin" baci%%us attenuated b" the cu%ture has a sudden bearing on the interests o& &armers. $ndeed, it is /hat de&initi e%" re erses the ba%ance o& 'o/er. Hets /ith a%% their science no/ ha e to 'ass through #asteur5s %aborator" and borro/ his accine as an incontro ertib%e b%ac( bo6. He has become indis'ensab%e. 1he &u%&i%ment o& the strategies 'resented in #art . is entire%" de'endent on the ne/ une6'ected a%%ies that ha e been ma"e to be relevant) 1he conse;uence o& these bo%d mo es that enro% ne/%" &ormed actors (microbes, e%ectrons) in our human a&&airs is that there is no /a" to counteract them e6ce't b" tac(%ing these 5technica% detai%s5. Li(e the 'roo& race described in Cha'ter 1, once it has started there is no /a" o& a oiding the nitt":gritt" since this is /hat ma(es the di&&erence. 7ithout bui%ding e6'ensi e %aboratories that the" cou%d not a&&ord in an attem't to attract 'h"sics and e%ectrons bac( into their o/n cam', the sma%% com'anies e%iminated b" Be%% cou%d not resist. 1he %aboratories studied in Cha'ter ) no/ occu'" the centre o& these strategies through /hich ne/ actors constituting a ast reser oir o& &orces are mobi%ised. 1he s'o(es'ersons ab%e to ta%( on beha%& o& ne/ and in isib%e actors are no/ the %inch'ins on /hich the ba%ance o& 'o/er rests: a ne/ characteristic o& e%ectrons, one more degree in the cu%ture medium, and the /ho%e assemb%ed cro/d either brea(s u' or is irre ersib%" bound. 1he intimate detai%s o& an obscure science ma" become a batt%e&ie%d %i(e a hitherto modest ham%et became the stage &or the batt%e o& 7ater%oo. $n 9dinburgh, &or instance, at the beginning o& the nineteenth centur", the rising midd%e c%ass /as cha&ing under the socia% su'eriorit" o& high societ" 18. .''%"ing the abo e strateg", the" %oo(ed &or une6'ected a%%ies to re erse this situation. 1he" seiGed on a mo ement in brain science ca%%ed 'hreno%og" that a%%o/ed a%most an"one to read o&& 'eo'%e5s ;ua%ities b" care&u%%" considering the bum's on their s(u%%s and the sha'e o& their &aces. 1his use o& crania% characteristics threatened to reshu&&%e Scottish c%ass &abric entire%", e6act%" %i(e the h"gienists did abo e /ith the microbes ('.118). 1o e a%uate the mora% /orth o& someone the ;uestions /ere no %onger: 7ho are his 'arents? Ho/ ancient is his %ineage? Ho/ ast are his 'ro'eties? But on%": 4oes his s(u%% 'ossess the sha'e that e6'resses irtue and honest"? B" a%%"ing themse% es /ith 'hreno%og" the midd%e c%ass cou%d change its 'osition in re%ation to the u''er c%ass, /hich at &irst /as uninterested in

((1)8))

brain science, b" rea%%ocating e er"bod" into ne/%" re%e ant grou's. 1o resist brain scientists, other brain scientists had to be en%isted hoo(, %ine and sin(er. 1hus a contro ers" started not about socia% c%asses, but about neuro%og". .s the contro ers" heated, the discussion shi&ted insi"e brain scienceP in &act, it shi&ted %itera%%" insi"e the brain. .t%ases /ere 'rinted, s(u%%s cut o'en, dissections 'er&ormed, to decide /hether the inner structure o& the brain cou%d be 'redicted &rom the outer sha'e o& the s(u%%, as argued b" 'hreno%ogists. Li(e the dissenters in Cha'ter ) the ne/%" recruited brain scientists tried out the connections estab%ished b" 'hreno%ogists. 1he more the" tried, the dee'er the" /ere %ed inside the brain, straining their e"es to discern /hether the cerebe%%um, &or instance, /as %in(ed to the rest o& the bod" &rom the to' or &rom the bottom. Mo ing s%o/%" through the arious trans%ations, the contenders ended u' in the cerebe%%umP and the" did so because this %atter 'ro ed the /ea( %in(.

%8' Ma&hinations of for&es

$nterested grou's ma" there&ore be (e't in %ine as, mo ing through a series o& trans%ations, the" end u' being tra''ed b" a com'%ete%" ne/ e%ement that is itse%& so strong%" tied that nothing can brea( it u'. 7ithout e6act%" understanding ho/ it a%% ha''ened, 'eo'%e start '%acing transcontinenta% 'hone ca%%s, ta(ing 'hotogra'hs, ha ing their cats and chi%dren accinated, and be%ie ing in 'hreno%og". 1he ;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der is thus reso% ed, since a%% these 'eo'%e /i%%ing%" contribute to the &urther e6'ansion o& these man" b%ac( bo6es. . ne/ and dee'er 'rob%em arises, ho/e er, caused b" the er" success o& a%% the '%ots discussed abo e. 1hese ne/ and une6'ected a%%ies brought in to (ee' the &irst grou's in %ine, ho; can they, in turn, be kept in lineC .re the" not another 'ro isiona% Cu6ta'osition o& he%'ing hands, read" to disband? $s not the &%as( o& #asteurian accine %i(e%" to be s'oi%ed? 7hat (ee's the ne/ 'rotot"'e triodes &rom s/itching o&& a&ter a &e/ hours? 7hat i& the cerebe%%um turns out to be a sha'e%ess mash o& brain tissue? .s to the diese% engine, /e (no/ ho/ unre%iab%e it isP it has to be debugged &or %onger "ears than the *agle com'uter. Ho/ shou%d these disordered assemb%ies be turned into such a tight%" g%ued /ho%e that it can %in( the enro%%ed grou's together durab%"? Machia e%%i (ne/ 'er&ect%" /e%% that the a%%iances binding to/ns and cro/ns are shi&ting and uncertain. But /e are considering much more shi&ting and uncertain a%%iances bet/een brains, microbes, e%ectrons and &ue%s, than those necessar" to bind together to/ns and cro/ns. $& there is no /a" to render the ne/ a%%ies more re%iab%e than the o%der ones, then the /ho%e enter'rise is s'oi%ed and c%aims /i%% shrin( bac( to a sing%e '%ace and a sing%e time. 7e ta(e the ans/er so much &or granted that /e no %onger &ee% ho/ sim'%e and origina% it is. 1he sim'%est means o& trans&orming the Cu6ta'osed set o& a%%ies into a /ho%e that acts as one is to tie the assemb%ed &orces to one another, that is, to

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bui%d a ma&hine. . machine, as its name im'%ies, is &irst o& a%%, a machination, a stratagem, a (ind o& cunning, /here borro/ed &orces (ee' one another in chec( so that none can &%" a'art &rom the grou'. 1his ma(es a machine di&&erent &rom a too% /hich is a sing%e e%ement he%d "irectly in the hand o& a man or a /oman 19. !se&u% as too%s are, the" ne er turn Mr o& Ms .n"bod" into Mr or Ms Man"bodiesS 1he tric( is to se er the %in( each too% has /ith each bod" and tie them to one another instead. 1he 'est%e is a too% in the /oman5s handP she is stronger /ith it than /ith her hands a%one, &or no/ she is ab%e to grind corn. Ho/e er i& "ou tie the grinder to a /ooden &rame and i& this &rame is tied to the sai%s o& a mi%% that 'ro&its &rom the /ind, this is a machine, a /indmi%%, that 'uts into the mi%%er5s hands an assemb%" o& &orces no human cou%d e er match. $t is essentia% to note that the s(i%%s re;uired to go &rom the 'est%e to the /indmi%% are e6act%" symmetrical to the ones /e sa/ in #art .. Ho/ can the /ind be borro/ed? Ho/ can it be made to ha e a bearing on corn and bread? Ho/ can its &orce be trans%ated so that, /hate er it does or does not do, the corn is re%iab%" ground? Ies, /e ma" use the /ords trans%ation and interest as /e%%, because it is no more and no %ess di&&icu%t to interest a grou' in the &abrication o& a accine than to interest the /ind in the &abrication o& bread. Com'%icated negotiations ha e to go on continuous%" in both cases so that the 'ro isiona% a%%iances do not brea( o&&. *or instance, the assemb%ed grou's o& &armers ma", as $ sho/ed, %ose interest. .nd the /ind, /hat can it do? Sim'%" b%o/ the &ragi%e /indmi%% a/a", tearing the sai%s and the /ings o&&. 7hat shou%d the mechanic do to ho%d the /ind in his s"stem o& a%%iances, in s'ite o& the /a" it shi&ts direction and changes strength? He has to negotiate. He has to tai%or a machine that can sta" o'en to the /ind and sti%% be immune to its de%eterious e&&ects. Se ering the association bet/een the sai% mechanism and the to/er on /hich the mi%% is bui%t /i%% do the tric(. 1he to' o& the mi%% no/ re o% es. 3& course, there is a 'rice to 'a", &or no/ "ou need more cran(s and a com'%icated s"stem o& /hee%s, but the /ind has been made into a re%iab%e a%%". 0o matter ho/ much the /inds shi&t, no matter /hat the /inds /ant, the /ho%e /indmi%% /i%% act as one piece, resisting dissociation in s'ite o&Dbecause o& the increasing number o& 'ieces it is no/ made o&. 7hat ha''ens to the 'eo'%e gathered round the mi%%er? 1he" too are de&inite%" Qinterested5 in the mi%%. 0o matter /hat the" /ant, no matter ho/ good the" /ere at hand%ing the 'est%e, the" no/ ha e to 'ass through the mi%%. 1hus the" are (e't in %ine =ust as much as the /ind is )>. $& the /ind had to''%ed the mi%%, then the" cou%d ha e abandoned the mi%%er and gone their usua% /a"s. 0o/ that the to' o& the mi%% re o% es, than(s to a com'%icated assemb%" o& nuts and bo%ts, the" cannot com'ete /ith it. $t is a c%e er machination, isn5t it, and because o& it the mi%% has become an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or the 'eo'%e, &or the corn and &or the /ind. $& re o% ing /indmi%%s cannot do the Cob a%one, then one can ma(e it i%%ega% to grind corn at home. $& the ne/ %a/ does not /or( immediate%", use &ashion or taste, an"thing that /i%% habituate 'eo'%e to the mi%% and &orget their 'est%es. $ to%d "ou the a%%iances /ere Qmachia e%%ian5S

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Sti%% it is hard to see ho/ a 'ro&usion o& &orces can be (e't in %ine b" re%ati e%" sim'%e machinations %i(e /indmi%%s. 3ne snag becomes ob ious: the 'rocess o& recruiting and maintaining a%%ies in o% es increasing com'%e6it" in the machine. 9 en the best mechanic /i%% &ind it di&&icu%t to regu%ate the machine J chec( the /ind, mend the sai%s, en&orce the %a/J so that a%% the a%%ies sta" content. 7hen "ou get to more com'%e6 machines, it5s Cust a ;uestion o& /hoD/hat brea(s do/n &irst. $t /ou%d be better i& the assemb%ed &orces cou%d check one another b" '%a"ing the ro%e o& mechanic &or each otherP i& this /ere &easib%e, then the mechanic cou%d /ithdra/ and sti%% bene&it &rom the co%%ecti e /or( o& a%% the assemb%ed e%ements, each cons'iring /ith one another to &u%&i% the mechanic5s goa%. 1his /ou%d mean that, in 'ractice, the assemb%ed &orces ;oul" move by themselvesB 1his at &irst seems %udicrous, since it /ou%d mean that non:human e%ements /ou%d '%a" the ro%e o& ins'ector, sur e"or, chec(er, ana%"st and re'orter in order to (ee' the assemb%ed &orces in %ine. $t /ou%d mean another con&usion o& boundaries, the e6tension o& socia% '%o"s to nature. 7e are again so used to acce'ting the so%ution, that is hard &or us to imagine ho/ origina% the stratagems that generated automatons /ere. *or instance, in the ear%ier 0e/comen steam engine, the 'iston &o%%o/ed the condensing steam, 'ushed b" atmos'heric 'ressure, that /as thus made to %end its strength to the 'um' that e6tracted the /ater, that &%ooded the coa% mine, that made the 'it use%ess... )1 . %ong series o& associations, %i(e those discussed in #art ., /ere made that %in(ed the &ate o& coa% mines to the /eight o& the atmos'here through the steam engine. 1he 'oint here is that, /hen it reached the end o& the c"%inder, a ne/ &%o/ o& steam had to be inCected through a a% e o'ened b" a /or(er /ho then c%osed it again /hen the 'iston reached the to' o& its stro(e. But /h" %ea e the o'ening and c%osing o& the a% e to a /ear", under'aid and unre%iab%e /or(er, /hen the 'iston mo es u' and do/n and cou%d be ma"e to tell the a% e /hen to o'en and /hen to c%ose? 1he mechanic /ho %in(ed the 'iston /ith a cam to the a% e trans&ormed the 'iston into its o/n ins'ectorJthe stor" is that he /as a tired, %aG" bo". 1he 'iston is more re%iab%e than the bo" since it is, ia the cam, "irectly intereste", so to s'ea(, in the right timing o& the &%o/ o& steam. Certain%", it is more direct%" interested than an" human being. .n automatism is born, one o& the &irst in a %ong series. 1he engineer5s abi%it" %ies in mu%ti'%"ing the tric(s that ma(e each e%ement interested in the /or(ing o& the others. 1hese e%ements ma" be &ree%" chosen among human or non:human actors )). *or instance, in the ear%" British cotton:s'inning industr", a /or(er /as attached to the machine in such a /a" that an" &ai%ure o& attention resu%ted not in a sma%% de&icienc" in the 'roduct that cou%d be hidden, but in a gross and ob ious disru'tion /hich %ed to a %oss o& 'iece/or( earnings. $n this case, it is 'art o& the machine that is used to su'er ise the /or(er. . s"stem o& 'a", detection o& error, a /or(er, a cotton:s'inning machine, /ere a%% tied together in order to trans&orm the /ho%e %ash:u' into a smooth%" running automaton. 1he assemb%" o& disorder%" and unre%iab%e a%%ies is thus s%o/%" turned

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into something that c%ose%" resemb%es an organised /ho%e. 7hen such a cohesion is obtained /e at %ast ha e a black bo#) !' to no/ $ ha e used this term both too much and too %oose%" to mean either a /e%%: estab%ised &act or an un'rob%ematic obCect. $ cou%d not de&ine it 'ro'er%" be&ore /e had seen the &ina% machinations that turn a gathering o& &orces into a /ho%e that then ma" be used to contro% the beha iour o& the enro%%ed:grou's. !nti% it can be made into an automaton, the e%ements that the &act:bui%der /ant to s'read in time and s'ace is not a b%ac( bo6. $t does not act as one) $t can be disassociated, dismant%ed, renegotiated, rea''ro'riated. 1he <oda( camera is made o& bits and 'ieces, o& /ood, o& stee%, o& coating, o& ce%%u%oid. 1he semi: 'ro&essiona%s o& the time o'en u' their camera and do their o/n coating and de e%o'ing, the" manu&acture their o/n 'a'er. 1he obCect is dismembered each time a ne/ 'hotogra'h is ta(en, so that it is not one but rather a bunch o& disconnected resources 1hat others ma" '%under. 0o/ the ne/ <oda( automatic cannot be o'ened /ithout going /rong. $t is made u' o& man" more 'arts and it is hand%ed b" a much more com'%e6 commercia% net/or(, but it acts as one 'iece. *or the ne/%" con inced user it is one obCect, no matter ho/ man" 'ieces there are in it and no matter ho/ com'%e6 the commercia% s"stem o& the 9astman Com'an" is. So it is not sim'%" a ;uestion o& the number o& a%%ies but o& their acting as a uni&ied /ho%e. 7ith automatism, a %arge number o& e%ements is made to act as one, and 9astman bene&its &rom the /ho%e assemb%". 7hen man" e%ements are made to act as one, this is /hat $ /i%% no/ ca%% a b%ac( bo6. $t is no/ understandab%e /h", since the beginning o& this boo(, no distinction has been made bet/een /hat is ca%%ed a 5scienti&ic5 &act and /hat is ca%%ed a 5technica%5 obCect or arte&act. 1his di ision, a%though traditiona% and con enient, arti&icia%%" cuts through the ;uestion o& ho/ to a%%" onese%& to resist contro ersies. 1he 'rob%em o& the bui%der o& 5&act5 is the same as that o& the bui%der o& 5obCects5: ho/ to con ince others, ho/ to contro% their beha iour, ho/ to gather su&&icient resources in one '%ace, ho/ to ha e the c%aim or the obCect s'read out in time and s'ace. $n both cases, it is others /ho ha e the 'o/er to trans&orm the c%aim or the obCect into a durab%e /ho%e. $ndeed, as /e sa/ 're ious%" (Cha'ter )) each time a &act starts to be undis'uted it is &ed bac( to the other %aboratories as &ast as 'ossib%e. But the on%" /a" &or ne/ undis'uted &acts to be &ed bac(, the on%" /a" &or a /ho%e stab%e &ie%d o& science to be mob%ised in other &ie%ds, is &or it to be turned into an automaton, a machine, one more 'iece o& e;ui'ment in a %ab, another b%ac( bo6. 1echnics and sciences are so much the same 'henomenon that $ /as right to use the same term b%ac( bo6, e en %oose%", to designate their outcome. Iet, des'ite this im'ossibi%it" o& distinguishing bet/een science and technics, it is sti%% 'ossib%e to detect, in the 'rocess o& enro%%ing a%%ies and contro%%ing their beha iour, t/o moments that /i%% a%%o/ the reader to remain c%oser to common sense b" retaining some di&&erence bet/een 5science5 and 5techno%og"5. 1he &irst moment is /hen ne/ and une6'ected a%%ies are recruited W and this is most o&ten isib%e in %aboratories, in scienti&ic and technica% %iterature, in heated discussionsP

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the second moment is /hen a%% the gathered resources are made to act as one unbrea(ab%e /ho%e J and this is more o&ten isib%e in engines, machines and 'ieces o& hard/are. 1his is the on%" distinction that ma" be dra/n bet/een 5sciences5 and 5technics5 i& /e /ant to shado/ scientists and engineers as the" bui%d their subt%e and ersati%e a%%iances.

$art C. he model of diffusion C"ersus the model of translation

1he tas( o& the &act:bui%ders is no/ c%ear%" out%ined: there is a set o& strategies to en%ist and interest the human actors, and a second set to en%ist and interest the non:human actors so as to ho%d the &irst. 7hen these strategies are success&u% the &act /hich has been bui%t becomes indis'ensab%eP it is an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or e er"one i& the" /ant to 'ursue their interests. *rom a &e/ he%'%ess 'eo'%e occu'"ing a &e/ /ea( 'oints the" end u' contro%%ing strongho%ds. 9 er"one ha''i%" borro/s the c%aims or the 'rotot"'es &rom the success&u% contenders5 hands. .s a resu%t, c%aims become /e%%:estab%ished &acts and 'rotot"'es are turned into routine%" used 'ieces o& e;ui'ment. Since the c%aim is be%ie ed b" one more 'erson, the 'roduct bought b" one more customer, the argument incor'orated in one more artic%e or te6tboo(, the b%ac( bo6 enca'su%ated in one more engine, the" s'read in time and s'ace. $& e er"thing goes /e%% it begins to %oo( as i& the b%ac( bo6es /ere e&&ort%ess%" g%iding through s'ace as a resu%t o& their o/n im'etus, that the" /ere becoming durab%e b" their o/n inner strength. $n the end, i& e er"thing goes rea%%" /e%%, it seems as i& there are &acts and machines s'reading through minds, &actories and househo%ds, s%o/ed do/n on%" in a hand&u% o& &ar: &%ung countries and b" a &e/ dim/its. Success in bui%ding b%ac( bo6es has the strange conse;uence o& generating these !*3s: the 5irre ersib%e 'rogress o& science5, the 5irresistib%e 'o/er o& techno%og"5, more m"sterious than &%"ing saucers &%oating /ithout energ" through s'ace and %asting &or e er /ithout ageing or deca"ingS $s this a strange conse;uence? 0ot &or us since, in each cha'ter, /e ha e %earned to recognise the "a/ning ga' that se'arates read" made science &rom science in the ma(ing. 3nce more, our o%d &riend Fanus is ta%(ing t/o %anguages at once: the right side is s'ea(ing in terms o& translations about sti%% undecided contro ersies, /hi%e the %e&t side s'ea(s o& estab%ished &acts and machines /ith the %anguage o& "iffusion) $& /e /ant to bene&it &rom our tra e%s through the construction sites o& science, it is crucia% &or us to distinguish bet/een the t/o oices.

%(' Ais inertia . . .

In our e6am'%es /e obser ed that the chain o& 'eo'%e /ho borro/ed c%aims

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aried &rom time to time because o& the man" e%ements the c%aims /ere tied to. $& 'eo'%e /ished to o'en the bo6es, to renegotiate the &acts, to a''ro'riate them, masses o& a%%ies arra"ed in tiers /ou%d come to the rescue o& the c%aims and &orce the dissenters into assentP but the a%%ies /i%% not e en thin( o& dis'uting the c%aims, since this /ou%d be against their o/n interests /hich the ne/ obCects ha e so neat%" trans%ated. 4issent has been made unthin(ab%e. .t this 'oint, these 'eo'%e do not do an"thing more to the obCects, e6ce't 'ass them a%ong, re'roduce them, bu" them, be%ie e them. 1he resu%t o& such smooth borro/ing is that there are sim'%" more co'ies o& the same obCect. 1his is /hat ha''ened to the doub%e:he%i6 a&ter 198), to the *clipse M+,-... a&ter 198), to 4iese%5s engine a&ter 191,, to the Curies5 'o%onium a&ter 19>>, to #asteur5s accine a&ter 1881, to Oui%%emin5s O2* a&ter 198). So man" 'eo'%e acce't them that the" seem to &%o/ as e&&ort%ess%" as the oice o& .%e6ander Be%% through the thousands o& mi%es o& the ne/ transcontinenta% %ine, e en though his oice is am'%i&ied e er" thirteen mi%es and com'%ete%" bro(en do/n and recom'osed si6 times o erS $t a%so seems that a%% the /or( is no/ o er. S'e/ed out b" a &e/ centres and %aboratories, ne/ things and be%ie&s are emerging, &ree &%oating through minds and hands, 'o'u%ating the /or%d /ith re'%icas o& themse% es. $ /i%% ca%% this descri'tion o& mo ing &acts and machines the diffusion model. $t has a number o& strange characteristics /hich, i& ta(en serious%", ma(e the argument o& this boo( e6ceeding%" di&&icu%t to gras'. *irst, it seems that as 'eo'%e so easi%" agree to transmit the obCect, it is the obCect itse%& that &orces them to assent. $t then seems that the beha iour o& 'eo'%e is cause" b" the di&&usion o& &acts and machines. $t is &orgotten that the obedient beha iour o& 'eo'%e is /hat turns the c%aims into &acts and machinesP the care&u% strategies that gi e the obCect the contours that /i%% 'ro ide assent are a%so &orgotten. Cutting through the man" machia e%%ian strategies o& this cha'ter, the mode% o& di&&usion in ents a technica% determinism, 'ara%%e%ed b" a scienti&ic determinism. 4iese%5s engine %ea's /ith its o/n strength at the consumer5s throat, irresistib%" &orcing itse%& into truc(s and submarines, and as to the Curies5 'o%onium, it &ree%" 'o%%inates the o'en minds o& the academic /or%d. *acts no/ ha e a vis inertia o& their o/n. 1he" seem to mo e e en /ithout 'eo'%e. More &antastic, it seems the" /ou%d ha e e6isted e en /ithout 'eo'%e at a%%. 1he second conse;uence is as biGarre as the &irst. Since &acts are no/ endo/ed /ith an inertia that does not de'end on the action o& 'eo'%e or on that o& their man" non:human a%%ies, /hat 'ro'e%s them? 1o so% e this ;uestion ade'ts o& the di&&usion mode% ha e to in ent a ne/ mating s"stem. *acts are su''osed to re'roduce one anotherS *orgotten are the man" 'eo'%e /ho carr" them &rom hand to hand, the cro/ds o& acting entities that sha'e the &acts and are sha'ed b" them, the com'%e6 negotations to decide /hich association is stronger or /ea(erP &orgotten are the three cha'ters abo e, as &rom no/ on /e reach the rea%m o& ideas begetting ideas begetting ideas. 4es'ite the &act that it is hard to 'icture 4iese%5s engines or bic"c%es or atomic '%ants re'roducing themse% es through mating, traCectories (see '.1>7) are dra/n that %oo( %i(e %ineages and genea%ogies

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o& 5'ure%" technica%5 descent. 1he histor" o& ideas, or the conce'tua% histor" o& science, or e'istemo%og", these are the names o& the disci'%ine : that o&ten shou%d be @:rated:that e6'%ains the obscure re'roduction habits o& these 'ure breeds. 1he 'rob%em /ith the mating s"stem o& &acts that di&&use through their o/n &orce is no e%t". *acts and machines are constant%" changing and are not sim'%" re'roduced. 0obod" sha'es science and techno%ogies e6ce't at the beginning, so, in the di&&usion mode%, the on%" reasonab%e e6'%anation o& no e%t" %ies /ith the initiators, the &irst men and /omen o& science. 1hus, in order to reconci%e inertia and no e%t" the notion o& "iscovery has been in entedP /hat /as there a%% a%ong (microbes, e%ectrons, 4iese%5s engine) needs a &e/ 'eo'%e, not to sha'e it, but to he%' it to a''ear in 'ub%ic. )+ 1his ne/ biGarre 5se6ua% re'roduction5 is made ha%& b" a histor" o& ideas and ha%& b" a histor" o& great in entors and disco erers, the 4iese%s, the #asteurs, the Curies. But then there is a ne/ 'rob%em. 1he initiators, in a%% the stories $ ha e to%d, are on%" a &e/ e%ements in a cro/d. 1he" cannot be the cause o& such a genera% mo ement. $n 'articu%ar, the" cannot be the cause o& the 'eo'%e /ho be%ie e them and are interested in their c%aimsS #asteur has not enough strength to 'ro'e% his accine across the /or%d, nor 4iese% his engine, nor 9astman his <oda(. 1his is not a 'rob%em &or our 5di&&usionists5. 1he" sim'%" ma(e the in entors so big that the" no/ ha e the strength o& giants /ith /hich to 'ro'e% a%% these thingsS B%o/n out o& 'ro'ortion, great men and /omen o& science are no/ geniuses o& m"tho%ogica% siGe. 7hat neither #asteur nor 4iese% cou%d do, these ne/ &igures a%so named 5#asteur5 and 54iese%5 can. 7ith their &abu%ous strength it is a cinch &or these Su'ermen to ma(e &acts hard and machines e&&icientS Oreat initiators ha e become so im'ortant &or the di&&usion mode% that its ad ocates, ta(en in b" their o/n maniac %ogic, ha e no/ to &erret out ;ho rea%%" /as the &irst. 1his ;uite secondar" ;uestion becomes crucia% here since the ;inner takes all) 1he ;uestion o& ho/ to a%%ocate in&%uence, 'riorit" and origina%it" among great scientists is ta(en as serious%" as that o& disco ering the %egitimate heir o& an em'ireS Labe%s o& 5'recursor5, or 5un(no/n genius5, or 5margina% &igure5, or 5cata%"st5, or 5dri ing &orce5 are the obCect o& 'uncti%ios as ornate as eti;uette at Hersai%%es at the time o& Louis @$HP historians rush &or/ard to 'ro ide genea%ogies and coats o& arms. 1he secondar" mechanism ta(es 'recedence o er the 'rimar" mechanism. 1he &unniest thing about this &air" ta%e is that, no matter ho/ care&u%%" these %abe%s are attributed, the great men and /omen o& science are a%/a"s a &e/ names in a cro/d that cannot be annihi%ated e en b" the most enthusiastic ad ocates o& the di&&usion mode%. 4iese%, as /e sa/, did not ma(e e er"thing o& the engine that bears his name. #asteur is not the one that made ase'sis a /or(ab%e 'ractice, or sto''ed mi%%ions o& 'eo'%e &rom s'itting, or distributed the doses o& accine. 9 en the most &anatic di&&usionists ha e to grant that. Ho/e er this does not bother them. Ooing &urther and &urther into their &antasies, the" in ent geniuses /ho did it a%%, but on%" 5in the abstract5, on%" 5semina%%"5, on%" 5in theor"5.

((1+8))

S/ee'ing a/a" the cro/ds o& actors, the" no/ 'icture geniuses that have i"eas) 1he rest, the" argue, is mere de e%o'ment, a sim'%e un&o%ding o& the 5origina% 'rinci'%es5 that rea%%" count. 1housands o& 'eo'%e are at /or(, hundreds o& thousands o& ne/ actors are mobi%ised in these /or(s, but on%" a &e/ are designated as the motors that mo e the /ho%e thing. Since it is ob ious that the" did not do that much, the" are endo/ed /ith 5semina% ideas5. 4iese% 5had the idea5 o& his engine, #asteur 5had the idea o& ase'sis5 . . . $t is ironic to see that the 5ideas,5 /hich are so a%ued /hen 'eo'%e ta%( o& science and techno%og", are a tric( to get a/a" &rom the absurd conse;uences o& the di&&usion mode%, and to e6'%ain : a/a" : ho/ it is that the &e/ 'eo'%e /ho did e er"thing ne erthe%ess did so %itt%e. 1he mode% o& di&&usion /ou%d be rather ;uaint and insigni&icant i& it /ere not &or its &ina% conse;uence /hich is ta(en serious%" e en b" those /ho are /i%%ing to stud" the inner /or(ings o& technoscience. .ttenti e readers /ho acce't /hat /e ha e argued so &ar might thin( it is eas" to ;uestion the di&&usion mode%. $& the inter'retation gi en b" the mode% is %udicrous, the im'ression &rom /hich it s'rings is genuine. $t seems to /or( in the &e/ cases /hen &acts and arte&acts con ince 'eo'%e and, &or this reason, seem to &%o/. 1hus, readers ma" thin( that the di&&usion mode% /i%% brea( a'art /hen the &acts are interru'ted, de&%ected, ignored or corru'ted. 1he action o& man" 'eo'%e /i%% necessari%" irru't into the 'icture, since there is no one at hand to 5di&&use5 the &acts an" more. 7e%%, i& the" thin( so, it sim'%" means that these readers are sti%% nai e and that the" underestimate the abi%it" o& an inter'retation to ho%d out against a%% contrar" e idences. 7hen a &act is not be%ie ed, /hen an inno ation is not ta(en u', /hen a theor" is 'ut to a com'%ete%" di&&erent use, the di&&usion mode% sim'%" sa"s that 5some grou's resist5. $n the stor" o& #asteur, &or instance, ade'ts o& the di&&usion mode% ha e to admit that 'h"sicians /ere not er" interested in his resu%tsP the" thought that these /ere 'remature, unscienti&ic, and o& %itt%e use. $ndeed, the" did not ha e much use &or accines since preventive medicine /as ta(ing business a/a" &rom them. $nstead o& %oo(ing at ho/ the research 'rogram o& the $nstitut #asteur /as being constant%" modi&ied b" doGens o& 'eo'%e in order to con ince a%most e er" 'h"sician, the di&&usion mode% sim'%" sa"s that #asteur5s ideas /ere blocke" by certain grou's /hich /ere stu'id or had Q ested interests5 in o%der techni;ues. 1he" 'icture the 'h"sicians as cor'oratists, as se%&ish, as a bac(/ard and reactionar" grou', that s%o/ed do/n the s'read o& #asteur5s idea &or a generation. So the di&&usion mode% traces a dotted %ine a%ong the 'ath that the Qidea5 shou%d ha e &o%%o/ed, and then, since the idea did not go er" &ar and er" &ast, the" ma(e u' grou's that resist. 7ith this %ast in ention, both the 'rinci'%e o& inertia and the &antastic &orce that triggers it at the beginning are maintained, and the gigantic stature o& the great men and /omen that ga e momentum to the /ho%e is am'%i&ied. 4i&&usionists sim'%" add passive socia% grou's to the

'icture that ma", because o& their o/n inertia, s%o/ do/n the 'ath o& the idea or absorb the im'act o& the technics. $n other /ords, the di&&usion mode% no/ in ents a

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society to account &or the une en di&&usion o& ideas and machines. $n this mode%, societ" is sim'%" a medium o& di&&erent resistances through ;hich ideas and machines tra e%. *or instance, the 4iese% engine that has s'read through the de e%o'ed countries because o& the momentum gi en to it b" 4iese% might s%o/ do/n or e en sto' in some underde e%o'ed countr" /here it rusts on a doc( in the tro'ica% rain. $n the di&&usion mode%, this /ou%d be accounted &or in terms o& the resistance, the 'assi it" or the ignorance o& the %oca% cu%ture. Societ" or Qsocia% &actors5 /ou%d a''ear on%" at the end o& the traCector", /hen something /ent /rong. 1his has been ca%%ed the 'rinci'%e o& asymmetry: there is a''ea% to socia% &actors on%" /hen the true 'ath o& reason has been Qdistorted5 but not /hen it goes straight. ), 1he societ" in ented to maintain the di&&usion mode% has another strange characteristic. 1he 5grou's5 that ma(e it u' do not a%/a"s interru't or de&%ect the norma% and %ogica% 'ath o& ideasP the" ma" sudden%" s/itch &rom being resistors or semiconductors to conductors. *or instance, the same 'h"sicians /ho /ere not er" ha''" /ith #asteur unti% 189, then became a%% o& a sudden interested in the #asteurians5 /or(. 1his is not a di&&icu%t" in the di&&usion mode%: the" sim'%" a%tered their 'osition. 1he" s/itched o'en. 1he resistors began to conduct, the reactionaries to 'rogress, &rom being bac(/ard the" sudden%" mo ed &or/ardS Iou see that there is no %imit to the &air" ta%e. *orgotten is the care&u% co:'roduction bet/een #asteurians and 'h"sicians o& a ne/ obCect, a serum against di'htheria that, un%i(e the 're enti e accine, /as at %ast one that he%'ed to cure) 1he %ong trans%ations necessar" to con ince horses, di'htheria, hos'ita%s and 'h"sicians to associate /ith one another in this ne/ obCect are &orgotten. Cutting across the com'%icated s"stems o& associations, the di&&usion mode% sim'%" e6tracts a serum J that /as there a%% a%ong, at %east 5in 'rinci'%e5 J and then in ents grou's /hich at &irst resisted and &ina%%" 5turned out5 to acce't the disco er".

%5' 6eaker and stronger asso&iations

Let us go bac( to 4iese% in order to understand the di&&erences bet/een the di&&usion mode% and the trans%ation mode%. 7e sa/ that 4iese%5s engine /as a s(etch in his 'atent, then a b%ue'rint, then one 'rotot"'e, then a &e/ 'rotot"'es, then nothing, then again a sing%e ne/ 'rotot"'e, then no %onger a prototype but a type that /as re'roducib%e in se era% co'ies, then thousands o& engines o& di&&erent sub:t"'es. So there /as indeed a 'ro%i&eration. *irst, &o%%o/ing the trans%ations, /e %earned that this increase in the number o& co'ies had to be 'aid &or b" an increase in the number o& 'eo'%e made to be interested in its &ate. Second, /e rea%ised that this increase in co'ies and 'eo'%e had to be obtained through a dee' trans&ormation o& the design and 'rinci'%es o& the engineP the engine mo ed, but it /as not the same engine. 1hird, /e %earnt that it had been trans&ormed so much during the trans%ation that

there /as a dis'ute about /hose engine it actua%%" /as. .nd &ourth, /e sa/ that in about 191, there had been a

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'oint /hen 'eo'%e cou%d acce't the engine not as a 'rotot"'e but as a co'", and ta(e it a/a" &rom the .ugsburg sho' /ithout dee'%" trans&orming it or dragging /ith them doGens o& mechanics and 'atent %a/"ersP the engine /as a b%ac( bo6 &or sa%e at %ast and it /as ab%e to interest not on%" engineers and researchers but a%so 5sim'%e customers5. $t is at this 'oint that /e %e&t the stor", but it is a%so at this 'oint that the di&&usion mode% seems better than the trans%ation one because no one is necessar" an" more to sha'e the b%ac( bo6. 1here e6ist on%" customers /ho bu" it. Ho/ sim'%e is a 5sim'%e customer5? 1he customer is 5sim'%e5 because he or she does not ha e to redesign the engine b" shi&ting &rom air inCection bac( to so%id inCection, or mo ing the a% es around, or boring ne/ c"%inders and running the engine on the test bench. But the customer cannot be so 5sim'%e5 as not to tend the engine, &eeding it oi% and &ue%, coo%ing it, o erhau%ing it regu%ar%". 9 en /hen the 'hases o& de e%o'ment and inno ation ha e ended, the dar(est b%ac( bo6 sti%% has to be maintaine" in e6istence b" not so sim'%e customers. 7e can easi%" 'icture end%ess situations in /hich an i%%:in&ormed or a stu'id consumer ma(es one engine &a%ter, or sta%% or b%o/ a'art. .s engineers sa", no de ice is idiot:'roo&. 1his 'articu%ar co'" o& the engine at %east /i%% not run an" more, but /i%% s%o/%" rust. 1here is another 'rob%em /ith 5sim'%e5 customers. Let us remember 9astman5s <oda( camera. $t /as sim'%er to o'erate than an"thing be&ore. 5#ush the button, /e5%% do the rest,5 the" said. But the" had to do the rest, and that /as ;uite a %ot. 1he sim'%i&ication o& the camera that made it 'ossib%e to interest e er"one in its dissemination in mi%%ions o& co'ies had to be obtained b" the e6tension and com'%ication o& 9astman5s commercia% net/or(. 7hen "ou 'ush the button "ou do not see the sa%esmen and the machines that ma(e the %ong stri's o& ce%%u%oid &i%ms and the troub%e:shooters that ma(e the coating stic( 'ro'er%" at %astP "ou do not see them, but the" ha e to be there none the %ess. $& the" are not, "ou 'ush the button and nothing ha''ens. 1he more automatic and the b%ac(er the b%ac( bo6 is, the more it has to be accompanie" b" 'eo'%e. $n man" situations, as /e a%% (no/ a%% too /e%%, the b%ac( bo6 sto's 'iti&u%%" because there is no sa%es'erson, no re'airer, no s'are 'art. 9 er" reader /ho has %i ed in an underde e%o'ed countr" or used a ne/%" de e%o'ed machine /i%% (no/ ho/ to e a%uate the hitherto un(no/n number o& 'eo'%e necessar" to ma(e the sim'%est de ice /or(S So, in the most &a ourab%e cases, e en /hen it is a routine 'iece o& e;ui'ment, the b%ac( bo6 re;uires an acti e customer and needs to be accom'anied b" other 'eo'%e i& it is to be maintained in e6istence. B" itse%& it has no inertia) $& /e ha e understood this, then /e ma" dra/ the conc%usions &rom the t/o &irst 'arts o& this cha'ter: the b%ac( bo6 mo es in s'ace and becomes durab%e in time on%" through the actions

o& man" 'eo'%eP i& there is no one to ta(e it u', it sto's and &a%%s a'art ho/e er man" 'eo'%e ma" ha e ta(en it u' &or ho/e er %ong be&ore. But the t"'e, the number and the ;ua%i&ications o& the 'eo'%e in the chain /i%% be modi&ied: in entors %i(e 4iese% or 9astman, engineers, mechanics, sa%esmen, and ma"be 5ignorant consumers5 in the end. 1o sum u', there are

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al;ays people moving the ob=ects along but they are not the same people all along) 7h" are the" not the same? Because the &irst ones ha e tied the engine5s &ate to other e%ements so that the engine ma" be 'ut in di&&erent hands and more easi%" s'read. Iou /i%% then see a &e/ co'ies o& the 4iese% engine s%o/%" mo e through its constant redesign at the test bench, and sudden%" "ou /i%% obser e man" co'ies o& the same design that are bought and so%d b" man" 'eo'%e. 1here are a%/a"s 'eo'%e, but the" are not the same. 1hus, the diese% engine stor" ma" be ana%"sed either b" %oo(ing at the changing sha'e o& the engine J tied to di&&erent 'eo'%e J or b" %oo(ing at the changing t"'e o& 'eo'%e J %in(ed to the engine. $t is the same story ie/ed either &rom the stand'oint o& the enro%%ed 'eo'%e o& #art . or &rom the enro%%ing things o& #art B. Simi%ar%", the Curies5 'o%onium /as &irst a c%aim redesigned a&ter e er" tria% in a sing%e %aborator" in #aris in 1898. 1o con ince dissenters that this /as indeed a ne/ substance, the Curies had to modi&" the tria%s and renegotiate the de&inition o& their obCect. *or each sus'icion that it might be an arte&act, the" de ised a tria% that %in(ed its &ate to a more remote and %ess dis'utab%e 'art o& 'h"sics. 1here is a moment in this stor" /hen the c%aim becomes a ne/ obCect, and e en a 'art o& 0ature. .t this 'oint the t"'e o& 'eo'%e necessar" to 'ro ide the &act /ith durabi%it" and e6tension is to be modi&ied. #o%onium ma" no/ tra e% &rom the Curies5 hands into man" more, but much %ess in&ormed, hands. $t is no/ a routine radioacti e e%ement in a sturd" %ead container, one more bo6 &i%%ed u' in &resh%" 'rinted ersions o& the 'eriodic tab%eP it is no %onger be%ie ed b" on%" a &e/ bright s'ar(s in a &e/ %aboratories, but a%so b" hundreds o& enthusiastic 'h"sicistsP soon it /i%% be %earned b" 5sim'%e students5. . continuous chain o& 'eo'%e using, testing and be%ie ing in 'o%onium is necessar" to maintain it in e6istenceP but the" are not the same 'eo'%e nor are their ;ua%i&ications the same. So the stor" o& 'o%onium J %i(e a%% that ha e so &ar been to%d in this boo( J ma" be to%d either b" %oo(ing at the 'eo'%e /ho are con inced, or b" %oo(ing at the ne/ associations made to con ince them. $t is the same ana%"sis &rom t/o di&&erent ang%es since, a%% a%ong, 'o%onium is constituted b" these 'eo'%e con inced that these associations are unbrea(ab%e. 7e ma" no/ genera%ise a bit &rom /hat /e ha e %earned. $& "ou ta(e an" b%ac( bo6 and ma(e a &reeGe:&rame o& it, "ou ma" consider the s"stem o& a%%iances it (nits together in t/o di&&erent /a"s: &irst, b" %oo(ing at /ho it is designed to enro%P second, b" considering /hat it is tied to so as to ma(e the enro%ment inesca'ab%e. 7e ma" on the one hand dra/ its so&iogram. and on the other its te&hnogram. 9 er" 'iece o& in&ormation "ou obtain on one s"stem is a%so in&ormation on the other. $& "ou te%% me that 4iese%5s engine no/ has a stab%e sha'e, $ /i%% te%%

"ou ho/ man" 'eo'%e at M.0 had to /or( on it and about the ne/ s"stem o& so%id inCection the" had to de ise so that the engine might be bought b" 5mere consumers5. $& "ou te%% me that "ou thin( 'o%onium is rea%%" bismuth (see '.88), $ can te%% "ou that "ou /or( in the Curies5 %ab in #aris around 19>>. $& "ou sho/ me a serum &or di'htheria, $5%% understand ho/ &ar "ou dri&ted &rom the origina% research 'rogramme that aimed at ma(ing accines and $5%% te%%

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666 &igur +., start 666 *igure +., *iguren er en &ir(ant med hCBrnene 'e(ende rett o'', rett ned, og ut ti% h er side. $ midten er et 'un(t mar(ert som =in entor=. 4enne %igger 'A en horisonta% %inCe som de%er &ir(anten i to tre(anter, den ene 'e(er o'', den andre ned. a re tre(ant heter Sociogram. 0edre tre(ant heter 1echnogram. *ra $n entor gAr to t"((e 'i%er, en o'' i Sociogram, en annen ned i 1echnogram. $ begge &e%tene &innes en mengde smA 'i%er med &ors(Ce%%ig retning. 2undt den erti(a%e grensen som de%er &ir(anten i sam&unn og te(no%ogi, &innes en sti'%et %inCe som bB%ger o'' og ned, me%%om Sociogram og 1echnogram. 4enne %inCa (a%%es 0egotiations. 666 &igur +., sto'' 666

"ou /ho are the 'h"sicians /ho /i%% get interested. $& "ou sho/ me an e%ectric ehic%e running on &ue% ce%%s, $5%% (no/ /ho has to be /on o er in the com'an". $& "ou 'ro'ose to bui%d a 1-:bit com'uter to com'ete /ith the 49C5s +A0 $$,'-. machine $5%% (no/ /ho, /hen and /here "ou are. Iou are 7est at 4ata Oenera% in the %ate 197>s. $ (no/ this, because there are er" &e/ '%aces on earth /here an"one has the resources and the guts to disaggregate the b%ac( bo6 49C has assemb%ed and to come u' /ith a brand ne/ ma(e o& com'uter. $ simi%ar%" %earn a %ot about "ou i& "ou e6'%ain to me that "ou are /aiting &or the re'air man to &i6 "our .''%e com'uter, or that "ou be%ie e the moon to be made o& green cheese, or that "ou do not rea%%" thin( that the second amino acid in the OH2H structure is histidine. Care&u%%" ta(e note that the b%ac( bo6 is in bet;een these t/o s"stems o& a%%iances, that it is the ob%igator" 'assage 'oint that ho%ds the t/o together and that, /hen it is success&u%, it concentrates in itse%& the %argest number o& hardest associations, es'ecia%%" i& it has been

turned into an automaton. 1his is /h" /e ca%% such b%ac( bo6es 5hard &acts5, or 5high%" so'histicated machines5, or 5'o/er&u% theories5, or 5indis'utab%e e idence5. .%% these adCecti es that a%%ude to strength and 'o/er right%" 'oint out the dis'ro'ortionate number o& associations gathered in these b%ac( bo6es, so dis'ro'ortionate indeed that the" are /hat (ee' the mu%titude o& a%%ies in '%ace. Ho/e er this dis'ro'ortion o&ten %eads us to &orget that the" ho%d things and 'eo'%e tight%" together on%" as %ong as a%% the other strategies are success&u%. 4o these 'roducts o& science and technics esca'e &rom the s"stem o& com'%icated a%%iances /ith /hich 'o%itics are managed, &or instance? .re the" %ess 5socia%5 as 'eo'%e o&ten nai e%" sa"? Most un%i(e%"P i& the" had to be ;ua%i&ied in these terms J /hich the" don5t J the" /ou%d ha e to be described as more, much more 5socia%5. $& "ou no/ %et the &roGen:&rame mo e, "ou obser e a b%ac( bo6 that simu%taneous%" changes /hat it is made o& and /hom it is con incing. 9ach modi&ication in one s"stem o& a%%iances is isib%e in the other. 9ach a%teration in

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the technogram is made to o ercome a %imitation in the sociogram, or ice ersa. 9 er"thing ha''ens as i& the 'eo'%e /e ha e to &o%%o/ /ere in bet/een t/o sets o& constraints and /ere appealing &rom one to the other /hene er the negotiations get sta%%ed. 3n one side there are 'eo'%e /ho are either going in the same direction, or are against it, or are indi&&erent, or, a%though indi&&erent and hosti%e, ma" be con inced to change their minds. 3n the other side, there are non:human actors in a%% co%ours and shades: some are hosti%e, others indi&&erent, some are a%read" doci%e and con enient, sti%% others, a%though hosti%e or use%ess, ma" be 'ersuaded to &o%%o/ another 'ath. 1he in entor o& #ost:it, a "e%%o/ stic(" 'a'er &or mar(ing boo(s, /hich has no/ become so /ide%" used, ma(es the 'oint er" /e%%. )8 Ha ing &ound a g%ue that does not adhere /as seen as a &ai%ure in the +:M com'an" /hose Cob is usua%%" to ma(e er" stic(" g%ues. 1his &ai%ure to g%ue /as turned to ad antage /hen the in entor rea%ised that it cou%d mar( #sa%m boo(s /ithout smearing or /earing them. !n&ortunate%", this ad antage /as not admitted b" the mar(eting de'artment /ho had decided that this in ention had no mar(et and no &uture. Situated e6act%" at the midd%e o& the techno: and o& the sociograms, the in entor has a choice: either to modi&" the in ention or to modi&" the mar(eting de'artment. Choosing to (ee' the in ention as it is, he then a''%ies subt%e tactics to s/a" the mar(eting de'artment, distributing 'rotot"'es o& his in ention to a%% the secretaries, and then as(ing the secretaries, /hen the" /anted more o& it, to ca%% the mar(eting de'artment direct%"S $t is the same subt%et" that goes on in de ising a g%ue that does not g%ue or in ma(ing a mar(eting de'artment se%% /hat the" do not /ant to se%%. 2ather, #ost:it is sha'ed b" the t/o sets o& strategies, one &or enro%%ing others, the other to contro% their beha iour. 7e ma" go a bit &urther. 7e are a%% mu%ti:conductors and /e can either dro', trans&er, de&%ect, modi&", ignore, corru't or a''ro'riate the c%aims that need our he%' i& the" are to s'read and %ast. 7henJ er" rare%"Jthe mu%ti:conductors, acting as conductors, sim'%" transmit a be%ie&

/ithout de%a" and corru'tion, /hat does this mean? 1hat man" e%ements accom'an" the mo ing c%aims or obCects and %itera%%" keep the successi e hands necessar" &or their sur i a% in line) 7hen J more o&ten J mu%ti:conductors interrupt the s'read o& the c%aims that had unti% then been 'assed a%ong /ithout ;ua%ms b" e er"one, it a%so teaches us something. Since the" are ab%e to interru't, these 'eo'%e must be tied to ne/ interests and ne/ resources that counteract the others. .nd the same %essons ma" be dra/n /hen J as is a%most a%/a"s the case J 'eo'%e ignore, de&%ect, modi&" or a''ro'riate the b%ac( bo6es. 4oes the reader no/ see the conc%usion? 4n"erstan"ing /hat &acts and machines are is the same tas( as understanding /ho the 'eo'%e are. $& "ou describe the contro%%ing e%ements that ha e been gathered together "ou /i%% understand the grou's /hich are contro%%ed. Con erse%", i& "ou obser e the ne/ grou's /hich are tied together, "ou /i%% see ho/ machines /or( and /h" &acts are hard. 1he on%" ;uestion in common is to %earn ;hich associations are stronger an" ;hich ;eaker) 7e are ne er con&ronted /ith science, techno%og" and societ", but /ith a gamut o& /ea(er and stronger associationsP thus understanding ;hat &acts and machines are is the same tas( as

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understanding ;ho the 'eo'%e are. 1his esssentia% tenet /i%% constitute our third 'rinci'%e.

%8' he fourth rule of method

.mong a%% the &eatures that di&&er in the t/o mode%s, one is es'ecia%%" im'ortant, that is societ". $n the di&&usion mode% societ" is made o& grou's /hich ha e interestsP these grou's resist, acce't or ignore both &acts and machines, /hich ha e their o/n inertia. $n conse;uence /e ha e science and technics on the one hand, and a societ" on the other. $n the trans%ation mode%, ho/e er, no such distinction e6ists since there are on%" heterogeneous chains o& associations that, &rom time to time, create ob%igator" 'assage 'oints. Let us go &urther: belief in the e6istence o& a societ" se'arated &rom technoscience is an outcome of the "iffusion mo"el) 3nce &acts and machines ha e been endo/ed /ith their o/n inertia, and once the co%%ecti e action o& human and non:human actors tied together has been &orgotten or 'ushed aside, then "ou ha e to ma(e u' a societ" to e6'%ain /h" &acts and machines do not s'read. .n arti&icia% di ision is set u' bet/een the /ea(er and stronger associations: &acts are tied /ith &actsP machines /ith machinesP socia% &actors /ith socia% &actors. 1his is ho/ "ou end u' /ith the idea that there are three s'heres o& Science, 1echno%og" and Societ", /here the in&%uence and im'act o& each on the other ha e to be studiedS But /orse is "et to come. 0o/ that a societ" has been in ented b" arti&icia%%" cutting through the associations and the trans%ations, and b" s;ueeGing socia% &actors into tin" ghettos, some 'eo'%e tr" to e6'%ain science and techno%og" b" the in&%uence o& these socia% &actorsS . socia% or a cu%tura% or an economic determinism is no/ added to the technica% determinism abo e. 1his is the meaning o& the /ord socia% in e6'ressions %i(e 5socia% studies o& science5 or 5the

socia% construction o& techno%og"5. .na%"sts /ho use grou's endo/ed /ith interests in order to e6'%ain ho/ an idea s'reads, a theor" is acce'ted, or a machine reCected, are not a/are that the er" grou's, the er" interests that the" use as causes in their e6'%anations are the conse9uence o& an arti&icia% e6traction and 'uri&ication o& a hand&u% o& %in(s &rom these ideas, theories or machines. Socia% determinism courageous%" &ights against technica% determinism, /hereas neither e#ist e6ce't in the &anci&u% descri'tion 'ro'osed b" the di&&usion mode%. .%though there is no 'oint in s'ending too much time on the di&&usion mode% it is crucia%, i& /e /ish to continue our o"age through technoscience, to be immunised against the notion that there is a societ" and 5socia% &actors5 ab%e to sha'e, in&%uence, direct or s%o/ do/n the 'ath o& 'ure science and 'ure technics. .t the end o& Cha'ter ), $ 'resented our third ru%e o& method: 0ature cannot be used to account &or the sett%ement o& contro ersies, because it is on%" a&ter the contro ersies ha e been sett%ed that /e (no/ /hat side she is on. 50ature sett%es on%" the sett%ed c%aims,5 so s'ea(s the %e&t side o& our Fanus /ho does not sense the contradiction. .s &or the unsett%ed ones on /hich the right side o& Fanus is

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666 &igur +.8 start 666 *igure +.8 *iguren i%%ustrere &ors(Ce%% 'A =1rans%ation= og =4i&&usion=

1. 1rans%ation 4enne mode%%en iser noe som %i(ner et %iggende ( adratis( '%an. 9n re((e (rung%ete stre(er %B'er gCennom &%aten, og snor seg 'A arierte mAter gCennom rommet 'A o ersiden og undersiden a '%anet. #%anet heter =Machination=. 2ommet o en&or '%anet (a%%es =Human=. 2ommet neden&or '%anet (a%%es =0on:human=.

). 4i&&usion

*iguren iser et %iggende ( adrat, med hCBrnene 'e(ende rett o'', rett ned, og rett ut ti% h er side (som &igur +.,). 9n t"((, t errgAende stre( de%er &iguren i to tre(anter. 4e to tre(antene 'e(er henho%ds is o'' og ned, med to s'isser som 'e(er motsatt ei i&t. h erandre. 4en B erste 'o%en (a%%es =Societ"=. 4en nederste 'o%en heter =1echno%og"=. 666 &igur +.8 s%utt 666

/or(ing, /e do not "et (no/ /hat sett%es them but it is not 0ature. 0ature thus %ies behind the &acts once the" are madeP ne er behind &acts in the ma(ing. $& /e /ant to go on /ithout being bothered b" the di&&usion mode%, /e ha e to o&&er a &ourth ru%e o& method, as basic to the third one, and s"mmetrica% to it, /hich a''%ies this time to society) 2ight &rom the &irst 'ages o& this boo( the reader ma" ha e noticed the shoc(ing absence o& the entities that traditiona%%" ma(e u' Societ", an absence that ma" be e en more shoc(ing than the de%a"ed a''earance o& 0ature unti% the end o& Cha'ter ). .&ter three cha'ters there has been not a /ord "et on socia% c%asses, on ca'ita%ism, on economic in&rastructure, on big business, on gender, not a sing%e discussion o& cu%ture, not e en an a%%usion to the socia% im'act o& techno%og". 1his is not m" &au%t. $ suggested that /e &o%%o/ scientists and engineers at /or( and it turns out that they "o not kno; ;hat society is ma"e of, an" more than the" (no/ the nature o& 0ature be&orehand. $t is because the" (no/ about neither that the" are so bus" trying out ne/ associations, creating an inside /or%d in /hich to /or(, dis'%acing interests, negotiating &acts, reshu&&%ing grou's and recruiting ne/ a%%ies. $n their research /or(, the" are ne er ;uite sure /hich association is going to ho%d and /hich one /i%% gi e /a". 4iese% /as con&ident at &irst that a%% &ue%s /ou%d ignite at high tem'eratures and that e er" grou' o& users /ou%d be interested in his more e&&icient engine. But most &ue%s reCected his engine and most consumers %ost interest. Starting &rom a stab%e state o& 0ature and o& Societ", he had to

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strugg%e through another engine t"ing (erosene, air inCection and a tin" number o& users together. H"gienists a%so started /ith a &i6ed state o& Societ":the c%ass strugg%e : and a determined state o& 0ature : the miasmatic diseases. 7hen #asteurians o&&ered them the microbes, this /as a ne/ and un'redictab%e de&inition both o& 0ature and o& Societ": a ne/

socia% %in(, the microbe, tied men and anima%s together, and tied them di&&erent%". 1here /as nothing in the stab%e state o& either Societ" or 0ature that made an a%%iance o& big business at Be%% /ith e%ectrons necessar" or 'redictab%e. 1he Be%% Com'an" /as dee'%" modi&ied b" its a%%iance /ith Mi%%i(an5s 'h"sics, it /as not the same Be%%, but neither /as it the same 'h"sics, the same Mi%%i(an nor, indeed, the same e%ectrons. 1he ersati%it" and the heterogeneit" o& the a%%iances is 'recise%" /hat ma(es it 'ossib%e &or the researchers to get o er the ;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der: ho/ to interest 'eo'%e and to contro% their beha iour. 7hen /e stud" scientists and engineers at /or(, the on%" t/o ;uestions that shou%d not be raised are: 7hat is 0ature rea%%" %i(e? 7hat is Societ" rea%%" made o&?

666 &igur +.- start 666 *igure +.9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =Societ" is the cause that a%%o/ed contro ersies to get sett%ed=. .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =. stab%e state o& societ" /i%% be the conse;uence o& sett%ing contro ersies=. 666 &igur +.- s%utt 666

1o raise these ;uestions /e ha e to /ait unti% scientists and their a%%ies : among /hom socia% scientists shou%d o& course be inc%uded : ha e &inished their /or(S 3nce the contro ersies ha e ended, then a stab%e state o& Societ", together /ith a stab%e rendering o& the interests o& its members, /i%% emerge. $& /e stud" a%% made &acts and grou's, then interests and 0ature /i%% be c%ear%" articu%ated b" the %e&t &ace o& Fanus. 0ot so, /hen /e &o%%o/ &acts in the ma(ing. $t might seem a strange conse;uence but it is a necessar" one: to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers /e do not need to (no/ /hat Societ" is made o& and /hat 0ature isP more e6act%", /e need not to (no/ them. 1he stab%e state o& Societ" is three cha'ters a/a"S 1he 'remature introduction o& a &u%%":&%edged Societ" /ou%d be as damaging &or our tri' as /ou%d a com'%ete 'icture o& 0ature. More e6act%" the same arguments that ha e been made about 0ature ha e to be made symmetrically about Societ". Ho/ cou%d /e ta(e so man" 'recautions in not be%ie ing direct%" /hat scientists

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and engineers sa" about obCecti it" and subCecti it", and readi%" be%ie e /hat other scientists (socia% this time) sa" about societ", cu%ture and econom"? .t this 'oint /e are in great need o& a ru%e o& s"mmetr" that does not grant Societ" 'ri i%eges re&used to 0ature. 3ur fourth rule of method thus reads e6act%" %i(e the third J the /ord QSociet"5 re'%acing the /ord Q0ature5 J and then &uses the t/o together: since the sett%ement o& a contro ers" is the cause o& Societ"5s stabi%it", /e cannot use Societ" to e6'%ain ho/ and /h" a contro ers" has been sett%ed. 7e shou%d consider symmetrically the e&&orts to enro% and contro% human and non: human resources.

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CHA$ E3 <. Insiders !ut

7e no/ ha e a better idea o& the amount o& 're%iminar" /or( necessar" to secure enough strongho%ds to ma(e re%e ant the added &orce o&&ered b" the technica% %iterature and the %aboratories. 7ithout the enro%ment o& man" other 'eo'%e, /ithout the subt%e tactics that s"mmetrica%%" adCust human and non:human resources, the rhetoric o& science is 'o/er%ess. #eo'%e esca'e, %ose interest, do something e%se, are indi&&erent. Sti%%, the stories to%d in the &ormer cha'ter /ere a%% &rom the 'oint o& ie/ o& the en%isting scientists and engineers. 9 en i& /e had &o%%o/ed man" more outcomes than the three /e started /ith J gi ing u', going a%ong, /or(ing through J /e might ha e had the im'ression that scientists and engineers /ere at the centre o& e er"thing. 1his im'ression might create some ne/ di&&icu%ties. 3ur &irst ru%e o& method re;uires us to sha"o; scientists /hi%e the" are engaged in their /or( o& doing science. .t &ace a%ue this 'rece't seems eas" to 'ut into 'racticeP this is /h", in a%% the cha'ters so &ar, $ ha e 'retended that /e at %east (ne/ ;here to &ind the /hite:coated 'rotagonist to begin our en;uir". But it /as to sim'%i&" our tri' that $ too( it &or granted that 7est, Cric( and 7atson, Oui%%emin, the #ro&essor, 4iese%, Mead or #asteur /ere ab%e to gather resources, to ta%( /ith authorit", to con ince others o& their strength and to e;ui' %aboratories or de'artments, thus beginning the arious stories $ to%d /ith &u%%":&%edged scientists and engineers that others /ere ta(ing serious%" enough to grant them attention, mone" and con&idence. 1o o&&er us a con enient de'arture 'oint $ in ented a character /hom $ ca%%ed the Qdissenter5 to he%' us 'ractise the di&&icu%t art o& shado/ing scientists in actionP and indeed, since this dissenter /as eas" to detect and since his obstinac" made him easier to &o%%o/, it &aci%itated our 'eregrination through the technica% %iterature and through %aboratories. Later, the character o& the Q&act:bui%der5 /as er" con enient to ma' the arious t"'es o& trans%ations. 0othing 'ro es, ho/e er, that &o%%o/ing rea% scientists and engineers is as eas" as &o%%o/ing these dumm" dissenters or dumm" &act:bui%ders, es'ecia%%" /hen the er" 'rinci'%es /e unco ered hint at the o''osite. 2emember that the &irst basic 'rinci'%e states that &acts are made co%%ecti e%", the second that scientists and

((1,8))

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engineers s'ea( in the name o& ne/ obCects sha'ed b" une6'ected tria%s o& stength and the third that describing &acts and machines is the same thing as describing the 'eo'%e the" enro% and contro%. Man" ne/ ;uestions arise &rom these 'rinci'%es: since there is not much di&&erence bet/een those /ho en%ist and those /ho are en%isted /h" shou%d /e concentrate on scientists? 7ho are the 'eo'%e co%%ecti e%" /or(ing in &act:construction? .re the" a%% scientists and engineers? $& the" are not, /hat the he%% are the" doing? $& scientists are s'o(es'ersons, to /hom are the" s'ea(ing? 7ho are the other re'resentati es? Ho/ do the" sett%e their contro ersies? 7hen raising these ;uestions /e begin to rea%ise that it might not be so eas" to determine /ho are the scientists and the engineers, and thus to decide, as is re;uired b" our &irst ru%e o& method, ;hom to &o%%o/. 7e ha e no choice, ho/e er, and /e shou%d stic( as stubborn%" as e er to our tas(, /ith the addition o& more subt%et" no/ that our guide is going to /ear man" con&using mas(s and to &o%%o/ mu%ti&arious 'aths simu%taneous%".

$art A. Interesting others in the laboratories

%(' 6hen e"eryone &an do 1ithout s&ientists or engineers
7hat ha''ens to scientists and engineers /ho ha e not secured an" strongho%ds? Ho/ strong /i%% their rhetoric be? Ho/ ca'ab%e /i%% the" be o& (ee'ing interest grou's in %ine? Let me ta(e t/o e6am'%es, one o& a scientist in the 'ast and one o& an engineer in the 'resent. $n these e6am'%es no one is 're'ared to grant an"thing to the budding researchers and e er"one does er" /e%% ;ithout their science.

%A' 6HEN BEIN: A SCIEN IS IS N! DE A >!B

$n the %ate 18)>s, Char%es L"e%% /as reading &or the Bar and %i ing on a b,>>:a:"ear a%%o/ance &rom his u''er:midd%e:c%ass &ather 1. L"e%% /ished to stud" the 5histor" o& the earth5. 4o not

Cum' to the conc%usion that he /anted to be a geo%ogist. Being ab%e to be a geo%ogist /i%% be the result o& the /or( o& man" 'eo'%e %i(e L"e%%. .t the time there /as no such thing in 9ng%and as a &u%%:time 'aid and secure Cob under the %abe% 5geo%ogist5. Moreo er, 5geo%og"5 did not rea%%" e6ist either. 1he histor" o& the earth 'ertained to theo%og" and bib%ica% e6egesis as /e%% as to 'a%eonto%og" and other technica% subCects. $n other /ords, neither the disci'%ine o& geo%og" nor the 'ro&ession o& geo%ogist e6isted. 3ne o& the re%ated and &irm%" estab%ished disci'%ines /as that o& the 5rationa% histor" o& creation5 and one o& the re%ated trades is a si6: centur":o%d 'ro&ession, that o& c%eric in the uni ersities J /ith com'u%sor" ce%ibac", at %east at Cambridge.

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7hen he starts, there is no %aborator" /hich L"e%% can enter, no curricu%um to &o%%o/ and no grant &or /hich to a''%". .%though L"e%% needs others to he%' him bui%d ne/ and harder &acts these 5others5 are &o%%o/ing di&&erent trac(s. Can L"e%% count on the dons and c%erics o& 36&ord /ho teach the histor" o& the earth and /ho ha e the %ibraries, the authorit" and the tenures? 0ot at a%%, because, i& a contro ers" is triggered about, sa", the age o& the earth, L"e%%5s co%%eagues ma" er" /e%% interrupt his argument b" a''ea%ing to Ood5s /ord or to the Church5s 'erennia% teachings. 9 en i& the dons L"e%% is addressing are interested in a rationa% histor" o& the earth and ha e agreed to ta%( about roc(s and erosion /ithout bringing in the %ocation o& the Oarden o& 9den, the siGe o& 0oah5s .r( or the date o& the *%ood, /hat /i%% ha''en i& the contro ers" heats u' a bit? 0ot much, sim'%" because these co%%eagues ha e ta(en the chair as a &irst ste' to/ard becoming either bisho' or teacher o& a more 'restigious subCect, %i(e ethics. 0o matter ho/ man" arguments L"e%% has been ab%e to muster in de&ence o& his 'osition, his o''onents are in no /a" &orced to ta(e u' his 'oint. 1he" ma" sim'%" ignore him, or brush the arguments aside, or %isten /ith be/i%derment and go on teaching their usua% course. *or the dissenter to e6ist more /or( has to be done. 1he same thing might ha''en i& L"e%% sets u' a contro ers" /ith the misce%%aneous grou's o& 'eo'%e /ho /rite 5theories o& the earth5 on the side, but /ho do not ma(e a %i ing &rom geo%og", that is the amateurs) Man" amateurs /ere bus" at the time gathering roc(s and &ossi%s, isiting &oreign %andsca'es, o&&ering a%% sorts o& re'orts to the man" societies recent%" created to gather ne/ co%%ections. B" de&inition, an amateur, e en a de oted and a 'assionate one, ma" %ea e the discussion /hene er it '%eases him. So it is er" hard &or L"e%% to /in an argument and to &orce the amateur to borro/ his c%aims as a b%ac( bo6, es'ecia%%" i& the" run against his &ee%ings, interests and 'assion. !ncon inced, the amateurs ma" go on as usua%, uninterested and unthreatened b" the man" a%%ies that L"e%% ma" ha e assemb%ed in su''ort o& his 'osition. .%though the" are necessar" to co%%ect the roc(s and the &ossi%s in man" '%aces /here the &e/ geo%ogists cou%d not 'ossib%" go, the amateurs &orm a most undisci'%ined cro/d as &ar as he%'ing L"e%% 'roduce ne/ &acts goes.

1he situation /ou%d be much better &or L"e%% i& the c%erics /ou%d gi e u' their chairs in uni ersities and hand them o er to 'eo'%e /ith no other ambitions than to sta" insi"e geo%og" a%% their %i es. Oeo%og" /ou%d then become a career. 7hen L"e%% ma(es a 'oint, his co%%eagues /ou%d ha e to either de&eat him or acce't it because the" /ou%d ha e no other /a" to go. 1he" cou%d no %onger ignore him or do something e%se such as becoming a bisho'. $t /ou%d a%so be better i& the amateurs /ere sti%% bus" gathering materia%s and 'ro iding re'orts, but /ere not medd%ing in the debates. 1he" /ou%d be &orced to bring in their s'ecimens, to o&&er their co%%ections, but the" /ou%d sta" outsi"e /ithout adding their o/n commentaries and theories. . disordered cro/d o& he%'ing hands /ou%d then become a disci'%ined /or(&orce he%'ing geo%ogists 'roduce more documented &acts. S%o/%" an inside 'oc(et o& 'ure%" geo%ogica% matters /ou%d be car ed out o&

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the outside /or%d, and the author:dissenter due% o& Cha'ters 1 and ) cou%d ta(e '%ace. 1he 'rob%em is that e en i& L"e%% had succeeded in creating an assemb%" o& co%%eagues /ho did nothing e%se but geo%og", none o& them /ou%d be ab%e to secure a sa%ar" or at %east to o&&er him one. So L"e%% has to earn a %i ing e%se/here, his &ather5s 'ittance not being enough to raise a &ami%" and to gather a co%%ection. Since he is a bright %ecturer and %i(es the %eisure%" %i&e o& the u''er c%ass, one so%ution is to address the en%ightened gentr". Ho/e er, this %eads him into ne/ di&&icu%ties. *irst, he ma" dissi'ate his time in /or%d%" circ%es e6'%aining the m"ster" o& the #recambrian roc(s to the 9ar% o& 1his and the Baroness o& 1hat. 9 en i& he is success&u% and gathers a %arge audience o& 'a"ing gentr", he might ha e no time %e&t to 'roduce ne/ &actsP hence, he /i%% end u' teaching geo%og" as it is, not ma(ing geo%og" ane/. L"e%% /ou%d indeed be outside co%%ecting resources but he /ou%d ne er bring them bac( insideS 1he situation /ou%d be /orse sti%% i&, in order to ma(e his teaching acce'tab%e and understandab%e, he had to negotiate the er" content o& his %esson /ith the amiab%e but &%ight" and un'ro&essiona% assemb%". *or instance, his audience might be shoc(ed b" the age that L"e%% gi es to earth histor", since the" imagine the" are %i ing in a /or%d a &e/ thousand "ears o%d, /hereas L"e%% needs at %east a se era%:mi%%ion:"ear &rame/or( &or his geo%og". $& he %ets the audience 'artici'ate in the 'roduction o& the &acts, L"e%% is &aced /ith a ne/ di%emma: ma(e the earth "ounger so as not to %ose his audience, or age the earth but be %e&t /ith no one to attend his %ecturesS 0o, the idea% /ou%d be i& the interested and %iterate audience cou%d 'a" &or geo%og", /aiting outsi"e &or L"e%% and his co%%eagues to de e%o' it as the" see &it, and then, %ater, /ou%d be a%%o/ed to %earn /hat the age o& the earth is /ithout tr"ing to negotiate the &acts. 9 en this /ou%d not be su&&icient, because these nob%emen and /omen might be too &ri o%ous to /ait %ong enough &or thousands o& &ossi%s to be gathered in numerous co%%ections. 1heir interests might &ade ra'id%", re'%aced b" a ne/ &ashion &or e%ectricit" or magnetism or

anthro'o%og". 0oS &or the situation to be idea%, mone" shou%d &%o/ regu%ar%" and irre ersib%" /ithout de'ending on mood and &ashion, something as com'u%sor" and as regu%ar as a ta#) 1o obtain such a resu%t, L"e%% /ou%d ha e to interest not on%" the gentr" but high o&&icia%s o& the state, and to con ince some agenc" that geo%og" ma" be re%e ant and use&u% &or their aims. .s /e sa/ in Cha'ter +, #art ., this trans%ation o& interest is 'ossib%e i& geo%og" is ab%e to 'roduce a great number o& ne/ and une6'ected &acts, /hich can then be seen as resources &or some o& the state5s 'rob%ems J &inding ne/ coa% de'osits, substituting strategic minera%s to others, rec%aiming ne/ %and, ma''ing ne/ territories, and so on. Ho/e er, the assemb%ed interests can be he%d in '%ace on%" i& L"e%% is ab%e to s'ea( in the name o& man" ne; ob=ects, /hich su''oses an alrea"y e6isting science. Con erse%", the 'roduction o& hard &acts is im'ossib%e /ithout the co%%ecti e /or( o& man" &u%%:time scientists and de oted amateurs digging u' roc(s, isiting ri&t a%%e"s and can"ons, sur e"ing the %and and bringing huge co%%ections o& roc(s and &ossi%s

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into 0atura% Histor" Museums, as the *rench geo%ogists /ere doing at the time in #aris. .t the beginning o& this science, L"e%% is in a icious circ%e: an i%%:&unded geo%og" /i%% not interest the state and so /i%% remain too /ea( to resist the com'etition o& other disci'%ines and 'riorities. 1his is the o''osite to the starting 'oint o& a%% our stories so &ar, in /hich e er"one he%'s in the strengthening o& the scientists5 and engineers5 %aboratories. $nstead o& being /e%comed b" high o&&icia%s, ne/smen, 'riests, students and industria%ists, L"e%% ma" sim'%" be ignored. 9 en i& he tries, so to s'ea(, to o erse%% the disci'%ine before it has achie ed resu%ts, he ma" run into a ne/ danger. 3rganising the 'ro&ession, im'osing stringent standards on the training o& "oung co%%eagues, 'romoting ne/ /a"s o& sett%ing contro ersies, ne/ Courna%s, ne/ museums, (ic(ing the amateurs out, %obb"ing the state, ad ertising the &uture resu%ts o& the disc%i'%ine, a%% that ta(es time, so much time that L"e%% once more ma" not be ab%e to contribute the resha'ing o& the earth /hich he is aiming at. 3& course, he cou%d a''ea% to a %arger 'ub%ic in /riting, as he did &or instance in his (rinciples of 1eology) $& this boo( /ere to become a best se%%er, then L"e%% might ha e mone" to gather ne/ resources and 'roduce ne/ &acts. But this is running another ris(. Ho/ shou%d he a''ea% to the 'ub%ic? $& his (rinciples are to interest e er"one, then he might ha e to e%iminate the technica% detai%s, but then he might become one o& these amateurs, 'o'u%arisers or 'am'h%eteers o& geo%og", no %onger a geo%ogist. But, i& L"e%%5s boo( engages in contro ersies and resha'es e er"one5s be%ie& b" bringing in ne/ resources, /e (no/ /hat /i%% ha''en (Cha'ter 1)P the boo( /i%% become technica%, so technica% that there /i%% be no one %e&t to read it. L"e%% /i%% sti%% be /ithout mone" to &urther his research.

9 en i& L"e%% is c%e er enough to so% e this 'rob%em, then he ma" stumb%e o er another one. $& geo%og" is success&u% in resha'ing the earth5s histor", siGe, com'osition and age, b" the same to(en, it is a%so e6treme%" shoc(ing and unusua%. Iou start the boo( in a /or%d created b" Ood5s /i%% ->>> "ears ago, and "ou end it /ith a &e/ 'oor 9ng%ishmen %ost in the eons o& time, 'receded b" hundreds o& *%oods and hundreds o& thousands o& di&&erent s'ecies. 1he shoc( might be so io%ent that the /ho%e o& 9ng%and /ou%d be u' in arms against geo%ogists, bringing the /ho%e disci'%ine into disre'ute. 3n the other hand, i& L"e%% so&tens the b%o/ too much, then the boo( is not about ne/ &acts, but is a care&u% com'romise bet/een common sense and the geo%ogists5 o'inion. 1his negotiation is a%% the more di&&icu%t i& the ne/ disci'%ine runs not on%" against the Church5s teachings but a%so against L"e%%5s o/n be%ie&s, as is the case /ith the ad ent o& humanit" into earth histor" /hich L"e%% 're&erred to (ee' recent and miracu%ous des'ite his other theories. Ho/ is it 'ossib%e to sa" simu%taneous%" that it is use&u% &or e er"one, but runs against e er"one5s be%ie&s? Ho/ is it 'ossib%e to con ince the gentr" and at the same time to destro" the authorit" o& common sense? Ho/ is it 'ossib%e to assert that it is mora%%" necessar" to de e%o' geo%og" /hi%e agonising in 'ri ate in the meantime on the 'osition o& humanit" in 0ature?

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$t is not an eas" Cob being a scientist be&ore the Cob e6istsS Be&ore others ma" set &oot inside geo%og", L"e%% has to &ight outside on a%% &ronts at once. He has to e%iminate amateurs : but needs to retain them as a disci'%ined /or(&orce, to '%ease the gentr" and gather their /ea%th : but to (ee' them at arm5s %ength so as not to /aste time and discuss their o'inionsP he has to 'ro e to the state that geo%og" is the most im'ortant thing on earth, an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or things the" /ant to do and that, &or this reason, the" shou%d 'ro ide /e%%:'aid Cobs : but he shou%d a%so de%a" their e6'ectations, ma(e their scrutin" im'ossib%e, a oid a%% state incursions and &orce them not to as( too much in e6changeP he has to &ight end%ess%" against the Church and the dons:but a%so to &ind a /a" to snea( geo%ogists inside the o%d uni ersities5 curricu%a /here tenures can be obtainedP &ina%%", he has to a''ea% to the mu%titude &or su''ort and enthusiasm : but he shou%d do so /ithout shoc(ing them /hi%e shattering their /or%d: ie/S Ies, there is one other thing he needs to do besides a%% that &ighting: research in geo%og". $t is on%" /hen the abo e batt%es ha e been 'artia%%" success&u% that he ma" /in co%%eagues o er in the co%%ecti e construction o& some ne/ arguments about the earth).

%B' A N!N7!B,I:A !3D $ASSA:E $!IN

L"e%% had to create simu%taneous%" the outside and the inside o& geo%og". .t the beginning e er"one cou%d do /ithout himP at the end o& the centur", geo%og" had become indis'ensab%e &or man" other sciences, 'ro&essions, industries, and state entures. Oeo%ogists at /or( a centur" a&ter L"e%% /ou%d %oo( er" much %i(e the dissenters and &act:bui%ders o& the other cha'tersP %i(e them, the" /ou%d ha e to cater to others5 interests. .%though the" /ou%d ha e to

be c%e er and interesting, there /ou%d be no ;uestion about the basic im'ortance o& their disci'%ine. Most o& the ground/or( o& becoming indis'ensab%e /ou%d ha e been done a%read". 1he distance &rom this seems in&inite and the re%e ance to Foao 4e%%acruG in his BraGi%ian e%ectronics /or(sho' in Sao #au%o 'rob%ematic +: He &ee%s %one%" and dis'ensab%e indeed, his situation being much /orse than L"e%%5s. *or eight "ears no/, he has been /or(ing on the design o& a ne/ e%ectronic M3S chi', 'ro&iting &rom a Coint enture o& industr", the mi%itar" go ernment and the uni ersit", a%% o& /hich /anted BraGi% to be se%&:su&&icient in bui%ding com'uters. Foao and his boss argued at the time that it /as a%so necessar" &or BraGi% to become inde'endent in the manu&acture o& chi's, and that it /as better to start /ith the most ad anced designs so as to %ea'&rog the o%der generations o& chi's. 1he" /ere gi en a sma%% amount o& mone" to e;ui' a /or(sho', and to e6'%ore the architecture o& other M3S chi's de ised in .merican and Fa'anese uni ersities. *or a "ear or t/o the" thought the" /ou%d be at the centre o& a huge nationa%ist mo ement &or creating a 1>> 'er cent BraGi%ian com'uter. 1heir /or(sho' /ou%d become the ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or technicians, students, the mi%itar", e%ectronicians &rom industr". 5He /ho contro%s the chi's5, the" used to ;ui', 5/i%% ru%e the com'uter industr".5 !n&ortunate%" the" /ere the on%" ones con inced o&

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this order o& 'riorit". 1he mi%itar" /a ered and no %imitation /as im'osed on the im'ort o& &oreign chi'sJon%" on the im'ort o& com'uters. Foao5s %ab /as no %onger the centre o& a 'ossib%e industria% enture. 1he im'orted chi's /ere chea'er and better than an" o& those the" cou%d design. Moreo er, the" /ere bought and so%d b" the thousand /hi%e Foao and his boss, no/ de'ri ed o& a 'ossib%e a%%iance /ith industr", cou%d de ise on%" a &e/ 'rotot"'es and had no customers to he%' /ith debugging. 1he t/o e%ectronic engineers then tried to become the centre not o& an industr" but o& some uni ersit" research. Foao s/itched his goa%s and decided to /or( on a #h4. 1he 'rob%em /as that there /ere no other 'ro&essors /or(ing on M3S chi's in BraGi%. Luc(i%", he then got a &e%%o/shi' to go to Be%gium /here his boss had studied. Foao /or(ed hard on a er" sma%% sti'end, so sma%% that, a&ter t/o "ears, he had to return to Sao #au%o. 3nce bac( there, matters got rea%%" bad. 1he instruments /ith /hich he had studied his chi's in Lou ain /ere so much better than the ones he had in his /or(sho' that none o& the resu%ts he had obtained in Be%gium /ere re'roducab%e in Sao #au%o. 1he intricate circuitr" /as sim'%" in isib%e. 1o ma(e matters /orse, he soon %earned that his boss J /ho /as a%so his thesis su'er isor J /as so disgusted b" the state o& BraGi%ian research that he had decided to %ea e &or a 'osition in Be%gium. *i e "ears a&ter the beginning o& his stud", Foao had not one 'age o& his thesis /ritten. His on%" treasure consisted o& a &e/ 'recious /a&ers made according to the M3S 'rocess. 57ith this,5 he thought, 5$ /i%% a%/a"s be ab%e to start a sma%% industr" i& m" %uc(

turns.5 $n the meantime the Fa'anese /ere no/ se%%ing M3S chi's /hich /ere a hundred times more 'o/er&u% than his. *urthermore, the state committee had reCected his grant a''%ication &or a ne/ automated chi' designer, arguing that there /ere not enough researchers in the &ie%d to Custi&" the e6'ense. 1he reader /i%% ha e an idea o& Foao5s state o& des'air i& the" (no/ that the in&%ation rate /as no/ +>> 'er cent /hi%e his a%read" sma%% sa%ar" /as adCusted on%" once a semesterS Foao /as becoming so 'oor that he /as contem'%ating a third 'art:time Cob J in addition to his research and his man" 'ri ate teaching %essons. He /as no/ so rare%" in his /or(sho' that his e;ui'ment J obso%ete an"/a" J /as used b" the nearb" uni ersit" &or teaching 'ur'oses. Sti%%, he /as 'roud o& ha ing been chosen b" the go ernment to ad ise them /hich Fa'anese &irm shou%d be 're&erred &or setting u' an automated M3S chi' &actor" some/here in the north o& BraGi% ... . 1his is indeed a sad stor" but certain%" more &re;uent than the success stories to%d in the ear%ier cha'ters. Foao cannot create a s'ecia%it", no matter ho/ &ar outside he goes. His /or(sho' is not at the centre o& an"thing, it becomes the anne6 o& a teaching institution. His thesis is not the te6t that e er" other researcher has to ;uote and to ta(e into accountP it is not e en /ritten. His chi's are not the on%" design that can ho%d together the assemb%ed interests o& industr", go ernment, the mi%itar", consumers and Courna%istsP it has become an obso%ete 'iece o& techno%og", a meaning%ess 'rotot"'e no one /i%% 'ut to use. $nstead o& being ab%e to estab%ish itse%& as a %ab /hich has become the ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or count%ess other 'eo'%e, Foao5s /or(sho' is a '%ace no one needs to 'ass

((18)))

through. $t is not strategica%%" '%aced bet/een an"one5s goa% and the &u%&i%ment o& this goa%, and this means, as /e sa/ in the %ast cha'ter, that Foao interests no one) 1a%(ing /ith Foao re ea%s a "et sadder stor". .%% the 'eo'%e $ ha e 'resented so &ar had to resist dissenters. 1o do so the" had to /rite more technica% artic%es, to bui%d bigger %aboratories, or to a%ign man" he%'ing hands. But /ho are the 'eo'%e /ho Foao ma" cha%%enge or those /ho ma" contest Foao5s demonstrations? 1he go ernment? 1he mi%itar"? 1he state grant committee? 0o, because a%% these 'eo'%e ta(e no notice o& Foao5s /or( and are a%% situated outsi"e the intricate design o& M3S chi' circuitr". Cou%d it be his co%%eagues? 0o, because he has no co%%eagues, and those /ho e6ist, &ar a/a" in Fa'an and 0orth .merica, are too &ar ahead to be interested in Foao5s /or(. 1he on%" one /ho cou%d remain interested, his thesis su'er isor, has no/ gone, %ea ing Foao as the on%" one in the countr" /ith his s'ecia%it". 7hat ha''ens to the inside o& a s'ecia%it" made u' o& on%" one 'erson? 1his is the ;uestion that ma(es Foao so des'ondent: the inside disa''ears as /e%%. Since he has no one to discuss the dra&t o& his artic%es /ith, no one to tr" out the %in(s he ma(es bet/een arious 'arts o& chi' architecture, no one to /hom he can submit his 'ro'osa%s &or tria%s o& strength, no one to

debug his 'rotot"'es, Foao ends u' not kno;ing /hat is rea% and /hat is &ictiona% in M3S techno%og". !sing the terms $ de&ined in cha'ter ) Foao does not (no/ /hat is obCecti e or subCecti e. .s /ith 2obinson Crusoe on his is%and, the boundaries bet/een da"dream and 'erce'tions becomes &uGG", since he has no one to dissent /ith him and thus create a di&&erence bet/een &acts and arte&acts. Foao &ee%s that the rhetoric o& science $ sho/ed in #art $ o& this boo( is going the other /a" round: his 'a'ers become %ess and %ess technica% : he no/ /rites on%" &or ne/s magaGines, his arguments become chea'er and chea'er : he a oids discussions /ith other &oreign e6'erts. Foao &ee%s he is out o& the 'roo& race and becoming more so e er" da". 1o start ne/ research is a%most im'ossib%e no/. His e;ui'ment is too o%d, the Fa'anese too ad anced, and his o/n (no/%edge too untried. 1he s'ecia%it", made u' o& one member, /i%% soon ha e nothing s'ecia% in it. Foao /i%% be a 5&ormer engineer5 bare%" sur i ing b" gi ing %essons and /riting 'o'u%ar science artic%es. He rea%%" &ears that the s'ecia%it" /i%% soon ha e : in BraGi% at %east : no outside su''ort and no inside e6istence either. 1he &irst %esson to be dra/n &rom this un&ortunate e6am'%e is that there is a direct re%ationshi' bet/een the siGe o& the outside recruitment o& resources and the amount o& /or( that can be done on the inside. 1he %ess 'eo'%e are interested in Foao5s /or(sho' the %ess Foao (no/s and %earns. 1hus, instead o& tr"ing out ne/ obCects /hich are then ab%e to ho%d together the interested grou's, Foao shrin(s a/a" and comes out o& his %ab em't":handed. 1he second %esson &rom this e6am'%e is that an isolate" s'ecia%ist is a contradiction in terms. 9ither "ou are iso%ated and er" ;uic(%" sto' being a s'ecia%ist, or "ou remain a s'ecia%ist but this means "ou are not iso%ated. 3thers, /ho are as specialise" as you, are tr"ing out "our materia% so &ierce%" that the" ma" 'ush the 'roo& race to a 'oint /here a%% "our resources are bare%" enough to

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/in the encounter. . s'ecia%ist is a counter:s'ecia%ist in the same /a" as a technica% artic%e is a counter:artic%e (Cha'ter 1) or a %aborator" is a counter:%aborator" (Cha'ter )). $t is /hen the amount o& resources is %arge enough that man" counter:s'ecia%ists ma" be recruited and set against one another. 1his dissent in turn e%e ates the cost o& the 'roo& race, mu%ti'%ies the tria%s o& strength, redesigns ne/ obCects /hich, in turn, ma" be used to trans%ate more outside interests, and so on. But as %ong as research in interna% combustion engine, neuroendocrino%og", geo%og" or chi' design does not "et e6ist as a Cob, there is no s'ecia%ist inside and no interested grou's outside.

%5' Making the laboratories indispensable

0o/ that /e start rea%ising /hat ha''ens to science in the ma(ing /hen 're%iminar" ground/or( is not made, %et us %oo( in the %og boo( o& a dedicated %a"'erson /ho decided to shado/ the head o& %aborator" :hence&orth named 5the boss5:situated in Ca%i&ornia. , March 1+: e er"thing is a%% right, the boss can easi%" be %ocated at his bench 'er&orming e6'eriments on 'andorin. March 1,: the boss has s'ent most o& his time in his o&&ice ans/ering 'hone ca%%s &rom t/e% e successi e co%%eagues to /hom he /rote about his ne/ 'andorin (&our in San *rancisco, t/o in Scot%and, &i e in *rance, one in S/itGer%and) J $ cou%d not hear /hat he said. March 18: $ a%most missed the '%ane. 1he boss &%e/ to .berdeen in order to meet a co%%eague /ho denies that 'andorin is a rea%, inde'endent substance o& an" 'h"sio%ogica% signi&icance. 7hi%e in .berdeen, he (e't ca%%ing a%% o er 9uro'e. March 1-: morning: ne/ '%ane to the South o& *ranceP the boss is /e%comed b" the heads o& a big 'harmaceutica% concernP $ bare%" got a ta6iP the" discussed a%% da" ho/ to 'atent, 'roduce and start c%inica% tria%s o& 'andorin and a host o& other substances. J e ening: /e sto' in #aris to discuss /ith the Ministr" o& Hea%th the setting u' o& a ne/ %ab in *rance to 'romote research in brain 'e'tidesP the boss com'%ains about *rench science 'o%icies and red ta'eP he /rites a %ist o& names o& 'eo'%e /ho cou%d 'ossib%" be attracted to this ne/ %abP the" discuss s'ace, sa%aries and /or( 'ermitsP the Ministr" 'romises to re%a6 the regu%ations &or this 'roCect. March 17: the boss has brea(&ast /ith a scientist /ho &%e/ &rom Stoc(ho%m to sho/ him ho/ his ne/ instrument /as ab%e to %ocate traces o& 'andorin in the brains o& ratsP the 'ictures are beauti&u%P the boss s'ea(s o& bu"ing the instrumentP the other man sa"s it is sti%% a 'rotot"'eP the" both ma(e '%ans to interest an industr" in manu&acturing itP the boss 'romises to ad ertise the instrumentP he hands out a &e/ sam'%es o& 'andorin to the other scientist &or &urther testing. J a&ternoon: e6hausted, $ miss the ceremon" at the Sorbonne /here the boss gets an honorar" degree &rom the uni ersit". $ arri ed in time &or the 'ress con&erence he gi es a&ter/ardsP the Courna%ists are er" sur'rised because the boss %ambasts *rench science 'o%ic"P he as(s e erone to be 're'ared &or a ne/ re o%ution in brain research, the &irst harbinger o& /hich is 'andorinP he attac(s Courna%ists /ho gi e a

((18,))

negati e image o& science and are a%/a"s a&ter sensations and re o%utionar" disco eriesP o er a drin( a&ter/ards he 'ro'oses to a &e/ co%%eagues the setting u' o& a scienti&ic committee that /ou%d &orce Courna%ists to beha e and not to &ree%" 'ro'agate /i%d c%aims. night: /e reached 7ashingtonP $ am '%eased to see that the boss seems tired too. March 18: morning: a big meeting in the 3 a% 3&&ice /ith the #resident and re'resentati es o& diabetic 'atientsP the boss gi es a er" mo ing s'eech e6'%aining that research is soon going to brea( through, that it is a%/a"s s%o/, that red ta'e is a maCor 'rob%em, and that much more mone" is needed to train "oung researchersP 'arents o& diabetics ans/er and urge the #resident to gi e 'riorit" to this research and to &aci%itate as much as 'ossib%e the testing o& ne/ drugs &rom the boss5s %aborator"P the #resident 'romises he /i%% do his best. %unch: the boss has a /or(ing %unch at the 0ationa% .cadem" o& ScienceP he tries to con ince his co%%eagues to create a ne/ sub:section, he e6'%ains that /ithout this a%% his co%%eagues in this ne/ disci'%ine are %ost either in 'h"sio%og" or in neuro%og" and their contribution is not re/arded as it shou%d beP 5/e shou%d ha e more isibi%it"5, he sa"sP the" discuss ho/ to ote do/n another co%%eague, but $ am three tab%es a/a" and do not hear /ho he is. a&ternoon: a bit %ate at the board meeting o& the Courna% *n"ocrinology> & cannot snea( into the roomP $ Cust %earned &rom the secretar" that the boss com'%ains about the disci'%ine being i%%: re'resented and about bad re&erees /ho turn do/n hosts o& good 'a'ers because the" (no/ nothing about the ne/ disci'%ineP 5more brain scientists shou%d be brought in.5 W on the '%ane: the boss corrects an artic%e a Fesuit &riend as(ed him to /rite on the re%ations bet/een brain science and m"sticismP the boss e6'%ains that 'andorin is 'robab%" /hat ga e Saint Fohn o& the Cross his 5(ic(5P he a%so adds in 'assing that 's"choana%"sis is dead. %ate a&ternoon: /e arri e at the uni ersit" Cust in time &or his courseP he ends it b" re&%ecting on the ne/ disco eries and ho/ im'ortant it is that bright "oung men enter this booming &ie%d &u%% o& o''ortunitiesP a&ter the course he has a brie& /or(ing meeting /ith his assistants and the" discuss a ne/ curricu%um to inc%ude more mo%ecu%ar bio%og", %ess mathematics, more com'uter science, 5it is crucia%,5 he sa"s, 5that /e get 'eo'%e /ith the right trainingP the ones /e5 e got no/ are use%ess.5 e ening: (b%an(, too e6hausted to &o%%o/) March 19: /hen $ arri e the boss is there a%read"S $ had &orgotten that it /as the_ da" o& the site isit &or one o& his grants, a one:mi%%ion:do%%ar a&&airP the isitors are ha ing discussions /ith e er"one, 'robing e er" 'roCectP the boss remains a%oo& in his o&&ice 5so as not to in&%uence either the isitors or the sta&&. $ miss the o&&icia% dinner. March )>: morning: the boss is in a 's"chiatric hos'ita% tr"ing to con ince doctors to set u' a &irst c%inica% tria% o& 'andorin on schiGo'hrenicsP un&ortunate%" the 'atients are a%% so %oaded u' /ith drugs that it /i%% be hard to iso%ate the e&&ect o& 'andorinP he suggests that the doctors and himse%& /rite a co:authored 'a'er. Wa&ternoon: /e roam around a s%aughter houseP the boss tries to con ince the head o& the 5hatchet cre/5 W $ don5t (no/ the technica% term W to tr" another /a" to hac( shee' heads o&&

so as not to damage the h"'otha%amiP the discussion seems hardP $ am so nauseated that $ don5t hear a /ord. %ate a&ternoon: the boss gi es a good dressing do/n to a "oung 'ostdoc /ho

((188))

did not dra&t the e6'ected 'a'er on 'andorin in his absenceP he decides /ith his co%%aborators /hich o& the ne6t generation o& high 'ressure %i;uid chromatogra'h" to bu"P he goes on 'erusing the ne/ &igures obtained this a&ternoon on a more 'uri&ied sam'%e o& 'andorin.5 7e ma" sto' the reading o& the %og boo( at this 'oint. 9 en i& it is a bus" /ee( it is &ar &rom an unusua% one. *o%%o/ing a scientist ma" turn out to be a tiring Cob and ma" &orce the &o%%o/er to visit man" 'arts o& the /or%d and man" more grou's in our societies than e6'ected: high o&&icia%s, cor'orations, uni ersities, Courna%ists, re%igious &igures, co%%eagues and so on. Ho/ cou%d /e de&ine the boss5s /a" o& doing research &rom 1+ to 18 March? 1o ans/er this ;uestion /e shou%d consider another dedicated %a"'erson /ho, during the same /ee(, shado/ed not the boss but one o& his co%%aborators. Contrar" to the &irst ins'ector, this one did not mo e &rom the %aborator"P she sta"ed a%% /ee(, t/e% e hours a da" at the bench or in the o&&ice submitting 'andorin to the sort o& tria%s /e described in Cha'ter ). $& she ans/ered a &e/ 'hone ca%%s the" /ere &rom the boss or &rom co%%eagues engaged in the same tas( in other institutions, or &rom su''%iers. .s(ed about her boss5s tri' she seemed a bit condescending. She /ants to sta" at arm5s %ength &rom %a/"ers, industr" or e en go ernment. 5$ am Cust doing science,5 she sa"s. 5Basic science, hard science.5 7hi%e she sta"s in the %aborator" the boss mo es around the /or%d. $s the boss sim'%" tired o& bench /or(? 3r is he too o%d to do /orth/hi%e research Jthis is o&ten /hat is muttered in the co&&ee brea(s inside the %aborator"? 1he same grumb%es greet 7est5s constant 'o%itic(ing in <idder5s stor". 8 7est is a%/a"s mo ing around &rom head;uarters to mar(eting &irms and &rom there to e%ectronic &airs. 7hi%e he is a/a", the micro(ids are /or(ing %i(e de i%s, com'%ete%" insu%ated &rom an" economic or 'o%itica% hurd%e. 9ach o& them /or(s Cust on one microcode. 1his case sho/s ho/ im'ortant it is to decide /ho are the 'eo'%e to stud". 4e'ending on /hich scientist is &o%%o/ed, com'%ete%" di&&erent 'ictures o& technoscience /i%% emerge. Sim'%" shado/ing 7est or the boss /i%% o&&er a businessman5s ie/ o& science (mi6ture o& 'o%itics, negotiation o& contracts, 'ub%ic re%ations)P shado/ing the micro(ids or the co%%aborator /i%% 'ro ide the c%assic ie/ o& hard:/or(ing /hite:coated scientists /ra''ed u' in their e6'eriments. $n the &irst case /e /ou%d be constant%" mo ing outsi"e the %aborator"P

in the second, /e /ou%d sta" sti%% dee' insi"e the %aborator". 7ho is rea%%" doing research? 7here is the research rea%%" done? . &irst ans/er comes /hen the t/o obser ers sent to stud" the boss5s %ab 'ut together their %og boo(s at the end o& a "ear:%ong obser ation. 1he" note that the co%%aborator got a 'a'er acce'ted in a ne/ section o& the Courna% *n"ocrinologyEa section created b" the bossP that she has been ab%e to em'%o" a ne/ technician than(s to a s'ecia% &e%%o/shi' &rom the 4iabetic .ssociation Ja&ter the s'eech gi en b" the boss at the 7hite HouseP that she no/ gets &resh h"'otha%ami &rom the s%aughter house /hich are much c%eaner than be&ore J an outcome o& the boss5s com'%aintsP that she has t/o graduate students

((18-))

attracted to her /or( a&ter the" had ta(en the boss5s course at the uni ersit"P that she is no/ contem'%ating a 'osition o&&ered to her b" the *rench Ministr" o& Hea%th to set u' a ne/ %aborator" in *rance J than(s to %ong negotiations o& the boss /ith *rench high o&&icia%sP that she has got a brand ne/ instrument &rom a S/edish &irm to ma' minute amounts o& 'e'tides in the brain J in 'art because o& the boss5s in o% ement in setting u' the com'an". 1o sum u', she is ab%e to be dee'%" in o% ed in her bench /or( because the boss is constant%" outside bringing in ne/ resources and su''orts. 1he more she /ants to do QCust science5, the cost%ier and the %onger are her e6'eriments, the more the boss has to /hee% around the /or%d e6'%aining to e er"one that the most im'ortant thing on earth is her /or(. 1he same di ision o& %abour ha''ens /ith 7est and his team. $t is because 7est has been ab%e to con ince the Com'an" to %et them tr" the *agle 'roCect that the "oung men are ab%e to de ise, &or the &irst time in their careers, a brand ne/ com'uter. 1he more the" /ant to /or( QCust on technica% matters5, the more 'eo'%e 7est has to seduce. 1he conse;uence o& this doub%e mo e is a trade:o&& bet/een the intensit" o& the dri e to interest 'eo'%e 5outside5 and the intensit" o& the /or( to be done 5inside5. .s /e sa/ in the %ast cha'ter, this trade:o&& is due to the &act that the interest o& a%% the 5interested5 'eo'%e /i%% %ast on%" i&, &or instance, the ne/ com'uter and the ne/ 'andorin ma" tie a%% o& them together and become the ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or 'ursuing their usua% /or(. 1o do so, *agle has to be &u%%" debugged and 'andorin has to be an undis'utab%e &actP /hen 7est5s o erse%%ing and the boss5s b%u&& are ca%%ed, a%% the data the" sho/ed shou%d /ithstand the tria%s o& strength. Because o& this tradc:o&& bet/een /hat has been 'romised outside and /hat ho%ds inside, an enormous 'ressure is then di erted bac( to the co%%aborators. 1he" a%% ha e to /or( hard and to submit *agle and the 'andorin to a%% 'ossib%e tria%sP to bu" the best e;ui'ment, to recruit the best graduates. $t is /hi%st submitted to this enormous 'ressure that the" sa" Q/e are Cust doing science5.

1he &irst %esson to be dra/n &rom these e6am'%es %oo(s rather innocuous: technoscience has an inside because it has an outside. 1here is a 'ositi e &eedbac( %oo' in this innocuous de&inition: the bigger, the harder, the 'urer science is inside, the further outsi"e other scientists have to go) $t is because o& this &eedbac( that, i& "ou get inside a %aborator", "ou see no 'ub%ic re%ations, no 'o%itics, no ethica% 'rob%ems, no c%ass strugg%e, no %a/"ersP "ou see science iso%ated &rom societ". But this iso%ation e6ists on%" in so &ar as other scientists are constant%" bus" recruiting in estors, interesting and con incing 'eo'%e. 1he 'ure scientists are %i(e he%'%ess nest%ings /hi%e the adu%ts are bus" bui%ding the nest and &eeding them. $t is because 7est or the boss are so acti e outside that the micro(ids or the co%%aborator are so much entrenched inside 'ure science. $& /e se'arate this inside and this outside as'ect, our tra e% through technoscience /ou%d become entire%" im'ossib%e. .t each crossroads, /e /ou%d not (no/ /hom to &o%%o/. 3n the contrar", it is c%ear that /e ha e to do %i(e <idder and, &rom no/ on, s'%it our attention and &o%%o/ both the 'ure%" technica%Jas /e did in Cha'ters 1, ) and +Jand, so to s'ea(, the 5im'ure%"5 technica%. 3ur o%d &riend the dissenter o&

((187))

Cha'ters 1 and ), or the &act:bui%der, /ere so stubborn on%" because other 'eo'%e outside /ere bus" at /or(P /e ha e "et to &o%%o/ these 'eo'%e.

%8' 6hat is te&hnos&ien&e made of@

$ ha e 'ortra"ed three er" contrasting situations: in the case abo e the science to be studied /as c%ear%" di ided into a ast inside 'art : the %aboratories:and a %arge outside 'art orchestrating the recruitment dri eP in the &irst t/o cases scientists /ere strugg%ing to create a "ifference bet/een an inside s'ecia%it":in /hich the" cou%d then /or( : and an outside mi6ture o& contradictor" interests: that cut through their s'ecia%it" and threatened to destro" it entire%". Ho/e er di&&erent the three e6am'%es, t/o &eaturtes remained constant. *irst, the abi%it" to /or( in a %aborator" /ith dedicated co%%eagues de'ended on ho/ success&u% other scientists /ere at co%%ecting resources. Second, this success in turn de'ended on ho/ man" 'eo'%e /ere a%read" con inced b" scientists that the detour through the %ab /as necessar" &or &urthering their o;n goals)

%A' 46H! IS 3EA,,D -!IN: SCIENCE. AF E3 A,,@4

7hat do the /ords 5their goa%s5 mean? .s /e (no/, the" designate an ambiguous trans%ation o& scientists5 and other 'eo'%e5s interests. *or instance, i& the boss is so success&u% /hen ta%(ing to the Ministr", the #resident, the 4iabetic .ssociation, his students, his %a/"ers, the head o& a 'harmaceutica% industr", ne/smen and &e%%o/ academicians, this means that they thin( the" are &urthering their goa%s /hen he%'ing him to e6tend his %ab. 1he same thing is certain%" true /ith 7est. His grou' is enthusiastic about bui%ding a ne/ com'uter and beating the 0orth Caro%ina research centreP &or this the" are a%% read" to /or( t/e% e hours a da"

se en da"s a /ee(. Sti%%, at the end, it is 4ata Oenera%5s share o& the mar(et that is increased and it is 4e Castro, the big boss, /ho is more '%eased than an" other. 1he "oung (ids5 interests, those o& 7est, o& 4e Castro and o& the 4ata Oenera% Board o& 4irectors /ere a%% a%igned, at %east &or a &e/ months. 1his alignment is 'recise%" /hat is %ac(ing in the t/o other e6am'%es. 1he Church, the uni ersities, the gentr", the state, the 'ub%ic, the amateurs , the &e%%o/ geo%ogists, a%% ha e mi6ed &ee%ings about %etting L"e%% de e%o' an inde'endent geo%og"P /hen L"e%% ta%(s about his interests, no one e%se at &irst &ee%s that he means Qtheir interests5 as /e%%. 4i&&icu%t negotiations are sti%% going on to (ee' a%% these contradictor" /i%%s in %ine. $n Foao5s case, it is c%ear that the interests are a%% at %oggerheads. 7hen he ta%(s about his goa%s, no one e%se in the /ho%e /or%d thin(s the" are theirs as /e%%: neither the mi%itar", nor indust", nor his co%%eagues. 1he re%ation bet/een Foao and the others is so unambiguous that no communit" o& interest is 'ossib%e. So, to sum u', /hen scientists and engineers are success&u% in creating a ast

((188))

inside /or%d, it means that others are /or(ing to/ards more or %ess the same goa%P /hen the" are unsuccess&u%, it means that scientists and engineers are %e&t alone to 'ursue their direction. 1his sounds %i(e a 'arado6: /hen scientists a''ear to be &u%%" inde'endent, surrounded on%" b" co%%eagues obsessi e%" thin(ing about their science, it means that the" are &u%%" de'endent, a%igned /ith the interest o& man" more 'eo'%eP con erse%", /hen the" are rea%%" inde'endent the" do not get the resources /ith /hich to e;ui' a %aborator", to earn a %i ing or to recruit another co%%eague /ho cou%d understand /hat the" are doing. 1his 'arado6 is sim'%" the conse;uence o& the &eedbac( mechanism $ 'resented in the t/o sections abo e: the more esoteric a 'iece o& technoscience the more e#oteric has to be the recruitment o& 'eo'%e. 1his sounds %i(e a 'arado6 on%" because /e se er the t/o as'ectsP so, /e tend to thin( that a 'oor%" &unded /or(sho' is more tied to outside interests than a /e%%:&unded one, /hereas it is 'oor because it is %ess tiedP con erse%", /hen /e isit a gigantic c"c%otron /e tend to thin( that it is more remote &rom an"one5s direct interest, /hereas it is remote on%" because o& its tight %in(s /ith mi%%ions o& 'eo'%e. 1his mista(e occurs because /e &orget to &o%%o/ simu%taneous%" the inside and outside scientistsP /e &orget the man" negotiations that the %atter had to carr" o er &or the &ormer to e6ist at a%%. Let us 'onder a minute on this in erse re%ationshi'. .re /e not running into a maCor di&&icu%t", /hich cou%d sta%% our Courne" through technoscience, i& /e as( ;ho is really "oing scienceC $& /e sa" Qthe 'eo'%e /ho /or( in the %abs o& course5, /e (no/ &rom the e6am'%e o& L"e%% or o& Foao that this ans/er is gross%" incom'%ete since b" themse% es the" cou%d not e en earn a %i ing or set u' a contro ers". So /e ha e to complete the %ist o& 'eo'%e /ho are doing science. But i& /e inc%ude in the %ist a%% the su''orters necessar" to trans&orm iso%ated and he%'%ess scientists into 'eo'%e %i(e 7est or the boss, /e run into an a''arent absurdit": sha%% /e sa" that 4e Castro, the Ministr" o& Hea%th, the Board o& 4irectors, the #resident, are

a%% "oing scienceC Certain%" "es, since it is to con ince them that 7est and the boss /or(ed so hard &or their %abP certain%" not, since none o& these con inced su''orters /or(s at the bench. So /e are in a ;uandar" o er /hat seems t/o e;ua%%" ridicu%ous ans/ers. Since our goa% is to &o%%o/ those /ho are doing technoscience, our en;uir" is chec(ed i& /e can no %onger decide /ho is rea%%" doing the /or(S 3& course, i& /e &o%%o/ through the %ogic o& the &irst ans/er /e can get out o& the di&&icu%t". 1his method, /hich is acce'ted b" most ana%"sts, is 'recise%" the one /e cannot use. $t in o% es sa"ing that the %ong %ist o& 'eo'%e /ho su''ort the %aboratories constitute a necessar" precon"ition &or technoscience to e6ist as a 'oc(et o& 'ure (no/%edge. $n others /ords, a%though a%% these 'eo'%e are necessar" to 'ro ide resources, the" are not sha'ing the er" content o& the science made. .ccording to this ie/ there is a rea% boundar" to be dra/n bet/een the inside and the outside. $& "ou &o%%o/ the outsiders "ou /i%% meet a series o& 'o%iticians, businessmen, teachers, %a/"ers and so on. $& "ou sta" inside "ou /i%% get on%" the nitt":gritt" o& science. .ccording to this di ision, the &irst cro/d has to be ta(en as a sort o& necessar" e i% &or the second to /or( ;uiet%".

((189))

1he conse;uence is that /hate er (no/%edge "ou ma" gain about the one cro/d can teach "ou nothing about the other: the cast o& characters and the '%ots the" are enmeshed in /i%% be tota%%" di&&erent. 1his di orce bet/een conte6t and content is o&ten ca%%ed the interna%De6terna% di ision. Scientists are inside, ob%i ious to the outside /or%d that can on%" in&%uence their conditions o& /or( and its rate o& de e%o'ment. $ ho'e it is c%ear to readers that i& the" /ere to acce't this di ision, it /ou%d be the end o& our tri'. .%% our e6am'%es ha e s(etched a constant shu&&%ing to and &ro bet/een outside /or%d and %aborator"P no/ an im'assab%e barrier is thro/n u' bet/een the t/o. $ ha e im'%icit%" suggested, and /i%% no/ gi e the s(e%eton o&, a di&&erent anatom" o& technoscience: one in /hich the interna%De6terna% di ision becomes the 'ro isiona% outcome o& an in erse re%ationshi' bet/een the 5outside5 recruitment o& interests : the sociogram : and the 5inside5 recruitment o& ne/ a%%ies : the technogram. 7ith each ste' a%ong the 'ath the constitution o& /hat is 5inside5 and /hat is 5outside5 a%ters. 1here are t/o so%utions to the 'rob%em o& the gross%" incom'%ete de&inition o& science against the incredib%" broad: either thro/ing u' a theoretica% and im'assab%e barrier bet/een 5inside5 and 5outside5, or tracing an em'irica% and ariab%e %imit bet/een them. 1he &irst so%ution gi es t;o "ifferent stories de'ending on /here "ou start : and brings this boo( to a c%oseP the second so%ution 'ro ides the same story in the end no matter i& "ou start &rom the outside or the inside : and a%%o/s this boo( to go onS

%B' EAE3DB!-D IS MA-E ! :IAE A HAN-

1o decide bet/een the t/o ersions, %et us go bac( to the second section and trace a sim'%i&ied ma' o& the boss5s tra e%s. 2emember that 5doing science5 meant t/o di&&erent things &or the co%%aborator /or(ing inside the %ab and &or the boss tra e%%ing outside. Ho/e er, it /as c%ear &rom the e6am'%e that the" /ere both doing science since the resources di erted b" the boss /ere then acti ated b" the co%%aboratorP con erse%", each ne/ obCect s;ueeGed &rom the %ab b" the co%%aborator /as immediate%" con erted into resources b" the boss, so as to secure ne/er and &resher sources o& su''ort. 1his 'rocess, 'ursued b" the co%%aborator and the boss at the same time, has the sha'e o& a %oo' or o& a c"c%e. Ho/e er, as /e sa/ in the &irst section, this %oo' ma" turn in;ar" or out;ar": the science ma" shrin( so much that there is no distinction bet/een co%%aborator and boss, and soon a&ter no ne/ obCect and no su''orterP or it ma" turn in the direction that ma(es the science gro;) 7hat does this mean? .s $ sho/ in *igure ,.1, it means that more and more e%ements are 'art o& the c"c%e. $ ha e arti&icia%%" di ided these e%ements into mone", /or(&orce, instrument, ne/ obCects, arguments and inno ations, and s(etched on%" three com'%ete c"c%es. Let us start /ith the 'eo'%e /ho 'ro ide mone". .t the beginning the boss is sim'%" recei ing &undsP in the midd%e circ%e he is heading man" nationa% committees that decide /ho shou%d recei e the mone"P at the end, he is 'art o& the

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state estab%ishment that %egis%ates on ho/ much mone" shou%d be gi en, to /hich science, and through /hich s"stem the &unds shou%d be a%%ocated and contro%%ed. .t the beginning &e/ 'eo'%e ha e their &ate %in(ed to the boss5s enter'riseP at the end, ;uite a %ot.

666 &igur ,.1 start 666 *igure ,.1 3 erb%i((: *iguren bestAr a tre sir(e%er inne i h erandre, a%%e med &e%%es midt'un(t, som en b%in(. !t &ra midt'un(tet strA%er se(s stre(er, som de%er sir(e%ene i se(s %i(e store se(torer. Me%%om se(torene gAr det 'i%er. 4eta%Cert bes(ri e%se: *iguren iser en rund:dans a &ors(Ce%%ige &a(torer som betinger h erandre. 4isse har na n etter &os(Ce%%ige ressurser.4e tre sir(e%ene heter grad 1, grad ) og grad +. 4e iser &ors(Ce%%ig ni A a o%um e%%er intensitet a de a(tue%%e ressursene. 3m i starter 'A (%o((en to% , og &B%ger 'i%enes retning motsatt ei a (%o((en, sA er de se(s &a(torene:

M309I, 732<*32C9, $0S12!M901, 3BF9C1, .2O!M901, $003H.1$30. 4en siste a disse &a(torene s(i%%er seg ut. $ &e%tet =inno ation= er det mar(ert 'i%er som iser o ergangen &ra en grad e%%er ett ni A ti% et annet: *ra det %a este ti% det midtre, &ra det midtre ti% det B erste. S%i(a (an (arricren Tre en s'ira% i rund:dansen a ressurser som betinger h erandre. 666 &igur ,.1 s%utt 666

Ooing counter:c%oc(/ise, /e meet the /or(&orce the boss needs to recruit once he has the mone". .t the beginning he does the /ho%e Cob /ith his o/n hands and e"esP in the midd%e he recruits "oung (ids a%read" trained b" the uni ersit" de'artments or the technica% schoo%sP at the end, he is heading ne/ de'artments, ne/ uni ersities, and ad ocating maCor changes in training and 'riorities throughout the educationa% s"stem. He ma" e en go &urther, /riting te6tboo(s, gi ing 'ub%ic %ectures, enthusing his audience /ith a Gea% &or his science. *rom the start to the end, the boss has had to go &urther and &urther a&ie%d, recruiting more and more 'eo'%e and attaching his enter'rise to that o& more and more schoo%s. Sti%% &urther around the circ%e, /e meet the instruments /hich are so im'ortant

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&or sha'ing ne/ obCects. 7hen the /ho%e 'rocess is er" sma%%:sca%e, the boss is using on%" the instruments a ai%ab%e or ones he can tin(er /ithP in the midd%e, he ma" be de ising ne/ instruments and ad ising industr" on 'rotot"'esP at the end, he is on the Board o& se era% com'anies that bui%d instruments, ad ocating their use in hos'ita%s, &ighting the %egis%ation that %imits their s'readP or in the case o& other sciences /e ma" &ind him at Hearings urging Congress to he%' in the '%anning o& gigantic ne/ instruments. Here again, /e started /ith &e/ 'eo'%e interested in the boss5s c"c%e, and /e ma" end u' /ith a /ho%e branch o& industr" tied to his &ate.

*urther round the circ%e /e encounter the tria%s 'roduced b" the co%%aborators using the instruments. .t &irst, er" &e/ a%%ies are brought inP in the midd%e, more une6'ected ones are 'ut into the 'ictureP at the end, inside huge %aboratories, undergoing terrib%e and une6'ected tria%s, ne/ obCects are sha'ed b" the thousand. .s /e sa/ in Cha'ter ), the more the %aborator" gro/s the /ider is the mobi%isation 'rocess o& non:human e%ements &or /hich the scientists s'ea(. 0e6t, /e encounter the arguments. .s /e ha e a%read" %earned in Cha'ters ) and +, the boss at &irst utters /ea( non:technica% c%aims on%" /hich are di&&icu%t to 'ub%ish at a%%P in the midd%e, his increasing%" technica% artic%es are acce'ted &aster and &aster b" man" more technica% Courna%s o& higher statusP at the end, the boss creates ne/ Courna%s, ad ises 'ub%ishing &irms, ad ocates the creation o& ne/ data ban(s, and e6horts co%%eagues to set u' 'ro&essiona% associations, academies or internationa% organisations. 7hat started as a timid and contro ersia% c%aim ends u' as an incontro ertib%e and /e%%:estab%ished bod" o& (no/%edge or a res'ectab%e 'ro&ession. 7e then meet the inno ations. .t the onset, the boss is bare%" ab%e to con ince an"one to use his arguments, his substances or his 'rotot"'es. 1he" sta" in his sma%% %ab %i(e Foao5s chi's. $n the midd%e, more and more 'eo'%e ha e been su&&icient%" interested b" the boss to %end their &orce to his 'roCects: man" hos'ita%s, man" other disci'%ines are 'utting the arguments to good use, s'reading the inno ations &urther. .t the end, the boss is on the Board o& se era% com'anies, heading man" committees and is the &ounder o& se era% associations /hich are a%% &aci%itating the s'read o& the inno ation as much as the" can. 7hat /as %imited to one man5s %ab no/ circu%ates through %ong net/or(s e er"/here in the /or%d. *ina%%", /e come &u%% circ%e to the beginning o& the diagram. .t &irst, the boss is too /ea( to obtain more grants, more s'ace and more credit sim'%" on the grounds o& his 're ious acti ities. $n the midd%e, his /or( becomes recognised, his artic%es and those o& his co%%aborators are read and ;uoted, his 'atents en&orcedP grants, s'ace and 'restige ma" be more easi%" secured. .t the end, a%% the &orces enro%%ed through the 'rocess are read" to attribute the res'onsibi%it" o& their genera% mo ement to him and to his %ab or his disci'%ine. 7hat at &irst had been an iso%ated '%ace has become b" the end an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint. B" this time, /hate er the others do or /ant, the boss5s %ab gro/s Jsee trans%ation 8 in Cha'ter +.

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0o matter ho/ sim'%i&ied this genera% 'icture is, one thing in it is c%ear: gro/th comes &rom tying together more and more e%ements coming &rom %ess and %ess e6'ected sources. .t some 'oint in section ), /e sa/ s%aughter houses, the *rench Ministr" o& Hea%th, the 3 a% 3&&ice and brain 'e'tides ha ing a bearing on each other. $t is utter%" im'ossib%e to de%ineate an outside border to the 'icture: in /hich on%" 5conte6t5 &or science /ou%d be encountered:and an

inside core: in /hich on%" 5technica% content5 /ou%d be 'roduced. $t is eas", on the contrar", to see ho/ the %aborator" has to become more and more technica% in order to attach so man" and so dis'arate e%ements to one another. 7hat is c%ear%" se'arated in the &irst ersion : that is, the interna% and the e6terna% : is 'recise%" /hat has to be attached so tight%" in the second. $& /e agree to the su'eriorit" o& the second ersion o er the &irst, then another %esson ma" be dra/n &rom this e6am'%e. 7hen $ /rite that man" 'eo'%e, institutions, instruments, industries and ne/ obCects are tied to the boss5s enter'rise, this means t/o things at once: &irst that the" are tied to the boss /hose %ab has become an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or them, but a%so that he is tie" to them) He had to go &ar out o& his /a" to &etch themP he had to bend o er bac(/ards to recruit them. $& not he /ou%d not ha e risen at a%%. 1hus, /hen /e g%ance at *igure ,.1 /e do not see either the boss5s stor" or the stor" o& the en%isted e%ementsP /e see the stor" o& a%% o& them ;hen they get together an" share a common fate) 1hose /ho are rea%%" doing science are not a%% at the benchP on the contrar", there are 'eo'%e at the bench because man" more are doing the science e%se/here. 1he time has no/ come to turn our attention to/ards these other 'eo'%e.

$art B. Counting Allies and 3esour&es

$n the 'receding 'art /e so% ed t/o di&&icu%ties. *irst /e %earned that in our tri' through technoscience /e shou%d &o%%o/ simu%taneous%" those /ho sta" inside the %abs and those /ho mo e outside, no matter ho/ di&&erent the t/o grou's a''ear. Second, /e %earned that in the construction o& technoscience /e ha e to inc%ude a%% the 'eo'%e and a%% the e%ements that ha e been recruited or are doing the recruiting, no matter ho/ &oreign and une6'ected the" seem at &irst. $s it 'ossib%e to get an idea o& /ho the 'eo'%e are /ho are ma(ing technoscience and ho/ the arious ro%es are distributed among them? 1o ans/er this ;uestion /e are going to use the statistics that 'ro&essiona% bodies gather in arious countries : but es'ecia%%" in the !nited States : in order to contro% or to de e%o' /hat the" ca%% 2esearch and 4e e%o'ment. - 0o matter ho/ crude and o&ten biased or inaccurate these statistics are, the" 'ro ide us /ith at %east an order o& magnitude. 1he" ma' out &or us the strongho%ds and the /ea( 'oints o& technoscience. $nstead o& 'resenting indi idua% cases as $ ha e done so

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&ar, /e are no/ going to get an idea o& the scale o& technoscience sim'%" b" using the statistics o& the man" institutions that manage scientists.

%(' Counting on S&ientists and Engineers

1he most stri(ing &igures come &rom the most genera% statistics: those /ho ca%% themse% es scientists and engineers in the census are much &e/er than those interested b" and enro%%ing them in the construction o& &acts and machines. $n the !nited States the" are on%" +.+ mi%%ion 'eo'%e GScience &n"icators 198), GS&H 198+,

666 tabe%% ,.1 start 666 1ab%e ,.1 4ataene i =tabe%%en= b%ir 'resentert som tre sir(e%diagrammer e%%er sA(a%te =(a(ediagrammeer.= 9tt stort diagram iser tota%e 'rosenter, to mindre iser ande%en som =Scientists= og =9ngineers= har a de &a(torene som er ist i det &Brste diagrammet. 0eden&or er det he%e b%itt gCengitt som en tabe%%. H er (ategori har &Att sin %inCe. 1ota%(ategorien stAr %istet &Brst, mens erdier &or hh . =scientists= og =engineers= (ommer etter sti((ord som mar(erer h i%(en a disse to gru''ene det 'A&B%gende ta%%et gCe%der. Feg e%ger a%tsA A 'resentre dataene 'A en mAte der man sammen%i(ner tota%s(Aren 'A en (ategori med s(Arene &or hh . =Scientits= og =9ngineers= 'A samme (ategori. Feg (unne i stedet ha a%gt A %age tabe%%er som e(t%egger sammensetningen a de &ors(Ce%%ige &a(torene innen&or h ert en(e%t (a(ediagram, men Ceg tror Ceg har a%gt den mAten som er mest re%e ant &or te(sten. 2esearch: 11d. KScientistsL 17d. K9ngineersL 8d. 4e e%o'ment: 1-d. KScientistsL 7d. K9ngineersL )7d. Management o& 2:4.: 7d. KScientistsL -d. K9ngineersL 9d. Management: 1,d. KScientistsL 11d. K9ngineersL 18d. 1eaching: 9d. KScientistsL 18d. K9ngineersL )d. #roduction and ins'ection: 1,d. KScientistsL 9d. K9ngineersL 19d. 3thers: )9d. KScientistsL +8d. K9ngineersL )>d. Science &n"icators $:-%, *igure /)8, ''. 88) 666 tabe%% ,.1 s%utt 666

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'. ),9), no matter /hat degree the" ho%d and /hat /or( the" do. 3n%" +.+ mi%%ion sa" the" ha e some &ami%iarit" /ith an" o& the b%ac( bo6es. 1he )8> mi%%ion others are su''osed to ha e the barest (no/%edge 'ro ided them b" 'rimar" or secondar" schoo%. $& /e /ish to consider those /ho are said to ha e 'artici'ated in the de&inition and negotiation o& some b%ac( bo6es, the number decreases drastica%%". Most 'eo'%e /ith a training in science and engineering do not do research or de e%o'ment. $n the !S, &or instanceJthe countr" &or /hich /e ha e the most &igures J s%ight%" more than a ;uarter o& a%% scientists and engineers are engaged in 2 e 4. 1ab%e ,.1 is the sort o& tab%e that sho/s the absurdit" o& the di&&usion mode% criticised at the end o& Cha'ter +. $& /e /ere to be%ie e that bench /or(ers are the on%" ones 5rea%%" doing science5 /e /ou%d ha e to ta(e into account on%" some 9>>,>>> 'eo'%e &or the !S (that is the &irst t/o dar( areas in the 'ie charts in 1ab%e ,.1)P a%% the others, that is three:;uarters o& a%% scientists and engineers, can be &orgottenS *or the trans%ation mode%, ho/e er, researchers are c%ear%" the ti' o& the icebergP man" more are needed /ho /or( outside in order to ma(e the inside 'ossib%e, and those /ho he%' in the de&inition, negotiation, management, regu%ation, ins'ection, teaching, sa%e, re'air, be%ie& and s'read o& the &acts are 'art and 'arce% o& 5research5. 1he im'ossibi%it" o& %imiting technoscience to &u%%:time researchers is c%ear%" demonstrated b" 1ab%e ,.):

666 tabe%% ,.) start 666 1ab%e ,.) Number of scientists an" engineers engage" in R L J as a proportion of the ;orkforce 1abe%%en har to (o%onner. 9n iser abso%utte ta%% &or: =Number of scientists an" engineers=, en annen iser re%ati e ta%% &or: =Number of scientists an" engineers,;orkforce=. 0eden&or er h er %inCe i tabe%%en gCengitt. <o%onne:(ateogirene er gCengitt i 'arentes. !S (1981). K0umber o& scientists and engineersL 89>,>>>. K0umber o& scientists and engineersD/or(&orceL .)7:M) 9ng%and (1978). K0umber o& scientists and engineersL 1>,,>>>. K0umber o& scientists and engineersD/or(&orceL .)6 M) *rance (1979). K0umber o& scientists and engineersL 7+,>>>. K0umber o& scientists and engineersD/or(&orceL .)/%M) Oerman" (1977). K0umber o& scientists and engineersL 1)),>>>. K0umber o& scientists and engineersD/or(&orceL .)68M)

Fa'an (1981). K0umber o& scientists and engineersL +-+,>>>. K0umber o& scientists and engineersD/or(&orceL .)87M) !SS2 (81 estimate). K0umber o& scientists and engineersL 1)>>,>>>. K0umber o& scientists and engineersD/or(&orceL .):.M) Science &n"icators $:-%, tab%e 1.+ '. 19+. 666 tabe%% ,.) s%utt 666

1/o and a ha%& mi%%ion o& scientists and engineers cannot ma(e 7>> mi%%ion other 'eo'%e be%ie e and acce't a%% the hard &acts o& technoscience. .%though this dis'ro'ortion is acce'tab%e in the di&&usion mode%, it ma(es no sense in the trans%ation mode%. .nd this ridicu%ous%" sma%% &igure has been obtained in the most &a ourab%e case. 7e considered on%" the most industria%ised and richest countries o& the 0orth, %um'ing together all the "isciplines and introducing no &urther distinction bet/een 2esearch and 4e e%o'ment. Moreo er, since the

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de e%o'ed countries account &or around 9> 'er cent o& a%% the 2 e 4 in the /or%d (9, 'er cent o& the mone" and 89 'er cent o& the /or(&orce according to 3.9.C.4.7), it means that, /hen tra e%%ing through the ast /or%d, one /ou%d ha e one chance in 18>> o& meeting someone /ho has an acti e ro%e in sha'ing be%ie&s and technics. $t /ou%d mean that on%" + mi%%ion 'eo'%e are disseminating be%ie&s and machines, en%isting the 8 bi%%ion 'eo'%e on the '%anetS Nuite an e6traordinar" &eat, /hich means either that these &e/ 'eo'%e are su'erhuman or that /e /ere /rong in %imiting the &act construction to scientists. Man" more 'eo'%e than the &e/ scientists o&&icia%%" recognised as such ought to be engaged in sha'ing technoscience. $t is 'ossib%e to 'ush the a''arent 'arado6 created b" the sma%% number o& scientists much &urther. Being counted in the statistics as engaged in 2 e 4 does not mean that as man" 'eo'%e ha e had the sort o& e6'erience $ 'ictured in Cha'ter 1 and ), that is, a direct &ami%iarit" /ith the /riting o& a technica% artic%e, /ith the setting u' o& a contro ers", /ith the sha'ing o& ne/ a%%ies, /ith the de ising o& ne/ %aboratories. $& /e ta(e the 'ossession o& a #hd as an indication o& a c%ose and %ong &ami%iarit" /ith technoscience in the making, and i& /e %imit the number o& scientists and engineers to the number o& doctorates engaged in 2 e 4, the &igures /e arri e at are much sma%%er sti%%. 8 $& the construction o& &acts /as %imited to the research done b" doctorates, it /ou%d mean that on%" 1)>,>>> 'ersons in the !nited States /ou%d ma(e the )8> mi%%ion others be%ie e and beha e, enro%%ing and contro%%ing them in acce'ting ne/er and harder &acts. 3ne man /ou%d be ab%e to enro% and contro% )>>> othersS

.nd, again, this &igure has been obtained b" %um'ing a%% the sciences and a%% the technics together /ithout an" distinction bet/een research and de e%o'ment. 1he 'arado6 created b" the di&&usion mode% gro/s to massi e 'ro'ortions i& /e tr" to distinguish occu'ations and disci'%ines inside the remaining tin" numbers. 2emember that in 1ab%e ,.1 /e sa/ that on%" +, 'er cent o& a%% scientists and engineers in the !S /ere engaged in 2 e 4 or managing it but more than 7> 'er cent o& a%% the scientists and engineers engaged in 2 e 4 are /or(ing in industr". 9 So, e en the ti' o& the iceberg is not made o& /hat is common%" ca%%ed 5science5. $& /e /ished to become c%oser to the c%ichM o& 'ure disinterested science /e /ou%d ha e to consider on%" doctorate ho%ders em'%o"ed b" uni ersities or other 'ub%ic institutions and doing research, that is %imiting technoscience to academics. $& /e do so, the &igures shrin( sti%% &urther.1> 1he number o& 'eo'%e /ho most c%ose%" resemb%e /hat is common%" ca%%ed 5scientist5 J basic research in a non:'ro&it institution J in the !S amounts to something %i(e 8>,>>> (&u%%:time e;ui a%ent). 1his &igure is obtained b" ro%%ing a%% the sciences into one. 1his is not the ti' o& an iceberg an" more, it is the ti' o& a need%e. 7hen /e ta%( about 5science5 the readers might thin( o& &amous scientists in high%" 'restigious disci'%ines and uni ersities ha ing 'roduced ne/ re o%utionar" ideas and 'roducts /hich are no/ be%ie ed, used and bought b" hundreds o& mi%%ions o& 'eo'%e. #eo'%e %i(e L"e%%, 4iese%, 7atson and Cric( come to mind. Ho/e er, considering technoscience as made u' o& these 'eo'%e is as im'ossib%e

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as ma(ing the '"ramid o& Cheo's ba%ance u'side do/n. 1he great men and /omen o& science to /hom 'restige accrues are sim'%" too &e/ to account &or the gigantic e&&ects the" are su''osed to 'roduce. Sti%%, /e ha e chosen the best conditions in order to measure the sca%e o& technoscience. Had /e made &e/er a" hoc assum'tions, this sca%e /ou%d be much sma%%er. *or instance, a%% our &igures come after a %ong 'eriod o& e6'onentiona% gro/th in 2 e 4 s'ending and in the training o& scientists and engineers. 11 1he o&&icia% siGe o& technoscience /ou%d be %imited to much sma%%er numbers had /e measured it before this boom. 0o matter ho/ 'restigious are the Oa%i%eos, the 0e/tons, the #asteurs and the 9disons, the" /ere sti%% more iso%ated and scattered in their o/n time and societies than the re%ati e%" %arge armies o& 'ro&essiona% researchers o& toda". 1he sciences, /hich seem so sma%% com'ared to the number o& 'eo'%e the" c%aim to enro% and contro%, ne erthe%ess d/ar& their 'ast so much that the" can be said to ha e a%most no past) As &ar as numbers are concerned, technoscience is on%" a &e/ decades o%d. 1he &amous scientists studied so much b" historians o& science can a%% be &ound in the minute tai% o& an e6'onentia% cur e. 1o 'arod" 0e/ton, /e cou%d sa" that technoscience is a giant on the shou%ders o& d/ar&sS

1here is a second su''osition /hich 'ro ides us /ith an in&%ated ie/ o& technoscience. $ made the su''osition that a%% the academic scientists /ho most resemb%ed the c%ichM o& a scientist /ere a%% e9ually goo") 9 en i& science /as made o& a mosaic o& sma%% c%usters, $ assumed that a%% the c%usters /ere e;ua%. But this is &ar &rom being so. 1here are huge ine;ua%ities e en inside the sma%% number o& academic scientists. 1here is /hat is ca%%ed a stratification among scientists. 1) 1his as"mmetr" modi&ies /hat is ca%%ed the isibi%it" o& a scientist or o& a c%aim. 1+ 7hen discussing contro ersies and dissent, 'roo& race and trans%ations, $ ha e a%/a"s assumed that each c%aim and each counter:c%aim /as high%" isib%e and stimu%ated the debate. 1his /as too &a ourab%e a 'resentation. 1he ast maCorit" o& the c%aims, o& the 'a'ers, o& the scientists, are sim'%" invisible) 0o one ta(es them u', no one e en dissents. $t seems that e en the beginning o& the 'rocess has not been triggered o&& in most cases. 1here is not on%" a strati&ication among scientists5 'roducti it", there is a%so a strati&ication in the means &or ma(ing science. *rom Cha'ter ) and &rom Foao5s e6am'%e, /e (no/ that a%% %aboratories are not e;ua% be&ore Ood. 1he abi%it" to 'ursue a dis'ute de'ends crucia%%" on the resources one is ab%e to muster on one5s side. 1hese resources are concentrated in er" &e/ hands. *irst, this is isib%e inside the same countr". 1, 4is'uting a &act, %aunching a contro ers", 'ro'osing an artic%e outsi"e o& the to' institutions becomes much more di&&icu%t, and the more so the &urther "ou are a/a" &rom them. 7e (no/ /h" &rom Cha'ters ) and +: the cost o& the 'roo& increases at each turn o& the contro ers"P those /ho are not ab%e to &o%%o/ the 'roo& race in their o/n %abs and /ho sti%% /ish to argue ha e either to brea( their /a" into the to' institutions or to ;uit the game a%together. 1his strati&ication is isib%e inside the same countr", but it is sti%% more isib%e

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bet/een de e%o'ed countries. 18 Ha%& o& technoscience is an .merican business. .%% the other de e%o'ed countries /or( on sma%%er chun(s o& science. Since hard ne/ &acts are made b" mustering resources and ho%ding a%%ies in %ine, the strati&ication in man'o/er, mone" and Courna%s means that some countries /i%% enro%, and others /i%% be enro%%ed. $& a sma%% countr" /ishes to doubt a theor", reCect a 'atent, interru't the s'read o& an argument, de e%o' its o/n %aboratories, choose its o/n to'ics, decide on /hich contro ers" to start, train its o/n 'ersonne%, 'ub%ish its o/n Courna%s, search its o/n data base, s'ea( its o/n %anguage, it might &ind this im'ossib%e. 1he same situation $ described in Cha'ter 1 bet/een Mr .n"bod" and Mr Man"bodies ma" be &ound bet/een countries /ith a big share in 2 e 4 and countries /ith a er" sma%% share in it. Li(e Mr .n"bod", the countr" /ith a sma%% s"stem o& science ma" be%ie e the &acts, bu" the 'atents, borro/ the e6'ertise, %end its 'eo'%e and resources, but it cannot dis'ute, dissent or discuss and be ta(en serious%". .s &ar as the construction o& &acts is concerned, such a countr" %ac(s autonomy) 1-

.&ter ;uic(%" sur e"ing the &igures s(etching the sca%e o& technoscience, /e c%ear%" understand that %imiting it to 5insiders5 /ou%d %ead us to a com'%ete absurdit". 7e /ou%d soon be %e&t /ith a &e/ hundred 'roducti e and isib%e scientists, in a hand&u% o& rich%" endo/ed %aboratories generating the tota%it" o& a%% the &acts be%ie ed and o& a%% the machines used b" the 8 bi%%ion 'eo'%e %i ing on this '%anet. 1he distribution o& ro%es made b" the di&&usion mode% has been rea%%" une;ua%: to the ha''" &e/ is reser ed the in ention, discussion and negotiation o& the c%aims, /hi%e the bi%%ions o& others are %e&t /ith nothing e%se to do but to borro/ the c%aims as so man" b%ac( bo6es or to remain crass%" ignorant. Scientists and engineers are too &e/, too scattered, too une;ua%%" distributed to enro% and contro% a%% the others. Limited to their o/n &orce the" cou%d not secure the strongho%ds so necessar" to render re%e ant their rhetoric. *or the di&&usionists, this conc%usion is not a 'rob%em, as /e sa/ in Cha'ter +: 5on the contrar",5 the" argue, 5i& scientists are so &e/ and do such e6traordinar" things, it is sim'%" that the" are the best and the brightestP these &e/ iso%ated minds see /hat 0ature is and are be%ie ed b" a%% the others because the" are right.5 1hus, &or them, a%% the &igures abo e do not raise an" maCor 'rob%em, the" sim'%" a"" to the 'restige o& a &e/ scientists iso%ated in the midst o& so much obscurit" and ignoranceS

%5' Not &ounting only on s&ientists and engineers

1he &irst section 'resents us /ith a 'icture that ma" be inter'reted in t/o o''osite /a"s: either the &e/ rea%%" good scientists are endo/ed /ith the demiurgic 'o/ers o& ma(ing mi%%ions be%ie e and beha e, or the" are scattered in margina% s'ots, %ost in the midst o& mu%titudes /ho cou%d not care %ess. Ho/e er, /e (no/ &rom #art . that this a%ternati e is also that o& the scientists themse% es. 7est, 4iese%, the boss, or Foao, de'ending on /hat the" do and /ho the" recruit,

((1-8))

ma" be endo/ed /ith demiurgic 'o/ers:since e er"one goes through their %abs:or sta" margina% &igures unab%e to in&%uence an"one5s /or(. 7e a%so %earned in the &irst 'art that, in order to decide bet/een the demiurgic inter'retation and the margina% one, /e shou%d not consider on%" those /ho ca%% themse% es scientists : the ti' o& the iceberg : but those /ho, a%though the" sta" outside, are ne erthe%ess sha'ing the science and &orm the bu%( o& the iceberg. 0o/ that /e ha e beaten at its o/n game the di&&usion mode% that asserted that scientists, ideas and 'rotot"'es /ere the on%" im'ortant 'art o& science, /e shou%d no %onger hesitate to reintroduce a%% the 'artici'ants e6c%uded &rom the o&&icia% de&inition o& rea% research into the 'icture. But ho/ can this be done, since, b" de&inition, statistics on man'o/er on%" %ist those /ho are o&&icia%%" doing science? 1here is, &ortunate%", in the same statistics, a sim'%e /a" o& measuring the mu%titudes enro%%ing scientistsP the" do not a''ear under the guise o& man'o/er, but under that o& money) 9 en distorted in statistics, budgets are a &air estimate o& the amount o& interest scientists ha e been ab%e to secure &or their /or(.

$& /e consider the most aggregated &igure a ai%ab%e, not on the 'ersonne% but on the mone", /e gain one order o& magnitude (1ab%e ,.+).

666 tabe%% ,.+ start 666 1ab%e ,.+ (ercentage of 1N( "evote" to R L J !nited States (1981): ).-d. 9ng%and (1978): ).)d. *rance (1978): ).-d. Oerman" (1981): )d. Fa'an (1981): ).,d. !SS2 (median estimate): +.-d. Science &n"icators $:-% GS& 198+ '. 7) 666 tabe%% ,.+ s%utt 666

1ab%e ,.+ gi es gross estimates but their genera% sca%e is interesting: it means that the &e/ hundreds o& thousands o& scientists ha e been ab%e to ha e a bearing on something %i(e ).8 'er cent o& the O0# o& the richest industria%ised countries. 4oes this re%ati e%" substantia% &igure mean that a%% this mone" is obtained &or the &e/ 'eo'%e that an o&&icia% rendering o& science /ou%d consider as 5rea% scientists5? 0ot at a%%, because a%% (inds o& research are %um'ed together in 1ab%e ,.+. 1he traditiona% %abe%s to brea( do/n statistics are those o& basic research, a''%ied research and de e%o'ment. .%though it is 'ossib%e to discuss end%ess%" the 'recise boundaries bet/een these terms, /e ha e %earned enough in this boo( to de&ine them &or our 'ur'ose. .s $ sho/ed in Cha'ter +, obtaining ne/ a%%ies is good, but on%" inso&ar as these man" a%%ies are ab%e to act as one disci'%ined /ho%e. 1hus, /e ma" distinguish t/o moments in the recruitment o& ne/ a%%ies:

((1-9))

one that mu%ti'%ies their numbers, and the other that turns them into a sing%e /ho%e. 7e ma" ca%% research the &irst moment and de e%o'ment a%% the /or( necessar" to ma(e a b%ac( bo6 b%ac(, that is, to turn it into an automaton that counts as one routine 'iece o& e;ui'ment. $& /e ta%( o& research /e /i%% be %ed more into the sort o& situation described in Cha'ters 1 and ), /ith technica% 'a'ers, discussions, contro eries, undisci'%ined ne/ obCectsP i& /e ta%( o& de e%o'ment /e /i%% tac(%e the 'rob%ems o& Cha'ter +, 'utting more em'hasis on the hard/are and the ;uestion o& ho/ to disci'%ine the ne/ obCects and the 'eo'%e /ho trans&er them. But the distinction is o&ten moot, and shou%d be seen as t/o as'ects o& one sing%e strategica% 'rob%em. 0o matter ho/ &uGG" a%% these distinctions are, the statistics obtained b" using them are c%ear enough, as sho/n in 1ab%e ,.,.

666 tabe%% ,., start 666 1ab%e ,., 1. 131.L 29S9.2CH .04 49H9L3#M901 9n %ang stre(, de%t i tre %i(e store de%er. 1.1 1o tredCede%er heter: 49H9L3#M901. 1.) 9n tredCede% heter: 29S9.2CH. #ara%%e%t med denne siste trede%en %B'er en %inCe som ogsA er de%t 'A samme mAte: 1.1.) 1o tredCede%er heter: .##L$94. 1.1.) 9n tredCede% heter: B.S$C. Science &n"icators $:-% GS& $:-7, '. ,>) 666 tabe%% ,., s%utt 666

.%though the di&&usion mode% /ou%d consider on%" basic science as /orth" o& attention J the rest &%o/ing e&&ort%ess%" &rom itJ /e see that, b" and %arge, scientists and engineers ha e been ab%e to gather su''ort on%" /hen the" do not do basic research. 3& nine do%%ars s'ent, on%" one goes &or /hat is c%assica%%" ca%%ed 5science5. 1echnoscience is on the /ho%e a matter o& de e%o'ment. $s it 'ossib%e to go &urther and to consider /ho are the su''orters o& technoscience /hen it is success&u%? 2emember that, on the one hand, according to our &irst 'rinci'%e scientists and engineers need man" others to bui%d a%% their b%ac( bo6es, but that, on the other, the" are too

&e/ to (ee' them in %ine, es'ecia%%" i& the" /ish to ma(e mi%%ions o& others be%ie e and beha e. 1he on%" /a" to so% e this 'rob%em is &or scientists to %in( their &ate to that o& other, much more 'o/er&u% grou's that ha e alrea"y solve" the same problem on a larger scale) 1hat is, grou's that ha e %earned ho/ to interest e er"one in some issues, to (ee' them in %ine, to disci'%ine them, to ma(e them obe"P grou's &or /hich mone" is not a 'rob%em and that are constant%" on the %oo(:out &or ne/ une6'ected a%%ies that can ma(e a di&&erence in their o/n strugg%e. 7hich grou's are these? .nother %oo( at statistics gathered in the !nited States /i%% te%% us. Because these &igures are so %arge:sca%e the" gi e us an idea o& the most im'ortant trans&ers o& mone", and thus an out%ine o& the main trans%ations o&

((17>))

interest (1ab%e ,.8). 9ssentia%%", 2 e 4 is an industria% a&&air (three:;uarters is carried out inside &irms) &inanced out o& ta6 mone" (amounting to ,7 'er cent in the !S GS& 198+, '. ,,)). 1his is the &irst massi e trans&er o& interest: scientists ha e succeeded on%" inso&ar as the" ha e cou'%ed their &ate /ith industr", andDor that industr" has cou'%ed its &ate to the state5s. 7ithout this doub%e mo e technoscience shrin(s to minuscu%e siGe as /e see /hen on%" basic science is considered. 0o/ it becomes an a&&air bet/een the uni ersities and the state: uni ersities do nine:tenths o& basic research /hich is a%most tota%%" 'aid out o& the *edera% Budget. .s can be e6'ected, a''%ied science occu'ies an intermediar" 'osition, 8> 'er cent being 'aid b" the go ernment and industr" and carried out b" the uni ersities.

666 tabe%% ,.8 start 666 1ab%e ,.8 1a%%ene i =tabe%%en= er ist med &em sir(e%diagrammer e%%er =(a(ediagrammer=.

1. 7ho 'a"s &or 2.e.4 1.1 *edera% Oo erment (mar(ert i sort, 8>d) 1.) $ndustr" (mar(ert i h itt, ca ,>d) 1.+ 3thers (mar(erti i h itt, ca 1>d)

). 4e e%o'ment ).1 87d mar(ert i h itt ).) resten sort

+. .''%ied +.1 88d mar(ert i h itt +.) e%%ers sort

,. Basic ,.1 ))d mar(ert i h itt, ,.) e%%ers sort

8. 7ho does the 2. e. 4 8.1 !ni ersities 9d 8.) *edera% %abs 11d 8.+ $ndustr" 7>d 8.- Siste se(tor er h it uten na n og uten 'rosent Science &n"icators $:-% (8+, '. ,9) 666 tabe%% ,.8 s%utt 666

((171))

7hat sort o& to'ics drain so much ta6'a"er5s mone" into industr" and the uni ersities? 1he ans/er is to be &ound in 1ab%e ,.-. 1he outsiders are coming into the 'icture. 4e&ence ta(es u' something %i(e 7> 'ercent o& a%% 'ub%ic 2 e 4 s'ending. 1echnoscience is a mi%itar" a&&air. 1he on%" e6ce'tion is Oerman"J and Fa'an, but this e6ce'tion is itse%& due to another scienti&ico:mi%itar" enture: the dro''ing o& the atomic bombs in 19,8, that &orced Fa'an to surrender and to abandon most mi%itar" research.

666 tabe%% ,.-.a start 666 1ab%e ,.- (a) !.S. &edera% ob%igations &or research and de e%o'ment in constant 197) do%%ars (Constant 197) do%%ars in bi%%ions) 1abe%%en er et sB"%ediagram. 0eden&or b%ir na n 'A h er en(e%t sB"%e angitt, samt h or %angt 'A s(a%aen sB"%en nAr. 0ationa% 4e&ense 198>: 8 0ationa% 4e&ense 198- estimate: 1Hea%th 198>: ) Hea%th 198- estimate: ) S'ace 198>: ) S'ace 198- estimate: ca. 1,8 9nerg" 198>: ) 9nerg" 198- estimate: ca. 1 Oenera% Science 198>: ca. 1 Oenera% Science 198- estimate: ca. 1,8 Science &n"icators $:-6 GS& 1988, p) ,>) 666 tabe%% ,.-.a s%utt 666

666 tabe%% ,.-.b start 666

1ab%e ,.- (b) 4istribution o& go ernment su''ort o& 2 e 4 b" nationa% obCecti e and b" countr" ('er cent) in 198> 1abe%%en har en (o%onne &or h er a &em stater: =!S=, =Fa'an=, =7. Oerman"=, =*rance=, =!<=. 0eden&or b%ir h er %inCe i tabe%%en gCengitt, med (oder &or h er a statene satt inn i 'arentes under eis i h er %inCe. K!SL . KFa'anL . K7. Oerman"L . K*ranceL . K!<L 4e&ence. K!SL -+.7. KFa'anL 1-.8. K7. Oerman"L ),.,. K*ranceL ,9.+. K!<L -,.8. Hea%th. K!SL 18.). KFa'anL 11.). K7. Oerman"L 18.+. K*ranceL 7.8. K!<L +.9. .d ancement o& (no/%edge. K!SL +.>. KFa'anL ,.1. K7. Oerman"L 1,.). K*ranceL 18.>. K!<L 1).9. 9nerg" and in&rastructure. K!SL 1,.). KFa'anL +,.,. K7. Oerman"L +>.9. K*ranceL 1-.>. K!<L 1>.1. .gricu%ture. K!SL ).7. KFa'anL )8.,. K7. Oerman"L ).9. K*ranceL ,.+. K!<L ,.8. $ndustria% gro/th. K!SL >.+. KFa'anL 1).). K7. Oerman"L 1).,. K*ranceL 7.9. K!<L +.8. Science &n"icators $:-% GS& $:-%, p) $:: and 39C4 198), '. %.%H 666 tabe%% ,.-.b s%utt 666

((17)))

$t is not a strange coincidence or an un/anted e o%ution that so tight%" attaches the de e%o'ment o& armies and technoscience. 1he mi%itar" ob ious%" &oots the bi%% rather /e%%. *or centuries, the" ha e en%isted 'eo'%e and interested them in their action, so much so that most o& us are read" to obe" them b%ind%" and to gi e u' our %i es i& re;uired. .s &ar as enro%%ing, disci'%ining, dri%%ing and (ee'ing in %ine are concerned, the" ha e 'ro ed their mett%e and on a much %arger sca%e than scientists ha e e er tried.17 1he interested and obedient %a"'erson re;uired b" scientists to disseminate their &acts is much easier to train than the disci'%ined so%dier read" to sacri&ice himse%&. Besides, the mi%itar" ha e been interested in une6'ected%" shi&ting the ba%ance o& 'o/er /ith ne/ resources and /ea'ons. $t is not sur'rising then that the &e/ scientists and engineers ca'ab%e o& 'ro iding ne/ and une6'ected

a%%ies ca'ab%e o& changing the ba%ance o& 'o/er ha e met /ith the mi%itar" &re;uent%" during the course o& histor" to 'romote the 'roduction o& ne/ /ea'ons. 1he simi%arit" bet/een the 'roo& race and the arms race is not a meta'hor, it is %itera%%" the mutua% 'rob%em o& ;inning) 1oda" no arm" is ab%e to /in /ithout scientists, and on%" er" &e/ scientists and engineers are ab%e to /in their arguments /ithout the arm". $t is on%" no/ that the reader can understand /h" $ ha e been using so man" e6'ressions that ha e mi%itar" connotations (tria%s o& strength, contro ers", strugg%e, /inning and %osing, strateg" and tactics, ba%ance o& 'o/er, &orce, number, a%%"), e6'ressions /hich, a%though constant%" used b" scientists, are rare%" em'%o"ed b" 'hi%oso'hers to describe the 'eace&u% /or%d o& 'ure science. $ ha e used these terms because, b" and %arge, technoscience is 'art o& a /ar machine and shou%d be studied as such. 1his %in( bet/een /ar and technoscience shou%d not be %imited to the de e%o'ment o& /ea'on s"stems. 1o &u%%" gras' it, it is necessar" to consider more genera%%" the mobilisation o& resources, /hereb" $ mean the abi%it" to ma(e a con&iguration o& a ma6ima% number o& a%%ies act as a sing%e /ho%e in one '%ace. 2esearch into ne/ /ea'ons is one ob ious &ocus, but so is research into ne/ aircra&t and trans'ort, s'ace, e%ectronics, energ" and, o& course, communications. Most technoscience is concerned /ith &aci%itating this mobi%isation o& resources (see Cha'ter -). 1he on%" other big chun( o& ci i%ian research isib%e on 1ab%e ,.- is that o& hea%th. 7h" is it that scientists ha e been success&u% in t"ing their /or( to this to'ic? .%though it does not &it the bi%% as /e%% as the arm", the hea%th s"stem has done simi%ar ground/or(. Li(e the sur i a% o& the bod" 'o%itic, the sur i a% o& the bod" is a subCect in /hich e er"one is direct%" and ita%%" interested. Since in both cases mone" is no obCect, the hea%th budget, %i(e that o& de&ence, is a gigantic treasure chest /here s'ending is made /ithout %imit. $n both cases interest and s'ending ha e been made com'u%sor" b" ta6es or the socia% securit" s"stem, the %atter being as big as the state budget in most industria%ised countries. 1he ro%e '%a"ed b" the mi%itar" in recruiting, dri%%ing, and &orcing e er"one to be simu%taneous%" interested and obedient has been '%a"ed &or centuries b" 'h"sicians, surgeons and hea%th /or(ers. .mateurs ha e been e6c%uded, ;uac(s

((17+))

and char%atans ha e been &orbidden to 'ractise, e er"one has been made to ta(e an interest in hea%th 'rob%ems, %egis%ation has been 'assed. Most o& the /or( had a%read" been done /hen %i&e scientists %in(ed their &ate to that o& hea%th. So it is not sur'rising that so much research is conducted on the hea%th s"stem. 7hen scientists and engineers are unab%e to %in( their /or( to either o& these t/o budgets, the" &are %ess /e%%. 1he remainder o& a%% 'ub%ic%" &inanced 2 e 4 is a 'un" 'ercentage o& the tota%.

1he 'rob%em o& &inding resources to 'ursue the 'roo& race has been historica%%" so% ed /hen budding scientists ha e %in(ed their &ate to that o& 'eo'%e /hose genera% goa% /as seen as being a''ro6imate%" the same: mobi%ising others, (ee'ing them in %ine, disci'%ining them, interesting them. $& these conditions are not met, grou's o&5 scientists ma" e6ist, but the" /i%% ne er be ab%e to increase considerab%" the cost o& 'roo& or to mu%ti'%" the number o& their 'eers. $n an" e ent the" /i%% ne er be granted the demiurgic 'o/ers o& resha'ing the /or%d (/hich, &or instance, atomic 'h"sicists ha e). 1he" /i%% be more a(in to the o%der 'ro&essiona% ro%e o& the scho%ar. 7hen scientists ho%d strong 'ositions, man" other 'eo'%e are a%read" there /ho did most o& the ground/or(.

%8' he fifth rule of method

7e started this cha'ter b" as(ing ;ho the scientists and engineers /ereP /e 'ursued it b" a""ing more and more outside 'eo'%e to the ma(ing o& scienceP /e then stumb%ed on an in erse re%ationshi' that %in(ed the esoteric and the e6oteric as'ects o& scienceP a&ter/ards, /e had to understand that the &e/ 'eo'%e o&&icia%%" ca%%ed Qacademic scientists5 /ere on%" a tin" grou' among the armies o& 'eo'%e /ho do scienceP &ina%%", /e came to rea%ise that /hen the %arge armies : in the %itera% sense : that de&end either the bod" 'o%itic or the bod" /ere not behind them, scientists remained b" and %arge in isib%e. 1he dri&t &rom the beginning o& the cha'ter to this 'oint is no/ c%ear, $ ho'e, to the e"es o& the attenti e reader: the enlisting scientist endo/ed /ith the demiurgic 'o/er o& enro%%ing and contro%%ing mi%%ions o& others ma" no/ a''ear as an enliste" em'%o"ee /or(ing in industr" on mi%itar" matters. 7hich one o& the t/o 'ictures is the more accurate, and /hich one a%%o/s us to %earn more about technoscience? 1he on%" 'ossib%e ans/er to this ;uestion is that neither o& the t/o is correct because the ;uestion is not 'recise enough. Some o& the cases /e studied ha e gi en us the im'ression that scientists ho%d enormous 'o/ers %i(e 7est or the bossP other cases suggested the o''osite im'ression %i(e L"e%% at the start o& his career, or Foao. 7hat did this im'ression o& 'o/er or o& /ea(ness de'end on? 3n the 'resence or the absence o& alrea"y a%igned interest grou's. .%though this sounds as 'arado6ica% no/ as /hen /e &irst encountered it in #art ., /e ha e to come to gri's /ith it. 1he &e/ 'eo'%e o&&icia%%" ca%%ed scientists and engineers seem to carr" the da" on%" /hen most o& the ground/or( has a%read" been done by others) 1he 'roo& o& this is that i& the others are not there, or are too &ar a'art,

((17,))

the &e/ scientists and engineers become sti%% &e/er, %ess 'o/er&u%, %ess interesting, and %ess im'ortant. So, in a%% cases, the 'resence or the absence o& man" more 'eo'%e than those doing science at the bench shou%d be studied in order to understand ;ho those at the bench are and, as /e sa/ in Cha'ter +, ;hat they "o)

Ho/ is it that the man" others /ho count so much /hen 'ro iding %aboratories /ith their 'o/ers are "iscounte" /hen the time comes to %ist the 'ersonne% o& science? 1he" constitute the most im'ortant 'art o& technoscience in a%% the stories $ to%d, so ho/ can the" be so easi%" 'ushed out o& the 'icture? 1o ans/er this /e shou%d remember the tria%s o& res'onsibi%it" de&ined ear%ier. 1o &o%%o/ these tria%s a distinction had to be made bet/een the 'rimar" mechanism that en%ists 'eo'%e, and the secondar" mechanism that designates a &e/ e%ements among the en%isted a%%ies as the cause o& the genera% mo ement. 1he outcome o& these tria%s in res'onsibi%it" is to a%%o/ the 'icture o& technoscience to be com'%ete%" re ersed. .mong the mi%%ion 'eo'%e en%isted b" scientists or en%isting them, and among the hundreds o& scientists doing a''%ied research and de e%o'ment &or de&ence and industr", on%" a &e/ hundreds are considered, and to them a%one is attributed the 'o/er to ma(e a%% the others be%ie e and beha e. .%though scientists are success&u% on%" /hen the" &o%%o/ the mu%titude, the mu%titude a''ears success&u% on%" /hen it follo;s this hand&u% o& scientistsS 1his is /h" scientists and engineers ma" a''ear a%ternati e%" endo/ed /ith demiurgic 'o/ers : &or good or bad:or de oid o& an" c%out. 0o/ that /e can see through this con&usion o& t/o di&&erent mechanisms, /e understand that 5science and techno%og"5, &rom /hich /e started in the introduction, is a &igment o& our imagination, or, more 'ro'er%" s'ea(ing, the outcome o& attributing the /ho%e res'onsibi%it" &or 'roducing &acts to a ha''" &e/. 1he boundaries o& science are traced not in terms o& the 'rimar" mechanism, but on%" in terms o& the secondar" one. 1he recruitment dri e remains in isib%e. 1hen, /hen one acce'ts the notion o& 5science and techno%og"5, one acce'ts a 'ac(age made b" a &e/ scientists to sett%e res'onsibi%ities, to e6c%ude the /or( o& the outsiders, and to (ee' a &e/ %eaders. $t is &ortunate that /e decided &rom the start to stud" the activity o& ma(ing science and not the de&inition gi en b" scientists or 'hi%oso'hers o& /hat science consists o&. 1he hard recruitment dri es o& 4iese%, #asteur, L"e%%, o& the boss, the man" &ai%ures o& Foao, /ou%d ha e com'%ete%" esca'ed our attention. 7e /ou%d ha e be%ie ed in the e6istence o& a science on the one hand, and o& a societ" on the other, /hich /ou%d ha e rather missed the 'ointS Here again, Fanus s'ea(s t/o o''osite %anguages at once. 3n the %e&t side he sa"s that scientists are the cause that carried out a%% the 'roCects o& science and techno%og", /hi%e on the right side scientists are stri ing to 'osition themse% es inside 'roCects carried out b" man" others. 1o remind us o& this im'ortant distinction, $ /i%% use the /ord te&hnos&ien&e &rom no/ on, to describe a%% the e%ements tied to the scienti&ic contents no matter ho/ dirt", une6'ected or &oreign the" seem, and the e6'ression 5s&ien&e4 and te&hnology4. in ;uotation mar(s, to designate ;hat is kept of technoscience once a%% the tria%s o& res'onsibi%it" ha e been sett%ed. 1he more Qscience and

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techno%og"5 has an esoteric content the &urther the" e6tend outside. 1hus, 5science and techno%og"5 is on%" a sub:set /hich seems to ta(e 'recedence on%" because o& an o'tica% i%%usion. 1his /i%% constitute our &ourth 'rinci'%e.

666 &igur ,.) start 666 *igure ,.) 9n s(isse a guden Fanus med to ansi(ter. .nsi(tet som ender mot enstre har s(Cegg, det som ender mot hB"re har i((e s(Cegg. .nsi(tet mot enstre sier: =Science and techno%og" is the cause that a%%o/s 'roCects to be carried out=. .nsi(tet mot hB"re sier: =7hen the 'roCects are carried out, science and techno%og" /i%% a''ear as the dri ing &orce behind them5. 666 &igur ,.) s%utt 666

1here seems, ho/e"er, to be a danger in e6tending the siGe o& technoscience, so as to inc%ude in it su''orters, a%%ies, em'%o"ers, he%'ing hands, be%ie ers, 'atrons and consumers, because the" in turn might be seen as %eading the scientists. 3ne might dra/ the conc%usion that i& science is not made u' o& science and %ed b" scientists, it is made u' o& and %ed b" a%% the interest grou's. 1his danger is a%% the greater since this a%ternati e is e6act%" the one o&&ered b" so:ca%%ed 5socia% studies o& science5. 7hen 5science and techno%og"5 is not e6'%ained b" its interna% thrust, it is accounted &or b" e6terna% 'ushes or demands. 3ur tra e% through technoscience shou%d then be &u%% not o& microbes, radioacti e substances, &ue% ce%%s and drugs, but o& /ic(ed genera%s, de ious mu%tinationa%s, eager consumers, e6'%oited /omen, hungr" (ids and distorted ideo%ogies. Ha e /e come a%% this /a" and esca'ed the Char"bdis o& 5science5 on%" to be /rec(ed on the Sc"%%a o& 5societ"5? *ortunate%", this danger is not a rea% one i& /e can see that all attribution tria%s shou%d be c%eared a/a", inclu"ing those /hich attribute the d"namism o& science to socia% &actors. $& /e are read" to doubt /hat scientists sa" about their science, it is not so as to be%ie e /hat genera%s, ban(ers, 'o%iticians, ne/smen, socio%ogists, 'hi%oso'hers or managers sa" about its %imit, sha'e, use&u%ness or cause o& gro/th. .s stated b" our &ourth ru%e o& method, /e shou%d be s"mmetrica% and doubt the boundaries o& scienti&ic 'ro&essions as much as those o& Qscience and techno%og"5, no more but no %ess. *rom no/ on, the name o& the game /i%% be to %ea e the boundaries o'en and to c%ose them on%" /hen the 'eo'%e /e &o%%o/ c%ose them. 1hus, /e ha e to be as undecided as 'ossib%e on /hich e%ements /i%% be tied together, on /hen the" /i%% start to ha e a common &ate, on /hich interest /i%% e entua%%" /in o er /hich. $n other /ords, /e ha e to be as un"eci"e" as the actors /e &o%%o/. *or e6am'%e,

((17-))

be&ore the boss enters his o&&ice, the Minister o& Hea%th is sti%% uncertain /hether or not it is /orth in esting in neuroendocrino%og"P the boss too is uncertain /hether or not the Minister /i%% (ee' the 'romise made b" his counse%%ors about &unding a brand ne/ %aborator"P he is a%so uncertain as to /hether or not 'andorin is such a re o%utionar" substance that &irm 'romises can be made to the Minister about curing drug addictsP his co%%aborator, dee' in her %ab, is &or her o/n 'art uncertain /hether or not she can c%aim in her 'a'er that 'andorin is bio%ogica%%" di&&erent &rom another substance 'ub%ished ear%ierP the rats she tried the t/o substances on might die under the high doses she ga e them be&ore 'ro iding an" ans/er. $t is 'ossib%e that the co%%aborator5s rats, the drug addicts, the boss, the counse%%ors, the Minister and the Congressmen /i%% a%% become a%igned /ith one another so that, in the end, %aborator" /or( has a bearing on nationa% hea%th 'o%ic". But it is a%so 'ossib%e that an" one o& these %in(s or a%% o& them might brea( a'art so that the rats die, 'andorin becomes an arte&act, the Congressmen ote do/n the budget, the boss irritates the Minister /ho o erru%es his counse%%ors.... 1he ;uestion &or us /ho shado/ scientists is not to "eci"e /hich one o& these %in(s is 5socia%5 and /hich one is 5scienti&ic5, the ;uestion &or us, as /e%% as &or those /e &o%%o/, is on%" this: 5/hich o& these %in(s /i%% ho%d and /hich /i%% brea( a'art?5 3ur fifth rule of method /i%% thus be the &o%%o/ing: /e shou%d be as undecided as the arious actors /e &o%%o/ as to /hat technoscience is made o&P to do so, e er" time an insideDoutside di ision is bui%t, /e shou%d &o%%o/ the t/o sides simu%taneous%", ma(ing u' a %ist, no matter ho/ %ong and heterogeneous, o& a%% those /ho do the /or(. .&ter ha ing studied ho/ a /ea( rhetoric cou%d become stronger, and then ho/ man" strong 'ositions had &irst to be obtained to ma(e this added strength re%e ant, the time has no/ come to stud" those /ho are not enro%%ing or are not enro%%ed b" scientists and engineers : that is, a%% those /ho do not 'artici'ate in the /or( o& technoscience.

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$A3 III. From Short to ,onger Net1orks

((178))

((179))

CHA$ E3 B. ribunals of 3eason

$n the &irst 'art o& this boo( /e studied ho/ to go &rom a /ea( rhetoric to a strong one, and in the second /e &o%%o/ed the scientists and engineers in their man" strategies as the" go &rom /ea( 'oints to the occu'ation o& strongho%ds. $& /e /anted to summarise the &irst &our cha'ters, /e cou%d sa" that the" sho/ed a &antastic increase in the number o& e%ements tied to the &ate o& a c%aimJ'a'ers, %aboratories, ne/ obCects, 'ro&essions, interest grou's, non: human a%%iesJso man", indeed that i& one /ished to ;uestion a &act or to b"'ass an arte&act one might be con&ronted b" so man" b%ac( bo6es that it /ou%d become an im'ossib%e tas(: the c%aim is to be borro/ed as a matter o& &act, and the machine or the instrument 'ut to use /ithout &urther ado. 2ea%it", that is /hat resists a%% e&&orts at modi&ication, has been de&ined, at %east &or the time being, and the beha iour o& some 'eo'%e has been made 'redictab%e, in certain /a"s at %east. .nother /a" o& summarising the same &our cha'ters is to sho/ the other side o& the coin: such an increase in the number o& e%ements tied to a c%aim is to be pai" for and that ma(es the 'roduction o& credib%e &acts and e&&icient arte&acts a cost%" business. 1his cost is not to be e a%uated on%" in terms o& mone", but a%so b" the number o& 'eo'%e to be enro%%ed, b" the siGe o& the %aboratories and o& the instruments, b" the number o& institutions gathering the data, b" the time s'ent to go &rom 5semina% ideas5 to /or(ab%e 'roducts, and b" the com'%ication o& mechanisms 'i%ing b%ac( bo6es onto one another. 1his means that sha'ing rea%it" in this /a" is not /ithin e er"bod"5s reach, as /e sa/ at %ength in Cha'ter ,. Since the 'roo& race is so e6'ensi e that on%" a &e/ 'eo'%e, nations, institutions or 'ro&essions are ab%e to sustain it, this means that the 'roduction o& &acts and arte&acts /i%% not occur e er"/here and &or &ree, but /i%% occur on%" at restricted '%aces at 'articu%ar times. 1his %eads to a third /a" o& summarising /hat /e ha e %earned in this boo( so &ar, a /a" that &uses together the t/o &irst as'ects: technoscience is made in re%ati e%" ne/, rare, e6'ensi e and &ragi%e '%aces that garner dis'ro'ortionate amounts o& resourcesP these '%aces ma" come to occu'" strategic 'ositions and be re%ated /ith one another. 1hus, technoscience ma" be described simu%taneous%" as a demiurgic enter'rise that mu%ti'%ies the number o&

((18>))

a%%ies and as a rare and &ragi%e achie ement that /e hear about on%" /hen a%% the other a%%ies are 'resent. $& technoscience ma" be described as being so 'o/er&u% and "et so sma%%, so concentrated and so di%ute, it means it has the characteristics o& a net1ork. 1he /ord net/or( indicates that resources are concentrated in a &e/ '%aces:the (nots and the nodes:/hich are connected /ith one another:the %in(s and the mesh: these connections trans&orm the scattered resources into a net that ma" seem to e6tend e er"/here. 1e%e'hone %ines, &or instance, are minute and &ragi%e, so minute that the" are in isib%e on a ma' and so &ragi%e that each ma" be easi%" cutP ne erthe%ess, the te%e'hone net/or( 5co ers5 the /ho%e /or%d. 1he notion o& net/or( /i%% he%' us to reconci%e the t/o contradictor" as'ects o& technoscience and to understand ho/ so &e/ 'eo'%e ma" seem to co er the /or%d. 1he tas( be&ore us in the %ast 'art o& this boo( is to e6'%ore a%% the conse;uences that this de&inition o& technoscience as a net/or( entai%s. 1he &irst ;uestion $ /i%% tac(%e concerns the 'eo'%e /ho are not 'art o& the net/or(s, /ho &a%% through the mesh o& the net. So &ar, /e ha e &o%%o/ed scientists and engineers at /or(P it is necessar" &or a /hi%e to turn our attention to/ards the mu%titudes /ho do not do science in order to e a%uate ho/ di&&icu%t it is &or scientists to enro% them. Oi en the tin" siGe o& &act 'roduction, ho/ the he%% does the rest o& humanit" dea% /ith Qrea%it"5? Since &or most o& histor" this 'ecu%iar s"stem o& con incing did not e6ist, ho/ did the human race manage &or so %ong /ithout it? Since e en in modern industria%ised societies the ast maCorit" does not get c%ose to the 'rocess o& negotiation o& &acts and arte&acts, ho/ do the" be%ie e, 'ro e and argue? Since in most enter'rises, there has been no scientist or engineer to occu'" ob%igator" 'assage 'oints, ho/ do ordinar" &o%( go about their dai%" business ;ithout science? $n short, the ;uestion /e ha e to stud" in this cha'ter is /hat is in bet;een the mesh o& the net/or(sP then, in Cha'ter - /e /i%% tac(%e the ;uestion o& ho/ the net/or(s are sustained.

$art A. he trials of rationality

%(' $eopling the 1orld 1ith irrational minds
Ho/ do the mu%titudes %e&t out o& the net/or(s see the scientists and the engineers, and ho/ do the" themse% es consider the outside o& these net/or(s? 1a(e &or e6am'%e the case o& /eather &orecasts. 9 er" da", o&ten se era% times a da", man" mi%%ions o& 'eo'%e ta%( about the /eather, ma(e 'redictions, cite 'ro erbs, ins'ect the s(". .mong them, a %arge 'ro'ortion %isten to /eather &orecasts or g%ance at sate%%ite ma's o& their countries on 1H and in ne/s'a'ersP ;uite o&ten, 'eo'%e ma(e Co(es about /eathermen /ho are, the" sa", 5a%/a"s /rong5P man" others, /hose &ate has been %in(ed earlier to that o& meteoro%ogists, an6ious%" a/ait &orecasts be&ore ta(ing decisions about seeding '%ants, &%"ing

((181))

'%anes, &ighting batt%es or going out &or 'icnics. $nside the /eather stations, running the huge data ban(s &ed /ith sate%%ite signa%s, contro%%ing the re'orts o& the man" 'art:time /eathermen scattered o er the '%anet, sending ba%%oons to 'robe the c%ouds, submitting com'uter mode%s o& the c%imate to ne/ tria%s, a &e/ thousand meteoro%ogists are bus" at /or( de&ining /hat the /eather is, has been and /i%% be. 1o the ;uestion 5/hat /i%% the /eather be tomorro/?5 "ou get, on one side, bi%%ions o& scattered commentaries and, on the other, a &e/ c%aims con&ronted /ith one another through the te%e6es o& the internationa% Meteoro%ogica% .ssociation. 4o these t/o sets o& commentaries ha e a common ground? 0ot rea%%", because, on the one hand, the &e/ c%aims o& the meteoro%ogists are utter%" %ost among bi%%ions o& Co(es, 'ro erbs, e a%uations, gut &ee%ings and readings o& subt%e c%uesP and because, on the other hand, /hen time comes to de&ine /hat the /eather has been, the bi%%ions o& other utterances about it count &or nothing. 3n%" a &e/ thousand 'eo'%e are ab%e to de&ine ;hat the /eather isP on%" their o'inions %itera%%" count /hen the ;uestion is to a%%ocate the huge &unds necessar" to run the net/or(s o& com'uters, instruments, sate%%ites, 'robes, '%anes and shi's that 'ro ide the necessar" data. 1his situation creates a rather curious ba%ance account: the /eather and its e o%ution is de&ined b" e er"one on earth and the &e/ /eathermen 'ro ide on%" a &e/ scattered o'inions among the mu%titudes o& o'inion, ta(en more serious%" in on%" sma%% sectors o& the 'ub%ic : the mi%itar", the shi' and air com'anies, agricu%tura% concerns, tourists. Ho/e er, /hen "ou 'ut a%% these o'inions in one ba%ance o& the sca%e and in the other the &e/ c%aims o& the meteoro%ogists, the ba%ance ti's on the side o& the %atter. 0o matter ho/ man" things are said about the /eather, no matter ho/ man" Co(es are made about the /eathermen, the /eather o& the /eathermen is strong enough to discount a%% the other /eathers. $& "ou as( the ;uestion 5/as it a norma% summer or an e6ce'tiona%%" hot one?5 a%though e er"one sa"s, e er"one &ee%s that it has been a hot summer, the %i ed o'inions o& the mu%titude ma" be discounted insi"e the net/or(s o& the $nternationa% Meteoro%ogica% .ssociation. Q0o,5 the" sa", Qit /as a summer on%" >.>1 degree abo e a erage.5 1he certitudes o& bi%%ions o& 'eo'%e ha e become mere opinions about the /eather /hose essence is de&ined b" the &e/ thousand meteoro%ogists. QIou believe" it /as a hot summer, but it /as really an a erage one.5 1he ba%ance o& &orces ma" be ti''ed in one direction or in another de'ending on /hether /e are inside or outside the net/or( de e%o'ed b" /eathermen. . hand&u% o& /e%%:'ositioned men o& science ma" rout bi%%ions o& others. 1his /i%% ha''en on%", ho/e er, as %ong as the" sta" insi"e their o;n net;orks, because, no matter /hat the meteoro%ogists thin( and do, e er" one o& us /i%% sti%% thin( it /as a hot summer and ma(e Co(es, the morning a&ter, about the /eather &orecasts /hich /ere 5/rong as usua%5. 1his is /here the notion o& net/or( is use&u%: meteoro%og" 5co ers5 the /or%d5s /eather and sti%% %ea es out o& its mesh a%most e er" one o& us. 1he 'rob%em &or the meteoro%ogists /i%% then be to e#ten" their net/or(s, to ma(e their 'redictions indis'utab%e, to render the 'assage through

((18)))

their /eather stations ob%igator" &or e er"one /ho /ants to (no/ the /eather. $& the" are success&u%, the" /i%% become the on%" o&&icia% mouth'iece o& the earth5s /eather, the on%" &aith&u% re'resentati es o& its agaries and e o%ution. 0o matter ho/ man" 'eo'%e are %e&t out, the" /i%% ne er be as credib%e as the /eathermen. Ho/ to obtain such a resu%t does not interest us at this 'oint J see ne6t cha'terJbecause /hat /e /ant to understand is /hat ha''ens to e er"one5s o'inion about the /eather /hen meteoro%ogists become the on%" mouth'iece o& /eather. .%% other 'redictions become, in the e"es o& the scientists, i%%egitimate c%aims about the /eather. Be&ore meteoro%og" became a science, the" sa", e er"one /as &umb%ing in the dar(, s'reading ha%&:truths about the sha'e o& c%ouds or the &%ight o& the s'arro/s, be%ie ing in a%% sorts o& absurd m"ths mi6ed u', &ortunate%", /ith a &e/ er" sound 'ractica% reci'es. . more charitab%e inter'retation is that the" cou%d not get the /ho%e 'icture and reacted on%" to %oca% and 'ro isiona% signs. 7e no/ get on the one hand beliefs about the /eather, and, on the other, kno1ledge o& this /eather. 1his is the &irst time in this boo( /e ha e 'aid an" attention to these /ords, and it is im'ortant to rea%ise /h" the" ha e arri ed so %ate, and on%" to characterise ho/ scientists inside a 'o/er&u% net/or( see the outside o& it. $n their ie/ be%ie&s are more subCecti e, that is the" te%% as much about /ho ho%ds them as about the /eather itse%&P (no/%edge, on the contrar", is obCecti e, or at %east tends to be a%/a"s more so, and te%%s us about /hat the /eather is, not about /ho the /eathermen are. 9 en i& be%ie&s ha''en sometimes to be in accordance /ith (no/%edge, this is an accident and does not ma(e them %ess subCecti e. $n the e"es o& the 'eo'%e inside the net/or(s, the on%" /a" &or someone to (no/ about c%imates and their e o%ution is to learn /hat the c%imato%ogists ha e disco ered. #eo'%e /ho sti%% ho%d be%ie&s about the c%imate are sim'%" un%earned. $n this rendering o& the non:scientists5 o'inions, a subt%e but radica% trans&ormation occurs. 7e are no %onger &aced /ith our origina% as"mmetr" bet/een the inside and the outside o& a net/or(, bet/een the access to sate%%ite ma's, data ban(s, meters and 'robes, and the access to subt%e c%ues in the garden, to &o%(%ore and to 'ro erbs. 2esources necessar" to ma(e credib%e c%aims about the /eather are s%o/%" 'ushed out o& the 'icture. $ndeed there is sti%% an as"mmetr", but it has 'rogressi e%" become o& an entire%" di&&erent nature: it is no/ an as"mmetr" bet/een 'eo'%e /ho ho%d more or %ess distorted be%ie&s about something, and 'eo'%e /ho kno; the truth o& the matter (or /i%% soon (no/ it). . 'artition is made bet/een those /ho ha e access to the nature o& the 'henomena, and those /ho, because the" ha e not %earned enough, ha e access on%" to distorted ie/s o& these 'henomena. 1he ;uestion to raise, in the e"es o& the scientists, is not the one $ started /ith: ho/ can so &e/ meteoro%ogists e6tend their net/or(s to contro% the de&inition o& /hat the /eather is, in s'ite o& the mu%titude o& contradictor" de&initions? 1he ;uestion to raise no/ is this one: ho/ is it

that there are still 'eo'%e /ho be%ie e a%% sorts o& absurdities about the /eather and its e o%ution /hen it is so eas" to %earn

((18+))

&rom us /hat the /eather rea%%" is? 7hat is sur'rising is no %onger ho/ so &e/ /e%%:e;ui''ed %aboratories ma" come to discount and dis'%ace bi%%ions o& others, but ho/ 'eo'%e ma" believe things the" cou%d kno; instead. 7hat one shou%d stud" and /hat one shou%d mar e% at is no/ dramatica%%" a%tered. Man" o& the ;uestions scientists o& arious disci'%ines raise /hen the" thin( about the outside o& their net/or(s are no/ o& a di&&erent &orm: ho/ can someone still be%ie e this? 3r ho/ can someone ha e ta(en so long to rea%ise this /as /rong? *or instance, an astronomer /i%% /onder /h" Qmodern educated .mericans sti%% be%ie e in &%"ing saucers a%though the" ob ious%" do not e6ist5. . modern sociobio%ogist /i%% be Qinterested to (no/ /h" it too( so %ong &or bio%ogists to acce't 4ar/in5s theor"5. . 's"cho%ogist /ou%d /onder Q/h" there are 'eo'%e /ho are si%%" enough to sti%% be%ie e in 'ara's"cho%og" /hich has been 'ro en /rong &or decades5. . geo%ogist /i%% be incensed b" the &act that Qin 1988 there are 'eo'%e /ho sti%% be%ie e more in 0oah5s *%ood than in geo%og"5. .n engineer /i%% /ish to recei e an e6'%anation o& Q/h" .&rican 'easants to this da" are re&using to use so%ar:'o/ered /ater 'um's /hich are so much more e&&icient and chea'5. . *rench 'h"sics teacher /i%% be ba&&%ed b" the disco er" that Qnine out o& ten o& his 'u'i%s5 'arents be%ie e the sun re o% es around the earth5. $n a%% these e6am'%es it is im'%icit%" assumed that 'eo'%e shou%d ha e gone in one direction, the on%" reasonab%e one to ta(e but, un&ortunate%", the" ha e been %ed astra" b" something, and it is this something that needs e6'%anation. 1he straight %ine the" shou%d ha e &o%%o/ed is said to be rational> the bent one that the" ha e un&ortunate%" been made to ta(e is said to be irrational) 1hese t/o adCecti es, /hich are the sta'%e o& discourse about science, ha e not been used here so &ar. 1he" a''ear on%" /hen an assum'tion is made b" scientists about /h" there are non:scientists. 1his assum'tion is 'ictured in *igure 8.1. Since /hat sur'rises scientists is ho/ 'eo'%e are 'ushed out o& the right 'ath the" shou%d ha e ta(en, the" need to e6'%ain these distortions b" a''ea%ing to s'ecia% &orces ( ertica% arro/s in the diagram). #eo'%e shou%d rea%%" ha e understood straight a/a" /hat the rea%it" is, had outside e ents not 're ented them &rom doing so. 5#reCudices5, &or instance, ma" be used to e6'%ain 5/h" .mericans sti%% be%ie e in &%"ing saucers5. 54i&&erences in cu%ture5 ma" be used to

666 &igur 8.1 start 666 *igure 8.1

9n rett %inCe (a%%es =2ationa%=. 9t st"((e 'A ei er den rette %inCen sammen&a%%ende med en t"((ere %inCe, men ed et 'un(t &or%ater den brede %inCen den rette, og tar en s ing ut ti% siden. 4enn retningen ti% siden (a%%es =$rrationa% =. !ten&or den rette %inCen &innes en re((e e(tor:'i%er som 'A ir(er den t"((e %inCen ti% A bB"e a den rette sti. 666 &igur 8.1 s%utt 666

((18,))

account &or the &act that 5.&ricans do not %i(e the use o& so%ar 'um's5. 53utright stu'idit"5 ma" ser e to e6'%ain /h" a co%%eague beha es so irrationa%%". Se6ua% or racia% di&&erences ma" be o& some use as /e%%. 5Socia% e6'%anations5 ma" a%so be mobi%ised to account &or 5the resistance o& bio%ogists to 4ar/in5s theor"5. 1he" /ere 'robab%" a&raid o& the socia% conse;uences that such a theor" might ha e in terms o& socia% unrest among nineteenth:centur" /or(ers. #s"cho%ogica% 'rob%ems are con enient to use as /e%% because 'assions ma" b%ind 'eo'%e to reason, or unconscious moti es ma" distort e en the most honest 'erson. 1he gamut o& e6'%anations that ma" be 'ro ided is e6tensi e and /e are not interested in setting u' a %ist /hich an"/a" /ou%d resemb%e a ga%%er" o& monsters. 7hat interests us in these a''ea%s to outside &orces is sim'%" that the" come on%" /hen one acce'ts the scientists5 'osition distinguishing bet/een be%ie&s and (no/%edge. B" this argument, /hat is in need o& an e6'%anation is on%" the 'art o& the %ine that %eads a/a" &rom the straight one. 1he straight 'ath itse%&, that is 5rationa% (no/%edge5, is not in need o& an" e6'%anation. 1o be sure, one might &ind some reasons /h" /eathermen (no/ e6act%" /hat the /eather is, or /h" bio%ogists &ina%%" %earned about e o%ution, or ho/ geo%ogists disco ered continenta% dri&t, but none o& these e6'%anations bears on the content o& the (no/%edgeP the" are sim'%" con"itions %eading to, or he%'ing to get at, this content. Since rationa% (no/%edgeJ the straight %ineJis about /hat the 'henomena are and not about the 'eo'%e /ho describe them, the on%" e6'%anations necessar" to account &or the 'resence o& these c%aims are the phenomena themselves (see Cha'ter ), #art C). 1his ha''" situation is not the same &or irrationa% c%aimsP the" te%% us er" %itt%e about the 'henomena and a %ot about the 'eo'%e /ho 'ersist in be%ie ing them. 1hus, s'ecia% e6'%anations are re;uired to account &or their 'ersistence. 1his is /hat 4a id B%oor ca%%s an as"mmetric e6'%anation. 1 . more as"mmetric rendering o& *igure 8.1 is made b" scientists inside their net/or(s. Since the 'henomena themse% es are the on%" e6'%anations o& rationa% (no/%edge, /hat is needed to disco er them? 2esources? .%%ies? Laboratories? $nterested grou's? 0o, because these e%ements that /e ha e studied &or &i e cha'ters and that ma(e the c%aim credib%e ha e been entire%" 'ut out o& the 'icture and no %onger ha e an" bearing on the content o& science. 7hat

is needed to &o%%o/ the right 'ath is Cust a soun" min" an" a soun" metho") 7hat is necessar", on the other hand, to account &or the distorted 'ath ta(en b" the be%ie ers? Lots o& &actors /hich can be chosen &rom among a %ong %ist inc%uding 5cu%ture5, 5race5, 5brain anoma%ies5, 5's"cho%ogica% 'henomena5 and, o& course, 5socia% &actors5. 0o/ the 'icture o& non:scientists dra/n b" scientists becomes b%ea(: a &e/ minds disco er /hat rea%it" is, /hi%e the ast maCorit" o& 'eo'%e ha e irrationa% ideas or at %east are 'risoners o& man" socia%, cu%tura% and 's"cho%ogica% &actors that ma(e them stic( obstinate%" to obso%ete 'reCudices. 1he on%" redeeming as'ect o& this 'icture is that i& it /ere on%" 'ossib%e to eliminate a%% these &actors that ho%d 'eo'%e 'risoners o& their 'reCudices, the" /ou%d a%%, immediate%" and at no cost, become as sound:minded as the scientists,

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gras'ing the 'henomena /ithout &urther ado. $n e er" one o& us there is a scientist /ho is as%ee', and /ho /i%% not /a(e u' unti% socia% and cu%tura% conditions are 'ushed asi"e) 1he 'icture o& technoscience /hich /e ha e un&o%ded so &ar has no/ entire%" disa''eared, to be re'%aced b" a /or%d 'eo'%ed /ith irrationa% minds, or /ith rationa% minds but ictims o& more 'o/er&u% masters. 1he cost o& 'roducing arguments has anished as has the 'roo& race. Seeing the 'henomena &ace to &ace does not cost a 'enn"P on%" good minds &ree &rom 'reCudice are necessar". 0othing ma(es the e6tension o& (no/%edge to e er"one on earth im'ossib%e, it is sim'%" a ;uestion o& c%earing a/a" the distorting be%ie&s. 7e ma" understand /h" unti% no/ $ ha e tried to a oid the notions o& be%ie&, (no/%edge, rationa%it" and irrationa%it". 7hene er the" are used the" tota%%" sub ert the 'icture o& science in action, and re'%ace it b" minds, 'henomena and distorting &actors. $& /e /ish to continue the stud" o& the net/or(s o& technoscience, /e must straighten u' the distorted be%ie&s and do a/a" /ith this o''osition bet/een rationa% and irrationa% ideas.

%5' 3e"ersing the out&ome of trials in irrationality

$n the %ast section, $ asserted that there /as a series o& ;uestions /e shou%d not tr" to ans/er, %i(e 5ho/ come such and such 'eo'%e be%ie e such and such a statement?5, since these ;uestions are the cons;uence o& an asymmetric treatment b" the scientists themse% es o& /hat sort o& 'eo'%e non:scientists are. 1o tr" to ans/er them has no more meaning than /ondering ho/ come a &riend o& "ours did not gi e "our mone" bac(, /hen in &act "ou did not %end him an" mone"P or e6'%aining ho/ Hermes manages to &%" his /ith sma%% /ings be&ore being certain that this god e6ists and &%iesS Nuestions about causes do not deser e an ans/er i& the e6istence o& the e&&ect is not 'ro en &irst. 1here /ou%d be no s'ecia% &actor to disco er &or ;hy 'eo'%e be%ie e irrationa% things, i& this irrationa%it" /as sim'%" a conse;uence o& %oo(ing &rom the inside o& the net/or( to its outside:a&ter ha ing brac(eted out a%% the resources necessar" &or this net/or( to e6ist, to e6tend and to be maintained. 1here is no use in ha ing a disci'%ine %i(e the socio%og" o& (no/%edge, that tries to account &or non:scienti&ic be%ie&s, i& a%%

;uestions o& irrationa%it" are mere%" artefacts 'roduced b" the '%ace &rom /hich the" are raised. 3ne /a" to a oid as"mmetr" is to consider that 5an irrationa% be%ie&5 or 5irrationa% beha iour5 is a%/a"s the resu%t o& an accusation) $nstead o& rushing to &ind biGarre e6'%anations &or sti%% more biGarre be%ie&s, /e are sim'%" going to as( /ho are the accusers, /hat are their 'roo&s, /ho are their /itnesses, ho/ is the Cur" chosen, /hat sort o& e idence is %egitimate, and so on, setting u' the com'%ete &rame o& the tribuna% in /hich the accusation o& irrationa%it" ta(es '%ace. $nstead o& 'utting the cart be&ore the horse and condemning someone /ithout due tria%, /e are going to &o%%o/ the tria% &or irrationa%it", and on%" i& a

((18-))

erdict o& gui%t" becomes una oidab%e /i%% /e %oo( &or s'ecia% reasons to account &or these be%ie&s. 1he Cur" (genera%%" sma%%) o& this tribuna% is made u' o& the en%ightened 'ub%ic o& the 7estern /or%d. Se%&:a''ointed 'rosecutors 'arade be&ore this Cur", &i%ing accusations &or brea(ing the %a/s o& rationa%it" (the straight %ines o& *igure 8.1). .t &irst, the accusations seem so terrib%e that the Cur" is incensed and is read" to condemn /ithout &urther ado.

ase $: 1here is an hereditar" ru%e in Rande societ" that states that /hene er someone is a /itch he or she transmits this characteristic to his or her o&&s'ring.) 1his shou%d create ne/ rounds o& accusations that /ou%d run do/n &ami%" trees and cou%d bring to tria% not on%" the &irst /itch, but a%so his or her sons, granddaughters, 'arents and so on. 0ot so, the anthro'o%ogist 9 ans:#ritchard noticed /ith 'uGG%ement. $nstead o& dra/ing this %ogica% conc%usion, the .Gande sim'%" consider that there are Qco%d5 /itches in the c%an J /ho are innocent and not subCect to accusationJand that the dangerous Q/arm5 /itch ma" be insu%ated &rom the rest o& the c%an. 1hus a c%ear contradiction o& the %a/s o& rationa%it" is 'resented to the Cur". 1he .Gande a''%" t/o o''osite ru%es at once: ru%e 1: /itchcra&t runs in the &ami%"P ru%e ): i& one member is accused o& being a /itch, this does not mean the rest o& his or her c%an are /itches. $nstead o& seeing this contradiction and &ighting against it, the .Gande sim'%" "o not care) 1his indi&&erence is shoc(ing enough to /arrant the accusation o& irrationa%it" made b" 9 ans:#ritchard against the .Gande. Ho/e er, together /ith the 'rosecution, he a%so enters a '%ea o& attenuating circumstances: i& the .Gande /ere to consider each member o& the /itch5s c%an as a /itch, the /ho%e c%an /ou%d be e6tir'ated, /hich /ou%d threaten the /ho%e societ". 1hus, to protect their society the" 're&er not to dra/ rationa% in&erences. 1his is i%%ogica%, sa"s the 'rosecution, but is un"erstan"able: a socia% &orce has ta(en 'recedence o er reason. 1he 'ena%t" shou%d not be too harsh, because the .Gande are not %i(e us, the" 're&er to 'rotect the stabi%it" o& their societ" instead o& beha ing rationa%%".

.s e6'ected &rom section 1, an e6'%anation has been &ound as to /h" some 'eo'%e ha e been 'ushed out o& the right 'ath. ase %: 1he 'rosecution is not so benign /ith the 1robriad $s%anders. + 0ot on%" do these tribes ha e an incredib%" com'%e6 %and tenure s"stem but the %itigation about %and that sometimes brings them to court sho/s constant breaches o& e en the most basic 'rinci'%es o& %ogic. 1heir %anguage is so inarticu%ate that it e en %ac(s s'eci&ic /ords &or %in(ing 'ro'ositions /ith one another. 1he" are unab%e to sa" things %i(e 5 i& . . . and i& . . . then . . .5. 1he" do not understand causa%it". 1he" do not e en ha e an idea o& /hat is be&ore and /hat is a&ter a gi en 'ro'osition. 1he" are not on%" i%%ogica%P not e en 're%ogica%, the" are a%together a%ogica%. 1he court 'ercei es their discussion as a chaotic ramb%ing o& disconnected statements s'iced at random /ith /ords %i(e 5there&ore=because5 and 5thus5 and mi6ed /ith meaning%ess /ords in tiresome tirades %i(e this one: 51here&ore $ came to reside in 1e"a a and sa/ m" sister at a di&&erent eranda. $ had

((187))

/or(ed hard /ith them, &or our mother. But because m" sister had no one, $ said to m"se%&, =3h, this is not good. $ /i%% do a bit o& (ai atam o& course.= #eo'%e o& 1u(/au(/a $ eat "our e6crement, com'ared to "our gardens the one $ made &or her /as so sma%%. $ met her needs, so to s'ea(. $ he%d 7a/a/a. $ he%d <a'/a%e%amauna, /here toda" $ garden Boda/i"a5s sma%% "ams. $ he%d B/esa(au. $ he%d <u%ubo(u5 (Hutchins 198>, '-9.) *erreting out attenuating circumstances &or the 1robrianders is a ho'e%ess tas(, and so is the search &or the socia% &orces that cou%d e6'%ain such a disorder%" state o& mind. . staunch 'ena%t" shou%d be sought &or these 'eo'%e /ho shou%d be cut o&& &rom the rest o& rationa% humanit", and im'risoned &or %i&e in their is%ands, un%ess the" entire%" recant their errors and start to %earn serious%" ho/ to thin( and to beha e. ase /: 1he ne6t case is much %ess dramatic, but sti%% sho/s a brea( a/a" &rom the right 'ath o& reason. $n the 187>s 9%isha Ora" /as hot on the hee%s o& .%e6ander Oraham Be%% in the in ention o& the te%e'hone, e6ce't that Ora" /as 'ursuing a mu%ti'%e6 t"'e o& te%egra'h and not the te%e'hone., Ora" a%most disco ered the te%e'hone man" times o er in his career but e er" time he started dra&ting a 'atent &or it, his more serious concern &or te%egra'h" %ed him astra". *or him as /e%% as &or Be%%5s &ather, &ather:in:%a/ and &inancia% su''orters, the te%egra'h /as the techno%og" o& the &uture, /hereas the te%e'hone /as at /orst a 5(id5s game5 and at best 5a scienti&ic curio5. . &e/ hours a&ter Be%% had 'resented his 'atent in 187-, Ora" de'osed a 're%iminar" 'atent ca%%ed a 5ca eat5. 9 en at this time, he did not thin( o& serious%" &ighting in court to contest Be%%5s 'riorit". 9 en /hen Be%% o&&ered his 'atents &or sa%e &or U1>>,>>> the managers and ad isers o& the 7estern !nion Jamong /hom Ora" /as the most 'rominent J dec%ared the" /ere not interested. 1he" decided to mount a %ega% batt%e

against Be%%5s 'atent e%e en "ears %ater /hen, in 1877, e er"one in the 7estern !nion rea%ised, a bit %ate, that the te%e'hone had a &uture and that this &uture /ou%d a%/a"s hamstring 7estern !nion5s de e%o'ment. Ora" c%ear%" missed the boat and %ost his tria%s in court against Be%%5s 'riorit", as /e%% as those in histor" against Be%%5s /isdom. 1he 'rosecution is not /ithout an e6'%anation &or this. Ora", the" sa", /as an e6'ert in te%egra'h", one o& the directors o& 7estern !nion and a /e%%:(no/n in entor. Be%%, on the other hand, /as er" much an outsider and he /as a com'%ete amateur to the &ie%d since his Cob /as to re:educate dea& and dumb 'eo'%e. Be%% sa/ the right 'ath /ithout being b%inded b" 'reCudice, /hereas Ora", /ho cou%d ha e &o%%o/ed the same 'ath and a%most did in ent the te%e'hone, had been %ed astra" b" the /eight o& his ested interests. 1he &ina% erdict is not o& irrationa%it", but o& %ac( o& o'enness J outsiders, as is /e%% (no/n, are better than e6'erts at inno ation. 1he 'ena%t", a%though %ight at &irst, is hea " in the %ong term: e er"one remembers Be%%5s name, but er" &e/ ha e heard o& 9%isha Ora", /ho had the 5disad antage o& being an e6'ert5. Stories such are these are constant%" to%d and reto%d, 'assed a%ong, embroidered /ith man" more detai%s, ma(ing 'eo'%e %augh or rear u' indignant%". $rrationa%it" seems to be e er"/here, in sa age minds, in chi%dren5s

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minds, in the 'o'u%ar be%ie&s o& the %o/er c%asses, in the 'ast o& scienti&ic or technica% disci'%ines, or in the strange beha iour o& co%%eagues in other disci'%ines /ho missed the boat and /ere %ed astra". 7hen these stories are to%d, it rea%%" seems that the erdict o& irrationa%it" is /ithout room &or a''ea% and that the on%" ;uestion is /hat 'ena%t" shou%d be gi en, de'ending on an" attenuating circumstances. $t is er" eas", ho/e er, to reverse such an outcome b" o&&ering cases &or the de&ence. ase for the "efence $: 1here is, in our modern societies, a er" strong %a/ that &orbids 'eo'%e to (i%% one another. #eo'%e /ho brea( this %a/ are ca%%ed Qmurderers5. 1here is a%so a not:so: in&re;uent 'ractice that consists o& dro''ing bombs on 'eo'%e /ho are "our enemies. 1he 'i%ots o& these aircra&t shou%d there&ore be ca%%ed Qmurderers5 and brought to tria%. 0ot so, a Rande anthro'o%ogist sent to 9ng%and notices, /ith some 'uGG%ement. $nstead o& dra/ing this %ogica% conc%usion, the 9ng%ish sim'%" considers that these 'i%ots are Qmurderers in the %ine o& dut"5 J the" are innocent and not brought to tria%J and that the other Q/i%&u% murderers5 are dangerous and shou%d be tried and im'risoned. 1hus, a c%ear case o& irrationa%it" is 'resented to the same Cur" /ho had to decide on the Rande5s %ac( o& Cudgement. *rom the 'oint o& ie/ o& the .&rican anthro'o%ogist, the 9ng%ish a''%" t/o ru%es at onceP ru%e 1: (i%%ing 'eo'%e is murderP ru%e ): (i%%ing 'eo'%e is not murder. $nstead o& seeing this contradiction and tr"ing to so% e it, the 9ng%ish sim'%" "o not care) 1his scanda%ous indi&&erence o&&ers a c%ear ground to /arrant a tria% &or irrationa%it" ca%%ed Q2eason ersus the 9ng%ish 'eo'%e5. 1o be sure, attenuating circumstances ma" be &ound &or such irrationa%it". $& 'i%ots /ere brought to court,

it /ou%d be the destruction o& mi%itar" authorit", /hich /ou%d threaten the /ho%e &abric o& 9ng%ish societ". 1hus, to protect their social institutions, 9ng%ish 'eo'%e 're&er not to dra/ %ogica% in&erences. Here again, socia% reasons are brought in to e6'%ain /h" such beha iour is not in con&ormit" /ith the %a/s o& %ogic. B" 'ro'osing a stor" bui%t /ith e6act%" the same structure as that o& the 'rosecution but symmetric to it, the de&ence re erses the c%ear:cut im'ression o& irrationa%it". 0o/, it is the Cur" /ho is /ondering /hether the 9ng%ish are not as irrationa% as the .Gande or, at %east, as indi&&erent to %ogic because the" 're&er 'rotecting their cherished socia% institutions. ase for the "efence %: 1he de&ender, 9d/in Hutchins, rises on beha%& o& the 1robriand $s%anders and o&&ers a commentar" on the 5ramb%ing tirade5 so derided b" the 'rosecution. Motabesi '%eads be&ore the tribuna% his right to cu%ti ate a garden he does not o/n. His sister o/ns a garden but she has no one to cu%ti ate it. 1hus, it is ;uite res'onsib%e &or Motabesi to ta(e on her gardening. 4oes Motabesi rea%%" 5eat the e6crement5 o& the 1u(/au(/a 'eo'%e? 4oes he rea%%" ma(e such a sma%% garden? 0o, but it is 'o%ite to/ards the 'eo'%e /ho are hearing his case to underrate himse%& and his o/n garden. 1his is /hat is ca%%ed in court rhetoric 5ca'tatio bene o%entiae5. 1hen Motabesi states his rights to a%% the gardens he has been gi en. 1he garden

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/hich is the centre o& dis'ute is ca%%ed 5<u%ubo(u5. 3ne o& them named 5<a'/a%e%eamauna5 has been gi en to him b" the same %ad", $%a/o(u a, /ho o/ns the garden that is in dis'ute. 1his is not a strong in&erence, and the %itigant does not c%aim it is so, but it is a good 'oint on his beha%&. 4oes Motabesi ta%( irrationa%%"? 0o, he sim'%" states a set o& connected conditions in su''ort o& his case. 1his is ;uite reasonab%e, gi en the e6treme com'%e6it" o& the %and tenure s"stem /hich is un/ritten and has no %ess than &i e di&&erent degrees o& /hat /e 7esterners sim'%" ca%% 5o/nershi'5. (.da'ted &rom Hutchins, 198>, '.7,). $n the tribuna% o& rationa%it", the de&ender has modi&ied the Cur"5s o'inion about the a%ogica% nature o& the 1robrianders5 minds, b" a""ing the conte#t o& the discussion and the %and tenure s"stem on /hich the reasoning a''%ies to the recorded tas(. .s soon as this is 'ut bac( into the 'icture, a%% the cogniti e abi%ities denied b" the 'rosecution are bac( a%so. 1robrianders manage in court %i(e /e do, but the" ha e a di&&erent %and tenure s"stem and the" ta%( in a %anguage un&ami%iar to us. $t is as sim'%e as that. 0othing er" e6traordinar", and certain%" there are no grounds here &or accusing an"one o& irrationa%it", and sti%% %ess &or condemning or 'ro'osing 'ena%ties. ase for the "efence /: 1he stor" o& Be%%, the outsider amateur /ho outstri's Ora", the estab%ished e6'ert, is mo ing and touching, but has been interru'ted too soon, the de&ender

sa"s. 7ere /e to continue the stor", a com'%ete%" di&&erent outcome /ou%d be re ea%ed. 7e /ou%d ha e hard%" heard o& Be%% i&, in 1881, the nascent Be%% Com'an" had not bought the 7estern 9%ectric com'an" and made it its e6c%usi e manu&acturer &or a%% its te%e'hone hard/are, thus ma(ing a standardisation o& the te%e'hone net/or( 'ossib%e at %ast. But /ho /as the &ounder o& the 7estern 9%ectric Com'an"? Ora" himse%&, /ho made numerous other in entions o& te%e'hone and e%ectric e;ui'ment. Moreo er Be%%, the imaginati e outsider, soon had to %ea e his o/n com'an" to be re'%aced b" a great man" specialise" e#perts in e%ectricit", 'h"sics, mathematics, management and ban(ing. $& not, the Be%% Com'an" /ou%d ha e disa''eared in the Cung%e o& the more than ->>> te%e'hone com'anies that /ere mi6ing u' their cab%es and %ines a%% o er .merica at the turn o& the centur". 1he amateur trium'hed once, but %ost out. 1hus, i& one /ishes to e6'%ain /h" Ora" missed the te%e'hone and Be%% got it in 187-, it is &air enough to e6'%ain a%so /h" Be%% missed the de e%o'ment o& his o/n com'an" ten "ears %ater and /as 'ushed aside gent%" but &irm%" b" e6'erts. 1he same b%indness to the %ogic o& the 'hone s"stem and its s'read ma" not be used &or /h" Be%% /on and a%so &or /h" he e entua%%" %ost. $t is certain%" im'ossib%e to use the 5/e%%:(no/n su'eriorit" o& outsiders in inno ation5 since this &actor /ou%d ha e to be used 'ositi e%" in 187- and negati e%" ten "ears %ater, the same cause e6'%aining simu%taneous%" the acce%eration and the dece%eration o& the Be%% Com'an"S $t is e;ua%%" im'ossib%e to e6'%ain, b" the same attachment to tradition and ested interest, /h" Ora" missed the te%e'hone and /h" he succeeded in ma(ing the 7estern 9%ectric Com'an" so instrumenta% in the de e%o'ment o& the te%e'hone. Here again the

((19>))

same 5cause5 /ou%d ha e to be used a%ternati e%" to e6'%ain the resistance to inno ation and its acce%eration... . 1he Cur" has re ersed its erdict against Ora", sim'%" because the de&ender %et the stor" go on a bit %onger, sho/ing ho/ each &actor used to 5e6'%ain5 a distortion &rom the right 'ath o& reason /as %ater used to 5e6'%ain5 its o''osite. 1his suggests that it is the /ho%e business o& &inding 5causes &or distortions5 that is &ata%%" &%a/ed.

$nstead o& %oo(ing &or e6'%anations as to /h" 'eo'%e ho%d strange be%ie&s, the &irst thing to do, /hen to%d one o& these man" stories about someone e%se5s irrationa%it", it to try to reverse their outcome) 1his is a%/a"s &easib%e b" at %east one o& these means: (1)1e%% another stor" bui%t around the same structure, but one that a''%ies instead to the society of the story teller (shi&ting &or instance &rom the 9ng%ish anthro'o%ogist in .&rica to the .&rican anthro'o%ogist in 9ng%and).

())2ete%% the same stor" but in o(e the conte#t e er" time there seems to be a ho%e in the reasoning and sho/ /hat sort o& un&ami%iar to'ics the reasoning a''%ies to (add &or instance to the 1robrianders5 rhetoric their com'%e6 %and tenure s"stem). (+)2ete%% the same stor" but &rame it di&&erent%" b" %etting it go on %onger. 1his re&raming usua%%" renders most o& the 5e6'%anations5 unusab%e because, gi en the right time sca%e, these e6'%anations are o&&ered &or contrar" e6am'%es as /e%%. (,)1e%% another stor" in /hich the ru%es o& %ogic are bro(en as /e%%, but this stor" is not about be%ie&s but about (no/%edge he%d b" the stor" te%%er. 1he audience then rea%ises that their Cudgement /as not based on the brea(ing o& the ru%es, but on the strangeness o& the be%ie&s. 7hen an" o& these tric(s is em'%o"ed, or combined together, the accusation o& irrationa%it" is re ersed. 1here seems to be no case in /hich an articu%ate %a/"er cannot con ince the Cur" that the others are not so much i%%ogica% as sim'%" "istant &rom us.

%8' Straightening up distorted beliefs

1he tas( o& the Cur" /hich has to hear the tria%s &or irrationa%it" becomes rather di&&icu%t. .t &irst sight, each case /as c%ear:cut since there seemed to be no di&&icu%t" in tracing a "ivi"e bet/een be%ie& on the right hand and (no/%edge on the %e&tP no di&&icu%t" either in '%acing derogator" adCecti es on the right:hand side J such as 5irrationa%, gu%%ib%e, 'reCudiced, absurd, distorted, b%inded, c%osed5, etc. J and %audator" ones on the otherJ %i(e 5rationa%, sce'tica%, 'rinci'%ed, credib%e, straight&or/ard, %ogica%, o'en:minded5, and so on. .t the end o& the &irst round o& '%eading, there seemed to be no 'rob%em in de&ining science b" one set o& these adCecti es and non:science b" another set. B" adding to the adCecti es ad erbs %i(e 5'ure%"5, 5com'%ete%"5, 5strict%"5, 5utter%"5, 5tota%%"5, the di ide is

((191))

stressed sti%% more. 3nce the de&endants ha e ta%(ed bac(, ho/e er, the c%ear:cut di ide becomes increasing%" &uGG". 9ach o& the adCecti es &rom one side Cum's bac( to the other side o& the di ide. 1a(e the adCecti e 5sce'tic5. .t &irst it nice%" de&ines, &or e6am'%e, Fean Bodin5s care&u% '%ea &or a''%"ing good methodo%og" in science and %ega% matters.8 $& "ou %et the stor" go on, ho/e er, "ou read that Bodin5s sce'tism is a''%ied to those /ho "oubt /itchcra&t, so that, in the end, &ree en;uir" in science is &or Bodin a /a" o& de&initi e%" proving the e6istence o& /itchcra&t against sce'tics. 4escartes, on the other hand, one o& the &ounders o& scienti&ic method, is c%ear%" against a%% be%ie&s that cannot resist /hat he ca%%s Qmethodic doubt5, be%ie& in /itchcra&t being one o& them. Ho/e er, e en 4escartes does not sta" er" %ong on the right side o& the di ide, because he obstinate%" &i%%s s'ace u' /ith the ortices and denies an" &orm

o& action at a distance (%i(e gra itation), this running direct%" contrar" to 0e/ton, /hose em't" s'ace and unmediated gra itation he regards /ith the same horror as be%ie& in /itchcra&t and Qoccu%t ;ua%ities5. So ma"be, a&ter a%%, /e ha e to consider that 0e/ton and on%" 0e/ton is on the right side o& the di ide, a%% the others be&ore him ha ing %i ed in the dar(ness o& non:science. But this is im'ossib%e as /e%%, because 0e/ton is derided b" continenta% scientists as a reactionar" /ho /ants to 'ut m"sterious attraction bac( into the 'icture and /ho %ac(s the most basic 'rinci'%es o& scienti&ic method, that is a sce'tica% and un'reCudiced mind. Besides, 0e/ton be%ie es in a%chem" at the er" time /hen he /rites the (rincipia Mathematica) - 1he on%" /a" to sto' adCecti es Cum'ing random%" &rom one side o& the di ide to the other /ou%d be to be%ie e that on%" this year5s scientists are right, sce'tica%, %ogica%, etc., thus as(ing the Cur" to be%ie e those /ho '%ead last) But this /ou%d be ;uite an i%%ogica% be%ie& since, ne6t "ear, ne/ scientists /i%% ha e come a%ong /ho, again, /i%% ha e to re'rimand their 'redecessors &or ha ing been un&aith&u% to the ru%es o& scienti&ic methodS 1he on%" %ogica% conc%usion o& such an i%%ogica% be%ie& being that e entua%%" no one on earth is durab%" rationa%. 1he Cur" is b" no/ in a state o& des'air. $& "ou get c%e er enough %a/"ers there is no absurd e'isode in the histor" o& re%igion, science, techno%og" or 'o%itics that cannot sound as %ogica% and understandab%e as an" other on the good side o& the di ide, and, con erse%", no sound one that cannot be made to %oo( as biGarre as the /orst e'isode on the bad side o& the di ide. Besides the &our rhetorica% tric(s seen in section ), it ma" sim'%" be a ;uestion o& choosing the right ad erbs and adCecti es. Bodin, &or instance, is considered as an obscurantist, /ho &anatica%%" be%ie ed in /itchcra&t out o& 'ure 'reCudice: the 'roo& that o%d /omen /ere indeed /itches /as &or him that the" admitted to be so and con&essed in /riting their &%"ing to SabbathsP such 5'roo&5 /as obtained under torture and in contradiction to the most basic scienti&ic 'rinci'%es since it meant these o%d /omen5s bodies /ere simu%taneous%" %"ing on their %itter and dancing /ith the de i%P a sim'%e %oo( at these /omen as%ee' /ou%d ha e con inced Bodin o& the absurdit" o& his 'reCudices. Oa%i%eo, on the other hand, courageous%" reCecting the shac(%es o& authorit", arri ed at his mathematica% %a/ o& &a%%ing bodies on

((19)))

'ure%" scienti&ic grounds, 'utting aside the so:ca%%ed 5'roo&s5 o& .ristote%ian 'h"sicists, and deduced b" theor" /hat his e6'eriments sho/ed im'er&ect%", thus re ersing e er"thing the Church be%ie ed about the ma(e:u' o& the uni erse. C%ear%", Bodin is to be '%aced on the dar(er side o& the di ide and Oa%i%eo on the more en%ightened one. But /hat ha''ens i& /e re erse the ad erbs and the adCecti es? Bodin, &or instance, becomes a courageous cham'ion o& the &aith, /ho deduced the e6istence o& /itchcra&t on 'ure%" theoretica% groundsP he care&u%%" e6tra'o%ated &rom the arious e6'eriences undergone b" /itches5 bodies under torture, resisting their man" de i%ish tric(s to a oid con&ession, and disco ering a ne/ scienti&ic 'rinci'%e according to /hich bodies ma" simu%taneous%" &%" and be at rest on their %itters. 3n the other hand, Oa%i%eo Oa%i%ei, a &anatic &e%%o/ tra e%%er o& 'rotestants, deduces

&rom abstract mathematics an utter%" unscienti&ic %a/ o& &a%%ing bodies that entai%s the absurd conse;uence that a%% bodies, /hate er their nature, &a%% to/ards the ground at the same s'eedP a sim'%e %oo( at dai%" e6'erience /ou%d ha e con inced Oa%i%eo o& the absurdit" o& his 'reCudice, but he he%d to it obstinate%" and b%ind%" against the age:o%d authorit" o& common sense, e6'erience, science and Church teachingsS 7ho is no/ on the dar( side o& the di ide, and /ho is on the en%ightened one? 7hich one o& the readers, sitting on the 2oman $n;uisition, /ou%d ha e %et Oa%i%eo go and /ou%d ha e 'ut Bodin under house arrest? 1here are on%" t/o /a"s to get out o& this situation. 3ne is to use derogator" and %audator" adCecti es and their accom'an"ing ad erbs /hene er it suits "ou. 5Strict%" %ogica%5, 5tota%%" absurd5, 5'ure%" rationa%5, 5com'%ete%" ine&&icient5, thus become compliments or curses) 1he" do not sa" an"thing an" more on the nature o& the c%aims being so cursed or com'%imented. 1he" sim'%" he%' 'eo'%e to &urther their arguments as s/ear /ords he%' /or(men to 'ush a hea " %oad, or as /ar cries he%' (arate &ighters intimidate their o''onents. 1his is the /a" in /hich most 'eo'%e em'%o" these notions. 1he second /a" is to recognise that these adCecti es are so unre%iab%e that the" ma(e no "ifference to the nature o& the c%aim, each side o& the di ide being as rationa% and as irrationa% as the other. Ho/ can /e do a/a" /ith a distinction /hich is so c%ear:cut and so &uGG" at the same time, bet/een rationa% and irrationa% minds? Sim'%" b" retracing our ste's. 2emember that it /as on%" in the &irst section o& this cha'ter that /e in ented the notion o& irrationa% minds, b" treating di&&erent%" /hat /as inside the scienti&ic net/or( and /hat /as outside. 1his in ention /as de'icted in *igure 8.1 b" &irst su''osing a straight %ineP then, by comparison /ith this %ine, /e noticed a bend out o& the right 'ath o& reasonP &ina%%", in order to e6'%ain this bend that in our o'inion shou%d not ha e occurred, /e %oo(ed &or s'ecia% &actors and, in conse;uence, /ere dragged to this tribuna% o& reason /here /e got embroi%ed in the so'histr" o& %a/"ers. 1his succession o& e ents a%% de'ended on one origina% mo e on%": the tracing of a straight line in *igure 8.1. $& /e erase it, the /ho%e con&using and unre/arding debate around rationa%it" and irrationa%it" is 'hased out. Let us go bac( to the &irst case and its rebutta%. 1he 9ng%ish anthro'o%ogist

((19+))

argued that the .Gande /ere &aced /ith a contradiction and a oided it in order to 'rotect the 'eace o& the societ". 1o this, the Rande anthro'o%ogist re'%ied that the 9ng%ish /ere a%so ignoring contradictions /hen maintaining simu%taneous%" that the (i%%ing o& 'eo'%e is murder and that 'i%ots /ho dro' bombs are not murderers. $n *igure 8.) $ ha e dra/n the t/o cases on each side o& a di iding %ine. 1he t/o straight dotted %ines are traced b" the t/o anthro'o%ogists /ho both o&&er a" hoc socia% &actors to e6'%ain the distorted be%ie&s o& the other societ". . '%ane o& s"mmetr" di ides the 'icture. .ccording to this image each o& the t/o cases is as i%%ogica% as the other 7.

666 &igur 8.) start 666 *igure 8.) *iguren er b"gget o'' s"mmetris( rundt en midt:a(se. 4ermed har &iguren to de%er, som s'ei%er h erandre.

4e% 1: 9ng%ish anthro'o%ogist in the .Gande: 4et er tre bob%er med te(st: 1.1 .ntro'o%ogens obers asCon: 7hen there is a sorcerer in a c%an, a%% the c%an is /itch 1.) .ntro'o%ogens %ogis(e s%utning: .%% c%an members are /itches 1.+ .ntro'o%ogen obser erer en se% motsige%se: co%d and /arm /itches

4e% ): .Gande anthro'o%ogist in 9ng%and: ).1 .ntro'o%ogens obers asCon: <i%%ing is murder ).). .ntro'o%ogens %ogis(e s%utning: .%% 'i%ots are murderers ).+ .ntro'o%ogen obser erer en se% motsige%se: Murderers on dut" and crimina%s

$ Begge mode%%ene er det en t"(( 'i% som iser antro'o%ogens s%utning &ra den &Brste obser asConen, ti% at den siste obser asConen t"der 'A se% motsige%se. #i%a &ra obser asCon (1.1 e%%er ).1), gAr ia antro'o%ogens s%utning (1.) e%%er ).)). 4enne t"((e 'i%en (resonnementet) 'reger a%tsA h ordan antro'o%ogen o''&atter &orho%det me%%om &Brste og andre obser asCon. 4et siste &orho%det er mar(ert med en s a(ere sti'%et 'i% dire(te me%%om 1,1 og 1.+P me%%om ).1 og ).+ 666 &igur 8.) s%utt 666

1here is, ho/e er, a maCor b%under committed b" the Rande anthro'o%ogist about our 7estern cu%ture. He made the su''osition that /hen /e a''%" the ru%e 5(i%%ing 'eo'%e is murder5 /e implicitly inc%ude the situation o& /ar in the notion o& Q(i%%ing 'eo'%e5. 1hen, /hen /e re&used to sa" so e#plicitly, the anthro'o%ogist trium'hant%" argued that /e /ere unab%e to reason %ogica%%". But this is not so, because our notion o& murder never implie" the situation o& /ar : e6ce't in er" rare cases %i(e those o& the 0uremberg tria%s, /hich sho/ed ho/ di&&icu%t it is

to tr" so%diers /ho QCust obe"ed orders5. So, /e cannot be accused o& re&using to dra/ a %ogica% conc%usion, i& the 'remisses o& the reasoning are in the anthro'o%ogist5s head and not in ours. $t is not our &au%t i& the anthro'o%ogist does not understand the meaning o& the /ord Qmurder5, and is not &ami%iar /ith its de&inition in the 7est. 7hat is /rong in the right side o& *igure 8.) is not our Qdistorted be%ie&5, it is, on the contrar", the dotted %ine traced b" the Rande anthro'o%ogist. $& /e &ee% this to be true &or us, /e are bound to sus'ect that it is the same on the

((19,))

other side o& the '%ane o& s"mmetr". 1he chances are that the .Gande ne er inc%uded the 'ossibi%it" o& contaminating the entire c%an in the de&inition o& the transmission o& /itchcra&t. Here a%so, the &au%t is not /ith the .Gande /ho &ai%ed to understand %ogic, but /ith 9 ans: #ritchard /ho &ai%ed to understand the de&inition o& Rande /itchcra&t. 8 1he accusation %aunched b" both the anthro'o%ogists about the other5s cu%tures rebounds on them: each is un&ami%iar /ith the cu%ture the" stud". . breach in %ogic that /ho%e societies are accused o& ha ing committed has been re'%aced b" a %ac( o& &ami%iarit" on the 'art o& a &e/ iso%ated anthro'o%ogists sent to a &oreign %and. .&ter a%%, this is much more reasonab%e. $t is %ess sur'rising to su''ose that ignorance made t/o anthro'o%ogists distort others5 be%ie&s than to su''ose a /ho%e societ" bere&t o& reason. 7hat sha'e /i%% *igure 8.) ta(e i& /e rub out the anthro'o%ogists5 mista(e?

666 &igur 8.+ start 666 *igure 8.+ *iguren %i(ner &igur 8.) (&orrige side). Begge er b"gget o'' s"mmetris( rundt en midt:a(se. 4ermed har bAde &igur 8.) og 8.+ to de%er, som s'ei%er h erandre.

4e% 1: 9ng%ish anthro'o%ogist in the .Gande: 4et er tre bob%er med te(st: 1.1 .ntro'o%ogens obers asCon: 7hen there is a sorcerer in a c%an, a%% the c%an is /itch 1.) .ntro'o%ogens %ogis(e s%utning: 1om (ategori

1.+ .ntro'o%ogen obser erer en se% motsige%se: co%d and /arm /itches

4e% ): .Gande anthro'o%ogist in 9ng%and: ).1 .ntro'o%ogens obers asCon: <i%%ing is murder ).). .ntro'o%ogens %ogis(e s%utning: 1om (ategori ).+ .ntro'o%ogen obser erer en se% motsige%se: Murderers on dut" and crimina%s

Siden antro'o%ogens %ogis(e s%utning i dette ti%&e%%et er en tom (ategori, sA to%(er i((e antro'o%ogen &orho%det me%%om obser asConene (hh . 1.1 og 1.+P ).1 og ).+) i %"s a sin egen %ogis(e s%utning. $ dette ti%&e%%et er det der&or 'i%a som &orbinder obser asConene som er t"((, mens 'i%a ia antro'o%ogens egne resonnementer er t"nn og sti'%et. 666 &igur 8.+ s%utt 666

The "istorte" beliefs have no; been straightene" up) 1he straight dotted %ines in ented b" the anthro'o%ogists, out o& ignorance, ha e been crossed out and so has the 5%ac( o& %ogic5, the 5accusation o& irrationa%it"5 and the 5socia% &actors5 that e6'%ained the cur es. 7hen the .Gande de&ine the contamination o& the /itch the" de&ine 5co%d5 and 5/arm5 /itches. 7hen /e de&ine murder, /e distinguish (i%%ing 5on dut"5 and (i%%ing 5on 'ur'ose5. #eriod. 0o one is i%%ogica% in thisP the de&inition o& a /ord or o& a 'ractice has been traced, that is a%%. 0ot the s%ightest grounds &or an accusation o& irrationa%it" has been 'ro ided here. 1he same straightening u' ma" be made &or each o& the cases /e ha e heard so &ar. 7hat di&&erence is there bet/een the 1robrianders5 %ogic and ours (see the

((198))

second case and its rebutta%)? 0one, but their %ega% s"stem is di&&erent and their %and tenure s"stem is &oreign to us. 7hat di&&erence is there bet/een Ora"5s and Be%%5s mind (see the third case)? 0one, but the" are not interested in the same arti&actP one &urthers the te%egra'h, the other the te%e'hone. 7hat di&&erence ma" be &ound bet/een the methodo%ogies o& Bodin and Oa%i%eo? #robab%" none, each in o% ing e%aborate 5%aborator" conditions5, but the" do not be%ie e the same thing and do not tie the same e%ements together. Cogniti e abi%ities, methods,

adCecti es and ad erbs do not ma(e a di&&erence among be%ie&s and (no/%edge, because e er"one on earth is as %ogica% or as i%%ogica% as an" one e%se. 1he tribuna% dec%ares itse%& to be un;ua%i&ied to tr" the case and decides to &ree a%% the 'eo'%e it has arrested. 96it the Cudges, the Cur", the /itnesses, and the 'o%ice. 9 er"one is innocent o& the crime o& irrationa%it", or, more e6act%", no one can be proven gui%t" o& such a crime. .&ter ha ing 'eo'%ed the /or%d /ith irrationa% minds because /e nai e%" /ondered /h" there /ere so man" 'eo'%e /ho /ere not scientists, /e no/ understand that it /as our /ondering that created the 'rob%em. $nstead o& %i ing in a /or%d made o& straight dotted %ines that 'eo'%e rare%" &o%%o/, and o& distorted 'aths the" most o&ten ta(e because the" are carried a/a" b" 'reCudices and 'assions, /e %i e in a logical enough ;orl") #eo'%e mind their business and get a%ong... .

$art B. So&iologi&s
1he %a/"ers /ho ha''en to be articu%ate, courageous and c%e er enough to con ince the tribuna% (a) that a%% cases o& 'atent irrationa%it" ha e a %ot o& attenuating circumstances, (b) that most cases o& rationa% beha iour mani&est signs o& 'atent irrationa%it", and (c) that the tribuna% is un;ua%i&ied and shou%d be disbanded because there is no &orma% code o& %a/s that cou%d 'ro ide a basis &or their erdict, are ca%%ed re%ati ists as o''osed to the 'rosecutors /ho are ca%%ed rationa%ists. 9 9 er" time a charge o& irrationa%it" is &i%ed, re%ati ists argue that it is on%" an a''earance that de'ends on the Cur"5s re%ati e point of ie/:hence their name : and the" o&&er a ne/ 'ers'ecti e &rom /hich the reasoning a''ears straight&or/ard. 1heir 'osition is ca%%ed s"mmetric and is c%ear%" di&&erent &rom the as"mmetric 'rinci'%e o& e6'%anation : see abo e : that %oo(ed &or socia% &actors to 5e6'%ain5 the /andering &rom the right 'ath. 2e%ati ists he%' us understand /hat &a%%s through the meshes o& the scienti&ic net/or( and a%%o/ us to resume our Courne" /ithout being dragged into tria%s &or irrationa%it".

%(' 3unning against other people4s &laims

1he 'rob%em /ith these re%ati ists is that, i& the" /ere right, /e /ou%d ha e to sto' tra e%%ing here, bas(ing in the contem'%ation o& e er"one5s innocence. .ctua%%", /e cou%d e en thro/ this /ho%e boo( on a bon&ire together /ith the

((19-))

hea " &i%es o& the tribuna% 'roceedings. 7h"? Because &or &our cha'ters /e ha e &o%%o/ed scientists at /or( /ho stri e to ma(e their c%aims more cre"ible than those o& others. So i& this enormous /or( ma(es no di&&erence the" ha e /asted their time, $ ha e /asted m" time,

the readers ha e /asted their time. $n ta(ing the as"mmetric stand, it is true that the tin" siGe o& scienti&ic net/or(s /as ignored, since science and techno%og" /ere su''osed to e6tend e er"/here at no cost, %ea ing aside on%" shoc(ing 'oc(ets o& irrationa%it" that had to be mo''ed u' /ith better education and sounder methodo%og". But in the s"mmetric stand it is the er" e6istence o& the scienti&ic net/or(, o& its resources, o& its abi%it" to sometimes ti' the ba%ance o& &orces, that is utter%" ignored. $t is not because meteoro%ogists un&air%" accuse bi%%ions o& 'eo'%e o& c%inging to distorted be%ie&s about the /eather (see #art ., section 1) that /e ha e to den" that, /hen the time comes to te%% the /eather, on%" a &e/ thousand 'eo'%e succee" in dis'%acing bi%%ions o& o'inions. 1he s"mmetric stand ma" be more s"m'athetic and a''ear &airer, but &or us it is as dangerous as the as"mmetric one o& #art ., since in both cases the er" nature o& technoscience is negated. $t is made either too big or too sma%%, too success&u% or too unsuccess&u%. 1o be sure, it is the 'ro&essiona% dut" o& %a/"ers to be%ie e in the innocence o& their c%ients and to con ince the Cur" o& it, but %a/"ers ma(e u' on%" a sma%% 'art o& the s"stem o& Custice. 7e shou%d not be%ie e the re%ati ists an" more than /e be%ie e that no crime has been committed because some good %a/"er has obtained the re%ease o& his or her c%ients. .n"/a", a%% %a/"ers, a%% re%ati ists, a%% scientists and engineers, are &ighting end%ess%" to create an as"mmetr" bet/een c%aims, an as"mmetr" no one can re erse easi%". 1his is the basis o& the %a/"er5s rhetoric. 7e ha e %earned &rom #art ., than(s to the re%ati ists5 '%ea, that this as"mmetr" shou%d not be accounted &or b" 'utting be%ie& (or irrationa%it") on one side and (no/%edge (or rationa%it") on the other. But, sti%%, the 'rob%em o& accounting &or the as"mmetr" remains intact. $& it is no %onger the 'resence or the absence o& &orma% ru%es o& %ogic that ma(es the di&&erence, then /hat is it? 4en"ing that di&&erences are created /ou%d be as meaning%ess as sa"ing 5$ /i%% ne er sa" no5. 1o sum u', the 'ositi e as'ect o& re%ati ism is that, as &ar as forms are concerned, no as"mmetr" bet/een 'eo'%e5s reasoning can be recognised. 1heir dismissa% o& the charges a%/a"s has the same 'attern: 5Cust because "ou do not share the be%ie&s o& someone "ou shou%d not ma(e the a""itional supposition that he or she is more gu%%ib%e than "ou.5 Sti%%, /hat has to be e6'%ained is /h" /e do not a%% share the same be%ie&s. 1he accusation has shi&ted &rom &orm to content. $n a /e%%:(no/n stud" o& unschoo%ed &armers carried out in the So iet !nion, Luria tested their abi%it" to gras' sim'%e s"%%ogisms %i(e this: 1> 5$n the &ar north a%% bears are /hiteP 0o a"a Rem"%a is in the &ar north. 7hat co%our are the bears there?5 5$ don5t (no/. Iou shou%d as( the 'eo'%e /ho ha e been there and seen them,5 /as a t"'ica% ans/er. $& /e /ere sti%% in #art ., /e /ou%d see this as a c%ear &ai%ure to gras' the %ogica% nature o& the tas(. 1his &armer is unab%e to abstract and to dra/ conse;uences

((197))

&rom 'remises (/hich in %ogic is ca%%ed the mo"us ponensH) Ho/e er, the stud" /as re'%icated b" Co%e and Scribner in Liberia and the" re ersed Luria5s erdict b" em'%o"ing t/o o& the tactics $ ha e 'resented at the end o& #art .: the" %et the stor" go on %onger and added the conte6t. $mmediate%", &armers /ho had &ai%ed simi%ar tests e6'%ained their reasoning, b" arguing, &or instance, that to (no/ the co%our o& something the" /ou%d ha e to see it, and that to see something the" /ou%d ha e to be there /ith the anima%. Since the" /ere not there and cou%d not see the anima%, the" cou%d not te%% the ans/er. 1his chain o& reasoning in o% es /hat, in %ogic, is ca%% a mo"us tollen"o tollens (reasoning &rom the conse;uent) that is su''osed to be more di&&icu%t to hand%e than the other one (reasoning &rom the antecedent)S 1here are sti%% di&&erences bet/een /hat /as e6'ected &rom the test and /hat the &armers did, but the" are not to be &ound in the form o& the %ogic used. Co%e and Scribner argue that these &armers ha e not been to schoo% and that this indeed ma(es a big di&&erence because most schoo%ing is based on the abi%it" to ans/er ;uestions unre%ated to an" conte6t outside the schoo% room. Q0ot thin(ing about the same things5 is not e;ui a%ent to Qnot being %ogica%5. $n this e6am'%e the di&&erences to be %oo(ed &or ha e shi&ted &rom the &orm o& the c%aims J Qabi%it" to dra/ s"%%ogisms5 J to their contents J Qnumber o& "ears at schoo%5. 1he &armers cannot be accused o& being i%%ogica%J the" use the high%" com'%e6 mo"us tollen"o tollens E but the" can be accused o& not using %ogic %earned in schoo%P in short the" can be accused o& not ha ing gone to schoo%. Iou cannot accuse me o& being i%%ogica%, but "ou can be%ong to another grou' and /ish me out o& "our /a". *rom ;uestions about 5minds5 and 5&orms5 /e ha e no/ mo ed to ;uestions o& c%ashes bet/een 'eo'%e %i ing in di&&erent /or%ds. 3ne &eature o& a%% the e'isodes $ ha e studied is 'ut bac( into %ight: a%% the accusations /ere triggered o&& e er" time the 'aths o& the accusers and those o& the accused intersecte") 0o/ /e can see ho/ to %ea e re%ati ists to their 'ro&essiona% duties as de&ence %a/"ers, and continue on our /a" to simu%taneous%" understanding /hat the scienti&ic net:/or(s ca'ture in their meshes and /hat esca'es them. 1he /eather &orecasts o er a /ho%e region entai% continuous c%ashes /ith %oca% 'eo'%e /ho /ant 'redictions about %oca% /eather. Hence the reci'roca% accusations bet/een meteoro%ogists and %oca% 'eo'%e (#art ., section 1). 1he t/o anthro'o%ogists J see the &irst case and its rebutta% J /ere tra ersing &oreign cu%tures and /ere addressing their tra e% diaries to their co%%eagues at home in order to sett%e im'ortant debates about rationa%it". 1he 1robriander %itigants /ere engaged in a strugg%e to reco er o/nershi' o& their gardensP their debates /ere ta'ed and studied b" Hutchins, a Ca%i&ornian cogniti e anthro'o%ogist, /ho /anted to go bac( home /ith a #h4 thesis that /ou%d change the o'inions /hich anthro'o%ogists ha e about sa age minds J see the second case and its rebutta%. Ora" and Be%% /ere e6tending di&&erent net/or(s that /ere in com'etition /ith each other, and their stor" /as to%d b" historians o& techno%og" /ho /ere not interested in e6tending the te%egra'h or the te%e'hone, but /ho /ished to re&ute arguments about ho/ inno ations are &a oured or &oresta%%ed b" socia% &actors (case +).

((198))

.s $ stressed in #art ., none o& these e'isodes cou%d demonstrate an"thing irre&utab%e about the rationa%it" or the irrationa%it" o& the human mind. Ho/e er, the" a%% sho/ that there are man" dis'utes about the /eather &orecasts, the o/nershi' o& gardens, the success o& 'ro'hecies, the nature o& %ogic, the su'eriorit" o& te%egra'h o er te%e'hone. 1hese dis'utes occur inside scienti&ic 'ro&essions (meteoro%ogists, anthro'o%ogists, historians, socio%ogists)P the" occur outside o& them (about gardens, storms, etc.)P the" occur at the intersections o& the t/o sets (anthro'o%ogists and 5sa ages5, 'easants and meteoro%ogists, engineers and historians o& techno%og", etc.). 1he e6am'%es a%so sho/ that sometimes some o& these dis'utes are sett%ed &or a %ong /hi%e: Motabasi got his garden bac(, 9 ans:#ritchard5s de&inition o& .Gande /itchcra&t remained uncha%%enged &or decades, Hutchins got his #h4, Be%% became the e'on"m o& Ma Be%%.... 7e ha e no/ shi&ted &rom debates about reason to dis'utes about /hat the /or%d o& di&&erent 'eo'%e is made o&P ho/ the" can achie e their goa%sP /hat stands in their /a"P /hich resources ma" be brought in to c%ear their /a". $n e&&ect, /e are bac( to the beginning o& Cha'ter 1: /hat can be tied to a c%aim to ma(e it stronger? Ho/ can the c%aims that contradict it be untied? 0o one is accusing an"one e%se o& irrationa%it", but /e are sti%% strugg%ing to %i e in di&&erent /or%ds.

%5' 6hat is tied to 1hat@

7e cannot sa" an"thing about reason or %ogic, but /hene er /e run against other 'eo'%e5s c%aims, /e rea%ise that other things are tied to them and /e 'ut these %in(s to the test. Let us ta(e three canonic e6am'%es o& con&%icts o er classification /hen 'eo'%e tr" to ans/er di&&erent%" the ;uestion o& /hat e%ement 'ertains to /hich set.

lassification $: . mother is /a%(ing in the countr"side /ith her daughter. 1he %itt%e gir% ca%%s 5&%i&%i5 an"thing that darts a/a" er" ra'id%" and disa''ears &rom ie/. . 'igeon is thus a 5&%i&%i5 but so is a hare &%eeing in 'anic, or e en her ba%% /hen someone (ic(s it hard /ithout her seeing it. Loo(ing do/n in a 'ond the %itt%e gir% notices a gudgeon that is s/imming a/a" and she sa"s 5&%i&%i5. 50o5 the mother sa"s 5that is not a =&%i&%i=, that is a &ishP there is a =&%i&%i= o er there5, and she 'oints to a s'arro/ ta(ing o&&. Mother and daughter are at the intersection o& t/o chains o& associations: one that ties a ba%%, a hare , a 'igeon, a gudgeon to the /ord 5&%i&%i5P the other one that distinguishes a erb 5&%ee5 that cou%d indeed a''%" to se era% instances abo e Jbut not to the ba%% Jand a noun 5bird5 that /ou%d a''%" on%" to the 'igeon and the s'arro/. 1he mother, not being a re%ati ist, does not hesitate to name 5incorrect5 her daughter5s usage o& the /ord 5&%i&%i5. 5$t is one or the other,5 she sa"s, 5either a erb or a noun.=*%i&%i5 reca%%s a set o& instances that are not usua%%" associated in the mother5s %anguage. 1he gir% has to reshu&&%e

((199))

the instances gathered so &ar under the /ord 5&%i&%i5, under the ne/ headings 5bird5, 5&ish5, 5ba%%5 and 5to &%ee5. lassification %: 1he <aram o& 0e/ Ouinea ca%% Q(obti"5 an anima% /hich is neither a 5"a(t5, a Q(a"n5, a 5(aC5, nor an" o& the other names the" ha e &or anima%s.11 1his anima%, a%% b" itse%& in this categor", is a strange beast. $t %i es /i%d in the &orest, it is a bi'ed, it has &ur but it %a"s eggs, it has a hea " s(u%%. 7hen hunted, its b%ood shou%d not be shed. $t is the sister and the cross:cousin o& the <aram /ho hunt it. 7hat is it? 1his enumeration sounds %i(e a ridd%e to the anthro'o%ogist 2a%'h Bu%mer, /ho intersects /ith the <aram cu%ture &or a /hi%e. He himse%& ca%%s this anima% a Qcasso/ar"5 and since it %a"s eggs, is a bi'ed and 'ossesses /ings, Bu%mer '%aces it among the birds a%though it has no &eathers, does not &%" and is er" %arge. $n a t"'ica%%" as"mmetric &ashion, Bu%mer %oo(s &or e6'%anations as to /h" the <aram 'ut casso/aries a'art &rom birds, /hen the" rea%%" are birds. 3nce /e erase this un&air accusation, ho/e er, /hat /e see here are t/o ta6onomies in con&%ict: one made b" the <aram, the other made b" the 0e/ Rea%anderP one that is ca%%ed ethnota6onom" or ethnoGoo%og" because it is 'ecu%iar to the <aram, the other is ca%%ed sim'%" ta6onom" or Goo%og" that is 'ecu%iar to a%% the natura%ists insi"e the net/or(s in /hich their co%%ections are gathered and named.1) Bu%mer has ne er hunted the casso/ar", nor is he running the ris( o& mating /ith his cross:cousinJas %ong at %east as he sta"s in 0e/ Ouinea. 1his is not the case /ith the <aram. 1he" are er" interested in this big game and er" concerned /ith incest. 1hus, Bu%mer stic(s to his ta6onom" (the casso/ar" is a bird) and to his research 'rogramme (e6'%aining to co%%eagues /h" &or the <aram a casso/ar" is not a bird)P the <aram a%so stic( to their ta6onom" (a (obit" cannot be a "a(t, that5s a%%) and their hunting and marriage habits (the /i%derness is dangerous, so is incest). .ssociations made bet/een instances o& birds are as so%id as the t/o /or%ds to /hich Bu%mer and the <aram are tied: the .nthro'o%og" .ssociation, the Courna% Man and .uc(%and !ni ersit" in 0e/ Rea%and on the one handP the u''er <airon( Ha%%e" in the Schrader Mountains o& 0e/ Ouinea on the other. lassification /: 3strom, a /e%%:(no/n 'a%eonto%ogist, /onders /hether ArchNoptery#, one o& the most &amous &ossi%s, is or is not a bird. 1+ 1o be sure, it had &eathers, but did it &%"? 1he 'rob%em /ith e o% ing &rom re'ti%es to birds is in the %ong intermediar" stage /here the anima% needs to de e%o' &eathers, /ings, &%ight musc%es and sternum, /hereas none o& these &eatures is use&u% before it &%iesJthis is ca%%ed 'reada'tation. 7hat cou%d be the use o& /ings and &eathers &or an anima% %i(e Archaeoptery# that /as, according to 'a%eonto%ogists, utter%" unab%e to &%" or e en to &%a' and /hich, i& it had g%ided, /ou%d ha e crashed a&ter a &e/ metres? 3strom has an ans/er but it is a ;uite radica% one because it means a reshu&&%ing o& %arge 'arts o& &ossi% ta6onom" and a rethin(ing o& the 'h"sio%og" o& the &amous dinosaurs. $& "ou ta(e &eathers offArchNoptery# it %oo(s e er" bit %i(e a sma%% dinosaur and not at a%% %i(e a bird. But sti%% it has &eathers. 7hat &or? 3strom5s ans/er is that it is to 'rotect this tin" anima% &rom %osing too much heat. But dinosaurs are co%d:b%ooded so a thic( 'rotection /ou%d (i%% them because

(()>>))

the" cou%d not ta(e u' heat &ast enough &rom the outsideS 0ot so, sa"s 3strom, dinosaurs are ;arm!bloo"e" creatures and ArchNoptery# is the best 'roo& o& that. *eathers are not there &or &%"ing but &or 'rotecting a /arm:b%ooded dinosaur &rom heat %oss, a%%o/ing it to remain er" tin". Since ArchNoptery# is not a bird, but is a tin" &eathered dinosaur that is on%" 'reada'ted to &%ight, this 'ro es that dinosaurs are /arm:b%ooded. $t is no %onger necessar" to search &or bird ancestr" among the (tero"actyls or the crocodi%es. $t is among the dinosaurs that birds shou%d be '%acedS 1/o other 'a%eonto%ogists, in a %etter to Nature, e en suggested doing a/a" /ith the c%ass o& bird a%together. 1here are no/ mamma%s and dinosaurs, o& /hich %atter c%ass the birds are %i ing re'resentati esS 1he s'arro/ is a &%"ing dinosaur, not a birdP ArchNoptery# is a terrestria% dinosaur, not a bird. $n the midst o& the contro ers" bet/een 'a%eonto%ogists o er dinosaurian 'h"sio%og", the &ossi% &eathers are made to occu'" a crucia% 'osition. 1he" ma" a%%o/ the cham'ions o& co%d:b%ooded dinosaurs to 'ush ArchNoptery# into the trees and into the c%ass o& birds, or the cham'ions o& /arm:b%ooded dinosaurs to do a/a" /ith the birds and to (ee' ArchNoptery# on the ground.

$n the e6am'%es abo e, each con&%ict about /hat is associated to /hat traces /hat the /or%d o& the other 'eo'%e is made o&. 7e do not ha e on the one hand 5(no/%edge5 and on the other 5societ"5. 7e ha e man" tria%s o& strength through /hich are re ea%ed /hich %in( is so%id and /hich one is /ea(. 1he chi%d in the &irst stor" abo e does not (no/ in ad ance ho/ strong%" her mother c%ings to the de&inition o& 5bird5 and o& 5to &%ee5. She tries to create a categor" that mi6es e er"thing that darts a/a", and she &ai%s e er" time, con&ronted b" her mother /ho brea(s do/n this categor". 1he %itt%e gir% is %earning /hat a 'art o& her mother5s /or%d is made o&P s'arro/s, ba%%s and gudgeons cannot a%% be 5&%i&%i5P this cannot be negotiated. 1he choice &or the daughter is then to gi e u' her categor" or to %i e in a /or%d made o& at %east one e%ement di&&erent &rom that o& her mother. Ho%ding to 5&%i&%i5 does not %ead to the same %i&e as ho%ding to 5birds5 and 5to &%ee5. 1he gir% thus %earns 'art o& the %anguage structure b" tr"ing out /hat her mother ho%ds to. More e6act%", /hat /e ca%% 5structure5 is the sha'e that is s%o/%" traced b" the gir%5s tria%s: this 'oint is negotiab%e, this is not, this is tied to this other one, and so on. 3ne sure e%ement o& this structure is that 5&%i&%i5 has not got a chance o& sur i ing i& the gir% is to %i e /ith 9ng%ish:s'ea(ing 'eo'%e. Bu%mer, in the second stor", is doing e6act%" the same thing as the %itt%e gir%. He is %earning both the <aram5s %anguage and societ" b" testing the strength o& the associations that ma(e it im'ossib%e &or the <aram to ta(e the casso/ar" &or a bird. 4o the" mind i& Bu%mer sa"s it is a bird? Ies, the" seem to mind a %ot. 1he" thro/ u' their hands in disgust. 1he" sa" it is absurd. $& Bu%mer insists, man" arguments are brought in as to /h" it cannot be a birdP the casso/ar" cannot be hunted /ith arro/s, it is a cross:cousin, it %i es in the /i%derness . . .. 1he more Bu%mer 'robes, the more e%ements are brought in b" his in&ormants that 're ent the (obti" &rom being a "a(t. .t the end Bu%mer rea%ises that the choice &or him is

(()>1))

either to abandon his association o& casso/ar" /ith birds or to sta" &or e er outside the <aram5s societ". $n 'ractice, /hat he %earned through these tria%s is 'art o& the sha'e o& the <aram5s culture) More e6act%", /hat /e ca%% 5cu%ture5 is the set o& e%ements that a''ear to be tied together /hen, and on%" /hen, /e tr" to den" a c%aim or to sha(e an association. Bu%mer did not (no/ in ad ance ho/ strong the reasons /ere that made (obti" stand a'art &rom a%% the birds J es'ecia%%" because other 0e/ Ouinea tribes /ere 'utting it in the categor" o& birds %i(e a%% 7estern ta6onomists. But he s%o/%" %earned that so much /as attached to this anima% b" the <aram that the" cou%d not change their ta6onom" /ithout a maCor u'hea a% o& their /a"s o& %i&e. 7hen 3strom, in the third stor", 'ur'orts to /ea(en the %in(ages bet/een ArchNoptery# and the %i ing birds he does not (no/ in ad ance ho/ man" e%ements his o''onents are going to bring in to rescue this most &amous o& e o%utionar" %ines &rom being bro(en o&&. 1he more he tries to sho/ that it is in &act a /arm:b%ooded dinosaur /ith a 'rotecti e coat, the more absurd it seems to the others. . maCor u'hea a% o& 'a%eonto%og", o& ta6onom", o& the organisation o& the 'ro&ession, /ou%d be necessar" &or his argument to be acce'ted. 3strom is then con&ronted /ith a choice: either to gi e u' his argument or not to belong to the profession o& 'a%eonto%ogist an" more J a third 'ossibi%it" is to rede&ine /hat it is to be a 'a%eonto%ogist so that his argument /i%% be 'art o& it. $n 'ractice, 3strom5s tria%s trace the %imit o& a 'aradigm, that is the set o& e%ements that ha e to be modi&ied &or some association to be bro(en a/a" or &or some ne/ one to be estab%ished. 3strom does not (no/ in ad ance /hat sha'e the 'aradigm has. But he is %earning it through 'robing /hat ho%ds tight%" and /hat gi es /a" easi%", /hat is negotiab%e and /hat is not. 7hat are o&ten ca%%ed 5structure o& %anguage5, 5ta6onom"5, 5cu%ture5, 5'aradigm5 or 5societ"5 can a%% be used to de&ine one another: these are some o& the /ords used to summarise the set o& e%ements that a''ear to be tied to a c%aim that is in dis'ute. 1hese terms a%/a"s ha e a er" ague de&inition because it is on%" ;hen there is a dis'ute, as long as it lasts, and "epen"ing on the strength e6erted b" dissenters that /ords such as Qcu%ture5, Q'aradigm5 or Qsociet"5 ma" recei e a 'recise meaning. 0either the %itt%e gir%, nor Bu%mer, nor 3strom /ou%d ha e re ea%ed 'art o& the s"stems o& associations o& the others had the" not dissented or come &rom the outside, and been con&ronted b" a choice about /hich grou' to be%ong to or /hich /or%d to %i e in. $n other /ords, no one %i es in a Qcu%ture5, shares a Q'aradigm5, or be%ongs to a Qsociet"5 before he or she c%ashes /ith others. 1he emergence o& these /ords is one conse;uence o& bui%ding %onger net/or(s and o& crossing other 'eo'%e5s 'ath. $& /e are no %onger interested in adding to the man" %itt%e c%ashes bet/een be%ie&s, in estab%ishing an" grandiose dichotom"J chi%d ersus adu%t, 'rimiti e ersus ci i%ised, 'rescienti&ic ersus scienti&ic, o%d theor" ersus re o%utionar" theor"Jthen /hat is %e&t to us in order to account &or the man" %itt%e di&&erences bet/een chains o& associations? 3n%" this:

the number o& 'oints %in(ed, the strength and %ength o& the %in(age, the nature o& the obstac%es. 9ach o& these

(()>)))

chains is logical, that is, it goes &rom one 'oint to the other, but some chains do not associate as man" e%ements or do not %ead to the same dis'%acements. $n e&&ect, /e ha e mo ed &rom ;uestions about logic Gis it a straight or a distorted 'ath?) to socio%ogies (is it a /ea(er or a stronger association?).

%8' Mapping the asso&iations

7e ha e seen ho/ to be &ree &rom the be%ie& in the irrationa%it" o& certain c%aims (#art .), and a%so &rom the s"mmetric be%ie& that a%% c%aims are e;ua%%" credib%e (sections 1 and )). 7e can go on &o%%o/ing 'eo'%e stri ing to ma(e their c%aims more credib%e than others. 7hi%e doing so they map for us an" for themselves the chains of associations that make up their sociologics) 1he main characteristic o& these chains is to be un'redictab%eJ &or the obser er J because the" are tota%%" heterogeneous J according to the obser er5s o/n c%assi&ication. Bu%mer 'ursues /hat he thin(s is a 'ure%" ta6onomic ;uestion and he is dragged into an obscure stor" about cross:cousins. 3strom tac(%es /hat is &or him sim'%" a ;uestion o& 'a%eonto%og", and he is %ed into a huge 'aradigm shi&t that renders his reinter'retation o& ArchNoptery# di&&icu%t. Ho/ are /e to stud" these un'redictab%e and heterogeneous associations that are re ea%ed b" the gro/ing intensit" o& the contro ersies? Certain%" not b" di iding them into Q(no/%edge5 and Qconte6t5, or b" c%assi&"ing them into Q'rimiti e5 or Qmodern5 ones, or b" ran(ing them &rom the Qmore reasonab%e5 ones to the Qmost absurd5. .%% actions %i(e Qdi iding5, Qc%assi&"ing5 or Qran(ing5 do not do Custice to the un'redictab%e and heterogeneous nature o& the associations. 1he on%" thing /e can do is to &o%%o/ /hate er is tied to the c%aims. 1o sim'%i&", /e can stud": (a) ho/ causes and e&&ects are attributed, (b) /hat 'oints are %in(ed to /hich other, (c) /hat siGe and strength these %in(s ha e, (d) /ho the most %egitimate s'o(es'ersons are, (e) and ho/ a%% these e%ements are modi&ied during the contro ers". $ ca%% socio%ogics the ans/er to these ;uestions. Let me ta(e three ne/ e6am'%es o& /hat $ /i%% ca%% 5&ree association5 J &ree, that is, &rom the obser er5s 'oint o& ie/.

<ree association $: on Christmas 9 e o& 197- in the Ba" o& St Brieuc in Brittan", dee' do/n in the /ater thousands o& sca%%o's /ere bruta%%" dredged b" &ishermen /ho cou%d not resist the tem'tation o& sac(ing the reser e oceanogra'hers had 'ut aside. 1, *rench gastronomes are &ond o& sca%%o's, es'ecia%%" at Christmas. *ishermen %i(e sca%%o's too, es'ecia%%" cora%%ed ones, that a%%o/ them to earn a %i ing simi%ar to that o& a uni ersit" 'ro&essor (si6 months5 /or( and good 'a"). Star&ish %i(e sca%%o's /ith e;ua% greed, /hich is not to the %i(ing o& the others. 1hree %itt%e scientists sent to the St Brieuc Ba" to create some (no/%edge about sca%%o's %o e sca%%o's, do not %i(e star&ish and ha e mi6ed &ee%ings about &ishermen. 1hreatened b" their institution, their oceanogra'her co%%eagues /ho

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thin( the" are si%%" and the &ishermen /ho see them as a threat, the three %itt%e scientists are s%o/%" 'ushed out o& the Ba" and sent bac( to their o&&ices in Brest. 7hom the" shou%d a%%" themse% es /ith to resist being rendered use%ess? 2idicu%ed b" scientists, in com'etition /ith star&ish, standing bet/een greed" consumers and ne/ &ishermen arri ing constant%" &or d/ind%ing stoc(s, (no/ing nothing o& the anima% the" started to catch on%" recent%", the &ishermen are s%o/%" 'ut out o& business. 1o /hom shou%d the" turn to resist? 1hreatened b" star&ish and &ishermen, ignored &or "ears b" oceanogra'hers /ho do not e en (no/ i& the" are ab%e to mo e or not, the anima% is s%o/%" disa''earing &rom the Ba". 7hom shou%d the sca%%o's5 %ar ae tie themse% es to so as to resist their enemies? .ns/er to these three ;uestions: the Fa'anese scientists. Ies, it is in Fa'an that the three scientists sa/ /ith their o/n e"es sca%%o' %ar ae tie themse% es to co%%ectors and gro/ b" the thousands in a semi:'rotected she%ter. So here the" are bringing the idea o& a co%%ector bac( /ith them and tr"ing it in the St Brieuc Ba". But /i%% the Breton %ar ae be interested b" the co%%ectors as much as the Fa'anese ones? .re the" o& the same s'ecies? *rai% %in(s, indeed, those that tie the &ate o& science, &isheries, sca%%o's, star&ish and Fa'an to that o& the St Brieuc Ba". Besides, co%%ectors are e6'ensi e, so co%%eagues and high o&&icia%s shou%d be con inced in order to gi e mone" &or ne/ co%%ectors made o& a%% sorts o& materia%s that /i%% e entua%%" be to the %i(ing o& the %ar ae. But /hen the scientists ha e con inced the administration, and /hen %ar ae start to thri e on their co%%ectors, &ishermen cannot resist the tem'tation o& a miracu%ous catch and the" &ish the scientists5 sca%%o'sS So ne/ meetings ha e to be organised, ne/ negotiations to be started not /ith the %ar ae this time, but /ith the &ishermen. 7ho s'ea(s in their name? 1he" ha e a &e/ re'resentati es, but /ithout much 'o/er. 1he er" s'o(esmen /ho agreed to %et the scientists /or( /ere the &irst to dredge the reser e on Christmas 9 e 197-S <ree association %: in Fune 197, se era% o& us /ere at a 'art" gi en in honour o& the doctora% thesis o& Marc .ugM, a *rench anthro'o%ogist, b" his main in&ormant, Boni&ace, on the

.%%adian %ittora% o& the $ or" Coast. 18 7e ate and dran( under stra/ huts %oo(ing at the ocean, /ithout s/imming in it because Boni&ace had /arned us that the underto/ /as too dangerous. 3ne o& our &riends, s%ight%" drun(, /ent to s/im in s'ite o& the /arning. Soon he /as dragged a/a" b" the sur&. .%% o& us, b%ac(s and /hites, %oo(ed he%'%ess%" at him. Boni&ace, an o%d man &ee%ing res'onsib%e &or his guests, /ent to the sea /ith other, "ounger &riends. Man" minutes %ater the sur& brought our &riend bac( to the beach, but &or %ong hours /e /atched Boni&ace5s bod" bobbing in the /a es. .%% the i%%age assemb%ed, his &ami%" c%an, screaming and "e%%ing but 'o/er%ess. $ &e%t res'onsib%e as a /hite and hated m" &riend, this other /hite man, /ho had caused the tragic dro/ning o& our host. $ a%so &eared that the i%%agers, sharing the same co%%ecti e inter'retation, /ou%d turn against us and mob us. $ c%ung 'rotecti e%" to m" %itt%e daughter. 0o one %oo(ed at us or threatened us in an" /a", ho/e er. 1he e%ders o& the i%%age /anted sim'%" to (no/ ;ho had caused Boni&ace5s death and started a er" care&u% en;uir". .t no time did the" e en thin( o& us. 1he

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res'onsibi%it" had to be some/here in Boni&ace5s %ineage. 7hen, %ater that night, the sea de'osited the cor'se on the beach, a cor'se interrogation too( '%ace to /hich Marc .ugM /as /itness. Man" inter'retations about his death /ere tried out through %ong discussions that re ie/ed Boni&ace5s debts, i%%ness, 'ro'erties, c%an and biogra'h", unti% it /as c%ear to a%% that one o& Boni&ace5s aunts had caused the death. She /as the /ea( %in( in these %ong chains that tied Boni&ace to his &ate, and m" &riend /ho had not obe"ed his host5s /arning had, %itera%%", nothing to do /ith his death. $ had distributed causes and e&&ects, attributed shame, gui%t and res'onsibi%it", de&ined %in(s bet/een the 'eo'%e assemb%ed on the beach, but the e%ders gathered around the /a ering cor'se had made an entire%" di&&erent distribution, attribution and de&inition. .s much an6iet", hate and anger, as much sce'ticism, scrutin" and be%ie& circu%ated through the t/o net/or(s, but the %ines /ere not dra/n in bet/een the same 'oints. <ree association /: /ho (i%%s the ,>,>>> 'eo'%e or so /ho die each "ear in car accidents in the !nited States? 1he cars? 1he road s"stem? 1he 4e'artment o& the $nterior? 0o, drun( dri ing. 1- 7ho is res'onsib%e &or this e6cess o& a%coho%? 1he /ine merchants? 1he /his(" manu&acturers? 1he 4e'artment o& Hea%th? 1he .ssociation o& Bar 3/ners? 0o, the indi idua% /ho drin(s too much. .mong a%% the 'ossibi%ities on%" one is socio%ogica%%" sustained: indi idua%s /ho drin( too much are the cause o& most tra&&ic accidents. 1his causa% %in( is a 'remise, or a b%ac( bo6 &or a%% &urther reasonings in the matter. 3nce this is sett%ed, there is contro ers" a&ter/ards as to /h" the indi idua% dri ers drin( too much. .re the" sick 'eo'%e that shou%d be cured and sent to a hos'ita%, or criminals that shou%d be 'unished and sent to 'rison? 1his de'ends on /hat de&inition o& &ree /i%% is gi en, on ho/ the &unctioning o& the brain is inter'reted, on /hat &orce is granted to the %a/. 3&&icia% s'o(es'ersons &rom socio%og" de'artments in uni ersities, &rom o%untar" associations, &rom the %ega% 'ro&essions, &rom societies o& 'h"sio%ogists, ta(e 'ositions and obtain &igures 'ro ing the &irst or the second 'ossibi%it". $n de&ence o& their 'ositions the" mobi%ise statistics, church teachings,

common sense, re'entant drin(ing dri ers, 'rinci'%es o& %a/, or brain neuro%og", an"thing that ma(es the c%aim such that i& an o''onent denies it, then the" ha e to tac(%e its com'%e6 su''orts as /e%%. .s to the %in( bet/een indi idua% drin(ing and tra&&ic io%ations, since no one dis'utes it, it is as straight and as necessar" as the .%%adians5 attribution o& Boni&ace5s death to someone o& his %ineage.

1he 'oint $ /ant to ma(e /ith these 5&ree associations5 is that the" are in no /a" %imited to certain (inds o& 'eo'%eJ that /ou%d %imit anthro'o%og" to 5sa age minds5, to certain 'eriods J that /ou%d %imit anthro'o%og" to the stud" o& our :'astJ or to certain (inds o& associations J that /ou%d %imit anthro'o%og" to the stud" o& /or%d: ie/s or o& ideo%og". 1he same ;uestions about causes, e&&ects, %in(s and s'o(es'ersons ma" be raised e er"/here, thus o'ening an un%imited &ie%d o& stud" &or anthro'o%og" that can inc%ude Bu%mer and his casso/ar", the <aram and their (obti", 3strom and his &%"ing dinosaurs, Boni&ace5s 'arents and

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their c%an, the sca%%o' %ar ae and their scientists, Ora" and Be%% and their net/or(s, drin(ing dri ers and their brains %oaded /ith gui%t and a%coho%, Motabasi and his garden, Hutchins and his %ogica% 1robrianders. 7e do not ha e to ma(e an" assum'tion about distorted /or%d: ie/s, nor do /e ha e to assume that a%% these associations are e;ua%, since the" stri e so much to tie heterogeneous e%ements together and to become une;ua%. *rom the obser er5s 'oint o& ie/ none o& these 'eo'%e e er thin( either i%%ogica%%" or %ogica%%", but a%/a"s socio%ogica%%"P that is the" go straight &rom e%ements to e%ements unti% a contro ers" starts. 7hen this ha''ens the" %oo( &or stronger and more resistant a%%ies, and in order to do so, the" ma" end u' mobi%ising the most heterogeneous and distant e%ements, thus ma''ing &or themse% es, &or their o''onents, and &or the obser ers, /hat the" a%ue most, /hat the" are most dear%" attached to. 57here th" treasure is, there /i%% th" heart be a%so5 (Lu(e, 1),+,). 1he main di&&icu%t" in ma''ing the s"stem o& heterogeneous associations is in not ma(ing an" additiona% assum'tion about ho/ real the" are. 1his does not mean that the" are &ictitious but sim'%" that the" resist certain tria%sJ and that other tria%s cou%d brea( them a'art. . meta'hor /ou%d he%' at this 'oint to gi e the obser er enough &reedom to ma' the associations /ithout distorting them into 5good5 ones and 5bad5 ones: socio%ogies are much %i(e road ma'sP a%% 'aths go to some '%ace, no matter i& the" are trai%s, trac(s, high/a"s or &ree/a"s, but the" do not a%% go to the same '%ace, do not carr" the same tra&&ic, do not cost the same 'rice to o'en and to maintain. 1o ca%% a c%aim 5absurd5 or (no/%edge 5accurate5 has no more meaning than to ca%% a smugg%er trai% 5i%%ogica%5 and a &ree/a" 5%ogica%5. 1he on%" things /e /ant to (no/ about these socio%ogica% 'ath/a"s is /here the" %ead to, ho/ man" 'eo'%e

go a%ong them /ith /hat sort o& ehic%es, and ho/ eas" the" are to tra e%P not i& the" are /rong or right.

$art C. 6ho Needs Hard Fa&ts@

$n #art . /e introduced s"mmetr" bet/een c%aims b" distributing ;ua%ities e;ua%%" among a%% the actorsJo'enness, accurac", %ogic, rationa%it"Jand de&ectsJ such as c%osure, &uGGiness, absurdit", irrationa%it". 1hen, in #art B, /e sho/ed that this e;ua% distribution did not sto' an" o& the actors, /hen the" dissented, &rom accusing some others o& being 5gross%" mista(en5, 5inaccurate5, 5absurd5, and so on. 1o be sure, these accusations no %onger to%d an"thing about the form o& the c%aims /hich /ere attac(ed J since e er"one is b" no/ as %ogica% as e er"one e%seJ but the" ne erthe%ess re ea%ed b" degrees the content o& di&&erent associations c%ashing /ith one another. $n other /ords, a%% this business about rationa%it" and irrationa%it" is the resu%t o& an attac( b" someone on associations that stand in the /a". 1he" re ea% the e6tent o& a net/or( and the con&%ict bet/een /hat /i%% sta" inside and /hat /i%%

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&a%% through its mesh. 1he im'ortant conse;uence is the same as that /e dre/ at the end o& Cha'ter ) about the end o& contro ersies: it is no use being re%ati ist about c%aims /hich are not attac(edP nature ta%(s straight /ithout an" inter&erence or bias, e6act%" %i(e /ater &%o/s regu%ar%" through a s"stem o& thousands o& 'i'es, i& there is no ga' bet/een them. 1his resu%t ma" be e6tended to a%% c%aims: i& the" are not attac(ed, 'eo'%e (no/ e6act%" /hat nature isP the" are obCecti eP the" te%% the truthP the" do not %i e in a societ" or in a cu%ture that cou%d in&%uence their gras' o& things, the" sim'%" grasp things in themse% esP their s'o(es'ersons are not Qinter'reting5 'henomena, nature ta%(s through them direct%". $nso&ar as the" consider a%% the b%ac( bo6es /e%% sea%ed, 'eo'%e do not, an" more than scientists, %i e in a /or%d o& &iction, re'resentation, s"mbo%, a''ro6imation, con ention: the" are sim'%" right) 1he ;uestion to raise then is /hen and /h" an attac( that crosses someone e%se5s 'ath is 'ossib%e, one that generates, at the intersection, the /ho%e gamut o& accusations (#art .), re ea%ing ste' b" ste' to /hat other une6'ected e%ements a c%aim is tied (#art B). $n other /ords /e no/ ha e to get c%ose to the c%ashes bet/een the inside and the outside o& the net/or(s.

%(' 6hy not soft fa&ts instead@

1he &irst thing /e ha e to understand is that the conditions &or c%ashes bet/een c%aims are not er" o&ten met. Let us ta(e an e6am'%e.

5.n a''%e a da" (ee's the doctor a/a",5 the mother said handing out a g%o/ing red a''%e to her son, e6'ecting a grin. 5Mother,5 re'%ied the chi%d indignant%", 5three 0$H studies ha e sho/n that on a sam'%e o& ,88 .mericans o& a%% ages there /as no statistica%%" signi&icant decrease in the number o& house ca%%s b" &ami%" doctorsP no, $ /i%% not eat this a''%e.5 7hat is out o& ste' in this anecdote? 1he chi%d5s ans/er, &or it mobi%ises too man" e%ements in a situation that did not re;uire it. 7hat /as e6'ected? . smi%e, no re'%", a ;ui', the re'etition o& the 'ro erb, or, better, its com'%etion (5.n a''%e a da" ...,5 said the mother, 5(ee's the doctor a/a",5 ans/ered the (id Co(ing%"). 7h" does the intrusion o& the 0ationa% $nstitute o& Hea%th5s statistics into the e6change seem so a/(/ard? Because the son beha es as i& he /ere in a contro ers" simi%ar to the ones /e studied in Cha'ter 1, &ighting against his mother, e6'ecting her to re'%" /ith more statistics, thus &eeding bac( into the 'roo& raceS 7hat did the mother e6'ect instead? 0ot e en a re'%", nothing e en ague%" re%ated to a discussion, /ith 'roo&s and counter:'roo&s. 7e /i%% not understand an"thing about technoscience i& /e do not siGe u' the ast distance bet/een the son and the mother, bet/een har"er facts and softer ones) .t the beginning o& Cha'ter +, $ 'resented the ;uandar" o& &act:bui%ders. 1he" ha e to enro% man" others so that the" 'artici'ate in the continuing construction o& the &act (b" turning the c%aims into b%ac( bo6es), but the" a%so ha e to contro%

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each o& these 'eo'%e so that the" 'ass the c%aim a%ong /ithout trans&orming it either into some other c%aim or into someone e%se5s c%aim. $ said it /as a di&&icu%t tas(, because each o& the 'otentia% he%'ing hands, instead o& being a 5conductor,5 ma" act in mu%ti&arious /a"s beha ing as a 5mu%ti:conductor5: the" ma" ha e no interest /hatsoe er in the c%aim, shunt it to/ards some unre%ated to'ic, turn it into an arte&act, trans&orm it into something e%se, dro' it a%together, attribute it to some other author, 'ass it a%ong as it is, con&irm it, and so on. .s the reader ma" reca%%, the centra%it" o& this 'rocess is the &irst 'rinci'%e o& this boo(, on /hich e er"thing e%se is bui%t. 1he 'arado6 o& the &act:bui%ders is that the" ha e simu%taneous%" to increase the number o& 'eo'%e ta(ing 'art in the action J so that the c%aim s'reads J and to "ecrease the number o& 'eo'%e ta(ing 'art in the action J so that the c%aim s'reads as it is) $n Cha'ters + and , $ &o%%o/ed in some detai% cases /here this 'arado6 /as so% ed b" trans%ating interests and t"ing them /ith non:human resources, thus 'roducing machines and mechanisms. Ha ing reached the %ast 'art o& the 'resent cha'ter /e can no/ understand that these &eatures o& technoscience /hich are the ru%e inside the net/or(s are the e#ception in bet/een their meshes. 7hat then cou%d the ru%e be? 1he c%aims /i%% be at once trans&erred and trans&ormed. Consider the 'ro erb abo eP it has s'read &or man" centuries &rom mouth to ear. 7ho is the author? 1his is un(no/n, it is common /isdom, no one cares, the ;uestion is meaning%ess. $s it

obCecti e, that is, does it re&er to a''%es, hea%th and doctors, or to the 'eo'%e /ho utter it? 1he ;uestion is meaning%ess, it ne er c%ashes /ith other c%aims J e6ce't in the anecdote abo e that &or this reason a''ears ;ueer. $s it /rong then? 0ot rea%%", ma"be, /ho cares? 1hen is it true? #robab%", since it has been 'assed a%ong &or generations /ithout a /ord o& criticism. 5But, i& it is true, /h" does it not stand the test o& the son5s counter:argument?5, a rationa%ist cou%d as(. #recise%", it has 'assed a%ong so re%iab%" &or so %ong because e er"one a%ong the chain has a"apte" it to their o/n s'ecia% conte6t. .t no 'oint in the %ong histor" o& this 'ro erb has it been an argument &ighting a counter:argument. $t is not &it &or use in a contro ers" bet/een t/o strangersP it is on%" &it &or reminding us, /ith a so&t b%o/, /hich grou's 'eo'%e /ho te%% 'ro erbs and their audience be%ong to J and in addition, it ma(es (ids eat a''%es (and it is a%so 'ossib%" good &or their hea%th). 1he son5s 'ractice o& breaching modi&ies the angle at /hich c%aims encounter other c%aims and triggers irrationa%it" as an e&&ect o& the c%ash. 1his breaching ma" be re'eated /ith an" o& the innumerab%e instances o&&ered b" id%e s'eech, t/add%e, 'ratt%e, and chatter in bars, at 'arties, at home or at /or(. 9 er" time a sentence %i(e the 'ro erb is ans/ered b" a counter:argument %i(e that o& the son, the same huge ga' o'ens in the communicationP &riends, 'arents, %o ers, buddies, 'art":goers become estrange" at once, %oo(ing at each other /ith be/i%derment. $& in the bus "our neighbour sa"s, 50ice /eather toda",eh?5 and "ou ans/er 51hat is a ridicu%ous statement, because the mean tem'erature toda" is &our degrees be%o/ the norma% a erage J com'uted on a hundred:"ear basis at Oreen/ich 3bser ator" b" #ro&essor Co%%en and his co%%eagues using no %ess than &i&t":&i e

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/eather stations. Chec( their methodo%og" in Acta Meteorologica, you &oo%,5 "our neighbour /i%% thin( you are strangeJand /i%% 'robab%" mo e to another seat. Q0ice /eather toda", eh?5 is not a sentence &it &or an"thing %i(e /hat /e ha e seen so &ar in this boo(. $ts regime of circu%ation, its /a" o& 'assing &rom hand to hand, the e&&ects it generates seem ast%" di&&erent &rom the statement /e ca%% Qscienti&ic5. 1he breaching e6ercise re'eats /hat has ha''ened in the course o& recent histor" to man" statements that /ere sudden%" attac(ed b" c%aims circu%ating under a tota%%" di&&erent regime. Most o& /hat 'eo'%e sa" and used to sa" is sudden%" &ound /anting /hen considered &rom the inside o& scienti&ic net/or(s. So ma"be there is a&ter a%% a radica% di&&erence bet/een science and the rest, in s'ite o& /hat $ ha e said in the t/o other 'arts?

%5' Hardening the fa&ts

Ies, there is a di&&erence, the breaching e6ercise indicates it c%ear%", but /e ha e to understand it /ithout an" additiona% di ide. 1o gras' it /e ha e to come bac( to the &irst 'rinci'%e and to the ;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der. 1he sim'%est /a" to s'read a statement is to

%ea e a margin of negotiation to each o& the actors to trans&orm it as he or she sees &it and to a"apt it to %oca% circumstances. 1hen it /i%% be easier to interest more 'eo'%e in the c%aim since %ess contro% is e6ercised on them. 1hus, the statement /i%% go &rom mouth to ear. Ho/e er, there is a 'rice to 'a" &or this so%ution. $n such a enture the statement /i%% be accommodated, incor'orated, negotiated, ado'ted and ada'ted b" e er"one and this /i%% entai% se era% conse;uences: &irst, the statement /i%% be trans&ormed b" e er"one but these trans&ormations /i%% not be noticeab%e, because the success o& the negotiation de'ends on the absence o& an" com'arison /ith the origina% statementP second, it /i%% ha e not one author but as man" authors as there are members a%ong the chainP third, it /i%% not be a ne; statement, but /i%% necessari%" a''ear as an o%der one since e er"one /i%% ada't it to their o/n 'ast e6'erience, taste and conte6tP :&ourth, e en i& the /ho%e chain is changing o'inion b" ado'ting a ne/ statementJne/, that is &or the outside obser er /ho beha es according to the other regime be%o/ J this change /i%% ne er be noticeab%e since there /i%% be no measurab%e base%ine against /hich to notice the di&&erence bet/een o%der and ne/er c%aimsP &ina%%", since the negotiation is continuous a%ong the chain and ignores c%ashes, no matter ho/ man" resources are brought in to strengthen the c%aim, it /i%% a%/a"s a''ear as a softer c%aim that does not brea( u' the usua% /a"s o& beha iour. 17 Such is the regime under /hich the ast maCorit" o& c%aims circu%ate outside o& the ne/ net/or(s. $t is one 'er&ect%" reasonab%e so%ution to the ;uandar" o& the

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&act:bui%der, but it is one that 'roduces on%" so&ter &acts /hen com'ared /ith the second so%ution. 1his other so%ution to the ;uandar", as /e sa/ in the 're ious cha'ters, is the one chosen b" 'eo'%e /ho are ca%%ed scientists and engineers. 1he" 're&er to increase contro% and to decrease the margin o& negotiation. $nstead o& enro%%ing others b" %etting them trans&orm the statement, the" tr" to &orce them to ta(e u' the c%aim as it is. But as /e ha e seen, there is a 'rice to 'a": &e/ 'eo'%e ma" be interested, and man" more resources ha e to be brought in to harden the &acts. Conse;uent%": &irst, the statement ma" be trans&erred /ithout being trans&ormed:/hen e er"thing /or(s according to '%anP second, the o/ner o& the origina% c%aim is designated : i& he or she &ee%s cheated, a bitter strugg%e ensues about /ho shou%d be credited &or the c%aimP

third, the c%aim is a ne; one that does not &it into the &abric o& e er"one5s 'ast e6'erience : this is both a cause and a conse;uence o& the diminishing margin o& negotiation, and a cause and a conse;uence o& the bitter &ights &or creditP &ourth, since each c%aim is measured b" com'arison /ith the 're ious ones, each ne/ c%aim contrasts c%ear%" /ith the bac(groundP thus it seems that_a historical 'rocess is at /or( characterised b" ne/ be%ie&s that constant%" sha(e the o%der onesP and, &ina%%", a%% the resources brought in to &orce 'eo'%e to assent are e6'%icit%" arra"ed, ma(ing the c%aim a har"er &act that a''ears to brea( through the usua% so&ter /a"s o& beha ing and be%ie ing. $t is crucia% to understand that these are t/o o''osite so%utions to the same 'arado6P Qharder5 &acts are not natura%%" better than Qso&ter5 onesP the" are the on%" so%ution i& one /ants to ma(e others be%ie e something uncommon. 0othing shou%d:be undu%" added to these di&&erences, e en though some o& the /ords used on the t/o %ists seem to o er%a' /ith di ides o&ten used to o''ose Qdai%" reasoning5, Qsa age mind5, Q'o'u%ar be%ie&s5 and Qancient and traditiona% sciences5 to modem, ci i%ised and scienti&ic reasoning. $n this argument, no assum'tion is made about minds or method. $t is not assumed that the &irst so%ution 'ro ides c%osed, time%ess, inaccurate, rigid and re'etiti e be%ie&s, /hereas the second o&&ers e6act, hard and ne/ (no/%edge. $t is asserted sim'%" that the same 'arado6 ma" be so% ed in t/o di&&erent /a"s, one that e6tends %ong net/or(s, the other that does not. $& the &irst so%ution is chosen the &act:bui%der immediate%" appears as a stranger breaching /hat immediate%" seem to be o%d, time%ess, stab%e and traditiona% /a"s. $rrationa%it" is a%/a"s an accusation made b" someone bui%ding a net/or( o er someone e%se /ho stands in the /a"P thus, there is no di ide bet/een minds, but on%" shorter and %onger net/or(s. Harder &acts are not the ru%e but the e6ce'tion, since the" are needed on%" in a er" &e/ cases to dis'%ace others on a %arge sca%e out o& their usua% /a"s. 1his /i%% be our &i&th 'rinci'%e. $t must be c%ear b" no/ that it is im'ossib%e to sa" that e er"one on earth shou%d or cou%d be a scientist at heart i& on%" the &orces o& 'reCudice, su'erstition and 'assion cou%d be o erridden (see #art .). 1his 'ro'osition is as meaning%ess

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as sa"ing that e er"one o& the 8 bi%%ion inhabitants o& this '%anet ought to ha e a 2o%%s 2o"ce. Hard &acts are, b" a%% means o& assessing them, rare and cost%" occurrences that are on%" met in the &e/ cases /hen someone tries to ma(e others mo e out o& their norma% course and sti%% /ants them to 'artici'ate &aith&u%%" in the enter'rise. 1here is a direct re%ation bet/een the number o& 'eo'%e one /ants to con ince, the angle at /hich the c%aims c%ash /ith other c%aims and the har"ening o& the &acts, that is the number o& a%%ies one has to &etch. *aced /ith harder &acts /e /i%% no %onger endo/ them /ith some innate and m"sterious su'eriorit", /e

/i%% sim'%" as( /ho is going to be attac(ed and dis'%aced /ith them, re%ating the ;ua%it" o& the &acts /ith the number o& 'eo'%e mo ed out o& their /a", e6act%" as /e cou%d do /hen com'aring a s%ingshot, a s/ord and an armoured tan( or /hen com'aring a sma%% earth dam on a %itt%e broo( /ith a huge concrete one on the 1ennessee 2i er.

%8' he si2th rule of method/ ;ust a ?uestion of s&ale.. .

.t the end o& this cha'ter /e are no/ in a 'osition to understand the man" di&&erences triggered b" the accusation 'rocess bet/een so:ca%%ed 5traditiona%5 cu%tures W that is the ones that are accused o& believing in things W and the narro/ scienti&ic net/or(s that, in order to gro/ e er"/here, ha e to disco er that a%% the statements used so &ar b" 'eo'%e are /ea(, inaccurate, so&t or /rong. 1o do so /e ha e sim'%" to &o%%o/ the scientists in their /or(. $n order to strengthen their c%aims some o& them ha e to go out o& their /a" and come back /ith ne/ une#pecte" resources so as to /in the encounters the" ha e at home /ith the 'eo'%e the" /ish to con ince. 7hat /i%% ha''en during such a mo e? 1he tra e%%er /i%% cross the 'aths o& man" other 'eo'%e. 7e (no/ &rom #arts . and B that it is this crossing that is going to trigger the accusations o& irrationa%it". .t e er" intersection ne/ and une6'ected associations bet/een things, /ords, mores and 'eo'%e are re ea%ed. Ho/e er, this is not enough "et to generate huge di&&erences bet/een cu%tures. #irates, merchants, so%diers, di'%omats, missionaries, ad enturers o& a%% sorts ha e &or centuries tra e%%ed through the /or%d and got used to the di ersit" o& cu%tures, re%igion and be%ie& s"stems. But consider the 'ecu%iar nature o& crossing someone e%se5s 'ath /hen harder &acts are at sta(e. Consider Bu%mer sent to 0e/ Ouinea, or 9 ans:#ritchard to .&rica, or Hutchins to the 1robriand $s%ands. Consider the 'a%eonto%ogists tre((ing through the 0e ada desert %oo(ing &or &ossi%e bones. Consider the geogra'hers sent a/a" to ma' out the #aci&ic Coast. Consider the botanists mandated to bring bac( a%% sorts o& '%ants, &ruits and herbs. .re these tra e%%ers interested in the 'eo'%e, the %andsca'e, the customs, the &orests, the oceans the" go through? $n a sense "es, because the" /ant to use them in order to come bac( /ith more resources. $n another sense, no, because the" do not /ish to sett%e in a%% these &oreign '%aces. $& Bu%mer goes a/a" and sta"s &or e er in 0e/ Ouinea,

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becoming one o& the <aram, his tri' is /asted as &ar as hard &acts are concerned. But i& he comes bac( em't":handed /ithout an" in&ormation that can be used in theses or in artic%es to ma(e his 'oints, his /ho%e tri' is /asted as /e%%, no matter ho/ much he %earned, understood and su&&ered. Since a%% these tra e%%ers are 5interested5, the" are going to %earn e er"thing the" can a%ong the roadP but since the" are not interested in remaining at an" '%ace in 'articu%ar, on%" in coming bac( home, the" are going to be sce'tica% about a%% the stories the" are to%d. Because o& this 'arado6 the drama o& the 1reat Jivi"e un&o%ds. B" the Oreat 4i ide is meant

the summar" o& a%% the accusation 'rocesses that are made &rom /ithin scienti&ic net/or(s against their outside. 1he socio%ogics o& a%% the 'eo'%e crossed b" these 'ecu%iar tra e%%ers sent a/a" in order to come bac( is going to a''ear by comparison 5%oca%5, 5c%osed5, 5stab%e5, 5cu%tura%%" determined5. 3nce the mo ement o& the obser er is de%eted &rom the 'icture, it seems that there is an abso%ute di ide bet/een, on the one hand, a%% the cu%tures that 5be%ie e5 in things, and on the other hand, the one cu%ture, ours, that 5(no/s5 things (or /i%% soon (no/ them), bet/een 51hem5 and 5!s5. Be%ie& b" rationa%ists in the e6istence o& the Oreat 4i ide, as /e%% as the denia% o& its e6istence b" re%ati ists, both de'end on &orgetting the movement o& the obser er mo ing a/a" &rom home to come bac( hea i%" armed in order to strengthen the &acts. 1he com'%ete misunderstanding o& the ;ua%ities and de&ects o& 1hem and !s is s(etched in *igure 8.,. .s soon as the accuser5s mo ement is 'ut bac( into the 'icture, a di&&erence a''ears, but it has nothing to do /ith a di ide bet/een be%ie& and (no/%edge. $t has sim'%" to do /ith the scale at /hich the enro%%ing and contro%%ing o& 'eo'%e occurs.

666 &igur 8., start 666 *igure 8., 9tt 'un(t er mar(ert med en sir(e%,. 9n 'i% gAr i en bue ut &ra denne, gCBr en s ing, og (ommer ti%ba(e ti% start. !nder eis 'asserer 'i%a &orbi mange (onturer a mennes(er, som enten stAr i (%"nger e%%er h er &or seg. Hed 'i%a stAr det: =Crossing other 'eo'%e5s 'ath= $ det 'i%a %egger ut 'A sin reise &ra start'un(tet, stAr det =Ooing a/a"=. $ det 'i%a er 'A ei ti%ba(e ti% start'un(tet, stAr det: =Coming bac(=. Li(e ed mar(Brene =Ooing a/a"= og =Coming bac(= &innes ogsA (%"nger a mennes(es(i((e%ser, der stre(er gAr ut &ra (%"ngen og &orbinder disse med %Bse 'ersoner e%%er gru''re som stAr uten&or reiseruta ti% 'i%a. Feg &orstAr i((e itsen med disse stre(ene, men Ceg har tre h"'oteser: (1) 4et s(a% isua%isere mBtene me%%om etnogra& og andre, som &oregAr %angs reiseruta. ()) 4et s(a% s"mbo%isere at situasConene re%aterer seg ti% mennes(er som den reisende i((e mBter dire(te. (+) Stre(ene =tar ut= en(e%t'ersoner ana%"tis( &ra gru''a, &or A ise en deta%C. Feg s"nes i((e noen a disse tre h"'otesene ir(er o erbe isende. 666 &igur 8., start 666

Can /e sa", &or instance, that scientists mo ing through the /or%d are more 5disinterested5, more 5rationa%5, more concerned b" the things 5themse% es5, %ess 5cu%tura%%" determined5, more 5conscious5 than the 'eo'%e the" meet a%ong the

(()1)))

/a"? $n a sense, "es, certain%", the" are %ess interested in maintaining the societies the" cross than members o& these societies themse% esS 1hus, the" are going to (ee' their distance, to be coo%er, to be disbe%ie ers. But in another sense the" are as interested as e er"one e%se in maintaining their o/n societ" bac( home J and this is /h" the" so much /ish to enrich science /ith one more 'iece o& accurate in&ormation. $& the" /ere tota%%" disinterested the" /ou%d not ta(e an" notes, the" /ou%d Cust %oiter around, sta" a &e/ "ears, mo e a/a", and ne er come bac(. .%% the conditions o& a maCor misunderstanding are no/ &i%%ed. Because he is so intereste", Bu%mer, &or e6am'%e, is going to be maddening%" obsessed /ith his noteboo(s, doub%e: chec(ing a%% in&ormation, &i%%ing crates /ith materia%s, gathering a%% he can be&ore running. .s &ar as the <aram5s be%ie& in c%assi&ication is concerned, Bu%mer is coo% as a cucumber, Qseeing through5 their &oreign so%utions the in&%uence o& their %oca% cu%tureP but as &ar as Bu%mer5s be%ie& in anthro'o%og" is concerned, the <aram are er" coo% indeed, seeing through his obsession &or notes and accurate in&ormation the in&%uence o& the &oreign cu%ture he so dear%" /ishes to maintain and e6'and. Q4isinterested &anatics5, such as Bu%mer, are going to trans&orm a%% the c%aims o& a%% the 'eo'%e the" meet into Qbe%ie&s about5 the /or%d that re;uire a s'ecia% e6'%anation. Bu%mer cannot be%ie e the <aram are right since he is not going to sta" /ith them &or e erP but he cannot be to%erant either and choose a sort o& so&t re%ati ism that /ou%d not care a bit about /hat other 'eo'%e thin(, since he has to come bac( /ith a re'ort on the <aram5s be%ie& s"stem. So he is going to come bac( to his de'artment ;ith their ;ritten beliefs in ta6onom". 18 3nce in 0e/ Rea%and, the <aram5s ta6onom" /i%% be com'ared /ith all the ta6onomies brought bac( b" other anthro'o%ogists. .t this 'oint the misunderstanding is com'%eted: the <aram /i%% be said to ha e on%" one /a" o& %oo(ing at the /or%d, the anthro'o%ogists to ha e man". 1he <aram5s 'ecu%iar /a" o& choosing among c%assi&icator" 'atterns begs an e6'%anation that /i%% be &ound in their societ"P the anthro'o%ogists5 ie/s that co er a%% the

666 &igur 8.8 start 666 *igure 8.8 9n &or(%aring ti% &iguren &innes i brBdte(sten 'A neste side (s. )1+). 4er &orte%e%s det at &iguren iser to mu%ige mAter A begre's%iggCBre sosia%e &ors(Ce%%er. *or det &Brste har man det stri(te, digita%e s(i%%et me%%om 3ss og 4em, mar(ert ed en rett stre(. *or det andre har mA%inger a mange ariasConer i stBrre%se 'A nett er(ene, re'resentert ed en s'ira% som s"mbo%iserer stBrre%ses&ors(Ce%%er.

1. =Oreat 4i ide= er en stre( som (r"sser mode%%en. #A enstre side a stre(en &innes iten som er ua hengig a sam&unnet, 'A hB"residen &innes &oresti%%inger som er &oran(ret i sam&unns&orho%d. ). =4i&&erences o& Sca%e= er en s'ira% som be eger seg &ritt &ram og ti%ba(e o er den grensen som 1he Oreat 4i ide har &orsB(t A de&inere. Sentrum i s'ira%en be&inner seg godt og e% ute 'A hB"re side a grense%inCa, men s'ira%en s%"nger seg stadig %engre uto er, ed &Brste omdreining nTrmer den seg grensen, og a%%erede ed andre omdreining (r"sser den grensen to ganger, &Brst &ra hB"re side ti% enstre, deretter ti%ba(e ti% hB"residen, &or sA A ta en enda idere s ing. 666 &igur 8.8 s%utt 666

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'atterns are not to be e6'%ained b" their societ": the) are the right /a". 1he" /i%% ca%% ethnoGoo%og" the be%ie& s"stems o& the %oca% <aram and Goo%og" the (no/%edge o& the uni ersa% scienti&ic net/or(. .%though each socio%ogic is bui%ding its /or%d b" incor'orating birds, '%ants, roc(s, together /ith 'eo'%e, it /i%% a''ear, at the end o& man" tri's abroad, that on%" 51he"5 ha e an anthropomorphic be%ie& s"stem, /hereas Q7e5 ha e a disinterested out%oo( on the /or%d on%" s%ight%" biased b" our Qcu%ture5. $n *igure 8.8 $ ha e s(etched t/o 'ossib%e renderings o& the di&&erences: the &irst one is obtained b" tracing a 4i ide bet/een 1hem and !sP the second b" measuring many ariations in the siGe o& the net/or(s. 1he Oreat 4i ide ma(es the su''osition that there is, on the right hand, (no/%edge embedded in societ", and, on the %e&t hand, (no/%edge inde'endent o& societ". 7e ma(e no such su''osition. 1he genera% &usion o& (no/%edge and societ" is the same in a%% cases : a s'ira% in the diagram : but the %ength o& the cur e aries &rom one to the other. 5$nterest5 and 5disinterestedness5 are /ords %i(e 5rationa%5 or 5irrationa%5P the" are meaning%ess as %ong as /e do not consider the mo ement o& the scientist through the /or%d. 1his /i%% constitute our si2th rule of method/ /hen &aced /ith an accusation o& irrationa%it", or sim'%" /ith be%ie&s in something, /e /i%% ne er be%ie e that 'eo'%e be%ie e in things or are irrationa%, /e /i%% ne er %oo( &or /hich ru%e o& %ogic has been bro(en, /e /i%% sim'%" consider the ang%e, direction, mo ement and scale o& the obser er5s dis'%acement. 3& course, no/ that /e are &reed &rom a%% these debates about 5rationa%it"5, 5re%ati ism5, 5cu%ture5, and the e6tent o& the Oreat 4i ide, /e ha e one more ;uestion to tac(%e, the most di&&icu%t o& a%%: /here does the di&&erence o& sca%e come &rom?

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(()18))

CHA$ E3 E. Centres of Cal&ulation

$rologue. he domesti&ation of the sa"age mind
.t da/n, 17 Fu%" 1787, La'Mrouse, ca'tain o& L5Astrolabe, %anded at an un(no/n 'art o& the 9ast #aci&ic, on an area o& %and that /as ca%%ed 5Sega%ien5 or 5Sa(ha%in5 in the o%der tra e% boo(s he had brought /ith him. 7as this %and a 'eninsu%a or an is%and? He did not (no/, that is no one in Hersai%%es at the court o& Louis @H$, no one in London, no one in .msterdam in the head;uarters o& the 7est $ndies Com'an", cou%d %oo( at a ma' o& the #aci&ic 3cean and decide /hether the engra ed sha'e o& /hat /as ca%%ed 5Sa(ha%in5 /as tied to .sia or /as se'arated b" a strait. Some ma's sho/ed a 'eninsu%a, others sho/ed an is%andP and a &ierce dis'ute had ensued among 9uro'ean geogra'hers as to ho/ accurate and credib%e the tra e%s boo(s /ere and ho/ 'recise the reconnaissances had been. $t is in 'art because there /ere so man" o& these dis'utes : simi%ar to the 'ro&usion /e studied in #art $ :on so man" as'ects o& the #aci&ic 3cean, that the (ing had commissioned La'Mrouse, e;ui''ed t/o shi's, and ordered him to dra/ a com'%ete ma' o& the #aci&ic. 1 1he t/o shi's had been 'ro ided, as scienti&ic sate%%ites are toda", /ith a%% the a ai%ab%e scienti&ic instruments and s(i%%P the" /ere gi en better c%oc(s to (ee' the time, and thus measure the %ongitude more accurate%"P the" /ere gi en com'asses to measure the %atitudeP astronomers had been en%isted to mend and tend the c%oc(s and to man the instrumentsP botanists, minera%ogists and natura%ists /ere on board to gather s'ecimensP artists had been recruited to s(etch and 'aint 'ictures o& those o& the s'ecimens that /ere too hea " or too &ragi%e to sur i e the return tri'P a%% the boo(s and tra e% accounts that had been /ritten on the #aci&ic had been stoc(ed in the shi'5s %ibrar" to see ho/ the" com'ared /ith /hat the tra e%%ers /ou%d seeP the t/o shi's had been %oaded /ith goods and bargaining chi's in order to e a%uate a%% o er the /or%d the re%ati e 'rices o& go%d, si% er, 'e%ts, &ish, stones, s/ords, an"thing that cou%d be bought

(()1-))

and so%d at a 'ro&it, thus tr"ing out 'ossib%e commercia% routes &or *rench shi''ing. 1his morning in Fu%", La'Mrouse /as er" sur'rised and '%eased. 1he &e/ sa ages:a%% ma%es:: that had sta"ed on the beach and e6changed sa%mon &or 'ieces o& iron /ere much %ess 5sa age5 than man" he had seen in his t/o "ears o& tra e%. 0ot on%" did the" seem to be sure that Sa(ha%in /as an is%and, but the" a%so a''eared to understand the na igators5 interest in this ;uestion and /hat it /as to dra/ a ma' o& the %and ie/ed &rom abo e. .n o%der Chinese s(etched on the sand the countr" o& the 5MantchMou65, that is, China, and his is%andP then he indicated /ith gestures the siGe o& the strait se'arating the t/o. 1he sca%e o& the ma' /as uncertain, though, and the rising tide soon threatened to erase the 'recious dra/ing. So, a "ounger Chinese too( u' La'Mrouse5s noteboo( and 'enci% and dre/ another ma' noting the sca%e b" %itt%e mar(s, each signi&"ing a da" o& tra e% b" canoe. 1he" /ere %ess success&u% in indicating the sca%e &or the de'th o& the straitP since the Chinese had %itt%e notion o& the shi'5s draught, the na igators cou%d not decide i& the is%anders /ere ta%(ing o& re%ati e or o& abso%ute siGe. Because o& this uncertaint", La'Mrouse, a&ter ha ing than(ed and re/arded these most he%'&u% in&ormants, decided to %ea e the ne6t morning and to sight the strait &or himse%&, and, ho'e&u%%", to cross it and reach <amchat(a. 1he &og, ad erse /inds and bad /eather made this sighting im'ossib%e. Man" months %ater, /hen the" &ina%%" reached <amchat(a, the" had not seen the strait, but re%ied on the Chinese to decide that Sa(ha%in /as indeed an is%and. 4e Lesse's, a "oung o&&icer, /as as(ed b" La'Mrouse to carr" the ma's, the noteboo(s and the astronomica% bearings the" had gathered &or t/o "ears bac( to Hersai%%es. 4e Lesse's made the tri' on &oot and on horsebac( under the 'rotection o& the 2ussians, carr"ing /ith him these 'recious %itt%e noteboo(sP one entr" among thousands in the noteboo(s indicated that the ;uestion o& the Sa(ha%in is%and /as sett%ed and /hat the 'robab%e bearing o& the strait /as. 1his is the (ind o& e'isode that cou%d ha e been 'ut to use, at the beginning o& Cha'ter 8, in order to ma(e the Oreat 4i ide mani&est. .t &irst sight, it seems that the di&&erences bet/een La'Mrouse5s enter'rise and those o& the nati es is so co%ossa% as to Custi&" a dee' distinction in cogniti e abi%ities. $n %ess than three centuries o& tra e%s such as this one, the nascent science o& geogra'h" has gathered more (no/%edge about the sha'e o& the /or%d than had come in mi%%ennia. 1he implicit geogra'h" o& the nati es is made e#plicit b" geogra'hersP the local (no/%edge o& the sa ages becomes the universal (no/%edge o& the cartogra'hersP the &uGG", a''ro6imate and ungrounded beliefs o& the %oca%s are turned into a 'recise, certain and Custi&ied kno;le"ge) 1o the 'artisans o& the Oreat 4i ide, it seems that going &rom ethnogeogra'h" to geogra'h" is %i(e going &rom chi%dhood to adu%thood, &rom 'assion to reason, &rom sa ager" to ci i%isation, or &rom &irst degree intuitions to second degree re&%e6ion. Ho/e er, as soon as /e a''%" the si6th ru%e o& method, the Oreat 4i ide disa''ears and other %itt%e di&&erences become isib%e. .s $ sho/ed in the %ast cha'ter, this ru%e as(s us not to ta(e a 'osition on rationa%it", but sim'%" to

(()17))

consider the mo ement o& the obser er, its ang%e, direction and sca%e. La'Mrouse crosses the 'ath o& the Chinese &ishermen at right angles> the" ha e ne er seen each other be&ore and the huge shi's are not here to sett%e. 1he Chinese ha e %i ed here &or as %ong as one can remember /hereas the *rench &%eet remains /ith them &or a da". 1hese &ami%ies o& Chinese, as &ar as one can te%%, /i%% remain around &or "ears, ma"be centuriesP L5Astrolabe and La 3oussole ha e to reach 2ussia be&ore the end o& the summer. $n s'ite o& this short de%a", La'Mrouse does not sim'%" cross the 'ath o& the Chinese ignoring the 'eo'%e on shore. 3n the contrar", he %earns &rom them as much as he can, describing their cu%ture, 'o%itics and economicsJa&ter one da" o& obser ationS J sending his natura%ists a%% o er the &orest to gather s'ecimens, scribb%e notes, ta(e the bearings o& stars and '%anets. 7h" are the" a%% in a hurr"? $& the" /ere interested in the is%and cou%d the" not sta" %onger? 0o, because the" are not so much interested in this '%ace as the" are in bringing this '%ace back &irst to their shi', and second to Hersai%%es. But the" are not on%" in a hurr", the" are a%so under enormous 'ressure to gather traces that ha e to be o& a certain ;ua%it". 7h" is it not enough to bring bac( to *rance 'ersona% diaries, sou enirs and tro'hies? 7h" are the" a%% so hard:'ressed to ta(e 'recise notes, to obtain and doub%e:chec( ocabu%aries &rom their in&ormants, to sta" a/a(e %ate at night /riting do/n e er"thing the" ha e heard and seen, %abe%%ing their s'ecimens, chec(ing &or the thousandth time the running o& their astronomica% c%oc(s? 7h" don5t the" re%a6, enCo" the sun and the tender &%esh o& the sa%mon the" catch so easi%" and coo( on the beach? Because the 'eo'%e /ho sent them a/a" are not so much interested in their coming bac( as the" are in the 'ossibi%it" o& sending other &%eets later) $& La'Mrouse succeeds in his mission, the ne6t shi' /i%% (no/ i& Sa(ha%in is a 'eninsu%a or an is%and, ho/ dee' the strait is, /hat the dominant /inds are, /hat the mores, resources and cu%ture o& the nati es are before sighting the %and. 3n 17 Fu%" 1787, La'Mrouse is ;eaker than his in&ormantsP he does not (no/ the sha'e o& the %and, does not (no/ /here to goP he is at the merc" o& his guides. 1en "ears %ater, on 8 0o ember 1797 the 9ng%ish shi' Neptune on %anding again at the same ba" /i%% be much stronger than the nati es since the" /i%% ha e on board ma's, descri'tions, %og boo(s, nautica% instructions J /hich to begin /ith /i%% a%%o/ them to (no/ that this is the Qsame5 ba". *or the ne/ na igator entering the ba", the most im'ortant &eatures o& the %and /i%% a%% be seen &or the secon" time J the &irst time /as /hen reading in London La'Mrouse5s noteboo(s and considering the ma's engra ed &rom the bearings 4e Lesse's brought bac( to Hersai%%es. 7hat /i%% ha''en i& La'Mrouse5s mission does not succeed? $& 4e Lesse's is (i%%ed and his 'recious treasure scattered some/here on the Siberian tundra? 3r i& some s'ring in the nautica% c%oc(s /ent /rong, ma(ing most o& the %ongitudes unre%iab%e? 1he e6'edition is /asted. *or man" more "ears a 'oint on the ma' at the .dmira%t" /i%% remain contro ersia%. 1he ne6t shi' sent a/a" /i%% be as ;eak as L5Astrolabe, sighting the Sega%ien (or is it Sa(ha%in?) is%and (or is it a 'eninsu%a?) &or the first time, %oo(ing again &or nati e in&ormants and guidesP the di ide /i%% remain as it is, ;uite sma%% since the &rai% and uncertain cre/ o& the

(()18))

Neptuna /i%% ha e to re%" on nati es as 'oor and &rai% as them. 3n the other hand, i& the mission succeeds, /hat /as at &irst a sma%% di ide bet/een the 9uro'ean na igator and the Chinese &ishermen /i%% ha e become %arger and dee'er since the Neptuna cre/ /i%% ha e %ess to %earn &rom the nati es. .%though there is at the beginning not much di&&erence bet/een the abi%ities o& the *rench and the Chinese na igators, the di&&erence /i%% gro/ i& La'Mrouse is 'art o& a net/or( through /hich the ethnogeogra'h" o& the #aci&ic is accumu%ated in 9uro'e. .n as"mmetr" /i%% s%o/%" begin to ta(e sha'e bet/een the Q%oca%5 Chinese and the Qmo ing5 geogra'her. 1he Chinese /i%% remain sa age (to the 9uro'ean) and as strong as the Neptuna cre/, i& La'Mrouse5s noteboo(s do not reach Hersai%%es. $& the" do, the Neptuna /i%% be better ab%e to "omesticate the Chinese since e er"thing o& their %and, cu%ture, %anguage and resources /i%% be (no/n on board the 9ng%ish shi' be&ore an"one sa"s a /ord. 2e%ati e degrees o& sa ager" and domestication are obtained b" man" %itt%e too%s that ma(e the /i%derness (no/n in ad ance, 'redictab%e. 0othing re ea%s more c%ear%" the /a"s in /hich the t/o grou's o& na igators ta%( at cross 'ur'oses, so to s'ea(, than their interest in the inscri'tion. 1he accumu%ation that /i%% generate an as"mmetr" hinges u'on the 'ossibi%it" &or some traces o& the tra e% to go bac( to the '%ace that sent the e6'edition a/a". 1his is /h" the o&&icers are a%% so much obsessed b" bearings, c%oc(s, diaries, %abe%s, dictionaries, s'ecimens, herbaries. 9 er"thing de'ends on them: L5Astrolabe can sin( 'ro ided the inscri'tions sur i e and reach Hersai%%es. 1his shi' tra e%%ing through the #aci&ic is an instrument according to the de&inition gi en in Cha'ter %) 1he Chinese, on the other hand, are not a%% that interested in ma's and inscri'tionsJnot because the" are unab%e to dra/ them (on the contrar" their abi%ities sur'rise La'Mrouse er" much) but sim'%" because the inscri'tions are not the final goal o& their tra e%. 1he dra/ings are no more than interme"iaries &or their e6changes bet/een themse% es, intermediaries /hich are used u' in the e6change and are not considered im'ortant in themse% es. 1he &ishermen are ab%e to generate these inscri'tions at /i%% on an" sur&ace %i(e sand or e en on 'a'er /hen the" meet someone stu'id enough to s'end on%" a da" in Sa(ha%in /ho ne erthe%ess /ishes to (no/ e er"thing &ast &or some other un(no/n &oreigner to come bac( %ater and sa&er. 1here is no 'oint in adding an" cogniti e di&&erence bet/een the Chinese na igators and the *rench onesP the misunderstanding bet/een them is as com'%ete as bet/een the mother and the chi%d in Cha'ter 8 and &or the same reason: /hat is an intermediar" o& no re%e ance has become the beginning and the end o& a c"c%e o& ca'ita%isation. 1he di&&erence in their mo ement is enough and the di&&erent em'hasis the" 'ut on inscri'tions ensues. 1he ma' dra/n on sand is /orth%ess &or the Chinese /ho do not care that the tide /i%% erase itP it is a treasure &or La'Mrouse, his main treasure. 1/ice, in his %ong tra e%s, the ca'tain /as &ortunate enough to &ind a &aith&u% messenger /ho brought his notes bac( home. 4e Lesse's /as the &irstP Ca'tain #hi%%i', met at Botan" Ba" in .ustra%ia in Fanuar" 1788, /as the second. 1here /as no third time. 1he t/o shi's disa''eared and the on%" traces that /ere &ound,

(()19))

/e%% into the nineteenth centur", /ere not ma's and herbariums, but the hi%t o& a s/ord and a 'iece o& the stern /ith a &%eur:de:%is on it, that had become the door o& a sa age5s hut. 3n the third %eg o& their Courne" the *rench na igators had not been ab%e to domesticate the sa age %ands and 'eo'%esP conse;uent%", nothing is (no/n /ith certaint" about this 'art o& their o"age.

$art A. A&tion at a distan&e

(1) Cycles of accumulation
Can /e sa" that the Chinese sai%ors La'Mrouse met did not (no/ the sha'e o& their coasts? 0o, the" (ne/ it er" /e%%P the" had to since the" /ere born there. Can /e sa" that these Chinese did not (no/ the sha'e o& the .t%antic, o& the Channe%, o& the ri er Seine, o& the 'ar( o& Hersai%%es? Ies, /e are a%%o/ed to sa" this, the" had no idea o& them and 'robab%" the" cou%d not care %ess. Can /e sa" that La'Mrouse (ne/ this 'art o& Sa(ha%in be&ore %anding there? 0o, it /as his &irst encounter /ith it, he had to &umb%e in dar(ness, ta(ing soundings a%ong the coast. .re /e a%%o/ed to sa" that the cre/ o& the Neptuna (ne/ this coast? Ies, /e ma" sa" this, the" cou%d %oo( at La'Mrouse5s notes, and com'are his dra/ings o& the %andings /ith /hat the" sa/ themse% esP %ess sounding, %ess &umb%ing in the dar(. 1hus, the (no/%edge that the Chinese &ishermen had and that La'Mrouse did not 'ossess had, in some sti%% m"sterious /a", been 'ro ided to the cre/ o& the 9ng%ish shi'. So, than(s to this %itt%e ignette, /e might be ab%e to de&ine the /ord (no/%edge. 1he &irst time /e encounter some e ent, /e do not (no/ itP /e start (no/ing something /hen it is at %east the secon" time /e encounter it, that is, /hen it is &ami%iar to us. Someone is said to be (no/%edgeab%e /hen /hate er ha''ens is on%" one instance o& other e ents a%read" mastered, one member o& the same &ami%". Ho/e er, this de&inition is too genera% and gi es too much o& an ad antage to the Chinese &ishermen. 0ot on%" ha e the" seen Sa(ha%in t/ice, but hundreds and e en thousands o& times &or the more e%der%". So the" /i%% a%/a"s be more (no/%edgeab%e than these /hite, i%%:sha en, ca'ricious &oreigners /ho arri e at da/n and %ea e at dus(. 1he &oreigners /i%% die en route, /rec(ed b" t"'hoons, betra"ed b" guides, destro"ed b" some S'anish or #ortuguese shi', (i%%ed b" "e%%o/ &e er, or sim'%" eaten u' b" some greed" canniba%s . . . as 'robab%" ha''ened to La'Mrouse. $n other /ords, the &oreigner /i%% a%/a"s be /ea(er than an" one o& the 'eo'%es, o& the %ands, o& the c%imates, o& the ree&s, he meets around the /or%d, a%/a"s at their merc". 1hose /ho go a/a" &rom the %ands in /hich the" are born and /ho cross the 'aths o& other 'eo'%e disa''ear /ithout trace. $n this case, there is not e en time &or a Oreat 4i ide to be dra/nP no accusation 'rocess ta(es '%ace, no tria% o& strength bet/een di&&erent

(())>))

socio%ogies occurs, since the mo ing e%ement in this game, that is the &oreigner, anishes at the &irst encounter. $& /e de&ine (no/%edge as &ami%iarit" /ith e ents, '%aces and 'eo'%e seen man" times o er, then the &oreigner /i%% a%/a"s be the /ea(est o& a%% e6ce't i&, b" some e6traordinar" means, /hate er ha''ens to him ha''ens at %east t/iceP i& the is%ands he has ne er %anded at be&ore ha e a%read" been seen and care&u%%" studied, as /as the case /ith the na igator o& the Neptuna, then, and on%" then, the mo ing &oreigner might become stronger than the %oca% 'eo'%e. 7hat cou%d these Qe6traordinar" means5 be? 7e (no/ &rom the #ro%ogue that it is not enough &or a &oreigner to ha e been 'receded b" one, or t/o, or hundreds o& others, as %ong as these 'redecessors either ha e anished /ithout trace, or ha e come bac( /ith obscure ta%es, or (ee' &or themse% es rutters on%" they can read, because, in these three cases, the ne/ sai%or has gained nothing &rom his 'redecessors5 tra e%sP &or him, e er"thing /i%% ha''en the &irst time. 0o, he /i%% gain an edge on%" i& the other na igators ha e &ound a /a" to bring the %ands back ;ith them in such a manner that he /i%% see Sa(ha%in is%and, &or the &irst time, at %eisure, in his o/n home, or in the .dmira%t" o&&ice, /hi%e smo(ing his 'i'e .. .s /e see, /hat is ca%%ed 5(no/%edge5 cannot be de&ined /ithout understanding /hat gaining (no/%edge means. $n other /ords, 5(no/%edge5 is not something that cou%d be described b" itse%& or b" o''osition to 5ignorance5 or to 5be%ie&5, but on%" b" considering a /ho%e c"c%e o& accumu%ation: ho/ to bring things bac( to a '%ace &or someone to see it &or the &irst time so that others might be sent again to bring other things bac(. Ho/ to be &ami%iar /ith things, 'eo'%e and e ents, /hich are "istant) $n *igure -.1 $ ha e s(etched the same mo ement as in *igure 8., but instead o& &ocusing on the accusation that ta(es '%ace at the intersection, $ ha e &ocused on the accumu%ation 'rocess. 96'edition number one disa''ears /ithout trace, so there is no di&&erence in 5(no/%edge5 bet/een the &irst and the second that &umb%es its /a" in dar(ness a%/a"s at the merc" o& each o& the 'eo'%e /hose 'ath is crossed. More &ortunate

666 &igur -.1 start 666 *igure -.1 *iguren %i(ner &igur 8.8 (s. )11), bortsett &ra at &igur -.1 e(t%egger a((umu%asCon a (unns(a'. 9tt 'un(t er mar(ert med en sir(e%. #i%er gAr i en bue ut &ra denne, gCBr en s ing, og (ommer ti%ba(e ti% start. !nder eis 'asserer 'i%a &orbi mange (onturer a mennes(er, som enten stAr i

(%"nger e%%er h er &or seg. Sir(e%en er =sentra%en=, 'i%ene er e(s'edisConer som utgAr &ra denne. Hed 'i%ene stAr det: =Crossing other 'eo'%e5s 'ath= $ det 'i%ene %egger ut 'A sin reise &ra start'un(tet, stAr det =Ooing a/a"=. $ det 'i%ene er 'A ei ti%ba(e ti% start'un(tet, stAr det: =Coming bac(=. #i% nr. 1, &Brste e(s'edisCon, &ors inner i &e%ten og (ommer i((e ti%ba(e. $n&ormasConen som sentra%en &Ar a denne e(s'edisConen (@1) er temme%ig ubru(e%ig. #i% nr. ) %egger ut 'A samme reise, og (ommer ti%ba(e ti% sentra%en med n" in&ormasCon &ra e(s'edisConen (@)). #i% nr. + %egger ut 'A en %engre reise, 'A grunn%ag a in&ormasConen @), og (ommre ti%ba(e ti% sentra%ma(ten med enda mer in&ormasCon &ra e(s'edisConen (@+). 666 &igur -.1 s%utt 666

(())1))

than the &irst, this second e6'edition not on%" comes bac( but brings something (noted @) in the dra/ing) that a%%o/s the third to be so &ami%iar /ith the coast%ine that the" can ;uic(%" mo e to other %ands bringing home 'arts o& a ma' o& a ne; territor" (@+). .t e er" run o& this accumu%ation c"c%e, more e%ements are gathered in the. centre (re'resented b" a circ%e at the to')P at e er" run the as"mmetr" (at the bottom) bet/een the &oreigners and the nati es gro/s, ending toda" in something that indeed %oo(s %i(e a Oreat 4i ide, or at %east %i(e a dis'ro'ortionate re%ation bet/een those e;ui''ed /ith sate%%ites /ho %oca%ise the 5%oca%s5 on their com'uter ma's /ithout e en %ea ing their air:conditioned room in Houston, and the he%'%ess nati es /ho do not e en see the sate%%ites 'assing o er their heads. 7e shou%d not be in a rush to decide /hat are these 5e6traordinar" means5, /hat these things noted 5@5 in the dra/ing are, /hich are brought:bac( b" the na igators. 7e &irst ha e to understand under /hat conditions a na igator can sai% o erseas and come back, that is ho/ a c"c%e ma" be dra/n at a%%. 1o do this, /e ha e to ta(e a much ear%ier e6am'%e /hen these tra e%s abroad /ere "et more 'eri%ous. 1hree centuries be&ore La'Mrouse, in 1,8,, <ing Fohn $$ o& #ortuga% con ened a sma%% scienti&ic commission to he%' na igators &inding their /a" to the $ndies. ) .t this time a &irst condition has been &u%&i%%ed: the hea " and sturd" carrac(s designed b" the #ortuguese did not disintegrate an" more in storms or %ong soCourns at seaP the /ood o& /hich

the" /ere bui%t and the /a" the" /ere careened made them stronger than /a es and tides. $n the de&inition o& the term $ ga e in Cha'ter +, the" acted as one element> the" had become a c%e er machination to contro% the man" &orces that tried out their resistance. *or instance, a%% sorts o& /ind directions, instead o& s%o/ing the shi's do/n, /ere turned into a%%ies b" a uni;ue combination o& %ateen and s;uare rigs. 1his combination a%%o/ed a sma%%er cre/ to man a bigger shi', /hich made cre/ members %ess u%nerab%e to ma%nutrition and '%agues, and ca'tains %ess u%nerab%e to mutinies. 1he bigger siGe o& the carrac(s made it 'ossib%e to embar( bigger guns ;hich, in turn, rendered more 'redictab%e the outcome o& a%% mi%itar" encounters /ith the man" tin" 'irogues o& the nati es. 1his siGe a%so rendered it 'ractica% to bring bac( a bigger cargo (i& there /ere a return tri'). 7hen thM scienti&ic commission con ened, the carrac(s /ere a%read" er" mobi%e and ersati%e too%s, ab%e to e6tract com'%iance &rom the /a es, the /inds, the cre/, the guns and the nati es, but not "et &rom the ree&s and the coast%ine. 1hese /ere a%/a"s more 'o/er&u% than the carrac(s since the" a''eared une6'ected%", /rec(ing the shi's one a&ter the other. Ho/ to %oca%ise in ad ance a%% the roc(s instead o& being, so to s'ea(, localise" b" them /ithout /arning? 1he so%ution o& the commission /as to use the &urthest:&etched o& a%% 'ossib%e he%'ing hands, the sun and the stars, /hose s%o/ dec%ination cou%d be turned, /ith the he%' o& instruments to determine ang%es, o& tab%es to ma(e the ca%cu%ation, o& training to 're'are the 'i%ots, into a not:too:inaccurate a''ro6imation o& the %atitude. .&ter "ears o& com'i%ation, the commission /rote

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the Regimen to "oAstrolabio an" "o Oa"rante) 1his boo( on board e er" shi' ga e er" 'ractica% directions on ho/ to use the ;uadrant and ho/ to measure the %atitude b" entering the date, the time, the ang%e o& the sun /ith the horiGonP in addition, the commission com'i%ed a%% the bearings o& good ;ua%it" that had been made at arious %atitudes, s"stematica%%" adding each re%iab%e one. Be&ore this commission, ca'es, ree&s and shoa%s /ere stronger than a%% the shi's, but a&ter this, the carrac(s '%us the commission, '%us the ;uadrants, '%us the sun, had ti''ed the ba%ance o& &orces in &a our o& the #ortuguese carrac(s: the dangerous coast%ine cou%d not rear u' treacherous%" and interru't the mo ement o& the shi'. Sti%%, e en /ith the /inds, the /ood, the coast%ine, the cre/s, the sun, disci'%ined, a%igned, /e%%:dri%%ed and c%ear%" on <ing Fohn5s side, there is no guarantee that a c"c%e o& accumu%ation /i%% be dra/n that /i%% start &rom him and en" /ith him, in Lisbon. *or instance, S'anish shi's ma" di ert the carrac(s out o& their /a"P or the ca'tains /ith their shi's %oaded /ith 'recious s'ices ma" betra" the (ing and se%% them e%se/here to their 'ro&itP or Lisbon5s in estors might (ee' &or themse% es most o& the 'ro&it and bau%( at e;ui''ing a ne/ &%eet to continue the c"c%e. 1hus, in addition to a%% his e&&orts in shi' designing, cartogra'h" and nautica% instructions, the (ing must in ent man" ne/ /a"s to e6tract com'%iance &rom in estors, ca'tains, custom o&&icersP he must insist on %ega% contracts to bind, as much as he

can, /ith signatures, /itnesses and so%emn oaths, his 'i%ots and admira%sP he must be adamant on /e%%:(e't accounting boo(s, on ne/ schemes to raise mone" and to share bene&itsP he must insist on each %og boo( being care&u%%" /ritten, (e't out o& the enem"5s sight, and brought bac( to his o&&ices in order &or its in&ormation to be com'i%ed. 1ogether /ith the #ro%ogue, this e6am'%e introduces us to the most di&&icu%t stage o& this %ong tra e% that %eads us not through the oceans, but through technoscience. 1his cumu%ati e character o& science is /hat has a%/a"s struc( scientists and e'istemo%ogists most. But in order to gras' this &eature, /e ha e to (ee' in ie/ a%% the conditions that a%%o/ a c"c%e o& accumu%ation to ta(e '%ace. .t this 'oint the di&&icu%ties seem enormous because these conditions cut across di isions usua%%" made bet/een economic histor", histor" o& science, histor" o& techno%og", 'o%itics, administration or %a/, since the c"c%e dra/n b" <ing Fohn ma" %ea( at an" seam: it ma" be that a %ega% contract is oided b" a court, or a shi&ting 'o%itica% a%%iance gi es S'ain the u''er hand, or the timber o& a shi' does not resist a t"'hoon, or a misca%cu%ation in the Regiment sends a &%eet ashore, or a mista(e in the a''raisa% o& a 'rice renders a 'urchase /orth%ess, or a microbe brings the '%ague bac( /ith the s'ices .... 1here is no /a" to neat%" order these %in(s into categories, since the" ha e a%% been /o en together, %i(e the man" threads o& a macramM, to ma(e u' &or one another5s /ea(nesses. .%% the distinctions one cou%d /ish to ma(e bet/een domains (economics, 'o%itics, science, techno%og", %a/) are %ess im'ortant than the uni;ue mo ement that ma(es a%% o& these domains cons'ire to/ards the same goa%: a c"c%e o& accumu%ation that a%%o/s a 'oint to become a centre b" acting at a distance on man" other 'oints.

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$& /e /ish to com'%ete our Courne" /e ha e to de&ine /ords that he%' us to &o%%o/ this heterogeneous mi6ture and not to be interru'ted and ba&&%ed e er" time the c"c%e:bui%ders change gears going &rom one domain into another. 7i%% /e ca%% 5(no/%edge5 /hat is accumu%ated at the centre? 3b ious%", it /ou%d be a bad choice o& /ords because becoming &ami%iar /ith distant e ents re;uires, in the abo e e6am'%es, (ings, o&&ices, sai%ors, timber, %ateen rigs, s'ice trades, a /ho%e bunch o& things not usua%%" inc%uded in 5(no/%edge5. 7i%% /e ca%% it 5'o/er5 then? 1hat /ou%d a%so be a mista(e because the rec(oning o& %ands, the &i%%ing: in o& %og boo(s, the tarring o& the careen, the rigging o& a mast, cannot /ithout absurdit" be 'ut under the heading o& this /ord. Ma"be /e shou%d s'ea( o& 5mone"5 or more abstract%" o& 5'ro&it5 since this is /hat the c"c%e adds u' to. .gain, it /ou%d be a bad choice because there is no /a" to ca%% 'ro&it the sma%% bund%e o& &igures 4e Lesse's brings bac( to Hersai%%es or the rutters 'ut in the hands o& <ing FohnP nor is the 'ro&it the main inducement &or La'Mrouse, his natura%ists, his geogra'hers and his %inguists. So ho/ are /e to ca%% /hat is brought bac(? 7e cou%d o& course ta%( o& 5ca'ita%5 that is something (mone", (no/%edge, credit, 'o/er) that has no other &unction but to be instant%" rein ested into another c"c%e o& accumu%ation. 1his /ou%d not be a bad /ord, es'ecia%%" since it comes &rom caput, the head, the master, the centre, the ca'ita% o& a countr", and this is indeed a characterisation o& Lisbon, Hersai%%es, o&

a%% the '%aces ab%e to Coin the beginning and the end o& such a c"c%e. Ho/e er, using this e6'ression /ou%d be begging the ;uestion: /hat is ca'ita%ised is necessari%" turned into ca'ita%, it does not te%% us /hat it is J besides, the /ord 5ca'ita%ism5 has had too con&using a career .. 0o, /e need to get rid o& a%% categories %i(e those o& 'o/er, (no/%edge, 'ro&it or ca'ita%, because the" di ide u' a c%oth that /e /ant seam%ess in order to stud" it as /e choose. *ortunate%", once /e are &reed &rom the con&usion introduced b" a%% these traditiona% terms the ;uestion is rather sim'%e: ho/ to act at a distance on un&ami%iar e ents, '%aces and 'eo'%e? .ns/er: b" someho; bringing home these e ents, '%aces and 'eo'%e. Ho/ can this be achie ed, since the" are distant? B" in enting means that (a) render them mobile so that the" can be brought bac(P (b) (ee' them stable so that the" can be mo ed bac( and &orth /ithout additiona% distortion, corru'tion or deca", and (c) are combinable so that /hate er stu&& the" are made o&, the" can be cumu%ated, aggregated, or shu&&%ed %i(e a 'ac( o& cards. $& those conditions are met, then a sma%% 'ro incia% to/n, or an obscure %aborator", or a 'un" %itt%e com'an" in a garage, that /ere at &irst as /ea( as an" other '%ace /i%% become centres dominating at a distance man" other '%aces.

%5' he mobilisation of the 1orlds

Let us no/ consider some o& the means that a%%o/ mobi%it", stabi%it" or combinabi%it" to im'ro e, ma(ing domination at a distance &easib%e. Cartogra'h" is such a dramatic e6am'%e that $ chose it to introduce the

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argument. 1here is no /a" to bring the %ands themse% es to 9uro'e, nor is it 'ossib%e to gather in Lisbon or at Hersai%%es thousands o& nati e 'i%ots te%%ing na igators /here to go and /hat to do in their man" %anguages. 3n the other hand, a%% the o"ages are /asted i& nothing e6ce't ta%es and tro'hies comes bac(. 3ne o& the 5e6traordinar" means5 that ha e to be de ised is to use tra e%%ing shi's as so man" instruments, that is as tracers that dra/ on a 'iece o& 'a'er the sha'e o& the encountered %and. 1o obtain this resu%t, one shou%d disci'%ine the ca'tains so that, /hate er ha''ens to them, the" ta(e their bearings, describe the shoa%s, and send them bac(. 9 en this is not enough, though, because the centre that gathers a%% these noteboo(s, /ritten di&&erent%" according to di&&erent times and '%aces o& entr", /i%% 'roduce on the dra&ted ma's a chaos o& con&%icting sha'es that e en e6'erienced ca'tains and 'i%ots /i%% hard%" be ab%e to inter'ret. $n conse;uence, man" more e%ements ha e to be 'ut on board the shi's so that the" can ca%ibrate and disci'%ine the e6traction o& %atitudes and %ongitudes (marine c%oc(s, ;uadrants, se6tants, e6'erts, 're'rinted %og boo(s, ear%ier ma's). 1he tra e%%ing shi's become cost%" instruments but /hat the" bring or send bac( can be transcribed on the chart a%most immediate%". B" coding e er" sighting o& an" %and in %ongitude and %atitude (t/o &igures) and b" sending this code bac(, the sha'e o& the sighted %ands ma" be redra/n b" those /ho ha e

not sighted them. 7e understand no/ the crucia% im'ortance o& these bund%es o& &igures carried around the /or%d b" 4e Lesse's and the s(i''er o& the Neptuna, Ca'tain Martin: the" /ere some o& these stab%e, mobi%e and combinab%e e%ements that a%%o/ a centre to dominate &ara/a" %ands. .t this 'oint those /ho /ere the /ea(est because the" remained at the centre and sa/ nothing start becoming the strongest, &ami%iar /ith more '%aces not on%" than an" nati e but than an" tra e%%ing ca'tain as /e%%P a QCo'ernican re o%ution5 has ta(en '%ace. 1his e6'ression /as coined b" the 'hi%oso'her <ant to describe /hat ha''ens /hen an ancient disci'%ine, uncertain and sha(" unti% then, becomes cumu%ati e and Qenters the sure 'ath o& a science5. $nstead o& the mind o& the scientists re o% ing around the things, <ant e6'%ains, the things are made to re o% e around the mind, hence a re o%ution as radica% as the one Co'ernicus is said to ha e triggered. $nstead o& being dominated b" the nati es and b" nature, %i(e the un&ortunate La'Mrouse sta(ing his %i&e e er" da", the cartogra'hers in 9uro'e start gathering in their chart rooms:the most im'ortant and cost%iest o& a%% %aboratories unti% the end o& the eighteenth centur": the bearings o& a%% %ands. Ho/ %arge has the earth become in their chart rooms? 0o bigger than an atlas the '%ates o& /hich ma" be &%attened, combined, reshu&&%ed, su'erim'osed, redra/n at /i%%. 7hat is the conse;uence o& this change o& sca%e? 1he cartogra'her "ominates the /or%d that dominated La'Mrouse. 1he ba%ance o& &orces bet/een the scientists and the earth has been re ersedP cartogra'h" has entered the sure 'ath o& a scienceP a centre (9uro'e) has been constituted that begins to ma(e the rest o& the /or%d turn around itse%&. 3ne other /a" o& bringing about the same Co'ernican re o%ution is to gather collections) 1he sha'es o& the %ands ha e to be coded and dra/n in order to

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become mobi%e, but this is not the case &or roc(s, birds, '%ants, arte&acts, /or(s o& art. 1hose can be e6tracted &rom their conte6t and ta(en a/a" during e#pe"itions) 1hus the histor" o& science is in %arge 'art the histor" o& the mobi%isation o& an":thing that can be made to mo e and shi''ed bac( home &or this uni ersa% census. 1he outcome, ho/e er, is that in man" instances stabi%it" becomes a 'rob%em because man" o& these e%ements die J %i(e the Qha''" sa ages5 anthro'o%ogists ne er tired o& sending to 9uro'e: or become &u%% o& maggotsJ%i(e griGG%" bears Goo%ogists ha e stu&&ed too ;uic(%"P or dr" u'J%i(e 'recious grains natura%ists ha e 'otted in too 'oor a soi%. 9 en those e%ements /hich can /ithstand the tri', %i(e &ossi%s, roc(s or s(e%etons, ma" become meaning%ess once in the basement o& the &e/ museums that are being bui%t in the centres, because not enough conte6t is attached to them. 1hus, man" in entions ha e to be made to enhance the mobi%it", stabi%it" and combinabi%it" o& co%%ected items. Man" instructions are to be gi en to those sent around the /or%d on ho/ to stu&& anima%s, ho/ to dr" u' '%ants, ho/ to %abe% a%% s'ecimens, ho/ to name them, ho/ to 'in do/n butter&%ies, ho/ to 'aint dra/ings o& the anima%s and trees no one can "et bring bac( or

domesticate. 7hen this is done, /hen %arge co%%ections are initiated and maintained, then again the same re o%ution occurs. 1he Goo%ogists in their 0atura% Histor" Museums, /ithout tra e%%ing more than a &e/ hundred metres and o'ening more than a &e/ doGen dra/ers, tra e% through a%% the continents, c%imates and 'eriods. 1he" do not ha e to ris( their %i&e in these ne/ 0oah5s .r(s, the" on%" su&&er &rom the dust and stains made b" '%aster o& #aris. Ho/ cou%d one be sur'rised i& the" start to "ominate the ethnoGoo%og" o& a%% the other 'eo'%es? $t is the contrar" that /ou%d indeed be sur'rising. Man" common &eatures that cou%d not be isib%e bet/een dangerous anima%s &ar a/a" in s'ace and time can easi%" a''ear bet/een one case and the ne6tS 1he Goo%ogists see ne; things, since this is the &irst time that so man" creatures are dra/n together in &ront o& someone5s e"esP that5s a%% there is in this m"sterious beginning o& a science. .s $ said in Cha'ter 8, it is sim'%" a ;uestion o& sca%e. $t is not at the cogniti e di&&erences that /e shou%d mar e%, but at this genera% mobi%isation o& the /or%d that endo/s a &e/ scientists in &roc( coats, some/here in <e/ Oardens, /ith the abi%it" to isua%%" dominate a%% the '%ants o& the earth. + 1here is no reason, ho/e er, to %imit the mobi%isation o& stab%e and combinab%e traces to those '%aces /here a human being can go in the &%esh during an e6'edition. (robes ma" be sent instead. *or instance, the 'eo'%e /ho dig an oi% rig /ou%d er" much %i(e to (no/ ho/ man" barre%s o& oi% the" ha e under their &eet. But there is no /a" to go inside the ground and to see it. 1his is /h", in the ear%" 19)>s, Conrad Sch%umberger, a *rench engineer, had the idea o& sending an e%ectric current through the soi% to measure the e%ectrica% resistance o& the %a"ers o& roc(s at arious '%aces. , .t &irst, the signa%s carried con&using sha'es bac( to their sender, as con&using as the &irst rutters brought bac( to the ear%" cartogra'hers. 1he signa%s /ere stab%e enough, ho/e er, to %ater a%%o/ the geo%ogists to go back an" forth &rom the ne/ e%ectric ma's to the charts o& the sediments the" had dra/n ear%ier. $nstead o& sim'%" digging oi% out, it became

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'ossib%e to accumu%ate traces on ma's that, in turn, a%%o/ed engineers to direct the e6'%oration %ess b%ind%". .n accumu%ation c"c%e /as started /here oi%, mone", 'h"sics and geo%og" he%'ed accumu%ate one another. $n a &e/ decades, doGens o& di&&erent instruments /ere de ised and stac(ed together, s%o/%" trans&orming the in isib%e and inaccessib%e reser es into %oggings a &e/ men cou%d dominate b" sight. 1oda", e er" derric( is used not on%" to 'um' oi% but to carr" sensors o& a%% sorts dee' inside the ground. .t the sur&ace, the Schlumberger engineers, in a mo ab%e %orr" &u%% o& com'uters, are reading the resu%ts o& a%% these measurements inscribed on mi%%imetred 'a'er hundreds o& &eet %ong. 1he main ad antage o& this %ogging is not on%" in the mobi%it" it 'ro ides to the dee' structure o& the ground, not on%" in the stab%e re%ations it estab%ishes bet/een a ma' and this structure, but in the combinations it a%%o/s. 1here is at &irst no sim'%e connection bet/een mone", barre%s, oi%, resistance, heatP no sim'%e /a" o& t"ing together a ban(er in 7a%% Street, an

e6'%oration manager at 966on head;uarters, an e%ectronician s'ecia%ised in /ea( signa%s at C%amart near #aris, a geo'h"sicist in 2idge&ie%d. .%% these e%ements seem to 'ertain to di&&erent rea%ms o& rea%it": economics, 'h"sics, techno%og", com'uter science. $& instead /e consider the c"c%e o& accumu%ation o& stab%e and combinab%e mobi%es, /e %itera%%" see ho/ the" can go together. Consider, &or instance, the 5;uic( %oo( %ogging5 on an oi% '%at&orm in the 0orth Sea: a%% the readings are &irst coded in binar" signa%s and stoc(ed &or &uture, more e%aborate ca%cu%ations, then the" are reinter'reted and redra/n on com'uters /hich s'e/ out o& the 'rinters %ogs /hich are not sca%ed in ohms, microseconds or microe%ectro o%ts, but direct%" in number o& barre%s o& oi%. .t this 'oint, it is not di&&icu%t to understand ho/ '%at&orm managers can '%an their 'roduction cur e, ho/ economists can add to these ma's a &e/ ca%cu%ations o& their o/n, ho/ the ban(ers ma" %ater use these charts to e a%uate the /orth o& the com'an", ho/ the" can a%% be archi ed to he%' the go ernment ca%cu%ate the 'ro en reser es, a er" contro ersia% issue. Man" things can be done /ith this 'a'er /or%d that cannot be done /ith the /or%d. *or a Co'ernican re o%ution to ta(e '%ace it does not matter /hat means are used 'ro ided this goa% is achie ed: a shi&t in /hat counts as centre and /hat counts as 'eri'her". *or instance, nothing dominates us more than the stars. $t seems that there is no /a" to re erse the sca%e and to ma(e us, the astronomers, ab%e to master the s(" abo e our heads. 1he situation is ;uic(%" re ersed, ho/e er, /hen 1"cho Brahe, inside a /e%% e;ui''ed observatory bui%t &or him at 3ranenbourg, starts not on%" to /rite do/n on the same homogeneous charts the 'ositions o& the '%anets, but a%so to gather the sightings made b" other astronomers a%% o er 9uro'e /hich he had as(ed them to /rite do/n on the same 're'rinted &orms he has sent them.8 Here again a irtuous cumu%ati e circ%e starts to un&o%d i& a%% sightings at di&&erent '%aces and times are gathered together and s"no'tica%%" dis'%a"ed. 1he 'ositi e %oo' runs a%% the more ra'id%", i& the same Brahe is ab%e to gather in the same '%ace not on%" &resh obser ations made b" him and his co%%eagues, but a%% the o%der boo(s o& astronom" that the 'rinting 'ress has made a ai%ab%e at a %o/ cost. His mind has not undergone a mutationP his

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e"es are not sudden%" &reed &rom o%d 'reCudicesP he is not /atching the summer s(" more care&u%%" than an"one be&ore. But he is the &irst indeed to consider at a g%ance the summer s(", '%us his obser ations, '%us those o& his co%%aborators, '%us Co'ernicus5 boo(s, '%us man" ersions o& #to%em"5s Almagest> the &irst to sit at the beginning and at the end o& a %ong net/or( that generates /hat $ /i%% ca%% immutable and &ombinable mobiles. .%% these charts, tab%es and traCectories are con enient%" at hand and combinab%e at /i%%, no matter /hether the" are t/ent" centuries o%d or a da" o%dP each o& them brings ce%estia% bodies bi%%ions o& tons hea " and hundreds o& thousands o& mi%es a/a" to the siGe o& a 'oint on a 'iece o& 'a'er. Shou%d /e be sur'rised then i& 1"cho Brahe 'ushes astronom" &urther on 5the sure 'ath o& .a science5? 0o, but /e shou%d mar e% at those man" humb%e means that turn stars and '%anets into 'ieces o& 'a'er inside the obser atories that soon /i%% be bui%t e er"/here in 9uro'e.

1he tas( o& dominating the earth or the s(" is a%most e;ua%%ed in di&&icu%t" b" that o& dominating a countr"5s econom". 1here is no te%esco'e to see it, no co%%ection to gather it, no e6'edition to ma' it out. Here again in the case o& economics, the histor" o& a science is that o& the man" c%e er means to trans&orm /hate er 'eo'%e do, se%% and bu" into something that can be mobi%ised, gathered, archi ed, coded, reca%cu%ated and dis'%a"ed. 3ne such means is to %aunch en9uiries b" sending throughout the countr" 'o%%sters, each /ith the same 'redetermined ;uestionnaire that is to be &i%%ed in, as(ing managers the same ;uestions about their &irms, their %osses and 'ro&its, their 'redictions on the &uture hea%th o& the econom". 1hen, once a%% the ans/ers are gathered, other tab%es ma" be &i%%ed in that summarise, reassemb%e, sim'%i&" and ran( the &irms o& a nation. Someone %oo(ing at the &ina% charts is, in some /a", considering the econom". 3& course, as /e (no/ &rom ear%ier cha'ters, contro ersies /i%% start about the accurac" o& these charts and about /ho ma" be said to s'ea( in the name o& the econom". But as /e a%so (no/, other gra'hic e%ements /i%% be &ed bac( in the contro ersies, acce%erating the accumu%ation c"c%e. Customs o&&icers ha e statistics that can be added to the ;uestionnairesP ta6 o&&icia%s, %abour unions, geogra'hers, Courna%ists a%% 'roduce a huge ;uantit" o& records, 'o%%s and charts. 1hose /ho sit inside the man" Bureaus o& Statistics ma" combine, shu&&%e around, su'erim'ose and reca%cu%ate these &igures and end u' /ith a 5gross nationa% 'roduct5 or a 5ba%ance o& 'a"ments5, e6act%" as others, in di&&erent o&&ices, end u' /ith 5Sa(ha%in is%and5, 5the ta6onom" o& mamma%s5, 5'ro en oi% reser es5 or 5a ne/ '%anetar" s"stem5. .%% these obCects occu'" the beginning and the end o& a simi%ar accumu%ation c"c%eP no matter /hether the" are &ar or near, in&inite%" big or sma%%, in&inite%" o%d or "oung, the" a%% end u' at such sca%e that a &e/ men or /omen can dominate them b" sightP at one 'oint or another, the" a%% ta(e the sha'e o& a &%at sur&ace o& 'a'er that can be archi ed, 'inned on a /a%% and combined /ith othersP the" a%% he%' to re erse the ba%ance o& &orces bet/een those /ho master and those /ho are mastered. 1o be sure, e6'editions, co%%ections, 'robes, obser atories and en;uiries are

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on%" some o& the man" /a"s that a%%o/ a centre to act at a distance. M"riads o& others a''ear as soon as /e &o%%o/ scientists in action, but the" a%% obe" the same se%ecti e 'ressure. 9 er"thing that might enhance either the mobi%it", or the stabi%it", or the combinabi%it" o& the e%ements /i%% be /e%comed and se%ected i& it acce%erates the accumu%ation c"c%e: a ne/ 'rinting 'ress that increases the mobi%it" and the re%iab%e co'"ing o& te6ts: a ne/ /a" to engra e b" a;ua&orte more accurate '%ates inside scienti&ic te6ts, a ne/ 'roCection s"stem that a%%o/s ma's to be dra/n /ith %ess de&ormation o& sha'e, a ne/ chemica% ta6onom" that 'ermits La oisier to /rite do/n the combinations o& more e%ements, but a%so ne/ bott%es to ch%oro&orm anima% s'ecimens, ne/ d"es to co%our microbes in cu%tures, ne/ c%assi&ication schemes in %ibraries to &ind documents &aster, ne/ com'uters to enhance the /ea( signa%s o&

the te%esco'es, shar'er st"%uses to record more 'arameters on the same e%ectrocardiograms. $& in entions are made that trans&orm numbers, images and te6ts &rom a%% o er the /or%d into the same binar" code inside com'uters, then indeed the hand%ing, the combination, the mobi%it", the conser ation and the dis'%a" o& the traces /i%% a%% be &antastica%%" &aci%itated. 7hen "ou hear someone sa" that he or she 5masters5 a ;uestion better, meaning that his or her min" has en%arged, %oo( &irst &or in entions bearing on the mobi%it", immutabi%it" or ersati%it" o& the tracesP and it is on%" %ater, i& b" some e6traordinar" chance, something is sti%% unaccounted &or, that "ou ma" turn to/ards the mind. (.t the end o& #art B, $ /i%% ma(e this a ru%e o& method, once a crucia% e%ement has been added.)

%8' Constru&ting spa&e and time

1he cumu%ati e character o& science is /hat stri(es obser ers so muchP /h" the" de ised the notion o& a Oreat 4i ide bet/een our scienti&ic cu%tures and a%% the others. Com'ared to cartogra'h", Goo%og", astronom" and economics, it seems that each ethnogeogra'h", ethnoGoo%og", ethnoastronom", ethnoeconomics is 'ecu%iar to one '%ace and strange%" non: cumu%ati e, as i& it remained &or e er stuc( in a tin" corner o& s'ace and time. Ho/e er, once the accumu%ation c"c%e and the mobi%isation o& the /or%d it triggers are considered, the su'eriorit" o& some centres o er /hat a''ear b" contrast to be the 'eri'her" ma" be documented /ithout an" additiona% di ide bet/een cu%tures, minds or %ogics. Most o& the di&&icu%ties /e ha e in understanding science and techno%og" 'roceeds &rom our be%ie& that s'ace and time e6ist inde'endent%" as an unsha(ab%e &rame o& re&erence insi"e ;hich e ents and '%ace /ou%d occur. 1his be%ie& ma(es it im'ossib%e to understand ho/ di&&erent s'aces and di&&erent times ma" be 'roduced insi"e the net;orks bui%t to mobi%ise, cumu%ate and recombine the /or%d. *or instance, i& /e imagine that the (no/%edge o& Sa(ha%in is%and 'ossessed b" the Chinese &ishermen is inclu"e" in the scienti&ic cartogra'h" e%aborated b" La'Mrouse, then indeed it a''ears, b" com'arison, %oca%, im'%icit, uncertain and ,5

(())9))

/ea(. But it is no more inc%uded in it than the o'inions about the /eather are a sub:set o& meteoro%og" (see Cha'ter 8, #art .). Cartogra'h" is one net/or( cumu%ating traces in a &e/ centres /hich b" themse% es are as %oca% as each o& the 'oints La'Mrouse, Coo( or Mage%%an crossP the on%" di&&erence is in the s%o/ construction o& a ma' inside these centres, a ma' that de&ines t/o:/a" mo ement to and &rom the 'eri'her". $n other /ords, /e do not ha e to o''ose the %oca% (no/%edge o& the Chinese to the uni ersa% (no/%edge o& the 9uro'ean, but on%" t/o %oca% (no/%edges, one o& them ha ing the sha'e o& a net/or( trans'orting bac( and &orth immutab%e mobi%es to act at a distance. .s $ said in the #ro%ogue, /ho inc%udes and /ho is inc%uded, /ho %oca%ises and /ho is %oca%ised is not a cogniti e or a cu%tura% di&&erence, but

the resu%t o& a constant &ight: La'Mrouse /as ab%e to 'ut Sa(ha%in on a ma', but the South #aci&ic canniba%s that sto''ed his tra e% 'ut him on5their ma'S 1he same di ide seems to ta(e '%ace bet/een %oca% ethnota6onom" and 5uni ersa%5 ta6onomies as %ong as the net/or(s o& accumu%ation are 'ut out o& the 'icture. Can botan", &or instance, dis'%ace a%% the ethnobotanies and s/a%%o/ them as so man" sub:sets? Can botan" be constructed e er"/here in a uni ersa% and abstract s'ace? Certain%" not, because it needs thousands o& care&u%%" 'rotected cases o& dried, gathered, %abe%%ed '%antsP it a%so needs maCor institutions %i(e <e/ Oardens or the Fardin des #%antes /here %i ing s'ecimens are germinated, cu%ti ated and 'rotected against cross:&erti%isation. Most ethnobotanies re;uire &ami%iarit" /ith a &e/ hundred and sometimes a &e/ thousand t"'es (/hich is a%read" more than most o& us can hand%e)P but inside <e/ Oardens, the ne/ &ami%iarit" constituted b" man" sheets o& neighbouring herbaries brought &rom a%% around the /or%d b" e6'editions o& a%% the nations o& 9uro'e re;uires the hand%ing o& tens and sometimes hundreds o& thousands o& t"'es (/hich is too much &or an"one to hand%e). So ne/ inscri'tions and %abe%%ing 'rocedures ha e to be de ised to %imit this number again (see #art B). Botan" is the local kno;le"ge generated inside gathering institutions %i(e the Fardin des #%antes or <e/ Oardens. $t does not e6tend &urther than that (or i& it does, as /e /i%% see in #art C, it is b" e6tending the net/or(s as /e%%). 7 1o go on in our Courne" /e shou%d &orce these immense e6tents o& s'ace and time generated b" geo%og", astronom", microsco'", etc., bac( inside their net/or(s J these 'hentograms, bi%%ions o& e%ectro o%ts, abso%ute Geros and eons o& timesP no matter ho/ in&inite%" big, %ong or sma%% the" are, these sca%es are ne er much bigger than the &e/ metre s;uares o& a geo%ogica% or an astronomica% ma', and ne er much more di&&icu%t to read than a /atch. 7e, the readers, do not %i e insi"e s'ace, that has bi%%ions o& ga%a6ies in itP on the contrar", this s'ace is generated insi"e the obser ator" b" ha ing, &or instance, a com'uter count %itt%e dots on a 'hotogra'hic '%ate. 1o su''ose, &or e6am'%e, that it is 'ossib%e to dra/ together in a s"nthesis the times o& astronom", geo%og", bio%og", 'rimato%og" and anthro'o%og" has about as much meaning as ma(ing a s"nthesis bet/een the 'i'es or cab%es o& /ater, gas, e%ectricit", te%e'hone and te%e ision. Iou are ashamed o& not gras'ing /hat it is to s'ea( o& mi%%ions o& %ight "ears?

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4on5t be ashamed, because the &irm gras' the astronomer has o er it comes &rom a sma%% ruler he &irm%" a''%ies to a map of the s(" %i(e "ou do to "our road ma' /hen "ou go out &or a cam'ing tri'. .stronom" is the %oca% (no/%edge 'roduced inside these centres that gather 'hotogra'hs, s'ectra, radio signa%s, in&rared 'ictures, e er"thing that ma(es a trace that other 'eo'%e can easi%" dominate. Iou &ee% bad because the nanometres o& %i ing ce%%s ba&&%e "our mind? But it means nothing &or an"one as %ong as it ba&&%es the mind. $t begins to mean

something /hen the nanometres are centimetres %ong on the sca%ed:u' e%ectron 'hotogra'h of the ce%%, that is /hen the e"e sees it at the &ami%iar sca%e and distance. 0othing is un&ami%iar, in&inite, gigantic or &ar a/a" in these centres that cumu%ate tracesP ;uite the o''osite, the" cumu%ate so man" traces so that e er"thing can become &ami%iar, &inite, nearb" and hand". $t seems strange at &irst to c%aim that s'ace and time ma" be constructed %oca%%", but these are the most common of a%% constructions. S'ace is constituted b" re ersib%e and time b" irre ersib%e dis'%acements. Since e er"thing de'ends on ha ing e%ements dis'%aced each in ention of a ne/ immutab%e mobi%e is going to trace a di&&erent s'ace:time. 7hen the *rench 'h"sio%ogist Mare" in ented at the end o& the nineteenth centur" the 'hotogra'hic gun /ith /hich one cou%d ca'ture the mo ement of a man and trans&orm it into a beauti&u% isua% dis'%a", he com'%ete%" reshu&&%ed this 'art of s'ace:time. #h"sio%ogists had ne er be&ore been ab%e to dominate the mo ement of running men, ga%%o'ing horses and &%"ing birds, on%" dead cor'ses or anima%s in chains. 1he ne/ inscri'tion de ice brought the %i ing obCects to their des(s /ith one crucia% change: the irre ersib%e &%o/ of time /as no/ s"no'tica%%" presente" to their e"es. $t had in e&&ect become a s'ace on /hich, once again, ru%ers, geometr" and e%ementar" mathematics cou%d be a''%ied. 9ach of Mare"5s simi%ar in entions %aunched 'h"sio%og" into a ne/ cumu%ati e cur e. 1o ta(e u' an ear%ier e6am'%e, as %ong as the #ortuguese carrac(s disa''eared en route, no s'ace be"ond the BoCador Ca'e cou%d be 'ictured. .s soon as the" started to re ersib%" come and go, an e er:increasing s'ace /as traced around Lisbon. .nd so /as a ne/ time: nothing be&ore cou%d easi%" discriminate one "ear &rom another in this ;uiet %itt%e cit", at the other end of 9uro'eP 5nothing ha''ened5 in it, as i& time /as &roGen there. But /hen the carrac(s started to come bac( /ith their tro'hies, boot", go%d and s'ices, indeed things 5ha''ened5 in Lisbon, trans&orming the %itt%e 'ro incia% cit" into the ca'ita% o& an em'ire %arger than the 2oman 9m'ire. 1he same construction o& a ne/ histor" /as a%so &e%t a%% a%ong the coasts o& .&rica, $ndia and the Mo%uccasP nothing /ou%d be the same again no/ that a ne/ cumu%ati e net/or( brought the s'ices to Lisbon instead o& Cairo. 1he on%" /a" to %imit this construction o& a ne/ s'ace:time /ou%d be to interru't the mo ement o& the carrac(s, that is, to bui%d another net/or( /ith a di&&erent orientation. Let us consider another e6am'%e o& this construction, one that is %ess grandiose than the #ortuguese e6'ansion. 7hen #ro&essor BiC(er and his co%%eagues enters the 4e%&t H"drau%ics Laborator" in Ho%%and the" are 'reoccu'ied b" the sha'e

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that a ne/ dam to be bui%t in 2otterdam harbour: the biggest 'ort in the /or%d : shou%d ta(e. 1heir 'rob%em is to ba%ance the &resh /ater o& the ri ers and sea /ater. So man" dams ha e %imited the out&%o/ o& the ri ers that sa%t, dangerous &or the 'recious &%ora% cu%ture, is

'enetrating &urther in%and. $s the ne/ dam going to a&&ect the sa%t or the &resh /ater? Ho/ can this be (no/n be&orehand? #ro&essor BiC(er5s ans/er to this ;uestion is a radica% one. 1he engineers bui%d a dam, measure the in&%o/ o& sa%t and &resh /ater &or a &e/ "ears &or di&&erent /eather and tide conditionsP then the" destro" the dam and bui%d another one, start the measurements again, and so on, a doGen times unti% the" ha e %imited to the best o& their abi%it" the inta(e o& sea /ater. 1/ent" "ears and man" mi%%ion &%orins %ater, the H"drau%ics Lab is ab%e to te%% the #ort .uthorit" o& 2otterdam /ith a high degree o& re%iabi%it" /hat sha'e the dam shou%d ha e. .re the o&&icia%s rea%%" going to /ait t/ent" "ears? .re the" going to s'end mi%%ions o& &%orins bui%ding and destro"ing /har&s, thus b%oc(ing the tra&&ic o& the bus" harbour? 1he" do not need to, because the "ears, the ri ers, the amount o& &%orins, the /har&s, and the tides ha e been scale" "o;n in a huge garage that #ro&essor BiC(er, %i(e a modem Ou%%i er, can cross in a &e/ strides. 1he H"drau%ics Laborator" has &ound /a"s to render the harbour mobi%e, ignoring those &eatures deemed irre%e ant, %i(e the houses and the 'eo'%e, and estab%ishing stab%e t/o:/a" connections bet/een some e%ements o& the scale mo"el and those o& the &u%%:sca%e 'ort, %i(e the /idth o& the channe%, the strength o& the &%o/s, the duration o& the tides. 3ther &eatures /hich cannot be sca%ed do/n, %i(e /ater itse%& or sand, ha e been sim'%" trans&erred &rom the sea and the ri ers to the '%aster basins. 9 er" t/o metres ca'tors and sensors ha e been set u', /hich are a%% hoo(ed u' on a big main&rame com'uter that /rites do/n on mi%%imetred 'a'er the amount o& sa%t and &resh /ater in e er" 'art o& the Li%%i'utian harbour. 1/o:/a" connections are estab%ished bet/een these sensors and the much &e/er, bigger and cost%ier ones that ha e been 'ut into the &u%%:sca%e harbour. Since the sca%e mode% is sti%% too big to be ta(en in at a g%ance, ideo cameras ha e been insta%%ed that a%%o/ one contro% room to chec( i& the tide 'atterns, the /a e:ma(ing machine and the arious s%uices are /or(ing correct%". 1hen, the giant #ro&essor BiC(er ta(es a metre:%ong '%aster mode% o& the ne/ dam, &i6es it into '%ace and %aunches a &irst round o& tides shortened to t/e% e minutesP then he ta(es it out, tries another one and continues. Sure enough, another 5Co'ernican re o%ution5 has ta(en '%ace. 1here are not that man" /a"s to master a situation. 9ither "ou dominate it 'h"sica%%"P or "ou dra/ on "our side a great man" a%%iesP or e%se, "ou tr" to be there be&ore an"bod" e%se. Ho/ can this be done? Sim'%" b" re ersing the &%o/ o& time. #ro&essor BiC(er and his co%%eagues "ominate the 'rob%em, master it more easi%" than the 'ort o&&icia%s /ho are out there in the rain and are much sma%%er than the %andsca'e. 7hate er ma" ha''en in the &u%%:sca%e s'ace:time, the engineers /i%% ha e alrea"y seen it) 1he" /i%% ha e become s%o/%" ac;uainted /ith a%% the 'ossibi%ities, rehearsing each scenario at %eisure, ca'ita%ising on 'a'er 'ossib%e outcomes,

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/hich gi es them "ears o& e6'erience more than the others. 1he order o& time and s'ace has been com'%ete%" reshu&&%ed. 4o the" ta%( /ith more authorit" and more certaint" than the

/or(men bui%ding the rea% dam there? 7e%%, o& course, since the" ha e a%read" made a%% 'ossib%e b%unders and mista(es, sa&e%" inside the /ooden ha%% in 4e%&t, consuming on%" '%aster and a &e/ sa%aries a%ong the /a", inad ertent%" &%ooding not mi%%ions o& hard:/or(ing 4utch but doGens o& metres o& concrete &%oor. 0o matter ho/ stri(ing it is, the su'eriorit" gained b" #ro&essor BiC(er o er the o&&icia%s, architects and masons about the sha'e o& the dam is no more su'ernatura% than that o& Mare", o& the #ortuguese or o& the astronomer. $t sim'%" de'ends on the 'ossibi%it" o& bui%ding a di&&erent s'ace:time. 7e no/ ha e a much c%earer idea o& /hat it is to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers in action. 7e (no/ that the" do not e6tend 5e er"/here5 as i& there e6isted a Oreat 4i ide bet/een the uni ersa% (no/%edge o& the 7esterners and the %oca% (no/%edge o& e er"one e%se, but instead that the" tra e% inside narro/ and &ragi%e net/or(s, resemb%ing the ga%%eries termites bui%d to %in( their nests to their &eeding sites. $nside these net/or(s, the" ma(e traces o& a%% sorts circu%ate better b" increasing their mobi%it", their s'eed, their re%iabi%it", their abi%it" to combine /ith one another. 7e a%so (no/ that these net/or(s are not bui%t /ith homogeneous materia% but, on the contrar", necessitate the /ea ing together o& a mu%titude o& di&&erent e%ements /hich renders the ;uestion o& /hether the" are 5scienti&ic5 or 5technica%5 or 5economic5 or 5'o%itica%5 or 5manageria%5 meaning%ess. *ina%%", /e (no/ that the resu%ts o& bui%ding, e6tending and (ee'ing u' these net/or(s is to act at a distance, that is to do things in the centres that sometimes ma(e it 'ossib%e to dominate s'atia%%" as /e%% as chrono%ogica%%" the 'eri'her". 0o/ that /e ha e s(etched the genera% abi%it" o& these net/or(s to act at a distance and 'ortra"ed the mobi%isation and accumu%ation o& traces, there are t/o more 'rob%ems to tac(%e: /hat is done in the centres and on the accumu%ated traces that gi es a de&initi e edge to those /ho reside there (#art B)P and /hat is to be done to maintain the net/or(s in e6istence, so that the ad antages gained in the centres ha e some bearing on /hat ha''ens at a distance (#art C).

$art B. Centres of &al&ulation

.&ter ha ing &o%%o/ed e6'editions, co%%ections and en;uiries, and obser ed the setting u' o& ne/ obser atories, o& ne/ inscri'tion de ices and o& ne/ 'robes, /e are no/ %ed bac( to the centres /here these c"c%es started &romP inside these centres, s'ecimens, ma's, diagrams, %ogs, ;uestionnaires and 'a'er &orms o& a%% sorts are accumu%ated and are used b" scientists and engineers to esca%ate the 'roo& raceP e er" domain enters the 5sure 'ath o& a science5 /hen its s'o(es'ersons ha e so man" a%%ies on their side. 1he tin" number o& scientists is more than ba%anced b" the %arge number o& resources the" are ab%e to muster. Oeo%ogists can no/ mobi%ise on their beha%& not a &e/ roc(s and a &e/ nice /ater

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co%curs o& e6otic %andsca'es, but hundreds o& s;uare metres o& geo%ogica% ma's o& di&&erent 'arts o& the earth. . mo%ecu%ar bio%ogist, /hen she ta%(s o& mutations in maiGe, ma" no/ ha e

at her side not a &e/ /i%d cobs, but 'rotoco% boo(s &u%% o& thousands o& cross:breeding resu%ts. 1he directors o& the Census Bureau no/ ha e on their des(s not on%" ne/s'a'er c%i''ings /ith o'inions on ho/ big and rich their countr" is, but stoc(s o& statistics e6tracted &rom e er" i%%age that arra" their countr"'eo'%e b" age, se6, race and /ea%th. .s &or astronomers, a chain o& radio:te%esco'es /or(ing together trans&orms the /ho%e earth into one sing%e antenna that de%i ers thousands o& radio sources through com'uterised cata%ogues to their o&&ices. 9 er" time an instrument is hoo(ed u' to something, masses o& inscri'tions 'our in, ti''ing the scale once again b" &orcing the /or%d to come to the centres J at %east on 'a'er. 1his mobi%isation o& e er"thing that can 'ossib%" be inscribed and mo ed bac( and &orth is the sta'%e o& technoscience and shou%d be (e't in mind i& /e /ant to understand /hat is going on inside the centres.

%(' ying all the allies firmly together

7hen entering the man" '%aces /here stab%e and mobi%e traces are gathered, the &irst 'rob%em /e /i%% encounter is ho/ to get ri" of them) 1his is not a 'arado6, but sim'%" an outcome o& the setting u' o& instruments. 9ach o"age o& e6'%oration, each e6'edition, each ne/ 'rinter, each night o& obser ation o& the s(", each ne/ 'o%%, is going to contribute to the generation o& thousands o& crates o& s'ecimens or o& sheets o& 'a'er. 2emember that the &e/ men and /omen sitting inside 0atura% Histor" Museums, Oeo%ogica% Sur e"s, Census Bureaus or other %aboratories do not ha e es'ecia%%" huge brains. .s soon as the number or the sca%e o& e%ements to hand%e increases, the" get %ost %i(e an"one e%se. 1he er" success o& the mobi%isation, the er" ;ua%it" o& the instruments, /i%% ha e as its &irst conse;uence their dro/ning in a &%ood o& inscri'tions and s'ecimens. B" itse%&, the mobi%isation o& resources is no guarantee o& ictor"P on the contrar", a geo%ogist surrounded b" hundreds o& crates &u%% o& un%abe%%ed &ossi%s is in no better 'osition to dominate the earth than /hen he /as in #atagonia or in Chi%e. 1his &%ooding o& in estigators b" the inscri'tions is, so to s'ea(, a re enge o& the mobi%ised /or%d. 5Let the earth come to me, instead o& me going to the earth,5 sa"s the geo%ogist /ho starts a Co'ernican re o%ution. 5Her" /e%%,5 ans/ers the earth, 5here $ amS5 1he resu%t is utter con&usion in the basement o& the bui%ding o& the Oeo%ogica% Sur e". Because o& this situation, a""itional /or( has to be done inside the centres to mo' u' the inscri'tions and re erse the ba%ance o& &orces once more. $ de&ined abo e the stabi%it" o& the traces as the 'ossibi%it" o& going bac( and &orth &rom the centres to the 'eri'her"P this &eature is a%%(he more essentia% /hen going &rom 'rimar" traces to second degree traces that ma(e 'ossib%e the hand%ing o& the &irst.

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%A' S!,AIN: A FE6 ,!:IS ICA, $3!B,EMS

*or instance, the director o& the census cannot be con&ronted at the same time /ith the 1>> mi%%ion ;uestionnaires brought in b" the 'o%%sters. He /ou%d see nothing but reams o& 'a'er J and, to begin /ith, he /i%% be unab%e to (no/ ho/ man" ;uestionnaires there are. 3ne so%ution is to do to the ;uestionnaires /hat the ;uestionnaires did to the 'eo'%e, that is, to e6tract &rom them some e%ements and to '%ace them on another more mobi%e, more combinab%e 'a'er &orm. 1his o'eration o& tic(ing ro/s and co%umns /ith a 'enci% is a humb%e but a crucia% oneP in e&&ect, it is the same o'eration through /hich /hat 'eo'%e said to the 'o%%ster /as trans&ormed into bo6es o& the ;uestionnaire or through /hich Sa(ha%in is%and /as trans&ormed b" La'Mrouse into %atitude and %ongitude on a ma'. $n a%% cases the same 'rob%em is 'artia%%" so% ed: ho/ to (ee' "our in&ormants b" "our side /hi%e the" are &ar a/a". Iou cannot bring the 'eo'%e to the Census 3&&ice, but "ou can bring the ;uestionnairesP "ou cannot dis'%a" a%% the ;uestionnaires, but "ou can sho/ a ta%%" /here each ans/er to the ;uestionnaire is re'resented b" a tic( in a co%umn &or se6, age, etc. 0o/, a ne/ 'rob%em /i%% emerge i& the ta%%ies are care&u%%" done: "ou /i%% obtain too man" mar(s on too man" co%umns &or e en the best mind to embrace them a%% at once. 1hus "ou /i%% be s/am'ed again in 'a'er &orms e6act%" as "ou /ere /ith the ;uestionnaires and ear%ier /ith the 'eo'%e. . third degree 'a'er &orm is no/ necessar" to record not the mar(s an" more, but the totals at the bottom o& each ro/ and co%umn. Numbers are one o& the man" /a"s to sum u', to summarise, to tota%ise J as the name Qtota%5 indicatesJ to bring together e%ements /hich are, ne erthe%ess, not there. 1he 'hrase Q1,,8-,)+9 babies5 is no more made o& cr"ing babies than the /ord Qdog5 is a bar(ing dog. 0e erthe%ess, once ta%%ied in the census, the 'hrase estab%ishes some re%ations bet/een the demogra'hers5 o&&ice and the cr"ing babies o& the %and. Ho/e er, the &%ood is going to be shi&ted some/here e%se in the Census Bureau, because too man" tota%s are no/ 'ouring in &rom the thousands o& mar(s in co%umns or &rom ho%es in 'unch cards. 0e/ &ourth degree inscri'tions ('ercentages &or instance or gra'hs or 'ie charts) ha e to be de ised to mo' u' the tota%s again, to mobi%ise them in a dis'%a"ab%e &orm /hi%st sti%% retaining some o& their &eatures. 1his cascade o& &ourth, &i&th and nth order inscri'tion /i%% ne er sto', es'ecia%%" i& the 'o'u%ation, the com'uters, the 'ro&ession o& demogra'h", statistics and economics, and the Census Bureau a%% gro/ together. $n a%% cases, the nth order inscri'tion /i%% no/ stan" for the nth !$ order 'a'er &orms e6act%" as these in turn stoo" for the %e e% Cust be%o/. 7 e (no/ &rom ear%ier cha'ters that these trans%ations and re'resentations ma" be dis'uted, but this is not the 'oint hereP the 'oint is that, in case o& a dis'ute, other ta%%ies, code /ords, indicators, metres and counters /i%% a%%o/ dissenters to go bac( &rom the nth &ina% inscri'tion to the ;uestionnaires (e't in the archi es and, &rom it, to the 'eo'%e in the %and. 1hat is, some t/o:/a" re%ations ha e been estab%ished bet/een the des( o& the director and the 'eo'%e, re%ations that a%%o/ the director, i& there is no dissenter,

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to engage in some contro ersies as i& s'ea(ing in the name o& his mi%%ions o& /e%%:arra"ed and nice%" dis'%a"ed a%%ies. 1his e6am'%e is enough to de&ine the additiona% /or( necessar" to trans&orm the inscri'tions. 7hat sha%% /e ca%% this /or(? 7 e cou%d sa" that the tas( is to ma(e the man" act as oneP or to estab%ish %onger net/or(sP or to sim'%i&" "et again the inscri'tionsP or to bui%d u' a cascade o& successi e re'resentati esP or to 5'unctua%ise5 a mu%titude o& tracesP or to simu%taneous%" mobi%ise e%ements /hi%e (ee'ing them at a distance. 7hate er /e ca%% it, the genera% sha'e is eas" to gras': 'eo'%e inside the centres are bus" bui%ding e%ements /ith such 'ro'erties that /hen "ou ho%d the &ina% e%ements "ou a%so, in some /a", ho%d the others, bui%ding, in e&&ect, centres insi"e the centres) 3ne more e6am'%e /i%% gi e a more 'recise idea o& this additiona% /or(, /hich shou%d not be se ered &rom the rest o& net/or( bui%ding. 7hen the" organised their &irst internationa% meeting in <ar%sruhe in 18->, 9uro'ean chemists /ere in a state o& con&usion simi%ar to the one $ s(etched abo e, because e er" ne/ schoo% o& chemistr", e er" ne/ instrument /as 'roducing ne/ chemica% e%ements and hundreds o& ne/ chemica% reactions. 8 La oisier %isted thirt":three sim'%e substances, but /ith the introduction o& e%ectro%"sis and s'ectra% ana%"sis, the %ist has increased to se ent" at the time o& the meeting. 1o be sure the cascade o& trans&ormations /as a%read" /e%% under /a"P each substance had been renamed and %abe%%ed /ith a common ta%%" (its atomic /eight, standardised at the <ar%sruhe meeting), a%%o/ing chemists to /rite do/n %ists o& substance and to ran( them in mu%ti'%e /a"s, but this /as not enough to dominate the mu%ti'%icit" o& reactions. .s a resu%t, introductor" courses to the ne/%" 'ro&essiona%ised chemistr" /ere made o& %ong and rather chaotic %ists o& reactions. 1o remed" this con&usion, doGens o& chemists /ere at the time bus" c%assi&"ing chemica% substances, that is dra/ing some sort o& tab%es /ith co%umns so de ised that, considering them s"no'tica%%", chemistr" cou%d be embraced, in the same /a" as the earth can be o er ie/ed on a ma' or a nation through statistics. Mende%ee , /ho had been as(ed to /rite a chemistr" te6tboo(, /as one o& them. Be%ie ing that it /as 'ossib%e to &ind a rea% c%assi&ication and not to /rite do/n a mere stam' co%%ection he distinguished 5substance5 &rom 5e%ement5. He /rote each e%ement do/n on a card, and shu&&%ed the 'ac( as in a 'atience game, tr"ing to &ind some recurring 'attern. 1here is no reason to gi e u' &o%%o/ing scientists sim'%" because the" are hand%ing 'a'er and 'enci% instead o& /or(ing in %aboratories or tra e%%ing through the /or%d. 1he construction o& nth order 'a'er &orm is no di&&erent &rom the nth !$ E a%though it is sometimes more e%usi e and much %ess studied. 1he di&&icu%t" o& this ne/ 'atience game in ented b" Mende%ee is not on%" to %oo( &or a 'attern b" %ines and co%umns that /ou%d inc%ude a%% the e%ements J e er"one e%se had done this be&oreP the di&&icu%t" is to decide, in cases /here some e%ement does not &it, or /hen there is no e%ement to &i%% in a bo6, i& the dra&ted tab%e is to be discarded or i& the missing e%ements are to be either brought &rom e%se/here or disco ered %ater. .&ter %ong strugg%es bet/een di&&erent tab%es and man" counter:

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e6am'%es, Mende%ee sett%ed, on March 18-9, on a com'romise that satis&ied him: a tab%e that %isted e%ements b" their atomic /eight and ran(ed them ertica%%" b" their a%ences, re;uiring on%" se era% e%ements to be dis'%aced and se era% others to be &ound. 9ach e%ement is no/ situated on a ne/ 'a'er &orm at the intersection o& a %ongitude and o& a %atitudeP those on the same horiGonta% %ine are c%ose b" their atomic /eight a%though &oreign b" their chemica% 'ro'ertiesP those on the same ertica% %ine are simi%ar b" their 'ro'erties a%though the" are more and more distant b" their atomic /eight. . ne/ s'ace is thus %oca%%" createdP ne/ re%ations o& distance and 'ro6imit", ne/ neighbourhoods, ne/ &ami%ies are de ised: a 'eriodicit" (hence the name o& his tab%e) a''ears /hich /as in isib%e unti% then in the chaos o& chemistr". .t each trans%ation o& traces onto a ne/ one something is gaine") Louis @H$ at Hersai%%es can "o things /ith the ma' (&or instance dra/ boundaries to 'artition the #aci&ic) that neither the Chinese nor La'Mrouse cou%d doP #ro&essor BiC(er can become &ami%iar /ith the &uture o& 2otterdam harbour (&orinstance chec(ing its resistance to an e%e ation o& the 0orth Sea) before the o&&icia%s, the sai%ors and the 0orth SeaP demogra'hers can see things on the &ina% cur e summarising the census (&or instance age '"ramids) that none o& the 'o%%sters, none o& the 'o%iticians, none o& the inter ie/ed 'eo'%e cou%d see be&oreP Mende%ee can gain in ad ance some familiarity /ith an em't" bo6 o& his tab%e be&ore the er" 'eo'%e /ho disco ered the missing e%ements (%i(e Leco; de Boisbaudran /ith ga%%ium occu'"ing the bo6 %e&t acant in the tab%e under the name o& e(a:a%uminum). 9 $t is im'ortant &or us to do Custice to the c%e erness o& this additiona% /or( going on in the centres /ithout e6aggerating it and /ithout &orgetting that it is Cust that a""itional /or(, a s%ight enhancement o& one o& the three ;ua%ities o& the inscri'tions, name%" mobi%it", stabi%it" and combinabi%it". *irst, the gain does not a%/a"s o&&set the %osses that are entai%ed b" the trans%ation o& one &orm into another (see #art C): ho%ding the ma' in Hersai%%es did not 'rotect Louis @H$5s 'ossessions &rom being ta(en o er b" the 9ng%ishP there is no guarantee that the e ents o& the 4e%&t sca%e mode% /i%% be mimic(ed b" the 2otterdam harbour in the ne6t centur"P '%anning an increasing birth rate in the Census Bureau is not e6act%" %i(e concei ing ne/ babiesP as to Mende%ee 5s tab%e it /as to be soon disru'ted b" the emergence o& radioacti e chemica% monsters he cou%d not '%ace. Second, /hen there is a gain, it is not su'ernatura% 'o/er brought to the scientists b" an ange% sent straight &rom Hea en. 1he gain is on the 'a'er &orm itse%&. *or instance, the su''%ement o&&ered b" the ma' is on the &%at sur&ace o& 'a'er /hich is easi%" dominated b" the e"es and on /hich man" di&&erent e%ements can be 'ainted, dra/n, su'erim'osed and inscribed. $t /as ca%cu%ated that dra/ing a ma' o& 9ng%and /ith )>> to/ns (that is an in'ut o& ,>> %ongitudes and %atitudes) a%%o/s "ou to trace )>,>>> itineraries &rom one to/n to another (thus "ie%ding an out'ut 8> to 1S). 1> Simi%ar%", the em't" bo6es in Mende%ee 5s tab%e are o&&ered to him by the geometrica% 'attern o& ro/s and co%umns. 1o be sure, his success in antici'ating un(no/n e%ements to &i%% in the bo6es is an im'ressi e one. 7hat is a%so e6traordinar" is ho/ chemica% reactions ta(ing '%ace in ga%%i'ots and sti%%s a%%

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o er 9uro'e ha e been brought to bear on a sim'%e 'attern o& ro/s and co%umns through a %ong cascade o& trans%ations. $n other /ords, the logistics o& immutab%e mobi%es is /hat /e ha e to admire and stud", not the seeming%" miracu%ous su''%ement o& &orce gained b" scientists thin(ing hard in their o&&ices.

%B' CA,C#,A IN:. A ,AS .. .

$nside the centres, %ogistics re;uires the &ast mobi%isation o& the %argest number o& e%ements and their greatest 'ossib%e &usion. 1a%%ies, tota%s, gra'hs, tab%es, %ists, these are some o& the too%s that ma(e the additiona% treatment o& inscri'tions 'ossib%e. 1here e6ist a &e/ others that ha e recei ed both too much and too %itt%e attention. 1oo much because the" are the obCect o& a cu%tP too %itt%e because too &e/ 'eo'%e ha e studied them dis'assionate%". .s a conse;uence there is not a %arge bod" o& em'irica% %iterature on /hich /e can re%" to guide our tra e%, as /e cou%d in the other cha'ters. 7hen /e reach the rea%m o& ca%cu%ations and theories /e are %e&t a%most em't":handed. $n the remainder o& this #art, $ must con&ess that /hat is %e&t is a 'rogramme o& research, not an accumu%ation o& resu%tsP /hat is %e&t is obstinac", not resources. 1he ris( o& the cascade $ 'resented abo e is o& ending u' /ith a &e/ manageab%e but meaning%ess numbers, insu&&icient at an" rate in case o& contro ers" since, in e&&ect, the a%%ies ha e deserted in the meantime. $nstead o& a ca'ita%isation, the centres /ou%d end u' /ith a net %oss. 1he idea% /ou%d be to retain as man" e%ements as 'ossib%e and sti%% be ab%e to manage them. Statistics is a nice e6am'%e o& those de ices that simu%taneous%" so% e the t/o 'rob%ems. *or instance, i& $ gi e the director o& the census the mean 'o'u%ation increase in the %and, he /i%% be interested but a%so disa''ointed because he %ost in the 'rocess the dis'ersion (the same mean cou%d be obtained b" a &e/ eight:chi%d &ami%ies or b" a %ot o& t/o:and:a:ha%&: chi%d &ami%ies). 1he sim'%i&ication has been such that the director gets on%" an im'o erished ersion o& the census. $& a ne/ ca%cu%ation is in ented that (ee's, through the arious sim'%i&ications, both the mean and the dis'ersion o& the data, then 'art o& the 'rob%em is so% ed. 1he in ention o& variance is one o& these de ices that continue to so% e the maCor 'rob%ems o& the inscri'tions: mobi%it", combinabi%it" and &aith&u%ness. So is the in ention o& sam'%ing. 7hat is the minimum sam'%e that a%%o/s me to re'resent the %argest number o& &eatures? Statistics, as its name and histor" indicates, is the science o& s'o(es'ersons and statesmen par e#cellence) 11 Let us ta(e as another e6am'%e, the /or( o& 2e"no%ds, a British engineer s'ecia%ising in &%uid mechanics /ho, at the turn o& the centur", studied the com'%e6 'rob%em o& turbu%ence. 1) Ho/ can "ou relate the man" instances o& turbu%ence obser ed in sca%e mode%s, or a%ong ri ers? 1hese instances are a%read" summed u' in sentences o& the &orm 5the more . . . the more5, 5the more . . . the %ess5. 1he &aster the &%o/ the more turbu%ence there isP the bigger the obstac%e encountered b" the &%o/ the more turbu%ence there /i%% beP the denser a &%uid the

(()+8))

more 'rone to turbu%ence it isP &ina%%", the more iscous a &%uid the %ess turbu%ence there /i%% be (oi% turns smooth%" around an obstac%e that /ou%d ha e triggered eddies in /ater). Can these sentences be more &irm%" tied together in an nP$ inscri'tion? $nstead o& tic(ing bo6es in tab%es /e are going to gi e a %etter to each o& the re%e ant /ords abo e and re'%ace the com'arati es 5more5 and 5%ess5 b" mu%ti'%ication and di ision. 1he ne/ summar" has no/ this sha'e: 1(urbu%ence) is 'ro'ortiona% to S('eed) 1 is 'ro'ortiona% to L(ength o& the obstac%e) 1 is 'ro'ortiona% to 4(ensit") 1 1 is in erse%" 'ro'ortiona% to H(iscosit"), or 1 (1D H) 1his ne/ trans%ation does not seem to add muchP e6ce't that it can no/ be dis'%a"ed s"no'tica%%" in a sti%% shorter &orm: 1 (is re%ated to) (SL4 D H) 1here is no great gain "etP the ne/ summar" sim'%" states that there e6ist tight re%ations bet/een these e%ements and indicates rough%" /hat t"'e o& re%ation it is. .&ter some &idd%ing around so that the units com'ensate one another and gi e a non:dimensiona% number, 2e"no%ds ends u' /ith a ne/ &ormu%a: 2 [ (SL4 D H) $s there an"thing gained b" ho%ding 2e"no%ds5s &ormu%a or is it sim'%" an abridged summar" o& a%% the instances? .s in Mende%ee 5s tab%e, and indeed a%% the re/ritings obser ed in this section, something is gained because each trans%ation reshu&&%es the connections bet/een e%ements (thus creating a ne/ s'ace:time). Situations /hich a''eared as &ar a'art as a &ast %itt%e cree( running against a stone and a big s%o/ ri er sto''ed b" a dam, or a &eather &a%%ing in the air and a bod" s/imming in mo%asses, ma" 'roduce turbu%ences /hich %oo( the same i& the" ha e the 5same 2e"no%ds5 (as it is no/ ca%%ed). 2 is no/ a coefficient that can %abe% a%% 'ossib%e turbu%ences, /hether ga%a6ies in the s(" or (nots on a tree, and it does indeed, as the name 5coe&&icient5 reminds us, ma(e a%% turbu%ences act as one in the 'h"sicist5s %ab. Better sti%%, the 2e"no%ds number a%%o/s #ro&essor BiC(er in his %aborator", or an aircra&t engineer in a /ind tunne%, to decide ho/ to sca%e do/n a gi en situation. .s %ong as the sca%e mode% retains the same 2e"no%ds as the &u%%:sca%e situation, /e can /or( on the mode% e en i& it 5%oo(s5 entire%" di&&erent. 4i&&erences and simi%arities are recombined as /e%% as /hat t"'es o& inscri'tions one shou%d be%ie e more than others. .%though this is indeed a decisi e ad antage 'ro ided b" /hat is a't%" ca%%ed an e9uation (because it ties di&&erent things together and ma(es them e;ui a%ent), this ad antage shou%d

not be e6aggerated. *irst, an e;uation is no di&&erent in nature &rom a%% the other too%s that a%%o/ e%ements to be brought together, mobi%ised, arra"ed and dis'%a"edP no di&&erent &rom a tab%e, a ;uestionnaire, a %ist, a gra'h, a co%%ectionP it is sim'%", as the end:'oint o& a %ong cascade, a means to acce%erate the mobi%it" o& the traces sti%% &urtherP in e&&ect, e;uations are sub!

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sets of translations and shou%d be studied %i(e a%% the other trans%ations. Second, it cannot be se ered &rom a%% the net/or(:bui%ding, o& /hich it is but a tin" 'artP &or instance, the 2e"no%ds number a%%o/s scientists to go &rom one sca%e mode% to another and to tra e% &ast &rom one instance o& turbu%ence to another &ar a/a" in s'ace and timeP er" /e%%, but it /or(s on%" as %ong as there are hundreds o& h"drau%ic engineers /or(ing on turbu%ences (and the", in turn, /or( on sca%e mode%s on%" in so &ar as their %aboratories ha e been ab%e to become in o% ed /ith the construction o& harbour, dams, 'i'es, aircra&ts, etc.). $t is on%" once the net/or(s are in '%ace that the in ention o& the 2e"no%ds number can ma(e a di&&erence. 1o ma(e a meta'hor, it '%a"s the same ro%e as a turntable in the o%d rai%/a" s"stemP it is im'ortant but "ou cannot reduce the /ho%e s"stem to it, since it ta(es such an im'ortant ro%e because an" as long as the mobi%isation is under /a" (turntab%es, &or instance, became irre%e ant once e%ectric traction a%%o/ed engines to go both directions). 9;uations are not on%" good at increasing the mobi%it" o& the ca'ita%ised traces, the" are a%so good at enhancing their combinabi%it", trans&orming centres into /hat $ /i%% ca%% centres o& ca%cu%ation. Such a centre /as bui%t b" 9dison at Men%o #ar( /here the &amous incandescent %am' at the end o& the 187>s /as in ented. 1+ 1han(s to 9dison5s noteboo(s it is 'ossib%e not on%" to reconstruct his strateg", not on%" to &o%%o/ ho/ his %aborator" /as constructed, but a%so to obser e his /or( /ith 'a'er and 'enci% on the nth degree inscri'tions. 0o more than in the stor" o& <ing Fohn (see #art .) or in an" other case shou%d the 5inte%%ectua%5 /or( be se ered &rom the net/or(:bui%ding in /hich 9dison is engaged. His strateg" is to substitute his com'an" &or gas com'anies, /hich means e%aborating a com'%ete s"stem to 'roduce and de%i er e%ectricit" e er"/here at the same consumer cost as that o& gas. .s ear%" as 1878, 9dison started /or( on the most c%assica% o& ca%cu%ations: accounting and basic economics. Ho/ much /ou%d his 'roCected s"stem cost gi en the 'rice o& steam engines, d"namos, engineers, insurance, co''er and so on? 3ne resu%t o& his &irst 'a'er estimate sho/ed that the most e6'ensi e item /as that o& the co''er necessar" &or the conductors. 1he 'rice o& co''er /as so high that, &rom the start, it made e%ectricit" unab%e to com'ete /ith gas. 1hus something had to be done /ith co''er. 0o/ comes the main %ogistica% ad antage 'ro ided b" /riting do/n a%% inscri'tions in e;uation &orm. 1o ca%cu%ate ho/ much co''er he needed, 9dison not on%" used accounting but a%so one o& Fou%e5s e;uations (an e;uation obtained ear%ier through a 'rocess simi%ar to the one $ s(etched /ith 2e"no%ds): energ" %oss is e;ua% to the s;uare o& the current mu%ti'%ied b"

the %ength o& the conductor mu%ti'%ied b" a constant, a%% di ided b" the cross:section o& the conductor. 7hat is the re%ation bet/een 'h"sics and economics? 0one i& "ou consider Fou%e5s %aborator" on the one hand and 'h"sica% '%ants on the other. $n 9dison5s noteboo(, ho/e er, the" 'rogressi e%" merge in one seam%ess c%oth because the" are a%% /ritten in more or %ess the same &orm and 'resented s"no'tica%%" to his e"es. 1he /eb o& associations on /hich 9dison /or(s is "ra;n together b" the

((),>))

e;uations. B" mani'u%ating the e;uations, he retrie es sentences %i(e: the more "ou increase the cross:section to reduce %oss in distribution, the more co''er "ou /i%% need. $s this 'h"sics, economics or techno%og"? $t does not matter, it is one sing%e /eb that trans%ates the ;uestion 5ho/ do "ou bring do/n the 'rice o& co''er5 into 5ho/ can "ou &idd%e /ith c%assic e;uations o& 'h"sics5. 9dison is no/ surrounded b" a set o& heterogenous constraintsP he tries to &ind out /hich is stronger and /hich /ea(er (see Cha'ter 8). 1he consumer 'rice has to be e;ua% to that o& gas, this is an abso%ute re;uirementP so is the 'resent 'rice o& co''er on the mar(etP so is Fou%e5s %a/P so is 3hm5s %a/ that de&ines resistance as o%tage di ided b" current 2esistance [ (Ho%tage D Current) 3& course, i& the current cou%d be decreased, the cross:section cou%d be decreased as /e%%, and so /i%% the co''er bi%%. But according to 3hm5s %a/ this /ou%d mean increasing the resistance o& the &i%ament, that is %oo(ing &or a high:resistance %am' /hen e er"one at the time /as %oo(ing &or a %o/:resistance %am' because o& the di&&icu%t" o& &inding a &i%ament that /ou%d not burn out. $s this constraint as abso%ute as the others? 9dison no/ tries out this chain o& associations and e a%uates ho/ abso%ute it is. 1he e;uation abo e does not esca'e &rom the net/or( in /hich 9dison is '%acedP it is not because it is /ritten in mathematica% terms that /e are sudden%" %ed into another /or%d. Nuite the contrar", it concentrates at one 'oint /hat the net/or( is made o&, /hat are its strong and /ea( 'oints. Com'ared to the others, the amount o& resistance a''ears to be the /ea(est %in(. $t has to gi e /a". 0o matter ho/ di&&icu%t it a''ears, 9dison decides, /e /i%% %oo( &or a high resistance %am' because it is the on%" /a" to maintain a%% the other e%ements in '%ace. 3nce the decision is ta(en, 9dison sends his troo's on a tria%:and:error one:"ear:%ong search &or a &i%ament that resists /ithout burning out. 1he incandescent high:resistance %am' is the &ina% resu%t o& the ca%cu%ation abo e. 1his e6am'%e sho/s not on%" ho/ &oreign domains can be combined and brought to bear on one another once the" ha e the common &orm o& ca%cu%ation. $t a%so re ea%s the &ina% and main ad antage o& e;uations. *rom the beginning o& this boo( $ ha e constant%" 'resented scientists and engineers as mobi%ising %arge numbers o& a%%ies, e a%uating their re%ati e strength, re ersing the ba%ance o& &orces, tr"ing out /ea( and strong associations, t"ing together &acts

and mechanisms. $n e&&ect, $ had to re'%ace each traditiona% di ide b" a re%ati e distinction bet/een stronger and /ea(er associations. 7e ha e no/ come c%ose to the end o& our %ong Courne" because the e;uations 'roduced at the &ina% edge o& the ca'ita%isation constitute, %itera%%", the sum o& a%% these mobi%isations, e a%uations, tests and ties. 1he" te%% us /hat is associated /ith /hatP the" de&ine the nature o& the re%ationP &ina%%", the" o&ten e6'ress a measure o& the resistance o& each association to disru'tion. 3& course, the" are utter%" im'ossib%e to understand /ithout the mobi%isation 'rocess (and this is /h" $ did not ta%( o& them ear%ier), the" are ne erthe%ess the true heart o& the scienti&ic net/or(s, more

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im'ortant to obser e, stud" and inter'ret than &acts or mechanisms, because the" "ra; a%% o& them together inside the centres o& ca%cu%ation.

%5' 6hat4s the matter of %1ith' formalism@

*o%%o/ing the cascade o& inscri'tions dra/n b" scientists, /e ha e reached a 'oint /hich shou%d be the easiest o& our tri' since /e can no/ rea' the bene&its o& our ear%ier /or( on /ea(er and stronger associations. !n&ortunate%", it is a%so the 'art /hich has been some/hat obscured b" ear%ier in estigators, /hich means that /e sti%% ha e to be er" care&u% in de&ining /hat /e ha e to stud" and /hom /e ha e to &o%%o/. 1/o con&using /ords ha e been used be&ore to account &or /hat ha''ens in the centres o& ca%cu%ation: those o& abstraction and theor". Let us e6amine /hat the" mean.

%A' -!IN: A6AD 6I H 4ABS 3AC

HE!3IES4

$n the cascades that /e &o%%o/ed in the section abo e, /e a%/a"s /ent &rom one 'ractica% and %oca%ised acti it" to anotherP to be sure, each stage o& trans%ation sim'%i&ied, 'unctua%ised and summarised the stage immediate%" be%o/. But this acti it" o& re:re'resentation 1, o& the su''orters /as er" concrete indeedP it re;uired 'ieces o& 'a'er, %aboratories, instruments, ta%%ies, tab%es, e;uationsP abo e a%%, it /as im'osed b" the necessit" o& mobi%isation and action at a distance, and ne er abandoned the narro/ net/or(s that made it 'ossib%e. $& b" 5abstraction5 is meant the 'rocess b" /hich each stage e6tracts e%ements out o& the stage be%o/ so as to gather in one '%ace as man" resources as 'ossib%e, er" /e%%, /e ha e studied (and continue to stud") the 'rocess o& abstraction, e6act%" as /e /ou%d e6amine a re&iner" in /hich ra/ oi% is crac(ed into 'urer and 'urer oi%s. .%as, the meaning o& the /ord 5abstraction5 has shi&ted &rom the pro"uct Gnth order inscri'tions) to not on%" the process but a%so to the pro"ucer5s min") &t is thus im'%ied that scientists in the centres o& ca%cu%ations /ou%d thin( Qabstract%"5, or at %east more abstract%" than others. La'Mrouse /i%% be said to o'erate more abstract%" than the Chinese /hen he hand%es %atitudes and %ongitudes, and Mende%ee to thin(

more abstract%" than an em'irica% chemist /hen he shu&&%es his cards around. .%though this e6'ression has as much meaning as sa"ing that a oi% re&iner" re&ines 'etro% 5re&ining%"5, it is enough to &og the issue. 1he concrete /or( o& ma(ing abstractions is &u%%" studiab%eP ho/e er, i& it becomes some m"sterious &eature going on in the mind then &orget it, no one /i%% e er ha e access to it. 1his con&usion bet/een the re&ined 'roduct and the concrete re&ining /or( is eas" to c%ari&" b" using the substanti e Qabstraction5 and ne er the adCecti e or the ad erb. Ho/e er, this sim'%e ru%e o& h"giene is made harder to a''%" because o& the cu%t o& 5theories5. $& b" 5theor"5 is meant the crossroads that a%%o/ the centres to mobi%ise, mani'u%ate, combine, re/rite and tie together a%% the traces obtained

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through the e er:e6tending net/or(s, then /e shou%d be ab%e to stud" theories &u%%". .s $ said, the" are centres inside the centres 'ro iding one more acce%eration o& the mobi%it" and combinabi%it" o& the inscri'tions. Stud"ing them shou%d be no more di&&icu%t than understanding the ro%e o& c%o er:%ea& intersections /hen e6amining the .merican &ree/a" s"stem, or the &unction o& digita% te%e'hone e6changes /hen obser ing the Be%% net/or(. $& the mobi%isation increases in sca%e, then, necessari%", the 'roducts at the intersection o& a%% net/or(s ha e to be enhanced. .n" inno ation at these intersections /i%% gi e a decisi e edge to the centres. 1his situation is a%tered i& the meaning o& the /ord 5theor"5 shi&ts to become an adCecti e or an ad erb (some 'eo'%e are then said to hand%e more 5theoretica%5 matters or to thin( 5theoretica%%"5), but it is much /orse /hen 5theories5 are trans&ormed into 5abstract5 obCects se ered &rom the e%ements the" tie together. 1his ha''ens &or instance i& Mercator5s /or( in &inding a ne/ geometrica% 'roCection &or na igationa% ma's is disconnected &rom the na igators5 tra e%sP or i& Mende%ee 5s tab%e is cut o&& &rom the man" o& chemists5 e%ements he tried to tie together in one coherent /ho%eP or i& 2e"no%d5s number is cut o&& &rom the e6'erimenta% turbu%ences that he /as tr"ing to c%assi&" /ith one sing%e coe&&icient. .s soon as a di ide is made bet/een theories and /hat the" are theories of, the ti' o& technoscience is immediate%" shrouded in &og. 1heories, no/ made abstract and autonomous obCects, &%oat %i(e &%"ing saucers abo e the rest o& science, /hich b" contrast becomes 5e6'erimenta%5 or 5em'irica%5. 18 1he /orst is "et to come. Since sometimes it ha''ens that these abstract theories, inde'endent o& an" obCect, ne erthe%ess ha e some bearing on /hat ha''ens do/n be%o/ in em'irica% scienceJit has to be a miracleB Mirac%e indeed to see a c%o er:%ea& intersection &itting precisely /ith the &ree/a"s /hose &%o/ it redistributesS $t is amusing to see rationa%ists admire a mirac%e o& that ;ua%it" /hi%e the" deride 'i%grims, der ishes or creationists. 1he" are so enthra%%ed b" this m"ster" that the" are &ond o& sa"ing, 51he %east understandab%e thing in the /or%d is that the /or%d is understandab%e.5 S'ea(ing about theories and then ga'ing at their

5a''%ication5 has no more sense than ta%(ing o& c%am's /ithout e er sa"ing /hat the" &asten together, or se'arating the (nots &rom the meshes o& a net. 4oing a histor" o& scienti&ic 5theories5 /ou%d be as meaning%ess as doing a histor" o& hammers /ithout considering the nai%s, the '%an(s, the houses, the car'enter and the 'eo'%e /ho are housed, or a histor" o& che;ues /ithout the ban( s"stem. B" itse%&, ho/e er, the be%ie& in theor" /ou%d not im'ress much i& it /ere not rein&orced b" the tria%s in res'onsibi%it" /e %earned to stud" in Cha'ters + and ,. .s the reader ma" reca%%, the resu%t o& these tria%s /as to ma(e the &e/ scientists at the end o& the mobi%isation 'rocess res'onsib%e &or the /ho%e mo ement. 7hen the t/o 'rocesses are com'ounded, /e get not on%" the assertion that scientists %ead the /or%d but that scientists5 theories %ead the /or%dS 1he '"ramid o& Cheo's is no/ standing on its ti', /hich does ma(e the /or%d ;uite hard to understand. . &e/ common:sense 'rece'ts /i%% be enough to 'ut the '"ramid bac( on its

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base. *irst, /e /i%% abstain &rom e er using the /ords 5abstraction5 and 5theor"5 in adCecti a% or ad erbia% &orms. Second, /e /i%% ne er cut o&& the abstractions or the theories &rom /hat the" are abstractions or theories of, /hich means that /e /i%% a%/a"s tra e% through the net/or(s a%ong their greatest %ength. 1hird, /e /i%% ne er stud" a ca%cu%ation /ithout stud"ing the centres o& ca%cu%ation. (.nd, o& course, as /e %earned ear%ier, /e /i%% not con&use the resu%ts o& the attribution 'rocess /ith the %ist o& those /ho actua%%" did the Cob.)

%B' 6HD F!3MS MA ME H!-

E3 S! M#CH/ HE SEAEN H 3#,E !F

#erha's it /ou%d be best to do a/a" a%together /ith the tainted /ords 5abstraction5 and 5theor"5. Ho/e er, e en i& it is eas" to do a/a" /ith them, and /ith the cu%t rendered to them, /e sti%% ha e to account &or the 'henomena the" 'oint at so c%umsi%". .s /e sa/ in section 1, the construction o& the centres re;uires e%ements to be brought in &rom &ar a/a" J to a%%o/ centres to dominate at a distance J ;ithout bringing them in &or good J to a oid centres being &%ooded. 1his 'arado6 is reso% ed b" de ising inscri'tions that retain simu%taneous%" as %itt%e and as much as 'ossib%e b" increasing either their mobi%it", stabi%it" or combinabi%it". 1his com'romise bet/een 'resence and absence is o&ten ca%%ed in&ormation. 7hen "ou ho%d a 'iece o& in&ormation "ou ha e the form o& something /ithout the thing itse%& (&or instance the ma' o& Sa(ha%in /ithout Sa(ha%in, the 'eriodic tab%e /ithout the chemica% reactions, a mode% o& 2otterdam harbour /ithout the harbour itse%&). .s /e (no/, these 'ieces o& in&ormation (or &orms, or 'a'er &orms, or inscri'tions J a%% these e6'ressions designate the same mo ement and so% e the same 'arado6) can be accumu%ated and combined in the centres. But their accumu%ation has one more une6'ected by!pro"uct) Since there is no %imit to the cascade o& re/riting and re:re'resentation, "ou ma" obtain nth

order &orms that are combined /ith other nth order &orms coming &rom com'%ete%" di&&erent regions. $t is these ne/ une6'ected connections that e6'%ain /h" &orms matter so much, and /h" obser ers o& science are so thri%%ed /ith them. *irst, /e ha e to remo e one %itt%e m"ster": ho/ is it that the 5abstract5 &orms o& mathematics a''%" to the 5em'irica% /or%d5? Man" boo(s ha e been /ritten to &ind an e6'%anation to this 5/e%%:(no/n &act5 but a%most no one has bothered to eri&" its e6istence. $& the 'ractice o& science /as &o%%o/ed, ho/e er, it /ou%d be ;uic(%" a''arent that it ne er ha''ens. 5.bstract5 mathematics ne er a''%ies to the 5em'irica% /or%d5. 7hat ha''ens is much more c%e er, much %ess m"stica% and much more interesting. .t a certain 'oint in the cascade, instruments start to inscribe &orms on, &or e6am'%e, gra'h 'a'er. . c%oud o& 'oints obtained &rom the census through man" trans&ormations ends u', a&ter a &e/ more statistica% rearrangements, as a %ine on a gra'h. $nteresting%" enough, amino acid ana%"sers a%so dis'%a" their resu%ts on a gra'h 'a'er. More curious%", Oa%i%eo5s stud" o& a &a%%ing bod" a%so ta(es the &orm o& a gra'h (/hen it is re'eated toda") and had the

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sha'e o& a triang%e in his o/n noteboo(s. 1- Mathematics might be &ar &rom househo%ds, amino acids, and /ooden s'heres ro%%ing o er an inc%ined '%ane. Ies, but once househo%ds, amino acids and inc%ined '%anes ha e been, through the %ogistics abo e, brought onto a /hite 'iece o& 'a'er and as(ed to /rite themse% es do/n in &orms and &igures, then their mathematics is er", er" c%oseP it is %itera%%" as c%ose as one 'iece o& 'a'er is &rom another in a boo(. 1he ade;uation o& mathematics /ith the em'irica% /or%d is a dee' m"ster". 1he su'erim'osition o& one mathematica% &orm on 'a'er and o& another mathematica% &orm dra/n on the 'rintout o& an instrument is not a dee' m"ster", but is ;uite an achie ement a%% the same. 17 7ere /e to &o%%o/ ho/ the instruments in the %aboratories /rite do/n the Oreat Boo( o& 0ature in geometrica% and mathematica% &orms /e might be ab%e to understand /h" &orms ta(e so much 'recedence. $n the centres o& ca%cu%ation, "ou obtain 'a'er &orms &rom tota%%" unre%ated rea%ms but /ith the same sha'e (the same Cartesian coordinates and the same &unctions, &or instance). 1his means that transversal connections are going to be estab%ished in addition to a%% the vertical associations made b" the cascade o& re/riting. 1hus, someone /ho /ants to /or( on &unctions /ou%d be ab%e to inter ene, in a &e/ "ears, in ba%%istics, demogra'h", the re o%ution o& '%anets, card games, in an"thing J as %ong as it has been &irst dis'%a"ed in Cartesian coordinates. 1he er" gro/th o& the centres entai%s the mu%ti'%ication o& instruments /hich, in turn, ob%ige the in&ormation to ta(e a more and more mathematica% sha'e on 'a'er. 1his means that the ca%cu%ators, /hoe er the" are, sit at a centra% 'oint inside the centres because e er"thing has to 'ass through their hands.

*or instance, once Sa(ha%in is 'ut on the ma', "ou can a''%" on a flat sur&ace o& 'a'er a graduated ru%er and a com'ass and ca%cu%ate a 'ossib%e route: 5! .a. shi' arri es &rom this 'oint, she /i%% sight the %and at )>\ 009 a&ter a route o& 1)> nautica% mi%es (ee'ing her course at +8>\.5 3r can "ou? 7e%%, it a%% de'ends on ho/ the 'ac(age o& bearings sent b" La'Mrouse is 'ut on the ma'. 96act%" as La'Mrouse trans&ormed the Chinese ta%( into a %ist o& t/o:&igure readings (%ongitudes and %atitudes), this %ist is no/ trans&ormed into 'oints on a curve" sur&ace &iguring the earth. But ho/ to go &rom the cur ed to the &%at sur&ace /ithout &urther de&ormation? Ho/ to maintain the in&ormation through a%% these trans&ormations? 1his is a er" concrete and 'ractica% 'rob%em, but neither La'Mrouse nor his Chinese in&ormants can so% e it. 1his is the sort o& ;uestion that can be so% ed on%" in the centres b" 'eo'%e /or(ing on nth order &orms, /here er the" come &rom. 1he 'rob%em abo e is no/ trans%ated into another one: ho/ to 'roCect a s'here on a sur&ace? Since something /i%% be %ost in the 'roCection, /hat shou%d $ (ee'? 1he ang%es or the sur&ace? Mercator5s choice /as to (ee' the ang%es so im'ortant &or deciding on the shi's5 routes and to gi e u' the accurate rendering o& the sur&aces, /hich is interesting on%" &or %andsmen. 1he 'oint is that, once the net/or( is in '%ace that in some /a"s ties together La'Mrouse5s tra e%s and the cartogra'her5s o&&ice, the smallest change in the geometr" o& 'roCection might ha e enormous conse;uences since the &%o/ o&

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&orms coming &rom a%% o er the '%anet and bac( to a%% the na igators /i%% be a%tered. 1he tin" 'roCection s"stem is an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or the immense net/or( o& geogra'h". 1hose /ho sit at this 'oint, %i(e Mercator, carr" the da". 7hen 'eo'%e /onder ho/ 5abstract5 geometr" or mathematics ma" ha e some bearing on 5rea%it"5, the" are rea%%" admiring the strategic position ta(en b" those /ho /or( inside the centres on &orms o& &orms. 1he" shou%d be the /ea(est since the" are the most remote (as it is o&ten said) &rom an" 5a''%ication5. 3n the contrar", the" ma" become the strongest b" the same to(en as the centres end u' contro%%ing s'ace and time: the" design net/or(s that are tied together in a &e/ ob%igator" 'assage 'oints. 3nce e er" trace has been not on%" /ritten on 'a'er, but re/ritten in geometrica% &orm, and re:/ritten in e;uation &orm, then it is no /onder that those /ho contro% geometr" and mathematics /i%% be ab%e to inter ene a%most an"/here. 1he more 5abstract5 their theor" is, the better it /i%% be ab%e to occu'" centres inside the centres. 7hen 9instein is 'reoccu'ied b" c%oc(s and ho/ to reconci%e their readings /hen the" are so &ar a'art that it ta(es time &or the obser er o& one c%oc( to send the in&ormation to another obser er, he is not in an abstract /or%d, he is dee' do/n at the centre o& a%% e6changes o& in&ormation, attenti e to the most materia% as'ect o& inscri'tion de ices: Ho/ do $ (no/ /hat time it is? Ho/ do $ see that there is su'erim'osition o& the hands o& the c%oc(? 7hat shou%d $ gi e u' i& $ /ish to maintain abo e a%% the e;ui a%ence o& a%% the obser ers5 signa%s in case o& great s'eed, great masses and great distance? $& the centres o& ca%cu%ation /ish to hand%e a%% the in&ormation a%% tra e%%ers on shi's bring them, the" need Mercator and his

5abstract5 'roCectionP but i& the" /ish to hand%e s"stems that tra e% at the s'eed o& %ight and sti%% maintain the stabi%it" o& their in&ormation, the" need 9instein and his 5abstract5 re%ati it". Oi ing u' a c%assic re'resentation o& the s'ace:time is not too high a 'rice i& the 'a":o&& is a &antastic acce%eration o& the traces and an enhancement o& their stabi%it", &aith&u%ness and combinabi%it". .t the %imit, i& mathematicians sto' ta%(ing o& e;uations and geometr" a%together, and start considering 5number5 per se, Qset5 in genera%, Q'ro6imit"5, Qassociation5, the more central their /or( /i%% become since it /i%% concentrate sti%% &urther /hat is going on in the centres o& ca%cu%ation. 1he sheer accumu%ation o& nth order 'a'er &orms ma(es an" nthP$ &orm that can at the same time maintain the &eatures and get rid o& the thing (o& the Qmatter5) re%e ant. 1he more heterogeneous and dominating the centres, the more &orma%ism the" /i%% re;uire sim'%" to sta" together and maintain their im'erium. *orma%ism and mathematics are attracted b" the centres, i& $ dare ma(e this meta'hor, %i(e rats and insects b" granaries. $& /e /ish to &o%%o/ scientists and engineers to the end, /e /i%% ha e to 'enetrate, at one 'oint or another, /hat has become the Ho%" o& Ho%ies. 3n%" a &e/ &eatures are c%ear at this 'oint. *irst, /e do not ha e to su''ose a 'riori that &orma%ism esca'es &rom the mobi%isation, &rom the centres, &rom the net/or(:bui%ding. $t is not transcendenta%, as 'hi%oso'hers sa" to account &or the incredib%e

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su''%ement o& &orces it 'ro ides to those /ho de e%o' them. 1his su''%ement gained &rom mani'u%ating nth degree &orms comes entire%" &rom inside the centres and is 'robab%" better accounted &or b" the man" ne/ trans ersa% connections it a%%o/s. Second, /e do not ha e to %ose our time &inding em'irica% counter'arts to e6'%ain these &orms b" sim'%e, 'ractica% mani'u%ations, simi%ar to the ones done outside the centres. 1he hand%ing o& 'ebb%es on Sa(ha%in beach /i%% ne er gi e "ou set theor" or to'o%og". 1o be sure, the cascade o& inscri'tions is a 'ractica% and concrete mani'u%ation o& 'a'er &orms a%% a%ong, but each end: 'roduct is a &orm that does not resemb%e an"thing on the %e e% be%o/ : i& it does, it means this rung in the %adder is use%ess, that at %east that 'art o& the trans%ation has &ai%ed. 1hird, /e do not ha e to /aste an" time %oo(ing &or Qsocia% e6'%anations5 o& these &orms, i& b" socia% is meant &eatures o& societ" mirrored b" mathematics in some distorted /a". *orms do not distort or misre'resent an"thing, the" acce%erate sti%% more the mo ement o& accumu%ation and ca'ita%isation. .s $ ha e hinted a%% a%ong, the %in( bet/een societ" and mathematics is both much more distant and much more direct than e6'ected: the" e6'%icit%" attach &irm%" together a%% 'ossib%e a%%ies, constituting in e&&ect /hat is 'robab%" the hardest and most Qsocia%5 'art o& societ". *ourth, there is no reason to &a%% bac( on con entions that scientists /ou%d agree /ith one another in order to account &or the biGarre e6istence o& these &orms that seem unrelate" to an"thing e%se. 1he" are no %ess rea%, no more steri%e, no more '%iab%e than an" other inscri'tions de ised to ma(e the /or%d mobi%e and to carr" it to the centres. $& an"thing, the"

resist more than an"thing e%se (b" our de&inition o& rea%it") since the" mu%ti'%" and enhance the re%ations o& a%% the other e%ements o& the net/or(s. *i&th, to &ind our /a", /e ha e to ta(e the grain o& truth o&&ered b" each o& these &our traditiona% inter'retations o& &orms (transcendenta%ism, em'iricism, socia% determinism and con entiona%ism): nth order &orms gi e an une#pecte" su''%ement:as i& coming &rom another /or%dP the" are the resu%t o& a concrete /or( o& 'uri&ication : as i& re%ated to 'ractica% mattersP the" concentrate the associations sti%% more : as i& the" /ere more social than societ"P the" tie together more e%ements : as i& the" /ere more real than an" other con ention 'assed among men. *ran(%", $ ha e not &ound one sing%e stud" /hich cou%d &u%&i% this &i&th re;uirement. *rom this absence, one cou%d dra/ the conc%usion that &orms cannot be studied through an" sort o& en;uir" %i(e the one $ ha e 'ortra"ed in this boo( because the" esca'e &or e er /hat ha''ens in the centres o& ca%cu%ation. But $ dra/ a di&&erent conc%usionP a%most no one has had the courage to do a care&u% anthro'o%ogica% stud" o& &orma%ism. 1he reason &or this %ac( o& ner e is ;uite sim'%e: a 'riori, be&ore the stud" has e en started, it is to/ards the mind and its cogniti e abi%ities that one %oo(s &or an e6'%anation o& &orms. .n" stud" o& mathematics, ca%cu%ations, theories and &orms in genera% shou%d do ;uite the contrar": &irst %oo( at ho/ the obser ers mo e in s'ace and time, ho/ the mobi%it", stabi%it" and combinabi%it" o& inscri'tions are enhanced, ho/ the net/or(s are e6tended, ho/ a%% the in&ormations are tied together in a cascade o&

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re:re'rMsentation, and i&, b" some e6traordinar" chance, there is something sti%% unaccounted &or, then, and on%" then, %oo( &or s'ecia% cogniti e abi%ities. 7hat $ 'ro'ose, here, as a se"enth rule of method. is in e&&ect a moratorium on cogniti e e6'%anations o& science and techno%og"S $5d be tem'ted to 'ro'ose a ten:"ear moratorium. $& those /ho be%ie e in mirac%es /ere so sure o& their 'osition, the" /ou%d acce't the cha%%enge.

$art C. Metrologies
1rans%ating the /or%d to/ards the centres is one thing (#art .)P gaining an une6'ected su''%ement o& strength b" /or(ing inside these centres on nth degree inscri'tions is another (#art B). 1here is sti%% one remaining snag, because the &ina% inscri'tions are not the /or%d: the" are on%" re'resenting it in its absence. 0e/ in&inite s'aces and times, gigantic b%ac( ho%es, minuscu%e e%ectrons, enormous economies, mind:bogg%ing bi%%ions o& "ears, intricate sca%e mode%s, com'%e6 e;uations, a%% occu'" no more than a &e/ s;uare metres that a &e/ 'er cent o& the 'o'u%ation (see Cha'ter ,) dominate. 1o be sure, man" c%e er tra's and tric(s ha e been disco ered to re erse the ba%ance o& &orces and ma(e the centres bigger and /iser than the things that dominated them unti% then. Ho/e er, nothing is irre ersib%" gained at this 'oint i& there is no /a" to trans%ate back the re%ation o& strength that has been made &a ourab%e to the scientists5 cam'. More additiona% /or( has "et to be done. 1his mo ement &rom the

centre to the 'eri'her" is to be studied as /e%%, i& /e /ant to &o%%o/ scientists u' to the end. .%though this %ast %eg o& the Courne" is as im'ortant as the other t/o, it is usua%%" &orgotten b" the obser ers o& science because o& this ;ueer notion that 5science and techno%og"5 are 5uni ersa%5P according to this notion, once theories and &orms ha e been disco ered, the" s'read 5e er"/here5 /ithout added cost. 1his a''%ication o& abstract theories e er"/here and at e er" time a''ears to be another mirac%e. .s usua%, &o%%o/ing scientists and engineers at /or( gi es a more mundane but more interesting ans/er.

%(' E2tending the net1orks still further

7hen, on 8 Ma" 19-1, .%an She'ard got his turn on the &irst .merican Mercur" s'ace &%ight, /as it the first timeC 18 $n a /a", "es, since no .merican had rea%%" been out there. $n another sense, no, it /as sim'%" the Gn P $H th time. He had done e er" 'ossib%e gesture hundreds o& times be&ore on the simulator, a sca%e mode% o& another sort. 7hat /as his main im'ression /hen he &ina%%" got outside the simu%ator and inside the roc(et? $t /as either QCust the /a" it sounded in the centri&uge5 or Qit /as di&&erent &rom the simu%ator, it /as easier5 or QMan, that

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/asn5t %i(e the centri&uge, it /as more sudden5. 4uring his short &%ight he (e't com'aring the simi%arities and s%ight di&&erences bet/een the nth rehearsa% on the &%ight simu%ator, and the Gn P $Hth actua% &%ight. 1he attendants in the contro% to/er /ere sur'rised ho/ coo% She'ard /as. 1his gu" ob ious%" had the Qright stu&&5 since he /as not a&raid o& going out there in the un(no/n. But the 'oint is that he /as not rea%%" going into the un(no/n, as Mage%%an did crossing the strait that bears his name. He had been there a%read" hundreds o& times, and mon(e"s be&ore him hundreds o& other times. 7hat is admirab%e is not ho/ one can get into s'ace, but ho/ the com'%ete s'ace &%ight can be simu%ated in ad ance, and then s%o/%" e6tended to unmanned &%ights, then to mon(e"s, then to one man, then to man", b" incor'orating insi"e the S'ace Centre more and more outsi"e &eatures brought bac( to the centre b" each tria%. 1he s%o/ and 'rogressi e e6tension o& a net/or( &rom Ca'e Cana era% to the orbit o& the earth is more o& an achie ement than the Qa''%ication5 o& ca%cu%ations done inside the S'ace Centre to the outside /or%d. 5Sti%%, is not the a''%ication o& science outside o& the %aboratories the best 'roo& o& its e&&icac", o& the ;uasi:su'ernatura% 'o/er o& scientists? Science ;orks outside and its pre"ictions are &u%&i%%ed.5 Li(e a%% the other c%aims /e ha e encountered in this cha'ter the" are based on no inde'endent and detai%ed stud". 0o one has e er obser ed a &act, a theor" or a machine that cou%d sur i e outsi"e o& the net/or(s that ga e birth to them. Sti%% more &ragi%e than termites, &acts and machines can tra e% a%ong e6tended ga%%eries, but the" cannot sur i e one minute in this &amous and m"thica% Qout:thereness5 so aunted b" 'hi%oso'hers o& science.

7hen the architects, urbanists and energeticians in charge o& the *rangocaste%%o so%ar i%%age 'roCect in Crete had &inished their ca%cu%ations in ear%" 198> the" had in their o&&ice, in .thens, a com'%ete 'a'er sca%e mode% o& the i%%age. 19 1he" (ne/ e er"thing a ai%ab%e about Crete: so%ar energ", /eather 'atterns, %oca% demogra'h", /ater resources, economic trends, concrete structures and agricu%ture in greenhouses. 1he" had rehearsed and discussed e er" 'ossib%e con&iguration /ith the best engineers in the /or%d and had triggered the enthusiasm o& man" 9uro'ean, .merican and Oree( de e%o'ment ban(s b" sett%ing on an o'tima% and origina% 'rotot"'e. Li(e Ca'e Cana era% engineers the" had simply to go 5out there5 and a''%" their ca%cu%ations, 'ro ing once again the ;uasi:su'ernatura% 'o/er o& scientists. 7hen the" sent their engineers &rom .thens to *rangocaste%%o to start e6'ro'riating 'ro'ert" and smoothing out the %itt%e detai%s, the" met /ith a tota%%" une6'ected 5outside5. 0ot on%" /ere the inhabitants not read" to abandon their %ands in e6change &or houses in the ne/ i%%age, but the" /ere read" to &ight /ith their ri&%es against /hat the" too( as a ne/ .merican atomic mi%itar" base camou&%aged under a so%ar energ" i%%age. 1he a''%ication o& the theor" became harder e er" da" as the mobi%isation o& o''osition gre/ in strength, enro%%ing the 'o'e and the Socia%ist #art". $t soon became ob ious that, since the arm" cou%d not be sent to &orce Cretans to occu'" /i%%ing%" the &uture 'rotot"'e, a negotiation had to start bet/een the inside and

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the outside. But ho/ cou%d the" stri(e a com'romise bet/een a brand ne/ so%ar i%%age and a &e/ she'herds /ho sim'%" /anted three (i%ometres o& as'ha%ted road and a gas station? 1he com'romise /as to abandon the so%ar i%%age a%together. .%% the '%anning o& the energeticians /as routed bac( insi"e the net/or( and %imited to a 'a'er sca%e mode%, another one o& the man" 'roCects engineers ha e in their dra/ers. 1he 5out:thereness5 had gi en a &ata% b%o/ to this e6am'%e o& science. So ho/ is it that in some cases science5s 'redictions are &u%&i%%ed and in some other cases 'iti&u%%" &ai%? 1he ru%e o& method to a''%" here is rather straight&or/ard: e er" time "ou hear about a success&u% a''%ication o& a science, %oo( &or the 'rogressi e e6tension o& a net/or(. 9 er" time "ou hear about a &ai%ure o& science, %oo( &or /hat 'art o& /hich net/or( has been 'unctured. $ bet "ou /i%% a%/a"s &ind it. 1here /as nothing more dramatic at the time than the 'rediction so%emn%" made a month in ad ance b" #asteur that on ) Fune 1881 a%% the non: accinated shee' o& a &arm in the %itt%e i%%age o& #oui%%":%e:*ort /ou%d ha e died o& the terrib%e anthra6 disease and that a%% the accinated ones /ou%d be in 'er&ect hea%th. $s this not a mirac%e, as i& #asteur had tra e%%ed in time, and in the ast /or%d outside, antici'ating a month in ad ance /hat /i%% ha''en in a tin" &arm in Beauce? )> $&, instead o& ga'ing at this mirac%e, /e %oo( at ho/ a net/or( is e6tended, sure enough /e &ind a &ascinating negotiation bet/een #asteur and the &armers5 re'resentati es on ho/ to transform the farm into a laboratory) #asteur and his co%%aborators had a%read" done this tria% se era% times inside their %ab, re ersing the ba%ance o& &orces

bet/een man and diseases, creating arti&icia% e'iGootics in their %ab (see Cha'ter +). Sti%%, the" had ne er done it in &u%%:sca%e &arm conditions. But the" are not &oo%s, the" (no/ that in a dirt" &arm thronged b" hundreds o& on%oo(ers the" /i%% be unab%e to re'eat e6act%" the situation that had been so &a ourab%e to them (and /i%% meet the same sort o& &ai%ure as the energeticians bringing their i%%age to the Cretans). 3n the other hand, i& the" as( 'eo'%e to come to their %ab no one /i%% be con inced (an" more than te%%ing <enned" that She'ard has &%o/n on the centri&uge one more time /i%% con ince the .merican 'eo'%e that the" had ta(en their re enge o er the 2ussians &or being &irst in s'ace). 1he" ha e to stri(e a com'romise /ith the organisers o& a &ie%d test, to trans&orm enough &eatures o& the &arm into %aborator": %i(e conditions: so that the same ba%ance o& &orces can be maintained: but ta(ing enough ris( : so that the test is rea%istic enough to count as a tria% done outside. $n the end the 'rediction is &u%&i%%ed but it /as in e&&ect a retro!"iction, e6act%" %i(e the &oresight o& #ro&essor BiC(er on the &uture o& 2otterdam harbour (see #art .) /as in e&&ect hin"sight) 1o sa" this is not to diminish the courage o& She'ard in his roc(et, o& the energeticians mobbed b" the &armers, or o& #asteur ta(ing the ris( o& a terrib%e mista(e, an" more than (no/ing in ad ance that Ham%et /i%% die at the end o& the '%a" diminishes the ta%ent o& the actor. 0o amount o& rehearsa%s &rees the ta%ented '%a"er &rom stage &right. 1he 'redictab%e character o& technoscience is entire%" de'endent on its abi%it"

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to s'read net/or(s &urther. .s soon as the outside is rea%%" encountered, com'%ete chaos ensues. 3& a%% the &eatures o& technoscience, $ &ind this abi%it" to e6tend net/or(s and to tra e% a%ong inside them the most interesting to &o%%o/P it is the most ingenious and the most o er%oo(ed o& a%% (because o& the inertia mode% de'icted at the end o& Cha'ter +). *acts and machines are %i(e trains, e%ectricit", 'ac(ages o& com'uter b"tes or &roGen egetab%es: the" can go e er"/here as %ong as the trac( a%ong /hich the" tra e% is not interru'ted in the s%ightest. 1his de'endence and &ragi%it" is not &e%t b" the obser er o& science because 5uni ersa%it"5 o&&ers them the 'ossibi%it" o& a''%"ing %a/s o& 'h"sics, o& bio%og", or o& mathematics e er"/here in principle) $t is ;uite di&&erent in practice) Dou cou%d sa" that it is 'ossib%e in 'rinci'%e to %and a Boeing 7,7 an"/hereP but tr" in 'ractice to %and one on 8th . enue in 0e/ Ior(. Iou cou%d sa" that te%e'hone gi es "ou a uni ersa% reach in 'rinci'%e. 1r" to ca%% &rom San 4iego someone in the midd%e o& <en"a /ho does not, in 'ractice, ha e a te%e'hone. Iou can er" /e%% c%aim that 3hm5s %a/ (2esistance [ Ho%tageDCurrent J see 'age )+8) is uni ersa%%" a''%icab%e in 'rinci'%eP tr" in 'ractice to demonstrate it /ithout a o%tmeter, a /attmeter and an ammeter. Iou ma" er" /e%% c%aim that in 'rinci'%e a Gia " he%ico'ter can &%" an"/hereP but tr" to &i6 it in the $ranian desert /hen it is sta%%ed b" a sandstorm, hundreds o& mi%es &rom the aircra&t carrier. $n a%% these menta% e6'eriments "ou /i%% &ee% the ast di&&erence bet/een 'rinci'%e and 'ractice, and that /hen e er"thing /or(s according to '%an it means that "ou do not mo e an inch out o& /e%%:(e't and care&u%%" sea%ed net/or(s.

9 er" time a &act is eri&ied and a machine runs, it means that the %ab or sho' conditions ha e been e6tended in some ;ay) . medica% doctor5s cabinet a centur" ago /ou%d ha e been &urnished /ith an armchair, a des( and ma"be an e6amination tab%e. 1oda", "our doctor5s cabinet is &i%%ed /ith doGens o& instruments and diagnostic (its. 9ach o& them (%i(e the thermometer, the b%ood 'ressure (it or the 'regnanc" test) has come &rom a %aborator" to the cabinet through the instrument industr". $& "our doctor eri&ies the a''%ication o& the %a/s o& 'h"sio%og", er" /e%%, but do not as( her to eri&" them in an em't" cabin in the midd%e o& the Cung%e, or she /i%% sa", 5Oi e me m" instruments bac( &irstS5 *orgetting the e6tension o& the instruments /hen admiring the smooth running o& &acts and machines /ou%d be %i(e admiring the road s"stem, /ith a%% those &ast truc(s and cars, and o er%oo(ing ci i% engineering, the garages, the mechanics and the s'are 'arts. *acts and machines ha e no inertia o& their o/n (Cha'ter +)P %i(e (ings or armies the" cannot tra e% /ithout their retinues or im'edimenta.

%5' ied in by a fe1 metrologi&al &hains

1he de'endenc" o& &acts and machines on net/or(s to tra e% bac( &rom the centres to the 'eri'her" ma(es our Cob much easier. $t /ou%d ha e been im'ossib%e &or us to &o%%o/ 5uni ersa%5 %a/s o& science that /ou%d ha e been a''%icab%e e er"/here /ithout /arning. But the 'rogressi e e6tension o& the domain o& a''%ication o& a %aborator" is er" sim'%e to stud": Cust &o%%o/ the

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traces this a''%ication creates. .s /e sa/ in #art B, a ca%cu%ation on 'a'er can a''%" to the outside /or%d on%" i& this outside /or%d is itse%& another 'iece o& 'a'er o& the same &ormat. .t &irst, this re;uirement seems to mar( the end o& the road &or the ca%cu%ations. $t is im'ossib%e to trans&orm Sa(ha%in, 2otterdam, turbu%ences, 'eo'%e, microbes, e%ectrica% grids and a%% the 'henomena out there into a 'a'er /or%d simi%ar to the one in there. 1his /ou%d be /ithout a%%o/ing &or the ingenuit" o& the scientists in e6tending e er"/here the instruments that 'roduce this 'a'er /or%d. Metrology is the name o& this gigantic enter'rise to ma(e o& the outside a /or%d inside /hich &acts and machines can sur i e. 1ermites bui%d their obscure ga%%eries /ith a mi6ture o& mud and their o/n dro''ingsP scientists bui%d their en%ightened net/or(s b" gi ing the outside the same 'a'er &orm as that o& their instruments inside. $n both cases the resu%t is the same: the" can tra e% er" &ar /ithout e er %ea ing home. $n the 'ure, abstract and uni ersa% /or%d o& science the e6tension o& the ne/ obCects created in the %abs costs nothing at a%%. $n the rea%, concrete and %oca% /or%d o& technoscience, ho/e er, it is &right&u%%" e6'ensi e sim'%" to maintain the sim'%est 'h"sica% 'arameters stab%e. . sim'%e e6am'%e /i%% be enough. $& $ as(, 57hat time is it?5 "ou /i%% ha e to %oo( at "our /atch. 1here is no /a" to sett%e this ;uestion /ithout ta(ing a rea"ing at the /indo/ o& this scienti&ic instrument (the sun /i%% do, but not /hen "ou need to catch a train). 0o matter ho/ humb%e it is, the c%oc( is o& a%% scienti&ic instruments the one /ith the %ongest and most in&%uentia%

histor". 2emember that La'Mrouse carried /ith him no %ess than t/e% e shi' chronometers and had se era% scientists on board sim'%" to chec( and com'are their mo ements. His /ho%e tri' /ou%d ha e been rendered use%ess i& he cou%d not ha e (e't the time constant. 0o/, i& our t/o /atches disagree, /e /i%% be %ed to a third one /hich /i%% act as our re&eree(a radio station, a church c%oc(). $& there is sti%% a disagreement on the ;ua%it" o& the c%oc( used as re&eree, /e might er" /e%% ca%% the Qs'ea(ing c%oc(5. $& one o& us /as as obstinate as the dissenter o& Cha'ters 1 and ), he or she /i%% be %ed into an e6traordinari%" com'%e6 maGe o& atomic c%oc(s, %asers, sate%%ite communications: the $nternationa% Bureau o& 1ime coordinating throughout the earth /hat time it is. 1ime is not uni ersa%P e er" da" it is made s%ight%" more so b" the e6tension o& an internationa% net/or( that ties together, through isib%e and tangib%e %in(ages, each o& a%% the re&erence c%oc(s o& the /or%d and then organises secondar" and tertiar" chains o& re&erences a%% the /a" to this rather im'recise /atch $ ha e on m" /rist. 1here is a continuous trai% o& readings, chec(%ists, 'a'er &orms, te%e'hone %ines, that tie a%% the c%oc(s together. .s soon as "ou %ea e this trai%, "ou start to be uncertain about /hat time it is, and the on%" /a" to regain certaint" is to get in touch again /ith the metro%ogica% chains. #h"sicists use the nice /ord constant to designate these e%ementar" 'arameters necessar" &or the sim'%est e;uation to be /ritten in the %aboratories. 1hese constants, ho/e er, are so inconstant that the !S, according to the 0ationa% Bureau o& Standards, s'ends - 'er cent o& its Oross 0ationa% #roduct, that is, three times /hat is s'ent on 2 e 4 (see Cha'ter ,), Cust to maintain them stab%eS )1

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1hat much more e&&ort has to be in ested in e6tending science than in doing it ma" sur'rise those /ho thin( it is natura%%" uni ersa%. $n the &igures that $ 'resented in Cha'ter , /e cou%d not ma(e sense at &irst o& this mass o& scientists and engineers engaged in management o& 2 e 4, management, ins'ection, 'roduction, and so on (see 'age 1-). $t need no %onger sur'rise us. 7e (no/ that scientists are too &e/ to account &or the enormous e&&ect the" are su''osed to generate and that their achie ements circu%ate in &rai%, recent, cost%" and rare ga%%eries. 7e (no/ that 5science and techno%og"5 is on%" the abstracted ti' o& a much %arger 'rocess, and has on%" a er" ague resemb%ance to it. 1he 'aramount im'ortance o& metro%og" (%i(e that o& de e%o'ment and industria% research) gi es us a measure, so to s'ea(, o& our ignorance. 1hese %ong metro%ogica% chains necessar" &or the er" e6istence o& the sim'%est %aboratories concern on%" the o&&icia% constants (time, /eight, %ength, bio%ogica% standards, etc.), but this is on%" a tin" 'art o& a%% the measurements made. 7e are so used to the 'er asi e 'resence o& a%% these meters, counters, 'a'er &orms and ta%%ies /hich 'a e the /a" &or centres o& ca%cu%ation that /e &orget to consider each o& them as the sure trace o& an ear%ier invasion b" a scienti&ic 'ro&ession. Fust thin( about the (ind o& ans/er "ou can 'ro ide to these ;uestions: Ho/ much did $ earn this month? $s m" b%ood 'ressure abo e or be%o/ norma%? 7here /as m" grand&ather born? 7here is the ti' o& Sa(ha%in is%and? Ho/ man" s;uare metres is m" &%at? Ho/ much /eight ha e "ou 'ut on? Ho/ man" good grades did m" daughter get? 7hat

tem'erature is it toda"? $s this 'ac( o& beer on sa%e a good bu"? 4e'ending on /ho as(s these ;uestions "ou ma" 'ro ide either a softer ans/er or a har"er one. $n the %atter case "ou /i%% ha e to &a%% bac( on a 'a'er &orm: the accounting s%i' sent to "ou b" "our ban(P the reading ta(en out o& the b%ood 'ressure (it in "our doctor5s o&&iceP the birth certi&icates (e't at Cit" Ha%% or a genea%ogica% treeP the %ist o& &%ashing %ights 'rinted in the Nautical Almanac> a geometrica% dra/ing o& "our &%atP a sca%eP a schoo% re'ort (e't in "our daughter5s co%%ege administrationP a thermometerP the doGens o& metro%ogica% mar(s made on the 'ac( o& beer (content, a%coho%ic degree, amount o& 'reser ati es, etc.). 7hat /e ca%% Qthin(ing /ith accurac"5 in a situation o& contro ers" is a%/a"s bringing to the sur&ace one o& these &orms. 7ithout them /e sim'%" "on5t kno;) $& &or one reason or another (crime, accident, contro ers"), the dis'ute is not sett%ed at this 'oint, "ou /i%% be %ed a%ong one o& the man" metro%ogica% chains that 'i%e u' 'a'er &orms to the nth order. 9 en the ;uestion Q/ho are "ou5 cannot be so% ed, in some e6treme situations, /ithout su'erim'osing 'ass'orts to &inger'rints to birth certi&icates to 'hotogra'hs, that is /ithout constituting a file that brings together man" di&&erent 'a'er &orms o& arious origins. Dou might er" /e%% (no/ /ho "ou are and be satis&ied /ith a er" so&t ans/er to this absurd ;uer", but the 'o%iceman, /ho raises the ;uestion &rom the 'oint o& ie/ o& a centre, /ants to ha e a harder ans/er than that, e6act%" as /hen La'Mrouse (e't as(ing the Chinese &ishermen /here the" /ere in terms o& %ongitude and %atitude. 7e can understand no/ the misunderstanding studied in Cha'ter 8, #art C

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bet/een the so&ter and the harder /a"s o& so% ing the 'arado6 o& the &act:bui%der. 1he re;uirements 'ut on (no/%edge are utter%" di&&erent i& one /ants to use it to sett%e a %oca% dis'ute or to 'artici'ate in the e#tension o& a net/or( &ar a/a". .%% the intermediaries are enough in the &irst case ($ (no/ /ho $ am, /hat time it is, i& it is /arm or co%d, i& m" &%at is big or sma%%, i& $ earn enough, i& m" daughter /or(s /e%%, i& Sa(ha%in is an is%and or not). 1he" are a%% &ound ;anting in the %atter case. 1he misunderstanding is o& the same nature and has the same concrete meaning as i& an arm" engineer in charge o& 're'aring the %anding o& 37% bombers on a #aci&ic is%and &inds on%" a mudd" %anding stri' a &e/ hundred "ards %ong. He /i%% indeed be disa''ointed and /i%% &ind the airstri' /anting. 1he on%" /a" to 're'are 5%anding stri's5 e er"/here &or &acts and machines is to trans&orm as man" 'oints as 'ossib%e o& the outside /or%d into instruments. 1he /a%%s o& the scienti&ic ga%%eries are %itera%%" papere" over) Machines, &or instance, are dra/n, /ritten, argued and ca%cu%ated, be&ore being bui%t. Ooing &rom 5science5 to 5techno%og"5 is not going &rom a 'a'er /or%d to a mess", greas", concrete /or%d. $t is going &rom 'a'er/or( to sti%% more 'a'er/or(, &rom one centre o& ca%cu%ation to another /hich gathers and hand%es more ca%cu%ations o& sti%% more heterogeneous origins. ))

1he more modern and com'%e6 the" are, the more 'a'er &orms machines need so as to come into e6istence. 1here is a sim'%e reason &or this: in the er" 'rocess o& their construction the" disa''ear &rom sight because each 'art hides the other as the" become dar(er and dar(er b%ac( bo6es (Cha'ter +). 1he *agle grou', during the debugging, had to bui%d a com'uter 'rogram Cust to (ee' trac( o& the modi&ications each o& them /as doing to the 'rotot"'e, Cust to remember /hat *agle /as about, to (ee' it s"no'tica%%" under their e"es /hi%e it became more and more obscure ($ntroduction). 3& a%% the 'arts o& technoscience, the engineers5 dra/ings and the organisation and management o& the traces generated simu%taneous%" b" engineers, draughtsmen, 'h"sicists, economists, accountants, mar(eting agents and managers are the most re ea%ing. 1he" are the ones /here the distinctions bet/een science, techno%og", economics and societ" are the most absurd. 1he centres o& ca%cu%ations o& maCor machine: bui%ding industries concentrate on the same des(s 'a'er &orms o& a%% origins, recombining them in such a /a" that some s%i's o& 'a'er bring together the sha'e o& the 'art to be bui%t (dra/n in a codi&ied geometrica% s'ace)P the to%erance and ca%ibration necessar" &or its construction (a%% the metro%ogica% chains inside and outside the &orms)P the 'h"sica% e;uations o& materia% resistanceP the names o& the /or(ers in charge o& the 'artsP the mean time necessar" to e&&ect the o'erations (resu%t o& decades o& ta"%orisation)P the doGens o& codes that ma(e the (ee'ing o& the in entor" 'ossib%eP the economic ca%cu%ationsP and so on. 1hose /ho /ou%d tr" to re'%ace the common histor" o& these centres o& ca%cu%ations b" c%ean distinct histories o& science, o& techno%og", and o& management /ou%d ha e to butcher the subCect. 9ach o& these 'a'er &orms is necessar" &or one o& the doGens o& sciences in o% ed in machine: bui%ding sim'%" to ha e an" re%e ance at a%%. .ccountanc", &or instance, is a crucia% and 'er asi e science in our societies. $ts e6tension,

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ho/e er, is strict%" %imited b" the &e/ 'a'er &orms that ma(e accurate boo(:(ee'ing 'ossib%e. Ho/ do "ou a''%" boo(:(ee'ing to the con&using /or%d o& goods, consumers, industr"? .ns/er: b" trans&orming each o& these com'%e6 acti ities, so that, at one 'oint or another, the" generate a 'a'er &orm that is readi%" a''%icab%e to boo(:(ee'ing. 3nce each hamburger so%d in the !nited States, each co&&ee cu', each bus tic(et is accom'anied b" a numbered stub, or one o& these %itt%e /hite ta%%ies s'e/s out o& e er" cash register, then indeed accountants, managers and economists are ab%e to e6'and their s(i%% at ca%cu%ating. . restaurant, a su'ermar(et, a sho', an assemb%" %ine are generating as man" readings &rom as man" instruments as a %aborator" (thin( o& the sca%es, the c%oc(s, the registers, the order &orms). $t is on%" once the economy is made to generate enough o& these 'a'er &orms so as to resemb%e economics that the economists become 'art o& an e6'anding 'ro&ession. 1here is no reason to %imit the stud" o& science to the /riting o& the Boo( o& 0ature, and to &orget to stud" this 5Oreat Boo( o& Cu%ture5 /hich has a much more 'er asi e in&%uence on our dai%" %i&e than the other J the mere in&ormation in ban(s, &or e6am'%e, is se era% orders o& magnitude more im'ortant than scienti&ic communication.

9 en geogra'h", that seems so readi%" a''%icab%e 5outside5, once the ma' is made, cannot esca'e er" &ar &rom the net/or(s /ithout becoming use%ess. 7hen /e use a ma', /e rare%" com'are /hat is /ritten on the ma' /ith the %andsca'e J to be ca'ab%e o& such a &eat "ou /ou%d need to be "ourse% es a /e%%:trained to'ogra'her, that is, to be closer to the 'ro&ession o& geogra'her. 0o, /e most o&ten compare the readings on the ma' /ith the road signs /ritten in the same %anguage. 1he outside /or%d is &it &or an a''%ication o& the ma' on%" /hen a%% its re%e ant &eatures ha e themse% es been /ritten and mar(ed b" beacons, %andmar(s, boards, arro/s, street names and so on. 1he easiest 'roo& o& this is to tr" to na igate /ith a er" good ma' a%ong an unmar(ed coast, or in a countr" /here a%% the road boards ha e been torn o&& (as ha''ened to the 2ussians in ading CGechos%o a(ia in 19-8). 1he chance is that "ou /i%% soon be /rec(ed and %ost. 7hen the out:thereness is rea%%" encountered, /hen things out there are seen &or the first time, this is the end o& science, since the essentia% cause o& scienti&ic su'eriorit" has anished. 1he histor" o& technoscience is in a %arge 'art the histor" o& a%% the %itt%e in entions made a%ong the net/or(s to acce%erate the mobi%it" o& traces, or to enhance their &aith&u%ness, combination and cohesion, so as to ma(e action at a distance 'ossib%e. 1his /i%% be our si2th prin&iple.

%8' About a fe1 other paper7shufflers

$& /e e6tend the meaning o& metro%og" to inc%ude not on%" the u'(ee' o& the basic 'h"sica% constants but a%so the trans&ormation o& as man" &eatures as 'ossib%e o& the outside in 'a'er &orms, /e might end u' stud"ing the most des'ised o& a%% the as'ects o& technoscience: the 'a'er:shu&&%ers, the red:ta'e /orms, the

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bureaucrats. .hS these bureaucrats, ho/ hated the" are J these 'eo'%e /ho on%" dea% /ith 'ieces o& 'a'er, &i%es and &orms, /ho (no/ nothing about the rea% /or%d, but are on%" su'erim'osing &orms on other &orms sim'%" to chec( i& the" ha e been correct%" &i%%ed inP this curious breed o& %unatics that 're&ers to be%ie e a 'iece o& 'a'er to an" other source o& in&ormation, e en i& it is against common sense, %ogic and e en their o/n &ee%ings. Sharing this scorn /ou%d be, ho/e er, a maCor mista(e &or us /ho /ish to &o%%o/ science in action u' to the end. *irst, because /hat are seen as de&ects in the case o& the 'a'er:shu&&%ers are considered nob%e ;ua%ities /hen considering these other 'a'er:shu&&%ers /ho are ca%%ed scientists and engineers. Be%ie ing more the nth order 'a'er &orm than common sense is a &eature o& astronomers, economists, ban(ers, o& e er"one /ho treats in the centres 'henomena /hich are, b" de&inition, absent. $t /ou%d be a mista(e, second, because it is through bureaucrac" and inside the &i%es that the resu%ts o& science tra e% the &urthest. *or instance, the %oggings 'roduced b" Schlumberger

engineers on oi% '%at&orms (#art ., section )) become 'art o& a &i%e inside a ban( at 7a%% Street that combines geo%og", economics, strateg" and %a/. .%% these unre%ated domains are /o en together once the" become sheets o& this most des'ised o& a%% obCects, the recor", the dust" record. 7ithout it, though, the %oggings /ou%d sta" /here the" /ere, inside the Schlumberger cabin or truc(, /ithout an" re%e ance to other issues. 1he microbio%ogica% tests o& /ater made b" bacterio%ogists /ou%d ha e no re%e ance either i& the" sta"ed inside the %ab. 0o/ that the" are integrated, &or instance, in another com'%e6 record at Cit" Ha%% that Cu6ta'oses architects5 dra/ings, cit" regu%ations, 'o%% resu%ts, ote ta%%ies and budget 'ro'osa%s, the" 'ro&it &rom each o& these other s(i%%s and cra&ts. !nderstanding the bearing o& bacterio%og" on Qsociet"5 might be a di&&icu%t tas(P but &o%%o/ing in ho/ man" %ega%, administrati e and &inancia% o'erations bacterio%og" has been enro%%ed is &easib%e: Cust &o%%o/ the trai%. .s /e sa/ in Cha'ter ,, the esoteric character o& a science is in erse%" 'ro'ortiona% to its e6oteric character. 7hat /e rea%ise no/ is that administration, bureaucrac", and management in genera% are the on%" big resources a ai%ab%e to e6'and rea%%" &ar: the go ernment su''orts the bacterio%og" %aborator" /hich has become an ob%igator" 'assage 'oint &or e er" decision to be made. 7hat a''eared at the beginning o& this boo( as ast and insu%ated 'oc(ets o& science are 'robab%" best understood i& the" are seen to be scattered through centres o& ca%cu%ation, dis'ersed o er &i%es and records, seeded through a%% the net/or(s and isib%e on%" because the" acce%erate the %oca% mobi%isation o& some resources among man" others that are necessar" to administer man" 'eo'%e on a %arge sca%e and at a distance )+ 1he third and &ina% reason /h" /e shou%d not des'ise bureaucrats, managers, 'a'er:shu&&%ers or, in brie&, this tertiar" sector that com'%ete%" d/ar&s the siGe o& technoscience is that it constitutes a mi6ture o& other disci'%ines /hich ha e to be studied /ith the same method $ ha e 'resented in this boo( e en though the" are not considered as 'ertaining to 5science and techno%og"5. 7hen 'eo'%e c%aim the" /ant to e6'%ain 5socia%%"5 the de e%o'ment o& 5science and techno%og"5 the" use

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entities %i(e nationa% 'o%ic", mu%tinationa% &irms5 strategies, c%asses, /or%d economic trends, nationa% cu%tures, 'ro&essiona% status, strati&ication, 'o%itica% decisions, and so on and so &orth. .t no 'oint in this boo( ha e $ used an" o& these entitiesP on the contrar", $ ha e e6'%ained se era% times that /e shou%d be as agnostic about societ" as about nature, and that 'ro iding a socia% e6'%anation does not mean an"thing 5socia%5 but on%" something about the re%ati e so%idit" o& associations. $ a%so 'romised, ho/e er, at the end o& Cha'ter +, that /e /i%% meet at some 'oint a stab%e state o& societ". 7e%%, here /e are: a stab%e state o& societ" is 'roduced b" the mu%ti&arious administrati e sciences e6act%" %i(e a stab%e inter'retation o& b%ac( ho%es is 'ro ided b" astronom", o& microbes b" bacterio%og", or o& 'ro en oi% reser es b" geo%og". 0o more, no %ess. Let us end /ith a &e/ more e6am'%es.

1he state o& the econom", &or instance, cannot be used un'rob%ematica%%" to e6'%ain science, because it is itse%& a er" contro ersia% outcome o& another so&t science: economics. .s /e sa/ ear%ier, it is e6tracted out o& hundreds o& statistica% institutions, ;uestionnaires, 'o%%s and sur e"s, and treated in centres o& ca%cu%ation. Something %i(e the Oross 0ationa% #roduct is an nth order isua% dis'%a" /hich, to be sure, ma" be combined to other 'a'er &orms, but /hich is no more outsi"e the &rai% and tin" net/or(s bui%t b" economists than stars, e%ectrons or '%ate tectonics. 1he same is true &or man" as'ects o& 'o%itics. Ho/ do /e (no/ that #art" . is stronger than #art" B? 9ach o& us ma" ha e an o'inion about the re%ati e strength o& these 'artiesP indeed, it is because each o& us has one o'inion about it that /e ma" ha e to bui%d a huge scienti&ic e6'eriment to sett%e the ;uestion. Scienti&ic? Sure. 7hat is a nationa% e%ection, i& not the trans&ormation through a er" cost%" and cumbersome instrument o& a%% the o'inions into mar(s on ba%%ot 'a'ers, mar(s /hich are then counted, summed, com'ared (/ith great care and /ith much contro ers") to e entua%%" end u' in one nth order isua% dis'%a": #art" .: 81d, #art" B: ,8d, 0u%%: ,d? 1o distinguish bet/een or o''ose science, 'o%itics and economics /ou%d be meaning%ess &rom our 'oint o& ie/, because in terms o& siGe, re%e ance and cost, the &e/ &igures that decide the Oross 0ationa% #roduct or the 'o%itica% ba%ance o& &orces are much more im'ortant, trigger much more interest, much more scrutin", much more 'assion, much more scienti&ic method than a ne/ 'artic%e or a ne/ radio source. .%% o& them de'end on the same basic mechanism: ca%ibrating inscri'tion de ices, &ocusing the con: tro ersies on the &ina% isua% dis'%a", obtaining the resources necessar" &or the u'(ee' o& the instruments, bui%ding nth order theories on the archi ed records. 0o, our method /ou%d gain nothing in e6'%aining Qnatura%5 sciences b" in o(ing Qsocia%5 sciences. 1here is not the s%ightest di&&erence bet/een the t/o, and the" are both to be studied in the same /a". 0either o& them shou%d be be%ie ed more nor endo/ed /ith the m"sterious 'o/er o& Cum'ing out o& the net/or(s it bui%ds. 7hat is c%ear &or economics, 'o%itics and management is a%% the c%earer &or socio%og" itse%&. Ho/ cou%d someone /ho decided to &o%%o/ scientists in action &orget to stud" socio%ogists stri ing to de&ine /hat societ" is a%% about, /hat (ee's us a%% g%ued together, ho/ man" c%asses there are, /hat is the aim o& %i ing in

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societ", /hat are the maCor trends o& its e o%ution? Ho/ cou%d one be%ie e these 'eo'%e /ho sa" /hat societ" is about more than the others? Ho/ cou%d one trans&orm astronomers into s'o(es'ersons &or the s(" and sti%% acce't that the socio%ogists te%% us /hat societ" is) 1he er" de&inition o& a 5societ"5 is the &ina% outcome, in Socio%og" 4e'artments, in Statistica% $nstitutions, in Courna%s, o& other scientists bus" at /or( gathering sur e"s, ;uestionnaires, archi es, records o& a%% sorts, arguing together, 'ub%ishing 'a'ers, organising other meetings. .n" agreed de&inition mar(s the ha''" end o& contro ersies %i(e a%% the sett%ements /e ha e studied in this boo(. 0o more, no %ess. 1he resu%ts on /hat societ" is made o& do not s'read more or &aster than those o& economics, to'o%og" or 'artic%e 'h"sics. 1hese resu%ts too /ou%d

die i& the" /ent outside o& the tin" net/or(s so necessar" &or their sur i a%. . socio%ogist5s inter'retation o& societ" /i%% not be substituted &or /hat e er" one o& us thin(s o& societ" /ithout a""itional strugg%e, /ithout te6tboo(s, chairs in uni ersities, 'ositions in the go ernment, integration in the mi%itar", and so on, e6act%" as &or geo%og", meteoro%og" or statistics. 0o, /e shou%d not o er%oo( the administrati e net/or(s that 'roduce, insi"e rooms in 7a%% Street, in the #entagon, in uni ersit" de'artments, &%eeting or stab%e re'resentations o& /hat is the state o& the &orces, the nature o& our societ", the mi%itar" ba%ance, the hea%th o& the econom", the time &or a 2ussian ba%%istic missi%e to hit the 0e ada desert. 1o re%" on socia% sciences more than on natura% ones /ou%d 'ut our /ho%e Courne" in Ceo'ard", because /e /ou%d ha e to acce't that the s'ace:time e%aborated insi"e a net/or( b" one science has s'read outside and inclu"e" a%% the others. 7e are no more inc%uded in the s'ace o& societ" (bui%t b" socio%ogists through so man" dis'utes), than in the time o& geo%og" (s%o/%" e%aborated in 0atura% Histor" Museums), or in the domain o& neurosciences (care&u%%" e6tended b" neuroscientists). More e6act%", this inc%usion is not natura%%" 'ro ided /ithout additiona% /or(P it is obtained %oca%%" i& the net/or(s o& socio%ogists, geo%ogists and neuroscientists are e6tended, i& /e ha e to 'ass through their %aboratories, or through their metro%ogica% chains, i& the" ha e been ab%e to render themse% es indis'ensab%e to our o/n tri's and tra e%s. 1he situation is e6act%" the same &or the sciences as &or gas, e%ectricit", cab%e 1H, /ater su''%ies or te%e'hones. $n a%% cases "ou need to be hoo(ed u' to cost%" net/or(s that ha e to be maintained and e6tended. 1his boo( has been /ritten to 'ro ide a breathing s'ace to those /ho /ant to stud" inde'endent%" the e6tensions o& a%% these net/or(s. 1o do such a stud" it is abso%ute%" necessar" ne er to grant to an" &act, to an" machine, the magica% abi%it" o& %ea ing the narro/ net/or(s in /hich the" are 'roduced and a%ong /hich the" circu%ate. 1his tin" breathing s'ace /ou%d become immediate%" itiated i& the same &air and s"mmetric treatment /as not a''%ied to the socia% and administrati e sciences as /e%%.

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A$$EN-IF (. 3ules of Method

Rule $ 7e stud" science in action and not read" made science or techno%og"P to do so, /e either arri e be&ore the &acts and machines are b%ac(bo6ed or /e &o%%o/ the contro ersies that reo'en them. ($ntroduction) Rule % 1o determine the obCecti it" or subCecti it" o& a c%aim, the e&&icienc" or 'er&ection o& a mechanism, /e do not %oo( &or their intrinsic ;ua%ities but at a%% the trans&ormations the" undergo later in the hands o& others. (Cha'ter 1)

Rule / Since the sett%ement o& a contro ers" is the cause o& 0ature5s re'resentation, not its conse;uence, /e can ne er use this conse;uence, 0ature, to e6'%ain ho/ and /h" a contro ers" has been sett%ed. (Cha'ter )) Rule 6 Since the sett%ement o& a contro ers" is the cause o& Societ"5s stabi%it", /e cannot use Societ" to e6'%ain ho/ and /h" a contro ers" has been sett%ed. 7e shou%d consider s"mmetrica%%" the e&&orts to enro% human and non:human resources. (Cha'ter +) Rule 7 7e ha e to be as un"eci"e" as the arious actors /e &o%%o/ as to /hat technoscience is made o&P e er" time an insideDoutside di ide is bui%t, /e shou%d stud" the t/o sides simu%taneous%" and ma(e the %ist, no matter ho/ %ong and heterogeneous, o& those /ho do the /or(. (Cha'ter ,) Rule 8 Con&ronted /ith the accusation o& irrationa%it", /e %oo( neither at /hat ru%e o& %ogic has been bro(en, nor at /hat structure o& societ" cou%d e6'%ain the distortion, but to the ang%e and direction o& the obser er5s "isplacement, and to the length o& the net/or( thus being bui%t. (Cha'ter 8) Rule ' Be&ore attributing an" s'ecia% ;ua%it" to the mind or to the method o& 'eo'%e, %et us e6amine &irst the man" /a"s through /hich inscri'tions are gathered, combined, tied together and sent bac(. 3n%" i& there is something une6'%ained once the net/or(s ha e been studied sha%% /e start to s'ea( o& cogniti e &actors. (Cha'ter -)

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A$$EN-IF 5. $rin&iples
<irst principle 1he &ate o& &acts and machines is in %ater users5 handsP their ;ua%ities are thus a conse;uence, not a cause, o& a co%%ecti e action. (Cha'ter 1) Secon" principle Scientists and engineers s'ea( in the name o& ne/ a%%ies that the" ha e sha'ed and enro%%edP re'resentati es among other re'resentati es, the" add these une6'ected resources to ti' the ba%ance o& &orce in their &a our. (Cha'ter )) Thir" principle 7e are ne er con&ronted /ith science, techno%og" and societ", but /ith a gamut o& /ea(er and stronger associations> thus understanding ;hat &acts and machines are is the same tas( as understanding ;ho the 'eo'%e are. (Cha'ter +) <ourth principle 1he more science and techno%og" ha e an esoteric content the &urther the" e6tend outsideP thus, 5science and techno%og"5 is on%" a sub:set o& technoscience. (Cha'ter ,) <ifth principle $rrationa%it" is a%/a"s an accusation made b" someone bui%ding a net/or( o er someone e%se /ho stands in the /a"P thus, there is no Oreat 4i ide bet/een minds, but on%" shorter and %onger net/or(sP harder &acts are not the ru%e but the e6ce'tion, since the" are

needed on%" in a er" &e/ cases to dis'%ace others on a %arge sca%e out o& their usua% /a"s. (Cha'ter 8) Si#th principle Histor" o& technoscience is in a %arge 'art the histor" o& the resources scattered a%ong net/or(s to acce%erate the mobi%it", &aith&u%ness, combination and cohesion o& traces that ma(e action at a distance 'ossib%e. (Cha'ter -)

(()->))

Notes
Introdu&tion
1 $ am &o%%o/ing here Fames 7atson5s account (19-8). ) $ am &o%%o/ing here 1rac" <idder5s boo( (1981). 1his boo(, %i(e 7atson5s, is com'u%sor" reading &or a%% o& those interested in science in the ma(ing. + 3n this e'isode see 1.4. Sto(es (198)). , 1his notion o& under:determination is a%so ca%%ed the 4uhem:Nuine 'rinci'%e. $t asserts that no one sing%e &actor is enough to e6'%ain the c%osure o& a contro ers" or the certaint" ac;uired b" scientists. 1his 'rinci'%e &orms the 'hi%oso'hica% basis o& most socia% histor" o& socio%og" o& science.

Chapter (
1 1his debate about the M@ /ea'on s"stem has been the obCect o& a %ong 'ub%ic contro ers" in the !S.. ) 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom 0icho%as 7ade (1981). 1he rest o& the contro ers" is ins'ired &rom the boo(, a%though it is in 'art &ictiona%. + 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom Miche% Ca%%on (1981). , Cited in S. 4ra(e (197>, '. 71). 8 $ am using here the &o%%o/ing artic%e: .. H. Scha%%", H. Baba, 2. M. O. 0air, C. 4. Bennett (1971), 51he amino:acid se;uence o& a 'e'tide /ith gro/th hormone:re%easing iso%ated &rom 'orcine h"'otha%amus5, Qournal of 3iological hemistry, vol) )1-, no. )1, ''. --,7:8>.

- 1he &ie%d o& citation studies has become an inde'endent sub:disci'%ine. *or a re ie/ see 9. Oar&ie%d (1979) or the re ie/ Scientometrics &or more recent and more s'ecia%ised e6am'%es. *or the conte6t o& citation, see M. H. Mac2oberts and B. 2. Mac2oberts (198-). 7 1his e6'ression has become traditiona% since the /or( o& 1homas <uhn (19-)). 8 1he Science Citation $nde6 is 'roduced b" the $nstitute &or Scienti&ic $n&ormation in #hi%ade%'hia and has become the basis o& much /or( in science 'o%ic". 9 $ am using here the &o%%o/ing artic%e: 2. Oui%%emin, #. BraGeau, #. Mi%%en, *. 9sch, 0. Ling, 7. B. 7ehrenberg (198)), 5Oro/th:hormone re%easing

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&actor &rom a human 'ancreatic tumor that caused acromega%"5, Science, o%. )18, ''. 888W7. 1> 1he artic%e commented on here is b" C. #ac(er, 52eci'roca% a%truism in 'a'io #.5, Nature 1977 Ho%. )-8, no. 889+, ''. ,,1:,,+. .%though this trans&ormation o& the %iterature is a sure te%%ta%e o& the di&&erences bet/een harder and so&ter &ie%ds, $ (no/ o& no s"stematic stud" o& this as'ect. *or a di&&erent a''roach and on the artic%es in 'h"sics see C. BaGerman (198,). 11 See M. S'ector, S. 350ea%, 9. 2ac(er (198>), 52egu%ation o& 'hos'or"%ation o& the f: subunit o& the 9hr%ich .scites tumor 0aWg<W,W.1#ase b" a 'rotein (inase cascade5. Qournal of 3iological hemistry, o%. )8-, no. 9 ''. ,)19W)7. 3n this and man" other border%ine cases, see 7. Broad and 0. 7ade (198)). 1) *or a genera% 'resentation see M. Ca%%on, F. La/ and .. 2i' (eds) (198-). 1+ 3n the somatostatin e'isode see 7ade (1981, cha'ter 1+). 1, *or a good introduction or rhetoric in settings other than the scienti&ic ones see C. #ere%man (198)).

Chapter 5
1 *or an introduction to bib%iometr" and to the stud" o& citations see 9. Oar&ie%d (1979)P &or the co:/ords ana%"sis see M. Ca%%on, F. La/ and .. 2i' (eds) (198-)P &or an introduction to semiotics see *. Bastide (1988). ) $ am &o%%o/ing here the /or( o& 1re or #inch (198-).

+ $ am &o%%o/ing here the /or( o& Mar" Fo 0"e (198>, 198-). , 3n this see 0. 7ade (1981, Cha'ter 1+). 8 $ am &o%%o/ing here the em'irica% e6am'%e studied b" H. Co%%ins (1988), a%though his descri'tion o& the /a"s o& sett%ing contro ersies is rather di&&erent and /i%% be ana%"sed in #art $$ o& this boo(. - $ am &o%%o/ing here the /or( o& *ar%e" and Oeison, (197,). 7 Later on, ho/e er, the contro ers" /as resumedP see 2. 4ubos (1981). 1here are a%/a"s on%" 'ractica% and tem'orar" ends to contro ersies, as /i%% be sho/n in the %ast section. 8 3n this contro ers" see M. Mead (19)8) and 4. *reeman (198+). 9 $ am using here 4. Mac<enGie5s (1978) artic%e. See a%so his (1981) boo( on the %arger setting o& the same contro ers". 1> 3n this e'isode o& the disco er" o& somatostatin see 0. 7ade (1981 cha'ter 1+). 11 1his e6cer't is ta(en &rom 9. 4uc%au65s TraitK "e biochimie (189-), o%. $$, '. 8. 4uc%au6 /as co%%aborator o& #asteur. 1) $ am using here the &o%%o/ing artic%e b" #ierre and Marie Curie: (1898) 5Sur une substance nou e%%e radio:acti e, contenue dans %a 'echb%ende5, omptes Ren"us "e l5Aca"Kmie "es Sciences, vol) 1)7, ''. 178:8. 1+ *or the de&inition o& these /ords and o& a%% the conce'ts o& semiotics see .. Oreimas and F. Courtcs (1979D198+). *or a 'resentation o& semiotics in 9ng%ish see *. Bastide (1988). 1, See F. 7. 4auben (197,). 18 *or the u%tracentri&uge see the nice stud" b" Boe%ic 9%Gen (&orthcoming). 1- $ am a%%uding here to the remar(ab%e /or( b" .. 4esmond (1978). 17 1his basic ;uestion o& re%ati ism has been nice%" summed u' in man" artic%es b" Harr" Co%%ins. See in 'articu%ar his %atest boo( (1988).

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Chapter 8
1 *or a 'resentation o& %aborator" studies see <. <norr (1981), <. <norr and M. Mu%(a" (eds) (198+) and M. L"nch (1988). ) $ am &o%%o/ing in this introduction the artic%e b" L. Br"ant (197-)P see a%so his (19-9) artic%e. + 3n this contro ers" see again 4. *reeman (198+) and on the genera% histor" surrounding this e'isode see 4. <e %es (1988). , $ am &o%%o/ing here F. Oeison5s artic%e on #asteur (197,). 8 3n this dramatic e'isode see 2. 4ubos e F. 4ubos (198+). - $ &o%%o/ here 1.#. Hughes (1971). 7 3n this see 4. <e %es (1978), on the man" di&&erent strategies to interest a societ" in the de e%o'ment o& a 'ro&ession. 8 1his (no/%edge seems e6cessi e to man" socio%ogists o& science (see S. 7oo%gar (1981), M. Ca%%on and F. La/ (198)), B. Hindess (198-)), and seems ;uite reasonab%e to the &ounder o& the interest theor" Barr" Barnes (1971), to 4. B%oor (197-), and to S. Sha'in (198)). 9 See L. SGi%ard (1978, '. 88). 1> $ am using here 2. Fen(ins5s artic%e (1978). 11 See B. 2oGen(ranG (197)) and 4. 7at(ins (198,) 1) See M. Ca%%on (1981). 1+ 3n this notion o& 5idea5 see the %ast 'art o& this cha'ter. 1, 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom L. 1o%sto"5s master'iece (18-9). 18 1his e6'ression has been 'ro'osed b" F. La/ (198-) in corre%ation /ith his notion o& 5heterogeneous engineering5. 1- 3n this, see the notion o& 5re erse sa%ient5 'ro'osed b" 1. Hughes (198+). 17 $ am using here L. Hoddeson5s artic%e (1981). 18 $ &o%%o/ here S. Sha'in (1979). 19 3n this and the &o%%o/ing see .. Leroi:Oourhan (19-,). )> 1he traditiona% di&&erence bet/een human J those /ho are ab%e to s'ea( and are endo/ed /ith /i%%sJand non:humanJthose su''osed to be mute and denied /i%%s and desiresJis

immateria% here and is not enough to brea( the necessar" s"mmetr". 3n this see M. Ca%%on (198-). )1 3n 0e/comen5s engine see B. Oi%%e (1978) )) *or a reader, a bib%iogra'h" and an introduction to these man" strategies, see 4. Mac<enGie and F. 7aCcman (1988). )+ *or a critica% introduction to the notion o& disco er", see .. Brannigan (1981). ), 4e&ined b" 4a id B%oor in his c%assic boo( (197-) and to /hich he o''oses his 'rinci'%e o& s"mmetr" that re;uires an e6'%anation to a''%" in the same terms to /inners and %osers. )8 1his e6am'%e and man" others are s(etched in the non:technica% boo( /ritten b" 1. #eters and 0. .ustin (1988).

Chapter <
1 $ &o%%o/ here 2o" #orter5s account (198)). See a%so his (1977) boo( on the &ormation o& the ne/ disci'%ine o& geo%og". ) See 4. <e %es (1978) as an e6ce%%ent e6am'%e o& the historica% stud" o& a scienti&ic 'ro&ession. + 1his e6am'%e is a co%%age. , .%though a%% the e%ements are accurate, this is an idea%:t"'e and not a rea% e6am'%e. 8 See 1. <idder (1981).

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- Most o& the &igures used in this 'art come &rom the 0ationa% Science *oundation5s Science &n"icators 'ub%ished in 7ashington e er" t/o "ears. 7 See 39C4 (198,). 8 0umber o& doctorates in the !S: tota%: +->,>>>P in research: 1>>,>>>P in de e%o'ment: 18,>>> GScience &n"icators, 198+, '. )8,).

9 0umber o& scientists and engineers engaged in 2 e 4 b" t"'e o& occu'ation and em'%o"er in the !S:

666 tabe%% &or note ,.9 start 666 *ngage" in research: +88,>>>P o& these 98,>>> are in industr"P the rest in uni ersities or in *edera% %absP *ngage" in "evelopment: 818,>>>P o& these ,,+,>>> are in industr"P the rest in !ni ersities or in *edera% LaboratoriesP *ngage" in management of R L J: )),,>>>P o& these 1,,,>>> are in industr"P the rest )),,>>>P o& these 1,,,>>> are in industr"P the rest in uni ersities or in *edera% %abs. Science &n"icators $:-% 198+, '. )77) 666 tabe%% &or note ,.9 s%utt 666

1> 0umber o& !S doctorate scientists doing 2 e 4 a'art &rom those in business and industr":

666 tabe%% &or note ,.1> start 666 Basic science: ,8,>>> .''%ied research: ),,8>> 4e e%o'ment ),9>> Management o& 2 e 4 1+,8>> (S$, 198+, '. +11) 666 tabe%% &or note ,.1> s%utt 666

11 3n this %ong:term, %arge:sca%e trend see 4. de S. #rice (1978)P see a%so 0. 2escher (1978). 1) 3n the notion o& strati&ication see the c%assic stud" b" F. and S. Co%e (197+).

1+ 3n isibi%it" and on the man" other notions de e%o'ed b" the .merican Schoo% o& socio%og" o& scientists and engineers :in contradistinction to the socio%og" o& science and techno%og" most%" used in this boo( : see the c%assic boo( o& <. Merton (197+). 1, Com'arati e shares o& research institutions in 2 e 4 budget in the !S:

666 tabe%% &or note ,.11 start 666 : 1o' 1> doing )>d : 1o' 1>> doing 88d Science &n"icators $:-%, 198+, '. 1)8) 666 tabe%% &or note ,.11 s%utt 666

18 Com'arati e shares o& the si6 to' 7estern countries in the 2 e 4 budget, %iterature, 'atents, and citations:

666 tabe%% &or note ,.1) start 666 : !S 'ro'ortion o& the /or%d5s science and techno%og" artic%es: +7d. (in the %o/est &ie%d, chemistr", it is )1dP in the highest, biomedicine, it is ,+d). (S$, 198), '. 11). : !S 'ro'ortion o& the 7estern /or%d5s budget s'ent on 2 e 4: ,8d in 1979. (Fa'an 18dP 9uro'ean Communit" +>d). (39C4 198+, '. )1). : !S 'ro'ortion o& the 7estern /or%d5s /or(&orce in 2 e 4: ,+d in 1979. (Fa'an )-dP 9uro'ean Communit" )7d). (idem). 666 tabe%% &or note ,.1) s%utt 666

1- 1his situation o& de'endence is much /orse i& /e consider not on%" the to' industria% countries but a%so the sma%%er ones or the underde e%o'ed countries. 7hen /e ta(e the 'oorest countries into account, /hat is o&&icia%%" de&ined as technoscience anishes &rom ie/. 4etermining its sca%e is no %onger the right e6'ression. 7e shou%d no/ ta%( in terms o& traces) . &e/ institutes sta&&ed &or the most 'art /ith scientists &rom the de e%o'ed countries are a%most in isib%e, scattered among the hundreds o& mi%%ions /ho (no/ nothing about the interior o& &acts and machines. See the &igures in !09SC3 (198+). 17 See on this notion o& mobi%isation 7. Mc0ei%%5s maCor boo( (198)) and Cha'ter -.

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Chapter B
1 See 4a id B%oor (197-). 3n this debate see M. Ho%%is and S. Lu(es (198)) and 9. Mende%sohn and I. 9%(ana (1981). 1he t/o most interesting artic%es on this debate are /ithout doubt those o& 2. Horton (19-7P 198)). ) 1his e6am'%e &rom 9. 9. 9 ans:#ritchard5s c%assic boo( (19+7) has been turned into a canonic to'ic &or anthro'o%og" o& science b" 4a id B%oor (197-). + 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom 9d/ard Hutchins (198>). , $ am &o%%o/ing here 4... Hounshe%% (1978). 8 See on this succession o& contradictor" accusations B. 9as%ea (198>). - See on this 'oint B.F.1. 4obbs (197-). 7 1his is an ada'tation o& 4. B%oor5s dra/ing (197-, '. 1)-). 8 0atura%%", $ am &o%%o/ing here the canonic e6am'%e o&&ered b" B%oor and not the er" subt%e inter'retations o&&ered b" 9 ans:#ritchard. 9 See on this 'oint the c%assic boo( edited b" B. 7i%son (197>). 1> $ am &o%%o/ing here M. Co%e and S. Scribner (197,)P other e6am'%es b" ..2. Luria are to be &ound in his (197-) boo( edited b" M. Co%e. 11 1his other canonic e6am'%e is ta(en &rom 2. Bu%mer (19-7) and has been treated at %ength b" B. Barnes (198+). 1) 1he most com'%ete /or( o& ethnoscience is to be &ound in H. Con(%in (198>). !n&ortunate%" there is no e;ui a%ent o& this on a 7estern industria%ised communit". 1+ $ am using here the beauti&u% boo( o& .. 4esmond (1978), es'ecia%%" the cha'ter -. 1, 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom M. Ca%%on (198-).

18 His testimonies &orm the bu%( o& M. .ugM5s boo( (1978). *or ob ious reasons, .ugM ne er 'ub%ished the resu%t o& the cor'se interrogation o& his &riend. 1- 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom F. Ous&ie%d5s boo( /hich is a uni;ue case o& anthro'o%og" o& be%ie&D(no/%edge in a modern 7estern societ" (1981). 17 1his is /h" 5ora% cu%tures5 ha e been thought to be both rigid and de oid o& inno ation. 3n this see F. Oood"5s 'ioneering /or( (1977). 18 3n this trans&ormation and trans'ortation o& other 'eo'%e5s be%ie&s see #. Bourdieu (197)D1977) F. *abian (198+) and the recent boo( on &ie%d tri's edited b" O.7. Stoc(ing (198+).

Chapter E
1 3n this e'isode see F.:*. La'Mrouse (no date) and *. Be%%ec (1988). ) $ am &o%%o/ing here F. La/5s account o& this e'isode (198-). 3n a%% this rede&inition o& ca'ita%ism in terms o& %ong distance net/or(s the essentia% /or( is o& course that o& *. Braude% (1979D1988). + 1he %iterature on e6'editions and co%%ections is not er" e6tensi e but there are some interesting case studies. .mong them are L. Broc(/a" (1979) and L. #"enson (1988). , 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom L. .%%aud et M. Martin (197-). 8 $ &o%%o/ here 9. 9isenstein5s account (1979). Her boo( is essentia% reading &or a%% o& those /ho /ish, as she sa"s, to 5reset the stage &or the Co'ernican 2e o%ution5. - *or a genera% re ie/ o& this ;uestion see the o%ume $ edited in *rench /ith F. de 0ob%et (1988). 7 3n this com'arison bet/een botanists and ethnobotanists see H. Con(%in (198>). 8 $ &o%%o/ here B. Bensaude:Hincent5s account (198-). See a%so her thesis (1981) and on Mende%ee 5s /or( see *. 4agognet (19-9). 9 .ctua%%", the strength o& the tab%e came %ater &rom the une6'ected corres'ondence bet/een the c%assi&ication and the atomic theor" that retros'ecti e%" e6'%ained it.

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1> 1his e6am'%e is e%aborated in M. #o%an"i ('. 8+). 11 *or an interesting stud" see that o& *. *our;uet (198>) on the construction o& $0S99, the *rench institution gathering statistics. 1) See #.S. Ste ens (1978). 3n this ;uestion o& the re%ations bet/een sca%e mode%s, mode%s and ca%cu%ations, 'robab%" the best boo( is sti%% M. B%ac( (19-1). Less (no/n but er" use&u% is the /or( o& *. 4agognet. See in 'articu%ar is recent boo( (198,). 1+ $ am &o%%o/ing here the e6em'%ar" artic%e o& 1. Hughes (1979). 1, 1his use&u% /ord has been 'ro'osed b" 9. Oerson and L. Star to describe much the same mechanism as the one $ name here 5cascade5. 1his cha'ter o/es much to the /or( o& their 1remont $nstitute in Ca%i&ornia. 18 1his does not mean that 5theories5 sim'%" &o%%o/ the accumu%ation o& 5data5 J on the contrar" 5mere stam' co%%ecting5 is o&ten o''osed to 5rea% science5 J but sim'%" that an" a 'riori e'istemo%ogica% distinction bet/een the t/o ma(es the stud" im'ossib%e. 1he 'rob%em is that /e %ac( inde'endent studies on the construction o& this contrast bet/een 5data5 and 5theories5. *or such an endea our on the re%ations bet/een 'h"sics and chemistr" see $. Stengers (198+). 1- See on this .. <o"rM (19--) and S. 4ra(e (197>). 17 1his has to be ta(en /ith a grain o& sa%t since there is no stud" 'ertaining to anthro'o%og" o& science /hich tac(%es this ;uestion. . re%ated e&&ort is to be &ound in 9. Li ingston5s recent boo( (1988). 18 $ am using here the e6ce%%ent boo( o& 1. 7o%&e (1979). 1o the humi%iation o& our 'ro&ession, /e ha e to con&ess that some o& the best boo(s on technoscience, those o& <idder, 7atson and 7o%&e, &or e6am'%e, ha e not been /ritten b" 'ro&essiona% scho%ars. 19 1his e6am'%e is ta(en &rom one o& the rare %ong:term, em'irica% studies o& a modern %arge: sca%e technica% 'roCect b" M. CoutouGis (198,)P see a%so our artic%e (198-) (CoutouGis and Latour). )> 3n this e'isode see F. Oeison (197,). )1 See the artic%e b" #. Hunter (198>). )) 7ithin the sma%% but &ascinating %iterature on this to'ic, the best introduction is the /or( o& #.F. Boo(er (1979) and Ba"nes <. e #ugh *. (1981). *or a shorter introduction see 9. *erguson (1977). )+ 3n this dis'ersion o& the sciences as on so man" microtechnics o& 'o/er see M. *oucau%t5s /or(, es'ecia%%" (1978).

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3eferen&es
.%%aud, L. and M. Marttin (197-). Schlumberger, ?istoire "5une Techni9ue) #aris, .ugM, Marc (1978). ThKorie "es pouvoirs et i"Kologie) #aris, Hermann. Barnes, Barr" (197,). Scientific Kno;le"ge an" Sociological Theory) London, 2out%edge e <egan #au%. ::: (198)). T )S) Kuhn an" Social Science) London, Macmi%%an. ::: (198+). 53n the con entiona% character o& (no/%edge and cognition5. $n <. <norr and M. Mu%(a" (eds), ''.19J8+. Bastide, *ranhoise (1988). 1he semiotic ana%"sis o& scienti&ic discourse. #aris, 9co%e de mines, mimMo. Ba"nes, <en and #ugh, *rancis (1981). The Art of the *ngineer) Oui%d&ord, Luther/ood #ress. BaGerman, Char%es (198,). 5Modern e o%ution o& the e6'erimenta% re'ort o& 'h"sics: s'ectrosco'ic artic%es in (hysical Revie;5) Social Stu"ies of Science, o%. 1,, no. ), ''.1-+J 97. Be%%ec, *rancois (1988). La 1KnKreuse et tragi9ue e#pK"ition "e LapKrouse) 2ennes, 3uest *rance. Bensaude:Hincent, Bernadette (1981). Les (iRges "e l5KlKmentaire) ontribution S l5histoire "e l5KlKment chimi9ue) 1hcse de 4octorat. !ni ersitM de #aris $. ::: (198-). 5Mende%ee 5s 'eriodic s"stem o& chemica% e%ements5 3ritish Qournal for the ?istory of Science, o%. 19, ''. +J17. B%ac(, Ma6 (19-1). Mo"els an" metaphors, $thaca, Corne%% !ni ersit" #ress. B%oor, 4a id (197-). Kno;le"ge an" Social &magery) London, 2out%edge e <egan #au%. Boo(er, #.F. (1979). A ?istory of *ngineering Jra;ing) London, 0orthgate. Bourdieu, #ierre (197)D1977). 2utline of a Theory of (ractice) Cambridge. Cambridge !ni ersit" #ress.

Brannigan, .ugustine (1981). The Social 3asis of Scientific Jiscoveries) Cambridge !ni ersit" #ress. Braude%, *ernand (1979D1988). The (erspective of the Torl") $7th to $-th entury) 0e/ Ior(, Har'er e 2o/. Broad, 7i%%iam and 7ade, 0icho%as (198)). 3etrayers of the Truth: <rau" an" Jeceit in the ?alls of Science, 0e/ Ior(, Simon e Schuster. Broc(/a", Luci%e H. (1979). Science an" olonial *#pansion: The Role of the 3ritish Royal 3otanic 1ar"ens) 0e/ Ior(, .cademic #ress. Bro/n, L%o"d .. (19,9D1977). The Story of Maps) 0e/ Ior(, 4o er.

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Br"ant, L"n/ood (19-9). 52udo%& 4iese% and his rationa% engine5. Scientific American, vol) ))1, ''.1>8:17. ::: (197-). 51he de e%o'ment o& the 4iese% 9ngine5. Technology an" ulture, vol) 17, no. +, ''.,+):,-. Bu%mer, 2a%'h (19-7). 57h" is a casso/ar" not a bird? . 'rob%em o& Goo%ogica% ta6onom" among the <aram5. Ca%%on, Miche% (1981). 5Strugg%es and negotiations to decide /hat is 'rob%ematic and /hat is not: the socio%ogic5. $n <. <norr, 2.<. <rohn e 2. 7hit%e" (eds). ''. 197:))>. Ca%%on, Miche% and La/, Fohn (198)). 53n interests and their trans&ormation: enro%ment and counter:enro%ment5. Social Stu"ies of Science, o%. 1), no. ,, ''.-18:)-. Ca%%on Miche% (198-). 5Some e%ements o& a socio%og" o& trans%ation: domestication o& the sca%%o's and the &ishermen5. Fohn La/ (editor), ''. 19-:))9. Ca%%on, Miche%, La/, Fohn, and 2i', .n e (eds) (198-). Mapping the Jynamic of Science an" Technology) London, Macmi%%an. Co%e, F. and Co%e, S. (197+). Social Stratification in Science) Chicago, !ni ersit" o& Chicago #ress. Co%e, M. and Scribner, S. (197,). ulture an" Thought: A (sychological &ntro"uction) 0e/ Ior(, 7i%e".

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(()71))

Inde2
abstraction ),1 et se;. account )8+:)8, accusation, o& beha ing irrationa%%" 188 et se;. actant, de&inition 8,, 89 action at a distance )19 et se;. a%ignment, o& interests 187, 17amateurs 1,7 anthro'o%og" )>,:)>8 a''%ication, o& science to the outside /or%d ),+, ),8 a''%ied research 1-8:1-9 archaeo'ter"6 199:)>) argument &rom authorit" +1 arte&act 78, 1>association 1)7, 1+- et se;., )>> et se;., ),>, )8as"mmetr" 188, created b" the actors 19-, )18, ))1 attribution o& res'onsibi%it" 118 .ugM M. )>+:)>, automation 1+>:1+1 autonom" 1-7 .Gande 18-:188, 19):19,

basic research 1-8:1-9 be%ie&, 18) et se;., conse;uence o& the obser er )1>:)1+ Be%% .. 187, 189, 197:198 Be%% com'an"DM. Be%% 1)8, 189:1)7, 1,+ BiC(er )+>:)+), )+-, )+8, ),9 Bi%% 7), 7,, 8+ b%ac( bo6, de&inition ), borro/ing them, 81:8), ne/ de&inition 1+1, and machines )8+ B%ond%ot 78, 78, 1>> B%oor 4. 18, Boas 1>9 Bodin 191:19) boo( o& nature ),,, )8, boot%egging 11+, 11, botan" ))9 BraGeau #. 8-:88 breaching )>7 Bu%mer 2. 199:)>), )1>:)1+ bureaucrac" )88

ca%cu%ation )+7 et se;., )8>:)81 Cantor 9> ca'ita% ))+ ca'tation 8Carnot 1>8, 1>7

cartogra'h" ))+:)),, )+-, ),), ),,, )8, cascade )+,, )+7, ),1, ),+:),, census )+,:)+8, )+7 centre ))) et se;. centres o& ca%cu%ation )+) et se;. chemistr" )+8:)+c%assi&ication 198 et se;. coe&&icient )+8 Co%e M. 197 co%%eague 18) co%%ections )),:))8 com'etence 89 com'osition 11> conte6t o& citation +8 et se;., ,> contro ersies, as a /a" in , et se;., &o%%o/ed through %anguage )) et se;., become technica% +) et se;., 'ractica% end 89, c%osure in the %ab 77, their sett%ements 98 et se;., )>- et se;. Co'ernican 2e o%ution )),, ))-, )+1, )++ cost o& discussion 7>, 1--, 181:18,, )81 counter: %aborator" 79 Crete ),8:),9 Cric( *. 1:1+, 97, 11+ cu%ture )>1, )11

(()7)))

Curie #ierre et Marie 88J9>, 99, 1+8 c"c%e 189 c"c%e o& accumu%ation ))> et se;.

4a is 2. -8, 7), 98 de&inition, o& a ne/ obCect 87 4e%&t H"drau%ics Laborator" )+>J)+) demogra'h" )+,J)+8 4escartes 191J19) determinism, 1++, socia% 1,1 de e%o'ment 1>7, 1-8J1-9 4iese% 2. 1>, et se;., 1>9, 11), 118J119, 1)1 et se;., 1))J1)+, 1+8J1+8, 1,) di&&usion (mode% o&) 1,), 1-, et se;., )8> disci'%ine 1,disco er" 1+, dissenter, tr"ing the 'ro&essor5s 'atience 7- et se;. trans&ormed in author 9+, 1,8 di ide, )>8J)1>, )17W)18, bet/een be%ie& and (no/%edge 19> et se;., )1> et se;. domination )), et se;., )1+ drin( and dri ing )>,

9ag%e 1J1+, 11+, 1+9, 188J187, 18-, )8+ 9astman O. 118, 1)), 1),, 1+1, 1+7 9c%i'se MHD8>>> 1W1+, 1++, 1+9 economics ))7, )8,, )8-

9dison )+9W),> 9instein ),8 endor'hin -8 et se;., 71, 9>, 9) en;uiries ))7 e;uation )+8W),1 ethnoscience 199, )1)J1)+, ))8, ))9 9 ans:#ritchard 19,, 18-W188, 198, )1> e6'edition )),

&act, )+, susce'tib%e o& degrees )8 co%%ecti e )7 et se;., stage in the construction ,) st"%ised ,), 1>>, as b%ac(:bo6 1+1 &act:bui%ders, their ;uandar" 1>, et se;. &act:/riting -> &iction /riting &i&th 'rinci'%e o& method )>9 &i&th ru%e o& method 17&i%es )8) et se;. &irst 'rinc'%e o& method )9 &irst ru%e o& method 1+ et se;. &orm (o& reasoning) 19- et se;. &orma%ism ),1 et se;. &ourth 'rinci'%e o& method 178 &ourth ru%e o& method 1,, *rangocaste%%o ),8J),9 &raud ,9 &ree association )>) et se;.

*reeman 4. 8,, 1>9J11> &ue% ce%%s ),J)8, )9J+>, 11-

Oa%i%e +), 191J19) geo%ogists )),J))8 gra itationa% /a es 81W8) Ora" 9. 187, 189, 197 great di ide )11, )1-, ))1, ))8, )+) gro/th hormone re%easing hormone )+ et se;., +-, 1>8 Oui%%emin 2. )7 et se;., +- et se;., ,8 et se;., 8> et se;., 8-, 9), 98

hard &acts )>- et se;., )8) hea%th s"stems 17) hero, in the te6t 8+W8,, in the %aborator" 88W91 hidden agenda, o& the te6t 88 Hutchins 9. 187W188, )1> h"giene mo ement 118, 1,)

idea 1+8 immutab%e mobi%es ))7 et se;., )+-W)+7 induction 81 industr" 1-8, 17> inertia 1+) et se;., 1+7, )8> in&ormation, de&inition ),+ inno ation 1>7 inscri'tion )18

inscri'tion de ices -,, -8 instrument, de&inition -- et se;., re%ated to contro ersies 81, )),, )+>, )++, ),+J),8, )8> et se;., )8interest, 1>8, e6'%icit and im'%icit 11+W117 stabi%ised in the end 1,+, 187 and disinterestedness )1>W)1+ intersection, o& that triggers accusation 197 et se;., )>- et se;. in ention 1>7 irrationa% 18+W198

Fanus ,, +), 97, 1,1W1,+, 17, Fe/ett 1)8J1)7 Foao 18>, 187 et se;.

<ant )), <aram 199J)>>, )1) <e/ Oardens ))9 <idder 1. 18<ing Fohn $$ ))1 et se;. (no/%edge, 18), not di&&erent &rom societ" )>> et se;. de&inition )19 et se;., not a good term ))+ <och 8), 11>J111

(()7+))

%aborator", -, et se;., gathering instruments -9 &eed:bac( 91 et se;., e6tension through metro%og" ),9 et se;. La'Mrouse )18 et se;., )),, ))8W))9,)+,,)+-, ),1, ),,, )81, )8) La oisier )+8 La/rence 11+ Lister 118 %oca%Duni ersa% ))8 et se;., )8> et se;. %ogging ))-, )88 %ogica%, )>,W)>8, conse;uence o& a te6t 88, breach &rom %ogic 191 et se;., &rom &orm to content 19-W)>) %ogistics )+, et se;. Luria S. 19-W197 L"e%% C. 1,- et se;., 187

Machia e%%i 1),:1)8, 1)8 machine 1)9 et se;., )8+ et se;. Mare" F. 9), )+> mathematics )+7 et se;. Mead M. 8,, 1>9W11> Mende%ee )+8W)+-, ),1W),) Mercator ),), ),,W),8 meteoro%og" 18> et se;., )>7, ))9 metro%og" ),7 et se;., de&inition )81 mi%itar" 171W17+ Mi%%i(an 1)8W1)7 mobi%isation 17), ))+ et se;.

moda%it", de&inition )) et se; modus to%%endo to%%ens 197 mor'hine 9) M...0. 1>8 et se;., 11), 1)1

0a'o%eon 119 nature 9, et se;., 1,) negati e moda%it", de&inition )+ et se;. net/or( 18>, )>1W)>), )>8, ))9, their concentration )+) et se;., ),>, their e6tension ),7 et se;. ne/ obCect, de&inition 87, shi&ting to things 91 0e/ton 191W19) numbers -> et se;., )+, et se;. 0:ra"s 78. 78, 99W1>>

obCecti e, de&inition 78, 18), 18) ob%igator" 'assage 'oint 18>, 18), ),8 obser ator" ))3strom 199W)>)

#andora5s Bo6 7 #aradigm +8, )>1 #asteur L. 8,, 9>, 11>, 11-, 118W119, 1))W1),, 1)7, 1+,W1+-, ),9 #earson <. 88 'er&ormance 89 'er&unctor" citations +,

'hreno%og" 1)7W1)8 'o%itics )8'o%onium 88W9>, 99, 1+8 'o'u%arisation 8) #ortuga% 96'ansion ))1 et se;., )+> 'ositioning tactics 8> 'ositi e moda%it", de&inition )+ et se;. 'ost:it 1,> #ouchet 8, 'o/er ))+ 'rediction ),8W)8> 'rimar" mechanism, de&inition 119, 1+,, 17, 'rinci'%es o& method, de&inition 17 'ro&ession 1,'ro&it ))+ 'roo& race 18), and arm race 17), )>-

;uandar" o& the &act:bui%der 1>+ et se;. t/o so%utions )>- et se;.

rationa% 18+W198 rationa%ism 198 reader, bui%t in the te6t 8) rea%ism 98W1>> rea%it", de&inition 9+, 98, rea%isation 1>8W1>7, 179W18>, ),record )88W)87 re&erences b" other te6ts +8 et se;. re&erences to other te6ts ++ et se;.

re&erent, in the te6t ,8 et se;. rei&ication 9) re%ati ism 98W1>> criti;ue o& 198W197, )>-, )1) re'resentation, o& things or o& 'eo'%e 7) research and de e%o'ment (2. e 4.) 1>7, statistics 1-) et se;. resistance 77, 1)+ 2e"no%ds )+7W)+9, ),) re:re'resentation ),1 rhetoric +>, stronger in science -1 routinisation 9), 1+8 ru%es o& method, de&inition 17

sca%e, o& net/or( )1>W)1+ sca%e mode% )+1, )+8, ),7W),8 sca%%o's )>)W)>+ Scha%%" .. )+ et se;., ++ et se;., 88 et se;., 8> et se;., 8-, 98, 1>-, 1>8 Sch%umberger ))8W))-, )88 science and techno%og", de&inition 17, science citation inde6 +9, conse;uence o& a strong rhetoric -1 , di&&erence /ith technica% 1+1W 1+)

(()7,))

di&&erent &rom so&ter &acts )>- et se;.

scienti&ic te6ts, de&inition ,8 Scribner S. 197 second 'rinci'%e o& method 9> second ru%e o& method 89 secondar" mechanism, de&inition 119, 1+,, 17, semiotic character 8+ se enth ru%e o& method ),-J),7 She'ard ),7W),8 simu%ator ),7W),8 si6th 'rinci'%e )8, si6th ru%e o& method )1+ socia%, more socia% -), outcome o& the di&&usion mode% 1,1, 178J17-, used to e6'%ain irrationa%it" 18+ et se;., ),-, )88J)8socia% grou's, rede&ined b" &act:bui%ders 118J11-, conse;uence o& the di&&usion mode% 1+8 J1+societ" 1+-, 1,1 et se;., outcome o& a tria% in res'onsibi%it" 17,J178, )>>J)>1, stabi%ised in the end )8-J)87 sociogram 1+8, 189 socio%ogics )>) et se;. socio%og" )8-J)87 so&t &acts )>- et se;. somatostatin 87W88, 9) s'ace ))8 et se;. s'ecia%it"Ds'ecia%ist 18)J18+ S'err" 9. 11), 11+, 118J119 s'o(esmanDs'o(e/omanDs'o(es'erson, de&inition 71, and their re'resented 7) et se;., and its constituenc" 78, betra"ed 8+ et se;., 9>, )>)W)>,, )+,W)+8, )+7

stac(ing te6ts 8> et se;. staging, readers and authors 8) et se;. staging the 'roo&s -- et se;., 71 et se;. statistics 88, )+7 strati&ication 1-strati&ication o& te6ts ,8 et se;. structure )>>W)>1 st"%e, o& a te6t 88 subCecti e, de&inition 78, 18), 18) S edberg 91W9) s"mmetr", bet/een human and non:human 1,, s"mmetr" ('rinci'%e o&) 1+-, 18,, 188, 19+W19,, criti;ue o& the 'rinci'%e 198 et se;. SGi%ard L. 11,

technica%, conse;uence o& the contro ers" ,,, ,-, ,8, 8), conse;uence o& contro% strategies 1)+, 1), di&&erence /ith scienti&ic 1+1J1+), conse;uence o& the 'roo& race 1-1 technogram 1+8, 189 technoscience )9 de&inition 17,W178 the boss 18+ et se;., 189 et se;., 17the 'ro&essor 78 et se;., -, et se;. theor" ),1 et se;. thing 91 third 'rinci'%e 1,1 third ru%e o& method 99 +:M 1,>

time ))8 et se;. metro%ogica% chain )88 traCector" 1>7. 1++ transcendenta% ),8 trans%ation 1>8 et se;., 11- et se;., 1)-, 18i )+9J),>, e6tended to things 1)9, o''osed to di&&usion 1+) et se;. trans%ation (mode% o&) 1++ et se;., 1-, tria%s, in the te6t 8+ et se;., in the %aborator" 7, et se;., de&ining sha'es 87 et se;., tria%s in irrationa%it" 188 et se;., tria%s in res'onsibi%it" 17,J78, ),), 118 et se% tria%s o& strength, de&inition 78, sha'e rea%it" 9+ ,de&ine net/or(s )>> ,Mende%ee 5s case )+8, 9dison5s case ),> 1robrianders 18-, 188W189, 197 1"cho Brahe ))-W))7

under:determination 1+ uni ersa% ))8 et se;., )8> et se;.

isibi%it" 1-isua%isation ,7 et se;., -7, )18 et se;.

7atson F. 1W1+, 97, 11+ 7eber 9. 81W8) 7est 1. 1W1+, 11+, 1+9, 188W187 7hitta(er F. 1 et se;.

Iu%e O. 88

Goo%ogists )),