DP16

2011 Discussion Paper 16
NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND ITS ROLE IN PUTTING RESEARCH INTO USE
RASHEED SULAIMAN V., ANDY HALL, N.J. KALAIVANI, KUMUDA DORAI AND VAMSIDHAR REDDY, T.S.
JUNE 2011
DISCUSSION
PAPER
SERIES
DISCUSSIONPAPER16:NECESSARYBUTNOTSUFFICIENT:INFORMATIONANDCOMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGYANDITSROLEINPUTTINGRESEARCHINTOUSE
This document is an output from the Research Into Use Programme (RIU) funded by the UKs Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID.
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ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY
NECESSARY, BUT NOT SUFFICENT: INFORMATION AND COMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND ITS ROLE IN PUTTING RESEARCH INTO USE
RasheedSulaimanV.1,AndyHall2,N.J.Kalaivani3,KumudaDorai4andVamsidharReddy5 Abstract Thisisthefirstoftwolinkedpapersdealingwithinformationandcomputingtechnology (ICTs)andthequestionofputtingresearchintouse.This,thefirstpaper,takesthe experienceofSouthAsiatoreviewthescopeofICTapplicationsindevelopmentpracticeas atoolforputtingresearchintouseforinnovation.Thefindingsfromthisstudysuggestthat ICTsingeneralhavenotcontributedeffectivelytothechallengeofputtingnewknowledge intouseastheyaremostlyusedtosupporttraditionalcommunicationtaskssuchas informationdisseminationandtraining.Thepaperarguesthatthisunderutilisationofthe potentialofICTscouldbedueto:alackofappreciationofthenewcommunication intermediationtasksrequiredforinnovation,underestimationoftherolesofintermediaries andtheircapacitiesforinnovationandlackofnetworksneededforcommunitiestomake useoftheinformationprovidedthroughICTs.Althoughtheunderstandingon communication,innovationandextensionhaschangedsubstantiallyinthepasttwo decades,thereisstillabiggapbetweentheoryandpractice.Thispapercontendsthatthis gapneedstobebridgedifICTsaretoeffectivelycontributetoputtingnewknowledgeinto use. Keywords:InformationandCommunicationTechnology,Development,Agricultural Research,Innovation,Policy,InnovationManagement,Knowledge,Knowledge Management,SouthAsia JELCodes:D8,D83,N5,N55,O13,O19,O31,O32,O33,O53,Q12,Q13,Q16 RIUDISCUSSIONPAPERSERIES
1 2
HeadofAsiaResearch,RIUCRT,rasheed@innovationstudies.org HeadoftheRIUCentralResearchTeam(CRT),andy.hall@innovationstudies.org 3 ResearchFellow,CentreforResearchonInnovationandSciencePolicy(CRISP),njkalaivani@gmail.com 4 ResearchFellow,LINK,kumuda.dorai@innovationstudies.org 5 ResearchFellow,RIU,vamsidhar.reddy@innovationstudies.org ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LISTOFACRONYMS 1.INTRODUCTION 2.EXPLORINGTHEROLEOFICTSINPUTTINGRESEARCHINTOUSE: ACONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK FIGURE1:FUNCTIONSANDACTIONSFORINNOVATIONMANAGEMENT 3.ICTSINDEVELOPMENT:THECURRENTDEBATE 4.ICTSANDINNOVATIONMANAGEMENTINSOUTHASIA TABLE1:ICTSFORPUTTINGNEWKNOWLEDGEINTOUSEINSOUTHASIA TABLE2:TECHNOLOGIESTHATCANSUPPORTTRANSFORMATIONOF KNOWLEDGE 5.THEROLEANDLIMITSOFICTS TABLE3:TYPOLOGYOFICTENABLEDINITIATIVES 6.IMPLICATIONSFORRIU 7.CONCLUSION REFERENCES 5 8
11 15 16 20 22 32 37 38 43 45
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
AGMARKNET BRRI CDROM CGIAR CRISP CRT CTA DFID DVD FAO FDI FM GDP GIS GoI GTZ AgriculturalMarketingInformationNetwork BangladeshRiceResearchInstitute CompactDiscReadOnlyMemory ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch CentreforResearchonInnovationandSciencePolicy CentralResearchTeam,RIU TechnicalCentreforAgriculturalandRuralCooperation(CTA) DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment,UK DigitalVersatileVideoDisc TheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization ForeignDirectInvestment FrequencyModulation GrossDomesticProduct GeographicalInformationSystems GovernmentofIndia DeutscheGesellschaftfrTechnischeZusammenarbeit, nowcalledtheDeutscheGesellschaftfrInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ) InternationalAssociationforDevelopmentofthe InformationSociety IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch IndianCouncilforResearchonInternationalEconomic Relations InternationalCropsResearchInstitutefortheSemiArid 5
IADIS ICAR ICRIER ICRISAT
Tropics ICT IDI InformationandCommunicationTechnology InformationandCommunicationTechnologyDevelopment Index InstituteforDevelopmentPolicyandManagement InternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre IndianFarmersFertiliserCooperativeLimited(IFFCO)Kisan SancharLimited InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute IndiraGandhiNationalOpenUniversity InformationforDevelopmentProgram InformationTechnology InternationalTelecommunicationUnion LearningINnovationKnowledge MillenniumDevelopmentGoals M.S.SwaminathanResearchFoundation MichiganStateUniversity NationalAcademyofAgriculturalResearchManagement NationalCentreforAgriculturalEconomicsandPolicy NonGovernmentalOrganisations OverseasDevelopmentInstitute PricewaterhouseCoopers ResearchandDevelopment ResearchIntoUse
IDPM IDRC IFFCOIKSL IFPRI IGNOU Infodev IT ITU LINK MDGs MSSRF MSU NAARM NCAP NGOs ODI PWC R&D RIU
RML S&T SEWA SIM SME UK UN UNCSTD USA
ReutersMarketLight ScienceandTechnology SelfEmployedWomensAssociation SubscriberIdentityModule SmallandMediumEnterprises UnitedKingdom UnitedNations UNCommissiononScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment UnitedStatesofAmerica
1. INTRODUCTION
Thisisthefirstoftwolinkedpapersdealingwithinformationandcomputingtechnology (ICT)andthequestionofputtingresearchintouse.This,thefirstpaper,takesthe experienceofSouthAsiatoreviewthescopeofICTapplicationsindevelopmentpracticeas atoolforputtingresearchintouse.Thesecondpaperwilltaketheanalysisfromthefirst paperasastartingpointandwillfocusitsanalysisspecificallyonICTenabledinitiativesthat aredesignedtocommunicateresearchandputresearchintouse.Itwillexplorethewaythe democratisationofICTapplicationscouldtransformtheresearchintouseprocess. Thecontextforthesepapersistherecenttrendindevelopmentorientatedresearchof investingasignificantproportionofresearchfundinginresearchcommunication.The ResearchIntoUse(RIU)programmefollowsthispracticeinlinewiththepolicyofits sponsor,theUKsDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID),whichcurrentlyseeks touse30%ofallitsresearchfundingoncommunication.Thistrendrespondstoageneral feelingthatgoodresearchisoftenletdownbypoorcommunicationoffindingstoclients. Theargumentputforward,therefore,isthatifclientsdonotknowaboutnewideasfrom researchtheycannotusethem.Thisnotion,however,ischallengedinthesetwopaperson thegroundsofbeinganoversimplificationofthewayevidencefromresearchisusedinthe processofinnovationandchangeindifferentdevelopmentarenas(Hall,2009;Courtand Young,2003;Ensoretal.,2008.).Also,communicationisnowunderstoodnotjustaprocess ofinformationdissemination,butatooltohelpconnect,mediateandbrokerthe relationshipsandprocessesthatunderpininnovationandthetechnicalandinstitutional adaptationsthatareassociatedwithit(Leeuwis,2004;SulaimanandHall,2004;Klerkxand Leeuwis,2008;LeeuwisandHall,2010). Runninginparallelwiththeseresearchcommunicationdebatesistheexcitementaboutthe transformativepotentialofinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT).Improved availabilityandaccesstonewICTtechnologiesespeciallypersonalcomputers,the Internetandmobiletelephonesinthelasttwodecadeshasprovidedamuchwider
choiceincollection,storage,processing,transmissionandpresentationofinformationin multipleformats.SouthAsia,andIndiainparticular,hasbeenattheforefrontofeffortsto useinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)inruraldevelopment.Thisbuildson alongerhistoryofusingavarietyofcommunicationapproaches(radio,televisionandprint) tointroducenewideasandimprovedpracticesindevelopmentefforts.Intheagricultural sectorthispotentiallyoffersupakeymechanismforputtingresearchderivedideas, informationandtechnologyintouse. Donors,intergovernmentalagencies,nationalgovernments,NGOsandtheindustry(ITand nonIT)inSouthAsiahaveinvestedsignificantlyinextendingthereachofICTsthroughpilot projects.Manyoftheseinitiativeshavealsoexperimentedwithnewandvariedapplications inpromotingdevelopmentinareassuchashealth,agriculture,governance,financial services,employmentandeducation.However,theimpactofICTdrivenprojectshas generallyfallenwellbelowtheoptimisticexpectationsoftheirprotagonists(Beardon, 2005).Moreover,manyarenowquestioningthesustainability,scalabilityandimpactof suchICTpilotsandexperiments(JhunjunwalaandAiyar,2007). Usingcontemporaryconceptsofcommunicationandinnovationthispaperreviewsthe experienceofICTinterventionsinSouthAsiaofputtingnewknowledgeintousefor innovationinagriculturalandruraldevelopment.Themajorfindingsfromthispaperareas follows.Firstly,ICTsingeneralhavenotcontributedeffectivelytothechallengeofputting newknowledgeintouse.Theyaremostlyusedtosupporttraditionalcommunicationtasks suchasinformationdisseminationandtrainingatthecostofawiderangeofother communicationintermediationtasks.Secondly,eveninthefewinstanceswheretheydo supportnewcommunicationintermediationtasks,thisismainlybecauseofthevisionofthe entitiesdeployingtheseICTsandtheworkingrelationshipstheyhavewithcommunitiesand otheractorsintheagriculturalinnovationsystem.Thirdly,thepaperarguesthatthisunder utilisationofthepotentialofICTscouldbeduetothreereasons:alackofappreciationof therealnatureofthecommunicationintermediationtasksrequiredforinnovation, underestimationoftherolesofintermediariesandtheircapacitiesforinnovationandthe
lackofnetworksneededforcommunitiestomakeuseoftheinformationprovidedthrough ICTs. Thepaperisarrangedasfollows.Thesecondsectionpresentsabriefoverviewofcurrent debatesonextension,communicationandinnovationandtheconceptualframeworkused forundertakingthisanalysis.Thenextsectionprovidesanoverviewofcurrentdebates aroundICTsindevelopment.ThisisfollowedbySection4,whichlooksattheexperienceof differentICTenabledinitiativesinSouthAsia.Section5discussestheroleandlimitationsof ICTsinputtingresearchintouseandthemajorreasonsforthis.Section6presentsan analysisofopportunitiesandlimitationsofrecenteffortsatimprovingresearch communicationandotherICTenabledinitiativesinputtingresearchderivedknowledgeand practicesintowideruse.TheconclusionsareprovidedinSection7.
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2. EXPLORING THE ROLE OF ICTS IN PUTTING RESEARCH INTO USE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Ideasondevelopment,communicationandinnovationhaveevolvedconsiderablyduring thelast50years.Developmentpractitionersinitiallyregardedcommunication,especially throughmassmedia,asapowerfultoolfortransformingruralsocietiesfromtraditionalto modernones.Accordingtoearlycommunicationscholars(Laswell,1948;Schramm,1954; Rogers,1962)thecommunicationprocesswasregardedsimplyasthetransferofmessages fromasendertoareceiver.Laterresearchrevealedtheimportanceofhuman communication(Kinclaid,1979),bydiscussinghowthesharingofinformationwith individualsandgroupsleadstocollectiveactionand,ultimately,mutualagreementand mutualunderstanding.CommunicationtheoriessuchastheTwoStepFlow(Lazarsfeldet al.,1944)andtheDiffusionofInnovation(Rogers,1962)supportedthistopdown orientation.Inthisviewinnovationwasconsideredasanewtechnologyorinformation developedbyresearchers,whichhadtobecommunicatedtoruralcommunitiesfor eventualadoption. However,theoptimisticassumptionsofthismodernisationparadigmbegantovanishslowly overtheyearsandbythe1970stheemphasishadshiftedtoparticipatoryanddecentralised modelsofcommunicationanddevelopment.Participatorycommunicationemphasisedthe needfordialoguesratherthanlinear,onewaycommunication.Freire(1970)andseveral othercommunicatorsidentifiedcommunicationasaprocessthatisinseparablefromthe socialandpoliticalprocessesnecessaryfordevelopment.Thisdebatefocusedonthe participationofruralcommunitiesindevelopmentprojectsandtheirinvolvementin planningandproducingthecontentofcommunication.Oneofthelimitationsofthe participatorycommunicationmodelisitsassumptionthatallparticipantsareequalan assumptionthatignoreshugepowerdifferentialsindevelopingcountrysituations(Steeves, 1993). Inthe1980sthefocusofthedebatebegantoshifttohorizontalcommunicationand informationexchangeratherthanpersuasioninthediffusionmodel.Thepotentialfor
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combiningmassmediaandinterpersonalcommunicationalsobegantobeincreasingly appreciated.Whileradio,televisionandtheprintmediawereprimarilyusedto communicatenewinformationandtechnologiesearlier,withtheadventofnewICTsthese applicationsarenowregardedasconventionalortraditionalICTs.ThenewICTsare commonlyreferredtoasevolvingapplicationsortechnologiesthatrelyontheInternet, telecommunicationnetworks,mobilephones,personalcomputersanddatabases. ThesenewICTshavethepotentialofgettingacrossvastamountsofinformationtorural populationsinamoretimely,comprehensive,costeffectiveandinteractivemanner.They canalsoenhanceknowledgeprocessesandsupportknowledgeworkerstohaveready accesstoorganisedinformationevenastheypromotebettercommunicationand interactionwithfellowpractitioners.Keepingthisinview,donorsandnationalgovernments haverecentlystartedtoinvestheavilyindeploymentofICTsforruraldevelopment. However,communicationdoesnotmerelyentailthedisseminationofinformation.While informationisindependentofcontextandcaneasilybetransferred,ithastobe contextualisedinordertobecomerelevantorprovideusefulknowledgeforindividualsand communitiestoact.Manyscholarsbelievethatcommunicationshouldbeseenasthe processofexchangeandnegotiationofmeaning,whereininformation,peopleand perspectivesinteractinordertoproducesociallysharedmeanings,definitionsor understandings.Inthisperspective,communicationisaboutthemanagementand constructionoflocalknowledgeandpractices,insteadoffocusingmerelyoninformation dissemination(Genilo,2005).Knowledgeisthemeaningthatpeoplederivefrom informationand,therefore,opportunitiesfordialoguearecriticalforcommunitiestouse thisknowledgeforsocialchange. Individualsaswellasorganisationsvaryintheirabilitytoaccess,adaptandapply knowledge.CohenandLevinthal(1989)definedabsorptivecapacityasafirmsabilityto identify,assimilate,andexploitexternalknowledgeandtheyconsideredthelevelofprior relatedknowledgeasthemaindeterminantofafirmsabsorptivecapacity.Thisabsorptive capacityisnotresidentinanysingleindividual,butdependsonthelinksacrossamosaicof
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individualcapabilities.Severalstudiesontheknowledgeflowsofmultinationalcorporations proposethattheabsorptivecapacityofthereceivingunitisthemostsignificant determinantofinternalknowledgetransfer(GuptaandGovindarajan,2000).Although technologiescansupportsharingofknowledge,knowledgesharingisnotatechnical challenge,butmostlyasociologicalone(Disterer2003).Severalindividualsaswellassocial barrierscanimpedeknowledgesharing. Themeaningofinnovationandtheroleofcommunicationinpromotinginnovation hasalsobeenevolvingoverthelastfewdecades.Whileinnovationwasconsideredasnew informationortechnologyearlier(Rogers,1962),duringthisphaseofevolutionof developmentcommunicationitbegantobeconsideredasanoutcomeofinteractionamong stakeholders,withtheroleofthecommunicatorbeingmainlytofacilitatethisprocessof interaction(RolingandWagemakers,1998).Inthiskindofasituation,whichistermedthe cocreationofknowledge,agroupofstakeholderswithdifferentandoften complementaryexperiencesorknowledgeagreeonwaysforwardtoimprovetheirshared problem(Roling,2007).Currentlyinnovationisincreasinglyrecognisedasaprocessby whichnewknowledgeisgenerated,diffused,adaptedandusedtoresultinsocialand economicchange.Thisprocessrequiresinteractionandknowledgeflowsamongmultiple actors(Halletal.,2001;2009).Communicationcanplayamajorroleinsupportingthethree essentialprocessesrelevanttoinnovation:networkbuilding,supportingsociallearningand dealingwithdynamicsofpowerandconflict(Leeuwis,2004). Theroleofthecommunicatorhasshiftedfromthatofadisseminatorofinformationinitially tothatofafacilitatorofinteractionsubsequentlyand,morerecently,asabroker(Klerkx andLeeuwis,2008)oranagentplayingawiderrangeofintermediationtasksatarangeof interfacessituatedwithin(andbetween)networksofstakeholdersoperatingindifferent societalspheres(LeeuwisandHall,2010).Inotherwords,theroleofcommunicationhas broadenedfrombeinganintermediarybetweenscienceandpracticetoincludeawider rangeofintermediaryroles,suchasmediation,knowledgebrokering,facilitationof exchange,demandarticulation,visioning,etc.
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Inthedevelopmentsector,extensionagencieshavetraditionallyusedsomeofthese communicationstrategies,includingadvisorycommunication,organisinghorizontal exchangeinsupportofdiffusion,persuasivemassmediacampaigns,awarenessraising, training,informationprovision,etc.Newevidenceindicatesthattheseclassicstrategies needtobeaccompaniedbyothercommunicationstrategiesandservicesforinnovationto takeplace(Leeuwis,2004;KlerkxandLeeuwis,2009).Theseotherstrategiesandservices include:networkbrokerage,demandarticulationandknowledgebrokerage,visioning, processfacilitation,interactivedesignandexperimentation,learningorientedmonitoring, explorationofopportunitiesandconstraints,lobbyadvocacycommunicationandconflict management. Allthesecommunicationstasksareimportantforinnovationmanagement,whichis currentlyunderstoodtobemoreaboutconnectingthedifferentactorsrelevantfor innovationandhelpingcoordinatecoherentaction.Sulaimanetal.(2010)haveidentified thefollowingsetoffunctionsandactionsascriticalforinnovationmanagement(SeeFigure 1onthefollowingpage).
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Figure1.FunctionsandActionsforInnovationManagement Functions
Networkdevelopment Organisationofproducersandconsumersinto groups Accesstotechnology,expertise,markets,creditand inputs Technicalandfieldpracticesupportforpolicy formulationandpolicylearning Trainingonnewapproachesandwaysofworking Articulationofresearchandtechnologyneedsof users Bringingresearchasandwhenneeded Organisingforesightandvisionexercises Conflictresolution
Actions
Brokering Convening Negotiating Advocating Coaching
Outcomes
Innovation Impact
TheroleofICTsinputtingnewknowledgeintouse,therefore,hastobeevaluatedbasedon how ICTs contribute in the sense of the functions and actions listed above. The rest of this paper explores this point by analysing some of the experiences with ICT deployment in SouthAsia.
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3. ICTs IN DEVELOPMENT: THE CURRENT DEBATE

ICTsgenerallyrefertoanexpandingassemblyoftechnologiesthatareusedtohandle informationandaidcommunication.Theseincludehardware,software,mediafor collection,storage,processing,transmissionandpresentationofinformationinanyformat (i.e.,voice,data,textandimage)throughcomputers,theInternet,CDROMs,email, telephone,radio,television,video,digitalcameras,etc.Whileradio,televisionandtheprint mediaweretheprimarytoolstosupportcommunicationearlier,theadventofnewICT technologiesinrecentyearshasresultedinthesenowbeingregardedastraditionalICTs. ThenewICTsarecommonlyreferredtoasevolvingapplicationsortechnologiesthatrely ontheInternet,telecommunicationnetworks,mobilephones,personalcomputersand databases.WhendiscussingICTsingeneral,however,wealsoneedtolookattraditionalICT applicationsandtheemergingconvergenceofmanyofthesewiththenewICTs. Wearecurrentlywitnessingsomethingofarevolutioninboththenatureandroleofmedia aswellasintheICTtechnologiescurrentlybeingemployedinruraldevelopment.Thereis nowagrowingbodyofliteratureonthepotentialandbenefitsofusingthesetechnologies forwiderruraldevelopment.Manydevelopmentinitiativeshaveclearlyrevealedthehuge potentialofICTsinimprovingefficiency,efficacy,effectivenessandreachofrural(aswellas urban)servicedeliveryandshownhowthesetechnologiescouldensuremuchneeded transparencyinbothgovernmentandbusiness. TheroleofICTsisrecognisedinMillenniumDevelopmentGoalNo.8(MDG8),which emphasisesthebenefitsofnewtechnologies,especiallyinformationandcommunications technologies,inthefightagainstpoverty.Witha10percentincreaseinhighspeed internetconnections,economicgrowthincreasesby1.3percent,observedarecentWorld BankreportonInformationandCommunicationforDevelopment(WorldBank,2009).The samereportalsoobservedthatConnectivitywhethertheInternetormobilephones isincreasinglybringingmarketinformation,financialservices,healthservicestoremote areas,andishelpingtochangepeopleslivesinunprecedentedways.
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However,asChapmanandSlaymaker(2002)noted,thecontradictionbetweenthepotential forICTstoaddressthechallengesfacedbyruraldevelopmentandthecurrentfailureto harnessthemforthispurposeisstriking.Thereisincreasingrealisationthatthedigital dividethegapbetweenthosewhohaveaccesstotechnologyandthosewhodonotis notmerelytechnological.Thereisasocialdividebetweentheinformationrichandpoorin societiesandthereisalsoadigitalgapbetweenwomenandmeninsociety(Huyerand Mitter,2003).However,therapidspreadofmobilephonesindevelopingcountrieshas contributedsubstantivelytoareductioninthedigitaldivide,somethingotherICTssuchas computershavenotyetmanagedtoachieve(Samii,2010).TheInternational TelecommunicationUnion(ITU)oftheUnitedNationsestimatesthatthereare4.6billion mobilesubscribersandforecaststhatbyendof2010therewillbe5billionmobile subscribers,makingmobilephonesthemostrapidlyadoptedtechnologyinhistoryandthe onlytechnologysectorthathasnotsufferedintherecenteconomicdownturn. DoICTsreallycontributetoallrounddevelopment?Thejuryseemstobestilloutonthat question.Inthe1990s,attheheightofthetechnologyboom,ruralICTswereheraldedas catalystsforleapfrogdevelopment,informationsocietiesandahostofotherdigitalage panaceaforpoverty.Nowtheyhavelargelyfallenoutoffavour(Economist,2005). However,theWorldBankisestimatedtohavespentbetween$1and$2billiononICTfor developmentprojects.InfoDev(theInformationforDevelopmentprogrammehostedby theWorldBank)hasabudgetof$1015millionperyear(WakelinandShadrach,2001). Initiallyitwasfeltthateasyaccesstoinformationbeitonhealth,agriculture,education orgovernmentschemeswouldatsomelevelleadtoindividualsbeingabletoactonthat informationandempoweringthemselves(Heeks,1999).Thereisenoughevidenceinthe reviewofICTprojectsinSouthAsiatosuggestthattargetedapplicationscouldhelpto increaseand/orprotectlivelihoodassetsofthepoorbymitigatingtheirvulnerabilities(de Silva,2008).However,muchofthisevidenceisonlyanecdotal,andthereisnowan increasingneedforresearchthatfullyunderstandsthedevelopmentalandempowerment implicationsofICTs.Forinstance,issuesaroundgenderandICTsareverycomplexandthe existingresearchisverythin(MelhemandTandon,2009).Someresearchers(e.g.,Heeks,
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2006;Thompson,2008)havearguedthatmuchofthisliteraturedoesnotaddressthe questionofwhatisactuallymeantbydevelopment.Beardon(2005)arguesthattheimpact ofICTbasedprojectshasgenerallyfallenwellbelowtheoptimisticexpectationsgenerated bytheirprotagonists,andconsequentlytheyhavedevelopedabadreputationin developmentcircles. Morepeoplehavenowstartedtoquestionthesustainability,scalabilityandimpactofsuch ICTpilotsandexperiments.JhunjunwalaandAiyar(2006)observedthatonlyafew organisationsinIndiahavetakenupICTinitiativesinanycomprehensivemannerandhave triedtobuildserviceswhichcanbescaledupandhavealongtermsustainableimpacton thesociety.Reluctancetocommercialiseandscaletheseprojectshasledtotheircollapseas soonastheinterveningagenciesmoveout.Inotherwords,manyICTprojectsinSouthAsia lackaselfsustainingcapacityaftertheexperimentalphase,usuallybecausetheyarefunded byinternationalagenciesthatceasefundingafteraperiodoftimeandusercommunities aretoopoortocarryonwiththeprojects(Prasad,2008). InvestmentsrelatedtoICTapplications,especiallyInternetenabledcomputers,havebeena matterofgreatconcernbecauseofthehighcostsassociated.However,thewider availabilityofcheapermobilephones,newerapplicationsassociatedwiththem(Mobile2.0) andcheapernetworkcharges,haveoffsetthisconcerntosomeextent;manynowbelieve thatfutureofICTsliesintheirapplicationsthroughmobilephones.Thereisalotofhype aroundtheprovisionofarangeofinformation,especiallymarketinformation,through mobilephonesthesedays.However,thelinkbetweenavailabilityofmarketprice informationandbetterpricerealisationisnotthatdirect(Lehr,2007;Mittaletal.,2010). WhileICTs,andspecificallyMobile2.0basedagriculturalapplications,dohavearoleto playinreducingtransactioncostsforsmallfarmerstoengagemoreeffectivelyin agriculturalmarkets,otherconstraintssuchasaccesstocreditandrelevantinfrastructure (fromtransporttostorage)needtobemet(LokanathananddeSilva,2010). AcommoncriticismofICTfordevelopmentprojectsisthattheyfailtobuildonexisting systemsofworkinaparticipatorymannerandthereforedonotachievelocalinputandlocal
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ownership.ThereisoftenagapbetweenthedesignofanICTprojectandtherealityofwhat canunfoldonthegroundanditslongtermimplicationsforwomen(MelhemandTandon, 2009).ThereisabroadrangeofICTsavailable,eachwithitsstrengthsandweaknesseswith respecttothecontextinwhichitisused.Itisthecontextthatdeterminestherangeoftools thatarerelevantandthecontextisdynamicalthoughopportunitiesforconverging differenttoolsexist.Inotherwords,thereisnoidealICTapplicationthatfitsallsituations. KenistonandKumar(2003)indicatethattherehasbeenatendencyforwellmeaning governmentofficials,internationalagenciesandNGOstothinknarrowlywhenitcomesto usesforICTapplicationsforexample,intermsofacomputerineveryvillage,a scatteringofinformationkiosksthroughoutthecountryorforuniversalcomputerbased education.IfthetruepotentialofICTsistobefullyrealised,thismindsethastobe challenged.
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4. ICTS AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH ASIA

DespitethefactthatSouthAsia(mainlyIndia,Pakistan,Nepal,Bangladesh,SriLankaand Bhutan)hasundergoneunprecedentedtechnologicalandeconomictransformationsin recentdecades,ithasgreaternumbersofundernourishedandpoorpeoplethananyother developingregion.Theregionhasthehighestdensityofpopulationslivinginruralareasand workinginsmallholderagriculture.About70%ofthecountriespopulations,andabout75% oftheirpoor,liveinruralareas.Mostoftheruralpoordependonrainfedagriculture, livestock,fragileforests,and/orcasualandoftenmigratoryemployment. ThesocalledtraditionalICTsradio,televisionandtheprintmediadidplayamajorrole duringtheGreenRevolutioninthe1970sand1980s.InthepasttwodecadesSouthAsiahas beenamajorhubforruralICTexperiments.SomecommonlyusedICTapplicationsortools include:telecentres,webportals,callcentres,mobilephones,communityradio,video,and digitalphotography.GIS,email,audioandvideoconferencingarealsobeingused increasinglybyresearchersanddevelopmentprofessionals. Therehasbeenconsiderablegrowthinconnectivity,content,andcapacityoftheICTsectors ofSouthAsiainthelastdecade(PradhanandLiyange,2010).However,theregions countriesstilllagbehinddevelopedcountriesintheICTdevelopmentIndex(IDI)published in2010bytheInternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU),whichistheUNagencyfor InformationandCommunicationTechnology.Ofthe159countriesintheIDI,SriLankaranks 105th,Indiais117,Bhutan123,Pakistan128,Bangladesh137andNepal142(ITU,2010). InrecentyearsgovernmentsinSouthAsiahaveprioritisedICTdeploymentindevelopment efforts.Startingwithawebsiteforeverystatedepartmentororganisation,whichprovides informationonactivitiesandothergeneralinformation,everycountryalsohasaministryor nodalagencytodealwithICTs,aswellashavingpoliciesinplacetopromoteICT applications.ThesepolicieshaveanexplicitfocusonimprovinguniversalaccesstoICTs, encouragingtransparencythroughegovernance,supportingtheITindustryandendorsing
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newapplicationsthatprovideinformationonagriculturaltechnologyandmarketpricesto ruralcommunities. TheprivatesectorhasbeenhelpingtoimproveICTaccessanddevelopnewanduseful applicationsrelevantforruralcommunities.Forinstance,therapidspreadofmobilephones inIndiahascomeaboutthroughtheactiveinvolvementoftheprivatesector.Itisalsoatthe forefrontofdevelopingnewandvariedapplicationstoprovideagriculturalinformation, includingweatherdata,prices,technologytips,etc.toruralsubscribers.InBangladesh, GrameenPhonehadaSIMcardmarketshareof43%(asofMarch31,2010).In2006, GrameenPhoneintroducedHealthLine,a24hourmedicalcallcentremannedbylicensed physicians,andBillPay,whichallowsutilitybillpaymentsovermobilephones. ThereareseveralinnovationsinICTsandknowledgemanagementoccurringintheregion andmanyofthesefocusondisseminatingawiderangeofagriculturalandruralinformation toproducersandotherknowledgeintermediaries.Applicationssuchasremotesensingand GeographicInformationSystems(GIS)areincreasinglyusedinplanninginterventionsin agriculture,forestry,geology,etcforexample,estimatingcropacreageindifferent regionsandstudyingdrainagepatternsinwatersheddevelopmentprogrammes.Similarly videoandaudioconferencingfacilitiesareusedforquickandinteractiveknowledge exchange.AnoverviewonvariousICTtools/applicationsemployedinSouthAsiancountries isprovidedinTable1.
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Table1:ICTsforPuttingNewKnowledgeintoUseinSouthAsia
OLDICTs Radio(e.g.,India:Farm andHome,KisanVani; Bangladesh:DeshAmar MatiAmar) Functions Information Dissemination Distance learning Content Informationontechnology;criticalfarming practicesrelevanttoseasonalschemesofthe government;advertisementsonnewproducts; commoditypricesindifferentmarkets;talks withexpertsonnewtechnology Lecturesbroadcastfromopenuniversitieson variouseducationalprogrammes Farmschoolonradio,withcoursesdelivered ononecrop/enterpriseasonelessonperweek, spreadover1215weeks Informationontechnology;criticalfarming practicesrelevanttotheseason,schemesof thegovernment;advertisementsonnew products;commoditypricesindifferent markets;talkswithexpertsonnewtechnology Lecturesfromopenuniversities DeliveryFormat Specialagriculturalprogrammes;news announcements;talkbyfarmexperts; phoneinprogrammes(bothrecorded andlive) Mostlyprogrammesofa3060minute durationeverymorningandevening. Someprogrammesarealsorebroadcast
TV(e.g.,Bangladesh:Mati OManush,Shyamol Chaya,HaridyematiO Manush,NodiOJibon; India:KrishiDarshan, Annadata,Jaikisan,Krishi Deepam;SriLanka: MihikathaDinuwo, GovibimataArunalu Printmedia(e.g.,regional andlocallanguagedailies andmagazines)
Information dissemination Distance learning Information dissemination Distance learning
Informationontechnology,farmingpractices, advertisementonnewproducts
Newsannouncements;talksbyexperts; questionandanswersessionsaspartof phoneinprogrammes(recordedand live);demonstrations;successstories Mostlyprogrammesofa3060minute durationeverymorningandevening. Therearealsorerunsofsome programmes. Newsreports,questionandanswer columns,tips,articles(Newsdailies:One page,onceaweek;Magazines:Oneissue permonth)
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NEWICTs Internetenabled computercentres (Informationkiosks/ knowledgecentres/ commonservicecentres/ telecentres) India:VillageKnowledge CentresofMSSRF;ITCse choupal;Thegovernment ofIndiasCommonService Centres SriLanka:Cyberunitsof theDepartmentof AgriculturesNenasala programme;Sarvodaya multipurposetelecentres Bangladesh:Community InformationCentresof GrameenPhone Dissemination ofinformation Trainingin computerskills Forumfor interactive learningwhen centresare owned/managed byrural development NGOs Distance learning Widevariationincontent,dependingonthe objectiveofthecentre,ownership,governance, revenuemodel,etc. Informationongovernmentservices,market prices,technology,weather,availabilityof inputs Inafewcases,locallyrelevantcontentina locallanguage Informationisgenerallyintermediated throughanemployeeofthecomputer centre Theinformationisalsoaccessible throughothermeans/media(notice boards,publicaddresssystem,mobile phones,etc.) Informationaccessedallthroughthe dayduringacentresworkinghours (around10hoursaday)
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Portals SriLanka:TheDepartment ofAgriculturesGovi GnanaSeva Bangladesh:The DepartmentofAgricultural MarketingsSMEPortal; CellBazaar;BRRI KnowledgeBank;Hat Bazaar Nepal:eHaatBazaar India:IndiaDevelopment Gateway:agriwatch; Agmarknet,aAqua CallCentres SriLanka:TollFree AgriculturalAdvisory Service1920Bangladesh: SMEHelplineJigyasha 7676 India:KisanCallCentre 18001801551
Dissemination ofinformation ecommerce Distance learning
MobilePhones India:ReutersMarket Light(RML);IFFCOIKSL; TatamKrishi
Dissemination ofinformation andinteraction withexperts, especially advisory communication (e.g.,specific problems answeredby experts) Information dissemination Differentkinds ofinformation providedbythe serviceprovider
Informationoncropproduction,management andprotection Agriculturalstatistics,news,informationon inputs(sources) Disseminationofpriceinformationinvarious marketsacrossthecountry ecommerce(linkingproducersto traders/consumers) Inafewcases,portalsmanagedaquestion andanswerforum Informationontechnologies,cropprotection, sourcesofinformation,etc.
Portalsvarywidelyintheircontent, regularupdates,userfriendliness,useof visuals,etc. Mostprovidegenericinformation. Increasinglyportalsprovidedynamic information(e.g.,currentpricesand weatherupdates)
Answersonspecificqueriesfrom expertslocatedatcallcentresandat otherlocations Availableduringfixedhoursduringthe dayandinsomecases24hourservice
Informationmostlyonweather;pricesof commoditiesindifferentmarkets;cropand animalhusbandryadvisoryservices; informationongovernmentschemes; informationonconditionsatsea(wave height)
Mostlypaidservicesavailableto subscribers Mostlyastextmessagesorvoicemail
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CommunityRadioNepal: RadioSagarmatha,Vijaya FM,BaglungFM SriLanka:Kothamale CommunityRadio,India: SanghamRadio,KonguFM radio,Mandakinika awaaz,KrishiCommunity Radio Video India:DigitalGreen,Video SEWA
Information dissemination Raising awareness Advocacy communication
Widerangeofinformationonrurallife, agriculture,forests,health,handicrafts,etc. Greatertheownershipbythecommunity, greatertheinvolvementofthecommunityin contentgenerationandthecontentbecomes morelocallyrelevant
InteractiveCDROMs/ TouchScreen Technologies SriLanka:IMMCDROM India:Touchscreenkiosks
Information dissemination Advocacy communication Training Capacity Building Mobilisation Information Dissemination
Inagriculture,usedtopromotenew technologiesandgoodpracticesinfarming Usedtoraiseawarenessonwomensissues; tomobilisecommunitiesaroundissuesof commonconcernandalsousedasatraining tool
Formatvaries;Broadcastinmostcases, butsomecommunitieshavegonefor narrowcastingandcablecastinguntil theycollectenoughresourcesto establishfullfledgedstations Contentbroadcastinlocaldialectsfora fewhoursinthemorningandevening everyday.Inafewcasesbroadcast throughouttheday Screeninginstructionalvideosprepared locallytopromotespecifictechnologies withthesupportofatrainedfacilitator Screeningvideosincommunity meetings,trainingprogrammesand workshopswithpolicymakers
Mainlyrelatedtoproductionofdifferent cropsorenterprises
DigitalPhotographyIndia: Providing eSevaandeVelanmai information, mainlyonplant
Advicebasedondigitalphotosdepictingthe growthofcropsandsymptomsofpestand diseaseattack
InteractivemultimediaCDROMS distributedtoagriculturalextension agenciesforusebyfarmersincyberunits orcommunicationcentresofthe DepartmentofAgriculture/veterinary hospitals/clinics/knowledgecentres Digitalpicturesmailedtoexpertsand advicereceivedthroughemail,on mobilephonesorasprintouts
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management Videoand TeleconferencingIndia: Virtualacademyforsemi aridtropics Information Dissemination Knowledge exchange Dependingonthenatureoftheproblem beingpresentedandavailabilityoftheexpert (advisoryoncropping,waterandsoil management) Qualityofinteractionandexchangebasedon thefacilitationandintermediaryskillsofthe ruralinfomediaryaswellashis/her understandingofpracticalagriculture Assessmentofareaforlanduseplanning, watershedmanagement,cropacreage estimationandassessmentofcropdamagefor insurancepurposes
RemoteSensingand GeographicInformation Systems(GIS)
Collectingand assessing information
Turnovertimeof13days Interactivediscussions,questionand answersessionswithexpertsand feedbackonproblemsandtechnologies facilitatedbyanintermediary organisationinthefield Usuallyonceaweekorfortnightata designatedtimewhenthesatellite bandwidthisspecificallyallottedforthis activity Asmapsanddatatobeusedby researchanddevelopmentagencies
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ThemajorfeaturesoftheinitiativeslistedoutinTable1,whichdiscusstheuseofICTsin ruraldevelopmentinSouthAsia,aresummarisedbelow: (i)ICTsaremostlyusedtodisseminateinformation RuralcommunitiesneedinformationandICTsprovidethatwhichisofimmediaterelevance orusetothem.ImprovedaccesstoICTs,botholdandnew,hashelpedcommunities connectwiththeoutsideworld.Bettercoverageandimprovedqualityofthe telecommunicationinfrastructure(landlines,mobilephoneservice,Internetcafes, telecentres,etc.)inrecentyearshashelpedcommunitiesaccessawiderangeof informationandcontactthesourcesofthisinformation. MostoftheICTandKnowledgeManagementapplicationsfocusondisseminating information.Muchofthisinformationisgenericanddisseminatedinatopdownfashion. Forinstance,mostportalshavethefollowingsetsofinformation:apackageofpracticesfor cultivationofaparticularcrop;eligibilityrequirementstobenefitfromacertainscheme; tips;cropcalendars;informationoninputandplantingmaterialsources;weatherupdates; pricesofoutputsinmajormarkets,etc.Portalsvaryconsiderablyintermsofuser friendliness,useofvisualsandregularupdates.Althoughmanyoftheseportals/website usedonlyEnglishastheprimarylanguageearlier,theyarenowbecomingbilingualand, morerecently,uselocallanguages.Thisisalsotrueforradio,television,printmedia, interactivemultimediaCDROMSandtouchscreenkiosks,whichareallusedto disseminateinformationonnewtechnologiesoridealcultivationandmanagement practicesincropproductionandlivestockrearing. Whilemostoftheinformationflowisonewaywithnotmanyopportunitiesfor interactioncallcentres,helplinesandquestionanswerforums(aAqua)provide opportunitiesforfarmerstoaskrelevantquestionsandgetexpertopinionsinreturn.Inthe caseofdigitalphotography(eSaguandeVelanmaiinIndia),whichisusedmainlyto diagnosediseases,pestattacksorpoorgrowth,farmersgetadviceonwhatmeasuresneed tobetakenbasedonthedigitalimagesofaffectedareas/cropsthatareemailedtoexperts. However,thequalityofresponsedependsonthefamiliarityoftheexpertwiththeagro
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geographicsituationintheareaaroundthefarm.InthecaseofcallcentresinIndia,itwas notedthatthestaffatthecallcentreoftendoesnothaveadequateexperienceinthe matterandaccesstoaproperexpertisoftendifficult.Moreover,tomakeproperuseof informationavailablefromexperts,farmersneedtohaveaccesstotherecommended inputs,whicharenotavailablelocallyinmostcases(Sulaimanetal.,2011). Thesameholdstrueformarketpriceinformationprovidedovermobilephones.Although theprovisionofpriceinformationovermobilephoneshasplayedanimportantrolein reducingtransactioncostsinthevaluechain(DeSilvaandRatnadiwakara,2008),inorder forsmallscalefarmerstoengagemoreeffectivelyinagriculturalmarketsotherconstraints suchasaccesstocreditandrelevantinfrastructure(fromtransporttostorage)needtobe met.Anotherstudyconcludedthatwhilemoreprogressivefarmersmaysubscribetothese applications,ittakestimeforthoseatthebottomofthepyramidtobecomfortablewith accessingsuchservices(LokanathananddeSilva,2010). (ii)Lackoflocalrelevanceofcontent,whichisalsonotcustomisedtothecapacityofusers ThevalueofinformationprovidedbyICTapplicationsgreatlydependsonitslocalrelevance, whetheritcanbecustomisedtoafarmersresourcesituation,aswellashis/hercapacity (networksandaccesstocomplementarysetsofsupportservices)tousethatinformation. OldICTs,suchasradio,televisionandprintmedia,alsosufferfromthefactthattheydonot offercustomisedinformation,andwhattheydoofferisthroughonewaytransmission. However,withtherisingtrendofliveorphoneinprogrammes,therearegreater possibilitiesforinteractionwithexperts. Telecentresmostlydependoninformationavailableonwebportals.Onlyinafewcases suchastheknowledgecentresrunbytheM.S.SwaminathanResearchFoundation(MSSRF) inIndiaextraeffortshavebeenmadetocollectlocallyrelevantinformationand customiseitforlocalcommunities.TheSarvodayaagriclinicsinSriLankahavealsomade effortstogetrelevantinformationfromothersourcesandtranslateitintosimple,farmer friendlycommunicationmaterial,suchasleaflets,booklets,videoCDs,andebooksthatare availabletovisitorstotheagriclinics.
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InitiativesthatuseICTshavealsotendedtofocusontheissueofconnectivity,withnot enoughattentionpaidtothegenerationofrelevantcontentoreffortstobuildcapacity. Repackagingandaddingvaluetoinformation(downloading,simplifying,translating,and adaptinginformationintolocallanguages)aswellasdocumentinganduploadinglocal informationareallcriticalstepstowardenhancingrelevanceand,therefore,increasinguser friendlinessoftelecentres(Gurumurthy,2006). Butwhoisresponsibleforhelpingtelecentresgeneratelocalcontent?Quiteoften,public sectorresearchandextensionorganisationssimplydonothavelocallyrelevantorlocation specificknowledge.Howcantheythensupportinitiativesthataretryingtogeneratelocally relevantcontent?Alltheseareissuesthatareyettoberesolved. Developinglocallyrelevantcontentalsohascostimplications.BasedonareviewofICT projectsinSouthAsia,deSilva(2008)reportedthat:ICTprojectsthatsuccessfullyfacilitate theinformationneedsoftheruralpoorgenerallyuseparticipatoryapproacheswithtarget communities,notjusttoarticulatetheirinformationneedsbutoftentogenerateand disseminatethecontentlocally.Whiletelecentresfollowingthecommunitymodelwith donorfundingmightbeabletoinvestresourcestogeneratelocallyrelevantcontent,those followingaforprofitbusinessmodelmayfinditdifficulttoearnenoughtoreinvestinthis crucialactivity.Withincreasingemphasisontheneedforagradualtransitionfromdonor dependencytosustainability,thereiseverylikelihoodthatthisactivitymaygetsidelined eveninthedaystocome. Mobilephonebasedagriculturalservices,suchasRMLinIndia,havestartedtohirepeople tocollectinformationfromlocalmarkets,whichtheythencustomisefortheirsubscribers. CommunityradioseemstobetheonlyICTtoolwherelocallyrelevantcontentisgenerated inconsultationwithlocalcommunitiesandisthendisseminatedinlocaldialects.For instance,theVijayaFMstationinNawalparasidistrictinNepalbroadcastsprogrammesin7 languages,includingChepang,Tamang,Magar,Tharu,EnglishandNepali.
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Thesuccessofcommunityradioessentiallydependsontheextentofcommunitycontrol overthestationandprogramming.Forinstance,ofthe51communityradiostationsin India,43arerunbyeducationalinstitutionsandonly8aremanagedbyNGOs(Pandey, 2010).WhileNGOmanagedcommunityradiostationshavebeenabletodevelopand broadcastamuchmorediverseportfolioofprogrammes,thosemanagedbyeducational institutionsarerunonveryrigidlines,withthecontentobviouslyinfluencedbythe expertiseinorobjectiveoftheeducationalinstitution.WhileNepalhasbeenliberalwith settingupcommunityradiostations,IndiahasbeenquiterigidingrantinglicensestoNGOs, althoughthepolicywasliberalisedin2006. DoestheinformationdisseminatedthroughICTsreflecttheinformationneedsofrural communities,especiallywomen?Thisisnotalwaysthecase.Studieshaveshownthata majorityofwomeninruralareasareengagedinagriculturallabourandlivestockrearing andthereisaneedforinformationonsmallholdinglivestock,smallbusinessventures, valueaddition,marketingproducts,andwaysofimprovingremunerationandconditionsof unskilledandmigrantlabourers(CRISP,2009).Thiskindofinformationisoftennot available.Informationoncropmanagementandmarketprices,whichiswhatisgenerally providedthroughICTapplications,isoftennotapriorityforthemajorityofruralwomen. (iii)ICTsfortrainingruralcommunities ICTsareusedastoolstotrainruralcommunitiesinafewcases.Onesuchinitiativeisthe caseoftheinstructionalvideosbyDigitalGreeninIndia.DigitalGreenproducesvideosthat areinstructionalinnaturemainlyrecordingsofdemonstrationsthataremadewhenan extensionagentteachesfarmersanewtechnique.Oneimportantfeatureofthecompanyis thatittendstoincludelocalfarmersintheseinstructionalvideos.Thevideosarealso locationspecificandfeaturelocalfarmerswhowillbefamiliartoaparticularaudience,as opposedtoexpertsinidealisedconditions.Mediatorsorlocalresourcepersonnelorganise screeningsofthesevideosduringtheevening(between7and9PM). VideoSEWA,alsofromIndia,usesvideostoraiseawarenessaboutsocialoreconomicissues facedbypoorandworkingwomen.Thevideosareusedasatooltoarticulateproblemsand
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demands,whileatthesametimeformulatingstrategiesandinformingmembersabout governmentpoliciesandprogrammesfortheselfemployed,includingnational developmentplansandprogrammes.Theinitiativescreensthesevideosonmobilevans, whichtheytakefromcommunitytocommunity. OrganisationssuchasMSSRFhavebeenusingtelecentresasaforumfortraining.However, thishasmoretodowiththewiderobjectiveoftheorganisationthantheICTsavailable.The cyberunitsinSriLankaundertheDepartmentofAgriculturecanbeusedfortraining,but theirpotentialhasnotbeenfullyrealisedduetoseveraladministrativeissueswithinthe governmentdepartment(WijekoonandRizwan,2010).Newerapplicationsusingmobile phonesarecurrentlybeingtestedinIndia,wherethephonesarebeingusedas communicationandconferencingsystemstoorganisetrainingprogrammesforruralwomen nearorevenattheirhomes.Theseconferencecallsbetweenexpertsandthefarmers requireonlyaloudspeaker(sothattheconversationcanbeheardbyeveryonegatheredat themeeting),amobileconnectionandanactiveSIMcard. (iv)ICTsinpolicyadvocacy ThereisverylittleevidencetoshowthatICTshavebeeneffectivelyusedforpolicy advocacy.ForestAction,athinktankonforestmanagementissuesinNepal,hasbeenusing communityradiotoinfluencepolicy.AspartoftheForestActionprojectunderRIU,ithas partneredwithfourcommunityradiostationsinNepal(RadioSagarmatha,BaglungFM, RadioParbat,andVijayaFM)tobroadcastprogrammeseveryfortnightonexperiencesin changinginstitutionsandpoliciesrelatingtocommunityforestmanagementthroughaction research.Thishashelpedcreategreaterawarenessofissuesandsolutionsnotonlyamong forestcommunitiesbutalsodistrictforestdepartmentofficials.ForestActionalso participatesincommunityradioorganisedtalkshowsonforestmanagementalongwith otherstakeholders,includingseniorpolicymakersfromtheforestdepartment. VideoSEWAfromIndiaalsousesICTsforpolicyadvocacyintermsofusingvideostocreate visibilityandinitiatepolicychangesaroundwomensissues.VideoSEWAscreensthese videosinmeetingswithgovernmentofficialsandpolicymakers.Ithasalsobeenusingthese
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videosforincomegeneration,wagenegotiations,legalinterventionsandteachingnewskills (Balit,2007). (v)ICTsinknowledgemanagement Knowledgemanagementgenerallyreferstothesharingofknowledgeinsideandfroman organisationtotheoutside.Thisinvolvesgenerating,capturinganddisseminating knowledge.Researchershavepointedouttwokindsofknowledge:tacit(contextspecific personalknowledgeembeddedinindividualexperiences,and,thus,difficulttoshare)and explicit(thatcanbeeasilyarticulatedandtransmitted).Knowledgemanagementdealswith boththeexperienceandunderstandingofpeopleinorganisations(mostlytacit)aswellas informationartefactssuchasdocumentsandreports(whichareexplicit)availablewithin organisationsandoutsidethem.Whileexplicitknowledgeiseasytoshareortransmit, sharingtacitknowledgeisdifficult,althoughnotentirelyimpossible.Tacitknowledgeplays animportantroleinprovidingmeaningtoexplicitknowledgeaswellascontributingtothe developmentofnewknowledge.ICTscansupportthetransformationoftacitknowledgeto explicitandviceversa(SeeTable2). Table2.TechnologiesthatcanSupportTransformationofKnowledge
TacittoTacit Emeetings Synchronouscollaboration(chat) ExplicittoTacit Visualisation Browsablevideo/audioofpresentations TacittoExplicit Answeringquestions Annotation ExplicittoExplicit Textsearch Documentcategorisation
Source:Marwick(2001) Themajorchallengeinknowledgesharingisnottechnological,butmoresociological (Disterer,2003)]andtherearemanybarrierstoknowledgesharingwithinandbetween organisations.Forinstance,sharingknowledgeisoftenseenasadditionalworkbecauseof thetimenecessaryforreflection,documentationandcommunication.Lackofincentivesfor undertakingthisadditionalworkconstrainsindividualsfromsharingknowledge. Bureaucraticandhierarchicalorganisationshaveformaladministrativeprocedures,which preventthesharingofknowledgeandnewideas.Moreover,intheprocessofknowledge transfer,recipientshavetodecodifymessages.Thisisnotsimplyaprocessof

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understandingwordsatfacevalue,butonethatrequiresrecipientstopossessoracquire contextdependentknowledgenecessarytodecodifymessages. Themostimportanttoolsdeployedforknowledgemanagementincludeorganisational webpagesandspecialportalscreatedforspecificcommodities,sectorsandenterprisesor forspecificactivitiessuchasecommerce.Electronicdatabases,audioandvideorecordings, andmultimediapresentationsarealsousedwidelytocaptureanddisseminateknowledge. Emailandediscussionsarenowcommonlyusedtoshareexperiencesamongresearchand developmentprofessionals.Solutionexchangetheonlinecommunityofprofessionals indiversedisciplinesthatisfacilitatedbyFAOisacaseinpoint. Agropediaisacurrentinitiativethataspirestomanageandorganisethewidespread knowledgeintheIndianagriculturaldomainbybuildingupanagriculturalecommunity andstrengtheningthenetworksamongdifferentmembersofthiscommunity.Itisa platformwherebothspecialistsinagriculturalresearchandeducationaswellasothers interestedinagriculturecanmakelastingcontributionstoavastandgrowingknowledge base.Asimilarinitiative,wikigoviya,existsinSriLanka. Althoughexpertsystems(softwarethatmanipulatesencodedknowledgetosolveproblems inaspecialiseddomainthatnormallyrequireshumanexpertise)arewidelyusedinvarious agriculturalsectorsindevelopedcountries,theiruseinSouthAsiaislimited.Ecommerce throughInternettelephony(e.g.,cellbazaar,Bangladesh)andotherSMEportalsarepicking up,butinthecaseofagriculturalcommoditiestherehasnotbeenmuchsuccess,exceptin thecaseofcommodityexchangesandfuturestrading. TherehasbeenacertaincachetotheideaofusingICTSforknowledgemanagementin developmentcircles.Thishassparkedamushroomingofwebsitesandportalsarounda singlecommodityorenterprise,whichindicatesthattheremaybeproblemswithsharing knowledgeacrossvariouscompetingorganisationsinthesamesector.Acarefulanalysisof thesewebsitesandportalsindicatesthatthesearemostlyusedfordisseminatinggeneric informationandthereisverylittlecontextualisationtoconvertthistorelevantknowledge
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thatcouldbeactedupon.Veryfewwebsitesandportalshavemeansforinteractioninorder toenableknowledgesharingorexchange.Quiteoftenindividualslackhumannetworksto exchangeinformationandnegotiateitsmeaningwitheachother.Thesenetworksare importantforintegratingthisknowledgeintoexistingknowledgeandpracticesystems. Whereverthesekindsofnetworksorgroups(selfhelp,commoninterest,commodity,user, etc.)exist,communitiesarebetterplacedtouseinformationobtainedthroughICTs.The impactofICTs,therefore,isfeltmoreinagroupcontext.Thegroupcontextis,thus,abetter forumfordeployingICTsifthenewknowledgegeneratedexternallyhastobeappliedand used.Thisbringsusnexttotherelatedissueofhumanintermediation. (vi)Humanintermediation:Organisationalagendaandqualityofintermediation ICTsholdalotofpromiseforthoseorganisationsworkingatthegrassrootlevelwith communitygroupsthathaveabroaddevelopmentagenda,focusingonsocialinclusion, genderissuesandpropoordevelopment.Theseorganisationsgenerallyhavequalifiedand competentpersonnelwithskillstogaugewhatkindofinformationisimportanttotarget communitiesandwhothenchoosewhichICTapplicationsareappropriateforparticular situations.Forinstance,MSSRFusesvillageknowledgecentresnotjusttoprovide information,butalsoasforumsforcommunitymeetingsandtraining.VideoSEWAuses videosfornetworkbuilding,trainingandpolicyadvocacy,whilebarcodingandemarketing arecriticalformanagingitsmarketingoperationsandexpandingitssales.ForestAction successfullyusedcommunityradioinNepaltoraiseawarenessaswellasinpolicyadvocacy becauseitiswellplacedattheinterfaceofpolicyandcommunityengagement.Fromthe casesrevieweditisclearthatitisnotthetechnology,butanorganisationsvisionandits workingrelationshipwithruralcommunitiesthatallowsittodeployICTsforbetterimpact. Theplatformsthattheseorganisationscreatefordialoguehelpcommunitiesmakemeaning outoftheinformationtheyreceive,whichcouldthenbeappliedasknowledge. Humanintermediationisalwaysimportant,nomatterhowadvancedorsuperiora technologyis.InthecaseofDigitalGreen,farmerssitandwatchvideoswithinterestmainly becausethefacilitatormaketheexperienceinteractive,byperiodicallypausingplayand
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askingquestionstogaugetheircomprehensionofcontent.Ifnecessarythefacilitator replaysthevideoandmakesafollowupvisit.Theroleofintermediariesinbridgingthelast mileconnectivityhasbeenacknowledgedintheliterature(ColleandRoman,2002;Heeks, 2002;Rajalekshmi,2007;SienandFuruholt,2009).Heeks(2002)suggeststhatgood intermediariesbringmoretotheprocessthansimpleconnectiontoinformationand communicationdataandhardware.Emphasisingtheimportanceoftrust,Rajalekshmi (2007)observedthatintermsofegovernanceservices,itmaybemoreappropriatetouse ICTapplicationswithinexistingintermediaryinstitutions,suchaslocalhospitals.Itappears thatICTshavegreaterpotentialifusedtoenabletheenablers.Inotherwords,ICTsshould beusedtoenableprocesseswithinthelargercontextofdevelopment,ratherthanbeingthe definingcharacteristicofafullfledgedprogramme.AsToyama(2010)notes,development expertswhopromoteICTsasawaytorelieveglobalpovertyshouldpaymoreattentionto thehumanbeingswhouseit. (vii)ICTsindistancelearning Distancelearningisafieldofeducationthatfocusesonteachingstudentsnotphysically presentintraditionaleducationalsettingssuchasclassrooms,butinphysicallydistantand oftendistributedlocations.Learnerstypicallyusevariousmaterials(books,CDROMsand mediasuchastelevision,radio,theInternetandthepost)toreplacedirect,facetoface interactionwithtutors.Inrecentyears,telecentreshavebeenusedasinterfacesfor distancelearning. ICTtrainingmostlybasictraininginICTliteracyisaprimarymeansofgenerating incomeinmosttelecentresinSriLanka.AstudybyWattegama(2008)foundthatfor43%of telecentresinSriLanka,thekeysourcesofincomewereeducationandtraining.InIndia commonservicecentresareincreasinglyservingaslocationsfordistancelearning.For instance,SreiSahaj,aprivateserviceprovider,iscurrentlypartneringwiththeIndiraGandhi NationalOpenUniversity(IGNOU)tolaunchaskilldevelopmentprogrammeoncomputer educationinits29,000servicecentres.
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BangladeshOpenUniversitynowusingtelevisionandradiotosupplementitsdistance learningprogrammes,whichhavetraditionallyusedonlytheprintmedia.Onanaverage13 televisionlecturesand16radiolecturesbytheuniversitysacademicsandsubject specialistsfromotherinstitutesareairedeverymonth.Instructionthroughtheuseofe mail,computeraidedlearningtechnologiesandteleconferencingisstilllimited(infoDevand PWC,2010).TheIndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch(ICAR)iscurrentlydevelopinge learningsystemsandcontentinthemajoragriculturalsubjectdomains.Elearningprojects insevenmajordisciplines(agriculture,dairy,veterinarystudies,horticulture,fisheries,agri businessandhomescience)arebeingimplementedin20universities(Raoetal.,2010). Althoughthesearenotintendedfordistancelearning,thecreationofinteractiveandmulti mediacoursecontentanditsdeliveryasonline(web)andoffline(CD/DVD)contentis expectedtoenhanceclassroomteaching. Agarwal(2005)observedthatelearninginitiativesinIndiahadbenefitedonlyprivileged andurbanstudents,byandlarge.HecitesonlyveryfewexamplesofICTsbeingdeployedto promotenonformallearningamongruralcommunities.TheTelecentre.orgAcademyisa globalinitiativetoprovidetelecentremanagerswithtraining,capacitybuilding,and professionaldevelopmentopportunities.Someauthorsalsofeelsomeoldertechnologies havebeenignoredregardlessoftheirreach.Forinstance,technologiessuchasradio,which arefarreachingandeffectiveforpeopleinisolatedareas,havenotreceivedtheattention theydeserve,whilenewertechnologies,suchastheInternet,whichprimarilybenefitsa privilegedstrataofsocietythusfar,hasreceivedwidespreadattentioninSouthAsia (Berman,2008).
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5. THE ROLE AND LIMITS OF ICTS

Informationandcommunicationtechnologyisnecessaryandcriticalforputtingnew knowledgefromresearchandelsewhereintouse,butisnotsufficientforbringingabout innovation.OuranalysisrevealsthatICTsastheyhavesofarbeendeployedhave mostlycontributedtotraditionalcommunicationtasks,suchasinformationdissemination, awarenessraising,massmediacampaigns,advisorycommunicationandawarenesstraining (SeeTable3).Althoughthesetasksareimportant,theyhavetobeaccompaniedbyother communicationstrategiesifinnovationistohappen.Theseinclude:networkandknowledge brokering,advocacycommunication,visioning,processfacilitation,learningoriented monitoring,etc.ICTshavenot,however,contributedadequatelytothesecommunication intermediationtasksthatarecriticalforinnovation.
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Table3.TypologyofICTEnabledInitiatives
ICTenabled initiatives Portals:Providing informationand adviceon technologies,price information, networkingresearch anddevelopment community Examples Contributiontoputting researchintouse Disseminationof information Ecommerce Networkingandsharing informationandbest practicesamongthe researchanddevelopment community Disseminatingnew researchfindingstoother researchersandpolicy makers Limitations Mostlygenericinformation thatisstatic,butincreasingly dynamicinformationon weatherandprices Forputtinginformationinto use,farmerswouldrequire helpinadaptingittolocal contextsaswellasaccesstoa complementarysetofservices andnetworkstomakeuseof thisinformation,including accesstotechnology Policymakersandresearchers needacomplementarysetof activities(meetings, workshops,conferences,policy dialogues)tohaveadequate impact Informationprovidedistoo broadandtomakeuseofthis information,farmersneed contactwithotherlocally relevantsources ImpactLogic Accessto information willleadto technology adoption, reduceprice asymmetryand bringabout policychange
AGMARKNET,India http://agmarknet.nic.in/ RiceKnowledgeManagementPortal (ICARinpartnershipwithothers),India http://rkmp.iari.res.in GoviGnanaSeva,SriLanka www.ggs.lirneasia.org KatalystBangladesh(Swisscontactand GTZ) www.katalyst.com.bd eHaatBazaar,Nepal http://www.b2b.com.np Solutionexchange,India(FAO) www.solutionexchange.net.in Agropedia http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/ RIUTV Publicinformation media:Ruralradio/ www.researchintouse.com/tv/index.ht television/Internet/ ml socialmedia/print NewAgriculturalist media,etc. (broadcasttoawide www.newag.info audience)
Mainlyaboutcreating awarenessthrough disseminatinginformation Usedindistancelearningto alimitedextent
Accessto information willleadto technology adoption
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PANOS www.panos.org.uk/relay Ruralradioandtelevisionbroadcasts Newspapersandpopularfarming journals Telecentres:Public accesspointsfor informationthrough computers MSSRF,India www.mssrf.org/iec.html Sarvodaya,SriLanka www.fusion.lk/ Communityinformationcentresof GrameenPhone,Bangladesh , Tollfreeagriculturaladvisoryservices (India,Bangladesh,SriLanka) Mainlydisseminationof informationavailableon theInternet Rarelyusedasavenuefor interactivelearning Genericinformationavailable ontheNethaslimited applicability;Needshuman intermediationandresources todevelopandadapt informationrelevanttolocal needs Accessto information willleadto technology adoption
Callcentres:Mostly tollfreenumbers forseeking informationon inputs,government programmes,crop advice
Disseminationof information Problemsolvingadvisory services
Expertsoftendonothave adequateunderstandingofthe agroecological,socio economicandinfrastructure situation,thereforereducing theuseoftheinformation
CommunityRadio: Locallyownedradio stationsdeveloping andbroadcasting locallyrelevant informationovera
RadioSagarmatha,Nepal SangamRadio,India KothamaleCommunityRadio,SriLanka
Raisingawareness Disseminatingrelevantand timelyinformationinthe localdialectto communities
Requirestechnicalsupport, resourcesforprogramme developmentatthelocallevel Sustainabilityofcommunity radioisanissue
Interactive information accesscan improve relevanceof information andleadto better adoption Accessto locally generated information willleadto technical
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limitedgeographical area VirtualExtension: Trainingand advisingfarmers throughvideo, digitalphotography andvideo conferencing DigitalGreenVideo,India Cropadvicethroughdigital photography(eSagu,India) Videoconferencing(ICRISAT,India)
Advocacycommunication inafewcases Informationdissemination Training Problemsolving Advisorysupport Training/Technical CapacityBuildingthrough degree/diploma/ certificateprogrammes:
innovation
Effectivenessdependson qualityofhuman intermediationandexistence ofmarketandcomplementary resourcesandinstitutional arrangements
Accessto interactive training advisory serviceswill leadto technology adoption Building knowledgeand skill development of intermediaries andfarmers willleadto technical change Dynamic information dissemination willleadto improvedand timely productionand market practices
Distancelearning: Forextension personnel,other information intermediariesand ruralproducers (newtechnologies, newskills)
IndiraGandhiNationalOpenUniversity, India YashwantraoChavanMaharashtra OpenUniversity,India
Usefulbutrequires complementaryinstitutional developmentinthewider innovationsystem
Mobilebased advisoryservices (voiceandtext basedadvisory services)
ReutersMarketLight,India IFFCOIKSL,India KatalystBangladesh
Disseminatinginformation (weather,prices,advisory tipsoncrop,animal management,government programmes,conditionsat sea)
Tomakeuseofthe information/advice,farmers needaccesstoresources, facilitiesandothersocial networks
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IntermsoftheinnovationmanagementfunctionslistedinSection2(SeeFigure1),ICTs havecontributedonlytoadvocacyforinstitutionalandpolicychangeandtowardimproving accesstosourcesofexpertiseandmarketinformation.WhileICTshaveimproved communicationandnetworkingamongresearchers,mostly,andtoalesserextentamong developmentprofessionals,thereisnoevidencetoshowthattheysupportbetter articulationofproducersneedsfortechnicalsupportordirectresearchtoworkon demandledproblems.Theircontributiontodevelopingnetworksortowardsbrokerageis questionable,althoughthereisevidencetoindicatethatICTsenabletheenablers engagedinwiderruraldevelopmenttasks.Toputitdifferently,itisnotthemeritsoftheICT tool,perse,butthevisionoforganisationsandtheirworkingrelationshipswithotheractors intheagriculturalinnovationsystemthatallowsICTstobedeployedeffectivelyfor supportingtasksofpolicyadvocacy,learningandvisioning.Theunderutilisationofthe potentialofICTsisprimarilyduetothefollowingreasons: (i)Therehasnotbeenmuchrealisationoftheimportanceoftherealnatureof communicationintermediationtasksrequiredforinnovation.Duetohistoricalreasons, mostorganisationsintheagriculturalinnovationsysteminSouthAsiaarestuckinalinear paradigmthatemphasisesatransferoftechnologyapproachtoinnovation.Thisparadigm focusesontraditionalcommunicationtasksthatemphasiseinformationdissemination throughICTsatthecostofseveralotherpotentialcommunicationintermediationtasksthat ICTscouldbettercontributeto.ICTsare,therefore,primarilyviewedandusedfor disseminatinginformation.Thisfindingisalsosupportedinanemaildiscussionorganisedby thewebsiteeagriculture.orgrecently,whichcametotheconclusionthatcurrentlyICTuse ismainlyfocusedoninformationdissemination,whereastrueinformationmanagement applicationsarelessdeveloped(eagriculture.org,2009). (ii)Therehasnotbeenmuchappreciationoftheroleoftheintermediaryandthecapacities requiredformanaginginnovation.AsToyama(2010)notes,technologynomatterhow welldesignedisonlyamagnifierofhumanintentandcapacity.Itisnotasubstitute. Lackofappreciationforintermediationhasledtoitsunderestimationand,thus,under
41
investmentinhumanresources(bothquantityaswellasquality)requiredfordeliveringthe fullpotentialofICTs. Innovationmanagementdependsonacrucialsetofactions,suchasbrokering,convening, negotiating,coaching,mediatinganddisseminating.ICTscansupportinnovation managementinorganisationsthathaveatraditionofundertakingwidercommunication intermediationtasks.However,therearentmanyorganisationsthatarecapableof undertakingthesetasksatthethreelevelsofinnovationmanagement:field,mesoand policylevels.Eventhoseorganisationsthatarecapableofthistaskfacedifficultiesin accessingrelevantknowledgefromresearchorfromtechnologyfocusedorganisationsthat operateindependentlyfromotheractorsintheagriculturalinnovationsystem. (iii)Ruralcommunitiesquiteoftenhavelimitedcapacity(intermsofhumannetworksand resources)tomakeproperuseofinformation;withoutthisinformationreceivedthrough ICTsdonotmakemuchsense.Onlywheninformationhelpspeoplecommunicateand participateandallowsthemtomakeinformedchoicesdoesthatinformationbecome knowledge(Panos,1998).Withafewexceptions,informationprovidedthroughICTsis generic,deliveredinatopdownfashionandhaslimitedoperationalsignificanceforthose whoaccessitinthisway.MostICTinitiativeshavefocusedmoreonthetoolandlessonthe content.Whiletechnologicaladvancementandfallingcostsoftelecommunicationhave expandedtheavailabilityandaccesstoICTs,therehasntbeenmuchattentionto developingcustomisedandlocallyrelevantcontent.Inmostcases,thepracticehasbeento havethetoolfirstandthenlookforcontent.Thebasicassumptionisthatoncethe informationisdisseminated,itwilleventuallybeused.
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6. IMPLICATIONS FOR RIU

TheexperienceoftheICTinitiativesinSouthAsiareviewedinthispapershouldbeseenas cautionarytalefortheResearchIntoUse(RIU)programme.Informationand CommunicationTechnologyisnotapanaceafortheproblemofweakuptakeofresearch. ThisisnotbecauseICTsarenotapowerfulnewwayoflinkingpeopleandinformation. Rather,thisisaproblemof21stcenturytechnologybeingheldbackbysimplisticnotionsof agriculturalextension,asdiscussedinRogers1962classic,DiffusionofInnovations.The challengereallyistofindawayofmarryingupnewICTswithnewer,broaderthinkingabout theroleofcommunicationintheinnovationprocess. OneofthelimitationsofthereviewofICTsinSouthAsiapresentedaboveisthatitisbased onsecondarysources,whichhavethemselvesbeenskewedbyoldpolicythinkingofgood practiceandorchestrateddevelopmentinitiatives.YetoneofthekeyfeaturesoftheICT revolutionisthatithasenableduserstoinnovatewithhowtheyuseICTs.Examplesinclude opensourceactivitiesfordevelopinguserfriendlysoftware,openaccessandfreeonline encyclopedias,suchasWikipedia.Theneedforusercommunityvalidatedinformation(in manyspheresofactivity)isalsodrivinguserstoinnovatewiththeuseofICTsonblogsand insocialmedia,suchasTwitterandFacebook. ItisevermoreapparentthatICTsdonotmeantechnologywhosedevelopmentcan necessarilybeplannedandownedbypolicystakeholders.Rather,theseareenabling technologiesthatareshiftingthelocusofinnovationtowardsusers.So,inasense,the questionabouttheroleofICTsinputtingresearchintouseisnotaquestionofhowtouse ICTs,perse.IncreasinglyitisaquestionofwhodecideshowtouseICTsandhowthose communicationinnovationscanbesupportedanddiffused.Inotherwordsitisaboutthe democratisationofcommunicationandtherejectionofthenotionoftheprimacyofthe externalexpertinthedesignofcommunicationorientatedapplications.Equallyitmeans thatanygivenorganisationcannolongerbetheowneranddelivererofinformation,but justoneofthemanyusers.
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IfRIUistomakemoreeffectiveuseofICTsitneedstohaveabetterunderstandingofthe strengthsandlimitationsofcurrentspecificresearchcommunicationandICTenabled researchintouseinitiatives.Butitalsoneedstoexploretherapidlyexpandingcategoryof democraticapplications(blogs,Twitter,Facebook,etc.)andreflectonhowtousethistrend moreeffectively.Thecompanionpapertothistakesthesequestionsasastartingpoint.
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7. CONCLUSION
IfICTsaretocontributemeaningfullytoinnovationmanagement,therehastobea fundamentalrethinkingofourapproachtoagriculturalandruraldevelopment.Althoughthe initialhypearoundICTshassincesubdued,thereisaneedtoshiftthediscussionaround ICTsfromoneofmorecoveragetothatofbetterandmoremeaningfuluseofICTsfor innovationmanagement.LackofempiricalevidenceonthecontributionofICTsandthe reluctancetoreportandlearnfromfailuresinICTexperimentshasledtodisillusionment abouttheroleofICTsamongthedevelopmentcommunity.ICTsareclearlynotasubstitute forhumanintermediationandthelimitsofstandaloneICTinitiativesshouldbeclearly understood.ICTscannotsolvetheunderlyinginstitutionalbottlenecksthatconstrain organisationsfrominteractingwitheachother.Addressingtheseissuesisimportantifthe fullpotentialofICTsistoberealised.Informationandknowledgealoneisnotenoughto ensurebehaviouralchangeandthereisalwaysaneedforopportunities,platformsor networksfordialoguesandsharinginformationandknowledge.Althoughthe understandingoncommunication,innovationandextensionhaschangedsubstantiallyin thepasttwodecades,thereisstillabiggapbetweentheoryandpractice.Thisgapneedsto bebridgedifICTsaretoeffectivelycontributetoputtingnewknowledgeintouse.
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THERIUDISCUSSIONPAPERSERIES (Availablefordownloadatwww.researchintouse.com) 201001 ResearchIntoUse:InvestigatingtheRelationshipBetweenAgricultural ResearchandInnovation ByAndyHall,JeroenDijkmanandRasheedSulaimanV. 201002 Bottomup,Bottomline:DevelopmentRelevantEnterprisesinEastAfricaand theirSignificanceforAgriculturalInnovation ByAndyHall,NormanClarkandAndyFrost 201003 InnovationSystems,EconomicSystems,ComplexityandDevelopmentPolicy ByNormanClark 201004 PuttingResearchIntoUse:AMarketFailureApproach ByNormanClarkandIanMaudlin 201005 ItMayTakeALittleWhile..:InsightsonAgriculturalResearchforInnovation andDevelopmentinNigeria ByUtiangP.Ugbe 201006 GenderandAgriculturalInnovation:RevisitingtheDebateThroughan InnovationSystemsPerspective ByAnnKingiri 201007 NewOrganisationalandInstitutionalVehiclesforManagingInnovationin SouthAsia:OpportunitiesforUsingResearchforTechnicalChangeandSocial Gain ByT.S.VamsidharReddy,AndyHallandRasheedSulaimanV. 201008 TheInnovationTrajectoryofSleepingSicknessControlinUganda:Research KnowledgeinitsContext ByJohnMorton 201009 AfricaMatters:EmergingLessonsfromtheRIUCountryProgrammes ByJeroenDijkman 201010 WhatDoesInnovationSmellLike?AConceptualFrameworkforAnalysingand EvaluatingDFIDRIUExperimentsinBrokeringAgriculturalInnovationand Development ByUtiangP.Ugbe 201011 StudyingRuralInnovationManagement:AFrameworkandEarlyFindings fromRIUinSouthAsia ByRasheedSulaimanV.,AndyHall,VamsidharReddyT.S.andKumudaDorai
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201112
OrganisedRetailingofFreshFruitandVegetables:OpportunitiesforPutting ResearchIntoUse? ByRasheedSulaimanV.,N.J.Kalaivani,JatinderHandoo,VamsidharReddy T.S.,KumudaDoraiandAndyHall BeyondKnowledgeBrokerage:AnExploratoryStudyofInnovation IntermediariesinanEvolvingSmallholderAgriculturalSysteminKenya ByCatherineW.Kilelu,LaurensKlerkx,CeesLeeuwisandAndyHall TheWhenandWhereofResearchinAgriculturalInnovationTrajectories: EvidenceandImplicationsfromRIUsSouthAsiaProjects ByVamsidharReddy,T.S.,AndyHallandRasheedSulaimanV. DynamicsofBiosciencesRegulationandOpportunitiesforBiosciences InnovationinAfrica:ExploringRegulatoryPolicyBrokering ByAnnKingiriandAndyHall NecessaryButNotSufficient:InformationandCommunicationTechnology anditsRoleinPuttingResearchIntoUse ByRasheedSulaimanV.,AndyHall,N.J.Kalaivani,KumudaDoraiand VamsidharReddy,T.S.
201113 201114 201115 201116
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ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

IADIS ICAR ICRIER ICRISAT

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

RML S&T SEWA SIM SME UK UN UNCSTD USA

ReutersMarketLight ScienceandTechnology SelfEmployedWomensAssociation SubscriberIdentityModule SmallandMediumEnterprises UnitedKingdom UnitedNations UNCommissiononScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment UnitedStatesofAmerica

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

3. ICTs IN DEVELOPMENT: THE CURRENT DEBATE

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

4. ICTS AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH ASIA

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

Information dissemination Distance learning Information dissemination Distance learning

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

Dissemination ofinformation ecommerce Distance learning

MobilePhones India:ReutersMarket Light(RML);IFFCOIKSL; TatamKrishi

Portalsvarywidelyintheircontent, regularupdates,userfriendliness,useof visuals,etc. Mostprovidegenericinformation. Increasinglyportalsprovidedynamic information(e.g.,currentpricesand weatherupdates)

Answersonspecificqueriesfrom expertslocatedatcallcentresandat otherlocations Availableduringfixedhoursduringthe dayandinsomecases24hourservice

Informationmostlyonweather;pricesof commoditiesindifferentmarkets;cropand animalhusbandryadvisoryservices; informationongovernmentschemes; informationonconditionsatsea(wave height)

Mostlypaidservicesavailableto subscribers Mostlyastextmessagesorvoicemail

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

Information dissemination Raising awareness Advocacy communication

Widerangeofinformationonrurallife, agriculture,forests,health,handicrafts,etc. Greatertheownershipbythecommunity, greatertheinvolvementofthecommunityin contentgenerationandthecontentbecomes morelocallyrelevant

InteractiveCDROMs/ TouchScreen Technologies SriLanka:IMMCDROM India:Touchscreenkiosks

Inagriculture,usedtopromotenew technologiesandgoodpracticesinfarming Usedtoraiseawarenessonwomensissues; tomobilisecommunitiesaroundissuesof commonconcernandalsousedasatraining tool

DigitalPhotographyIndia: Providing eSevaandeVelanmai information, mainlyonplant

Advicebasedondigitalphotosdepictingthe growthofcropsandsymptomsofpestand diseaseattack

InteractivemultimediaCDROMS distributedtoagriculturalextension agenciesforusebyfarmersincyberunits orcommunicationcentresofthe DepartmentofAgriculture/veterinary hospitals/clinics/knowledgecentres Digitalpicturesmailedtoexpertsand advicereceivedthroughemail,on mobilephonesorasprintouts

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

RemoteSensingand GeographicInformation Systems(GIS)

Collectingand assessing information

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

5. THE ROLE AND LIMITS OF ICTS

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

Mainlyaboutcreating awarenessthrough disseminatinginformation Usedindistancelearningto alimitedextent

Accessto information willleadto technology adoption

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

Callcentres:Mostly tollfreenumbers forseeking informationon inputs,government programmes,crop advice

Disseminationof information Problemsolvingadvisory services

Expertsoftendonothave adequateunderstandingofthe agroecological,socio economicandinfrastructure situation,thereforereducing theuseoftheinformation

CommunityRadio: Locallyownedradio stationsdeveloping andbroadcasting locallyrelevant informationovera

RadioSagarmatha,Nepal SangamRadio,India KothamaleCommunityRadio,SriLanka

Raisingawareness Disseminatingrelevantand timelyinformationinthe localdialectto communities

Requirestechnicalsupport, resourcesforprogramme developmentatthelocallevel Sustainabilityofcommunity radioisanissue

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY

Effectivenessdependson qualityofhuman intermediationandexistence ofmarketandcomplementary resourcesandinstitutional arrangements

Distancelearning: Forextension personnel,other information intermediariesand ruralproducers (newtechnologies, newskills)

IndiraGandhiNationalOpenUniversity, India YashwantraoChavanMaharashtra OpenUniversity,India

Usefulbutrequires complementaryinstitutional developmentinthewider innovationsystem

Mobilebased advisoryservices (voiceandtext basedadvisory services)

ReutersMarketLight,India IFFCOIKSL,India KatalystBangladesh

Disseminatinginformation (weather,prices,advisory tipsoncrop,animal management,government programmes,conditionsat sea)

Tomakeuseofthe information/advice,farmers needaccesstoresources, facilitiesandothersocial networks

ResearchIntoUse RASHEEDSULAIMANV.,ANDYHALL,N.J.KALAIVANI,KUMUDADORAI ANDT.S.VAMSIDHARREDDY