Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
(negative charge)
A Atom
Nucleus
Proton, p
+
(positive charge)
Neutron, n
0
(no charge)
Table 2.2 lists the key properties of p
+
, e
and n
o
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
A
Z
X
Atomic
symbol
Mass number
(p
+
+ n
0
)
Atomic
Number (p
+
)
6p
+
6n
0 An atom of carbon-12
12
6C
6e
8p
+
8n
0 An atom of oxygen-16
16
8O
8e
An atom of uranium-235
235
92U
92e
92p
+
143n
0
92p
+
146n
0
An atom of uranium -238
238
92U
92e
and n
o
does it contain?
How to determine the number of neutrons A
Z
X
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 25
Ne + e
! Ne
+
+ 2e
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 26
Mass Spectrum of Ne
Mass spectra show the
abundance (%) of each isotope.
How to calculate the average
mass of neon from its isotope
masses weighted according
to their abundances.
Weighted average mass =
"(isotope mass x fract. abund.)
(0.905 x 20) + (0.003 x 21) + (0.092 x 22) = WAM
18.1 amu + 0.06 amu + 2.02 amu = 20.2 amu
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
27
Problem: Silver (Z=47) has only two isotopes,
107
Ag
and
109
Ag. Given the mass spectrometric data
below, calculate the atomic mass of silver:
ISOTOPE MASS (amu) ABUNDANCE (%)
107
Ag 106.90509 51.84
109
Ag 108.90476 48.16
Find atomic mass contribution of each isotope:
mass contrib. = isotopic mass x fractional abund.
For
107
Ag: = 106.90509 amu x 0.5184 = 55.42 amu
For
109
Ag: = 108.90476 amu x 0.4816 = 52.45 amu
47
Ag
107.9
107.9 amu
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 28
The Atomic Mass Scale Today
The atomic mass standard is the carbon-12 atom;
its mass is defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units.
So one atomic mass unit (amu or u) is defined as
1/12
th
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
On this scale, H atoms have a mass of 1.008 amu.
One amu (u) equals 1.661 x 10
24
g (PT/const. sheet)
Exercise: What is the mass of one atom of H?
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(261)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(262)
108
Hs
(265)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(266)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.39
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
110 111 112
(269) (272) (277)
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(285)
P
E
R
I
O
D
Learn names and symbols of the first 36 elements
Learn where the metals,
nonmetals and metalloids are
found in the periodic table.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
30
The Formation of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds made of ions, charged particles
formed when atom(s) gain or lose electron(s).
Ionic compounds typically form when a metal reacts
with a nonmetal.
Each metal atom loses 1, 2 or 3 of its electrons
and becomes a cation, a positively charged ion.
Nonmetal atoms gain electrons lost by the metal
atoms becoming anions, negatively charged ions.
Compounds: Introduction to Bonding
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 31
How can we predict the number of electrons an atom
will lose or gain when it forms a monoatomic ion?
Ionic compounds always contain equal numbers of
positive and negative charges. Formulas are neutral
A grain of table salt consists of a large number of
Na
+
ions and an equal number of Cl
ions.
1+
2+
1- 2- 3-
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
Often, Main Group ions
have the same number
of electrons as in the
nearest noble gas
[Group 8A]
10
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 32
Workshop: What monatomic ions do the elements
below form?
a) iodine (Z= 53)
b) strontium (Z = 38)
c) aluminum (Z = 13)
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 33
Formation of Covalent
Compounds
In covalent compounds, atoms
share pairs of electrons.
Simplest case: electron sharing
occurs between two hydrogen
atoms to form H
2
molecule.
Usually occurs between
nonmetals, C-H, Cl-Cl, etc.
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
e
B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I
Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
e
B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I
Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
e
B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I
Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z 1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
longer belongs to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H
2
)pairs
of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unitnot sep-
arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
perature are nitrogen (N
2
), oxygen (O
2
), and the halogens [uorine (F
2
), chlorine
(Cl
2
), bromine (Br
2
), and iodine (I
2
)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
(P
4
), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S
8
and Se
8
) (Figure 2.15).
At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.
62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
e
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
e
B Attraction begins
C Covalent bond
D Interaction of forces
A No interaction
p
+
p
+
e
p
+
p
+
p
+
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z 53) (b) Calcium (Z 20) (c) Aluminum (Z 13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to nd the element in the periodic table and see where
its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
SOLUTION (a) I
Iodine (
53
I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case
54
Xe.
(b) Ca
2
Calcium (
20
Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case,
18
Ar.
(c) Al
3
Aluminum (
13
Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas,
10
Ne.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
ments form: (a)
16
S; (b)
37
Rb; (c)
56
Ba?
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent
bond between two H atoms. A, The
distance is too great for the atoms to
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei
mutually attract the pair of electrons at
some optimum distance. D, The H
2
mol-
ecule is more stable than the separate
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and
the two electrons are greater than the
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the
electrons and between the nuclei.
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2A
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
N
2
F
2
Cl
2
Se
8
I
2
O
2
P
4
S
8
Br
2
H
2
1A
(1)
Diatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules
Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as
molecules.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 62
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 34
Hydrogen gas consists of many
diatomic hydrogen molecules, H
2
.
Other diatomics are
N
2
, O
2
, F
2
, Cl
2
, Br
2
, I
2
Memorize the 7 Famous Diatomics
These behave as independent H
2
units
-not separate hydrogen atoms.
BrINClHOF
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 35
Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses
Empirical formulas show the simplest ratio of
numbers of atoms of each element in the compound.
Empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO
Molecular formulas show the actual number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of a compound.
Molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is H
2
O
2
Chemical formulas: symbols + numeric subscripts
H
2
O
CaCO
3 H
2
SO
4
Structural formulas show actual number of atoms
and the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule.
Structural formula of hydrogen peroxide H-O-O-H.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
36
Names of compounds with monatomic ions.
Rules for binary ionic compounds, (MX).
Metal cation name is the same as that of the metal.
Ca Ca
2+
Anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and adds
the suffix -ide. Br Br
The ionic compound formed from the metal calcium
and the nonmetal bromine is calcium bromide.
Please learn all the monatomic ions in Table 2.3
Ionic compound names give positive ion (cation) first,
followed by negative ion (anion).
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 37
Exercise (assumes that you learned 1
st
36 elements)
Name the binary ionic compound that forms from:
a) strontium (Z =38) and N b) S and Zn
c) Al and fluorine d) oxygen and Li
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter
1
H
1.008
2
He
4.003
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
71
Lu
175.0
72
Hf
178.5
103
Lr
(260)
104
Rf
(263)
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
107
Bh
(267)
108
Hs
(277)
27
Co
58.93
45
Rh
102.9
77
Ir
192.2
109
Mt
(268)
57
La
138.9
58
Ce
140.1
60
Nd
144.2
61
Pm
(145)
62
Sm
150.4
63
Eu
152.0
59
Pr
140.9
89
Ac
(227)
90
Th
232.0
92
U
238.0
93
Np
(237)
94
Pu
(242)
95
Am
(243)
91
Pa
(231)
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
30
Zn
65.41
48
Cd
112.4
80
Hg
200.6
64
Gd
157.3
65
Tb
158.9
67
Ho
164.9
68
Er
167.3
69
Tm
168.9
70
Yb
173.0
66
Dy
162.5
96
Cm
(247)
97
Bk
(247)
99
Es
(252)
100
Fm
(257)
101
Md
(258)
102
No
(259)
98
Cf
(251)
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.61
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
33
As
74.92
51
Sb
121.8
83
Bi
209.0
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
84
Po
(209)
85
At
(210)
36
Kr
83.80
54
Xe
131.3
86
Rn
(222)
5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
7
N
14.01
15
P
30.97
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
10
Ne
20.18
18
Ar
39.95
3
4
5
6
7
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7) (9) (10)
1B
(11)
2B
(12)
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
8A
(18)
2
1
6
7
(8)
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
8B
Lanthanides
Actinides
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
MAINGROUP
ELEMENTS
P
e
r
i
o
d
110
(281)
111
(272)
112
Metals (main-group)
Metals (transition)
Metals (inner transition)
Metalloids
Nonmetals
114
(289)
113
(284)
115
(288)
116
(292)
Ds Rg
(285)
placed below the main body of the table but actually t between the
elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116
had not been named.
Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele-
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti-
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren-
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.)
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
siL48593_ch02_040-088 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58
metal nonmetal
strontium nitride
nm m
zinc sulfide
aluminum fluoride
nm m nm m
lithium oxide
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
38
Calcium bromide is composed of Ca
2+
ions + Br
ions
Two Br
;
one Zn
2+
ion (2+) balances two I
;
one Al
3+
ion (3+) balances three F
) ! Li
2
O
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
40
Transition elements (B groups), often form more
than one ion, with different charges.
Naming their compounds: give metals ionic charge
in Roman numerals after the metal ions name.
For example, iron forms both Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
ions.
The two iron-chlorine compounds are:
FeCl
2
, named iron(II) chloride
FeCl
3
, named iron(III) chloride
Learn the transition element ions given in Table 2.4
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
41
Problem: Give systematic names for the formulas or
formulas for the names of the following compounds:
(b) CrF
3
(c) iron(III) oxide
(d) MnS
(a) tin(II) bromide (tin, Z = 50)
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
42
Compounds formed from polyatomic ions
Learn the formulas, charges and names of the
common polyatomic ions given in Table 2.5 (NO
3
-
)
If two or more of a given polyatomic ion are present,
put the ion in parentheses with subscript following.
Example: Calcium nitrate contains one Ca
2+
and two
NO
3
ClO
4
is perchlorate
ClO
3
is chlorate
With four oxoanions in the family:
-the ion with most O atoms has the prefix per-,
the nonmetal root, and the suffix -ate.
-the ion with one less O atoms has the suffix -ate.
-the ion with two less O atoms has the suffix -ite.
-the ion with three less O atoms has the prefix
hypo- and the suffix -ite.
ClO
2
is chlorite
ClO
is hypochlorite
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved.
45
Problem: Give systematic names for the formulas or
formulas for the names of the following compounds:
a) ClO
3
is perbromate, so HBrO
4
is perbromic acid
IO
2
is iodite, so HIO
2
is iodous acid.
Department of Chemistry, University of Houston CHEM 1331 Chapter 2 Russell Geanangel, 2012 All rights reserved. 48
Problem:
Name the following anions and give the names and
formulas of the acid solutions derived from them:
(a) Br
(b) IO
3
(c) CN
(d) NO
2