Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1.0 : 1.1: 1.1.1: 1.1.2: 1.1.3: 1.1.4: 1.1.5: 1.1.6: 1.1.7: 1.1.8: 1.2: 1.2.1: 1.2.2: 1.2.3: 1.2.4: 1.2.5: 1.2.6: 1.2.7: 1.2.8: 1.2.9: 1.2.10: 1.2.11: 1.2.12: 1.2.13: 1.2.14: 1.2.15: 1.3:
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION TO DRAWING EQUIPMENTS T-SQUARE SET SQUARE COMPASS DRAWING TABLE IRREGULAR CURVES (FRENCH CURVES) PROTRACTOR DRAWING PENCIL: ERASER: LINES LINES AND LINE STYLES LINE THICKNESS LINE STYLES BREAK LINES LEADERS DATUM LINES PHANTOM LINES STITCH LINES CENTER LINES EXTENSION LINES OUTLINES OR VISIBLE LINES CUTTING-PLANE/VIEWING-PLANE LINES HIDDEN LINES SECTIONING LINES DIMENSION LINES DIMENSIONING - AN OVERVIEW
1.3.1: 1.3.2: 1.3.3: 1.3.4: 1.3.5: 1.3.6: 1.3.7: 1.3.8: 1.3.9: 1.3.10: 1.3.11: 1.3.12: 1.4 : 1.5 :
PARALLEL DIMENSIONING SUPERIMPOSED RUNNING DIMENSIONS CHAIN DIMENSIONING COMBINED DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONING BY CO-ORDINATES SIMPLIFIED DIMENSIONING BY CO-ORDINATES DIMENSIONING SMALL FEATURES DIMENSIONING CIRCLES DIMENSIONING HOLES DIMENSIONING RADII SPHERICAL DIMENSIONS TOLERANCE LINE STYLES TASK SHEET 1
WEEK 2
2.1: 2.2: 2.3: 2.4. 2.5: 2.6 : 2.7: 2.8: PLANNING YOUR ENGINEERING DRAWING LAYOUT OF DRAWING PAPER COMMON INFORMATION RECORDED ON THE TITLE BLOCK TITLE BLOCK SAMPLE DRAWING SHEETS/PAPERS DRAWING SCALES LETTERING METHOD TASK SHEET 2
WEEK 3
WEEK 4
3.5: 3.5.1. 3.5.2. 3.5.3. 3.5.4. 3.5.5 3.5.6. 3.6: 3.7: 3.7.1: 3.7.2: 3.7.3: 3.8:
QUADRILATERALS SQUARE RECTANGLE PARALLELOGRAM RHOMBUS TRAPEZIUM TRAPEZOID CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS CIRCLES TYPES OF CIRCLES PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE CONSTRUCTION INVOLVING CIRCLES TASK SHEET 4
WEEK 5
3.7.3: 4.0: 4.1: 5.0: 5.1: 5.2: CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVING CIRCLES TANGENCY CONSTRUCTION OF TANGENT POLYGONS CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGONS TASK SHEET 5
WEEK 6
6.0 6.1
6.2
6.3
CONSTRUCTION METHOD
OF
ELLIPSE
USING
RECTANGULAR
6.4 6.5
CONSTRUCTION OF ELLIPSE USING TRAMMEL METHOD CONSTRUCTION OF NORMAL AND THE TANGENT TO AN ELLIPSE, AND TO FIND THE FOCI.
6.7
TASK SHEET 6
WEEK 7
WEEK 8
8.0 8.1 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION THREE VIEW OF AN OBJECT IN FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE PROJECTIONS 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE SIX VIEW OF AN OBJECT ONE POINT PERSPECTIVE TWO POINT PERSPECTIVE THREE POINT PERSPECTIVE TASK SHEET 8.1
WEEK 9
MULTI-VIEWS DRAWING USING 1ST & 3RD ANGLE OF PROJECTION 8.7.1 MULTI VIEWS PROJECTION
8.7
8.8
THE
DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN
1ST
&
3RD
ANGLE
OF
PROJECTION 8.8.1 8.8.2 8.9 FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION TASK SHEET 8.2
WEEK 10
9.0
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
INTRODUCTION TECHNICAL DRAWING SYMBOLS MECHANICAL CONVENTIONS ELECTRICAL CONVENTIONS LINES AND BLOCK DIAGRAMS BLOCK DIAGRAM METHOD LINE DIAGRAM METHOD PNEUMATIC SYSTEM HYDRAULIC SYSTEM PNEUMATIC SYMBOLS TASK 10
WEEK 11
MISSING VIEW IN ORTHOGRAPHIC FIRST ANGLE OF PROJECTION: THIRD ANGLE OF PROJECTION TASK SHEET 11
WEEK 12
11.0 11.1
11.2 11.3
WEEK 13
SKETCHING THE VIEWS FROM AN ACTUAL OBJECT OBLIQUE SKETCHING TASK SHEET 13
WEEK 14
INTERSECTION AND DEVELOPMENT CONSTRUCTION OF SOLID WITH INTERPENETRATION TWO DISSIMILAR SQUARE PRISMS MEETING AT RIGHT ANGLES.
13.3 13.4
TWO DISSIMILAR SQUARE PRISMS MEETING AT AN ANGLE. TWO DISSIMILAR HEXAGONAL PRISMS MEETING AT AN ANGLE.
TWO DISSIMILAR CYLINDERS MEETING AT RIGHT ANGLES. TWO DISSIMILAR CYLINDERS MEETING AT AN ANGLE. TASK SHEET 14
WEEK 15
14.0 14.1
Technical drawing is concerned mainly with using lines, circles, arcs etc., to illustrate general configuration of an object, however, it is very important that the drawing produced to be accurate and clear. The ability to read and understand drawings is a skill that is very crucial for technical education students; this text aims at helping students to gain this skill in a simple and realistic way, and gradually progressed through drawing and interpreting different level of engineering drawings. Some basic equipments are necessary in order to learn drawing, here are the main ones. 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DRAWING EQUIPMENTS
1.1.1:T-SQUARE
A T-square is a technical drawing instrument primarily guides for drawing horizontal lines on a drafting table, it also used to guide the triangle that is used to draw vertical lines. The name Tsquare comes from the general shape of the instrument where the horizontal member of the T slides on the side of the drafting table. (Fig.1.1)
(Fig.1.1)
(Fig.1.2)
1.1.3: COMPASS
Compasses are usually made of metal, and consist of two parts connected by a hinge which can be adjusted. Typically one part has a spike at its end, and the other part a pencil. Circles can be made by pressing one leg of the compasses into the paper with the spike, putting the pencil on the paper, and moving the pencil around while keeping the hinge on the same angle. The radius of the circle can be adjusted by changing the angle of the hinge. (Fig.1.3) (Fig.1.3)
(Fig.1.4)
(Fig.1.5)
1.1.6: PROTRACTOR
Protractor is a circular or semi-circular tool for measuring angles. The units of measurement used are degrees. Some protractors are simple half-discs. More advanced protractors usually have one or two swinging arms, which can be used to help measuring angles. (Fig.1.6)
(Fig.1.6)
(Fig.1.7a)
Fig 7.1b
1.1.8: ERASER
Erasers are article of stationery that is used for removing pencil writings. Erasers have made of rubbery material, and they are often white. Typical erasers are made of rubber, but more expensive or specialized erasers can also contain vinyl, plastic, or gum-like materials. (Fig.1.8) (Fig.1.8)
1.2: LINES 1.2.1: LINES AND LINE STYLES 1.2.2: LINE THICKNESS
For most engineering drawings you will require two thicknesses, a thick and thin line. The general recommendations are that thick lines are twice as thick as thin lines. A thick continuous line is used for visible edges and outlines. A thin line is used for hatching, leader lines, short centre lines, dimensions and projections.
1.2.5: LEADERS
Leaders shall be used to indicate a part or portion to which a number, note, or other reference applies and shall be an unbroken line terminating in an arrowhead, dot, or wavy line. Arrowheads should always terminate at a line; dots should be within the outline of an object.
1.2.12:CUTTING-PLANE/VIEWING-PLANE LINES
The cutting-plane lines shall be used to indicate a plane or planes in which a section is taken. The viewing-plane lines shall be used to indicate the plane or planes from which a surface or surfaces are viewed. On simple views, the cutting planes shall be indicated as shown below
Dimension lines shall terminate in arrowheads at each end. They shall be unbroken except where space is required for the dimension. The proper method of showing dimensions and tolerances is explained in Section 1.7 of ANSI Y14.5M-1982.
Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two projection lines indicate where the dimension starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are drawn perpendicular to the element you are dimensioning. In general units can be omitted from dimensions if a statement of the units is included on your drawing. The general convention is to dimension in mm's. All dimensions less than 1 should have a leading zero. i.e. .35 should be written as 0.35
the accuracy the product has to be made to. Tolerance will be covered later in this chapter).
When dimensioning small features, placing the dimension arrow between projection lines may create a drawing which is difficult to read. In order to clarify dimensions on small features any of the above methods can be used.
All dimensions of circles are proceeded by this symbol; . There are several conventions used for dimensioning circles: (a) Shows two common methods of dimensioning a circle. One method dimensions the circle between two lines projected from two diametrically opposite points. The second method dimensions the circle internally. (b) Is used when the circle is too small for the dimension to be easily read if it was placed inside the circle. A leader line is used to display the dimension. (c) The final method is to dimension the circle from outside the circle using an arrow which points directly towards the centre of the circle. The first method using projection lines is the least used method. But the choice is up to you as to which you use.
When dimensioning holes the method of manufacture is not specified unless they necessary for the function of the product. The word hole doesn't have to be added unless it is considered necessary. The depth of the hole is usually indicated if it isn't indicated on another view. The depth of the hole refers to the depth of the
1.3.12: TOLERANCE
It is not possible in practice to manufacture products to the exact figures displayed on an engineering drawing. The accuracy depends largely on the manufacturing process used and the care taken to manufacture a product. A tolerance value shows the manufacturing department the maximum permissible variation from the dimension. Each dimension on a drawing must include a tolerance value. This can appear either as:
A general tolerance value applicable to several dimensions. i.e. a note specifying that the General Tolerance +/- 0.5 mm. or a tolerance specific to that dimension
The method of expressing a tolerance on a dimension as recommended by the British standards is shown below:
Note the larger size limit is placed above the lower limit.
All tolerances should be expressed to the appropriate number to the decimal points for the degree of accuracy intended from manufacturing, even if the value is limit is a zero for example.
FIGURE 1.9 Line styles and types Line styles are used to graphically represent physical objects, and each has its own meaning, these include the following:
Visible lines - are continuous lines used to draw edges directly visible from
a particular angle. Hidden lines- are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are not directly visible. Centerlines - are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to represent the axis of circular features. Cutting plane - are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately longand double short-dashed that may be used to define sections for section views. Section lines - are thin lines in a parallel pattern used to indicate surfaces in section views resulting from "cutting." Section lines are commonly referred to as "cross-hatching."
FIGURE 1.10 Here is an example of an engineering drawing (Fig.1.10). The different line types are colored for clarity. Black = object line and hatching. Red = hidden lines Blue = center lines Magenta = phantom line or cutting plane Fig.1.10 Illustrating types of Lines used in an engineering Drawing.
Fig.1.11
Fig.1.12
Fig. 1.13
Fig. 1.14
Try to make maximum use of the available space. If a view has lots of detail, try and make that view as large as possible. If necessary, draw that view on a separate sheet. If you intend to add dimensions to the drawing, remember to leave enough space around the drawing for them to be added later. If you are working with inks on film, plan the order in which you are drawing the lines. For example you don't want to have to place your ruler on wet ink
TITLE BLOCK
2.3: COMMON INFORMATION RECORDED ON THE TITLE BLOCK 2.3.1. TITLE:The title of the drawing.
2.3.2. NAME:The name of the person who produced the drawing. This is important for quality control so that problems with the drawing can be traced back to their origin.
2.3.3. CHECKED
In many engineering firms, drawings are checked by a second person before they are sent to manufacture, so that any potential problems can be identified early.
2.3.4. VERSION
Many drawings will get amended over the period of the parts life. Giving each drawing a version number helps people identify if they are using the most recent version of the drawing.
2.3.5. DATE
The date the drawing was created or amended on.
2.3.6. SCALE
The scale of the drawing. Large parts won't fit on paper so the scale provides a quick guide to the final size of the product.
KADUNA POLYTECHNIC
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
DRAWING NO 5 1:150 KPT/COE/ 07/0056 100 ND I A
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
SCALE NAME DRAWN BY I. A. HARUNA CHECHED BY T. I. GARBA / A.A. GIRBO 02/05/08 03/05/08 LEVEL CLASS SIGN DATE MATRIC NO
A2
A1 A4 A3 A5 A6 A6
Scale= Dimension to carry on the drawing True Dimension of the object. Examples: 1. Dimension carried on the drawing = 4mm. True dimension= 40mm Scale = 4 40 = 1:10 2. Calculating drawing dimension of a line having a true dimension of 543 mm to a scale of 1/10. If a true dimension of 10mm is represented as 1mm, a true dimension of 543mm is represented as X Then 10 mm ---------------- 1 mm 543 mm---------------- X mm We have 1/10= x 543 or X= 54.3mm.
There are a number of necessary steps in learning lettering, and they include the following: Knowledge of proposition and form of letters and the orders of the stroke. Knowledge of the composition the spacing of letters and words. Persistent practices. Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on reduced size drawing prints although lower case letters are used where they from of a symbol or an abbreviation. Attention is drawn the standard to the letters and characters. Table (2.1) below give the recommendation for minimum size on particular drawing sheets:
The spaces between lines of lettering should be consistent and preferably not less than half of the character height. There are two fundamental methods of writing the graphic languages freehand and with instruments. The direction of pencil movements are shown in Fig. 2.1 and Fig.2.2.
2.8
TASK (2):
On a drawing sheet copy the following text in Fig (2.3) using the correct lettering methods:
Fig (2.3)
WEEK 33.1: GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS 3.1.1. Point: It is a non-dimensional geometrical element. It is occurred by Interception of
various lines. 3.1.2. Line: It is a 1D geometrical element occurred by moving of a point in various direction. The picture below illustrates lines, drawn in various directions, and other geometrical elements occurred by these lines. 3.1.3. Plane: A plane is occurred by at least three points or connection of one point and one line. A plane is always 2D. When the number of element forming a plane increases, shape and name of the plane will change.
3.1
Fig. 3.4
Fig. 3.3
Fig. 3.6
Fig 3.7
Fig 3.8
Fig 3.9
Fig 3.10
Fig 3.11
Fig 3.12
Fig 3.13
3.3: TRIANGLE
The triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides, the connection of three points at certain conditions form triangle. A
Triangle 3 Point
There different type of triangles such as: 1. Scalene triangle: is a triangle with three unequal sides 2. Isosceles triangle: is a triangle with two sides and hence two angles equal. 3. Equilateral triangle: is a triangle with all the sides and hence all the three angles equal. 4. Right-angled triangle: is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite the right-angle is called the hypotenuse.
Scalene triangle
Isosceles triangle
Equilateral triangle
Right-angled triangle
Fig. 3.14
Fig. 3.15
3.4
1. 2. 3. 4. 5 6 7. 8. 9. 10.
TASK (3)
Construct the following using a pairs of compasses:- 900, 600, 300, 450, 67.50, and 150 Line AB is 120mm long divide this line into Ratio 5:3:7. Construct a perpendicular line to line AB 60mm long from a point P 30mm above the line and 35mm from B. Construct an equilateral triangle with sides 60 mm long. Construct an isosceles triangle that has a perimeter of 135 mm and an altitude of 55 mm. Construct a triangle with base angles 60 and 45 and an altitude of 76 mm. Construct a triangle with a base of 55 mm, an altitude of 62 mm and a vertical angle of 371/2. Construct a triangle with a perimeter measuring 160 mm and sides in the ratio 3:5:6. Construct a triangle with a perimeter of 170 mm-and sides in the ratio 7:3:5. Construct a triangle given that the perimeter is 115 mm, the altitude is 40 mm and the vertical angle is 45.
quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides, the connection of four points at certain conditions form quadrilaterals. A D
Square 4 Point
Fig 4.1 B Below are some examples of quadrilaterals: 3.5.1. square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and all its angles are right angles. 3.5.2. rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and all its angles a right angle. 3.5.3. parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel. 3.5.4. rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal. 3.5.5trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel. 3.5.6. trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.
SQUARE
RECTANGLE b
PARALELLOGRA M
c Fig 4.2
.
RHOMBUS
TRAPEZIUM
TRAPEZOID f
Fig 4.3
Fig. 4.6
3.7: CIRCLES
A circle is a locus of a point which moves so that its always a fixed distance from another stationary point. The connection of infinite points at certain conditions form circle.
A
Concentric circles Eccentric circles
Types of circles
NOMAL
To draw a tangent to a circle from any point on the circumference. 1. Draw the radius of the circle. 2. at any point on the circumference of the circle, the tangent and then radius are perpendicular to each other. Thus the tangent is found by constructing an angle of 900 from the point where the radius crosses the circumference.
TASK 4
1. 2. 3. Construct a square of side 50 mm. Find the mid-point of each side by construction and join up the points with straight lines to produce a second square. Construct a square whose diagonal is 68 mm. 12. Construct a square whose diagonal is 85 mm. Construct a parallelogram given two sides 42 mm and 90 mm long, and the angle between them 67. 14. Construct a rectangle which has a diagonal 55 mm long and one side 35 mm long. Construct a rhombus if the diagonal is 75 mm long and one side is 44 mm long. Construct a trapezium given that the parallel sides are 50 mm and 80 mm long and are 45 mm apart.
4 5
2. 3. 4. 5.
Draw a semi circle of the given diameter AB, center O. From B mark off three times the diameter, BC. From O draw a line at 300 to OA to meet the semi circle in D. From D draw a line perpendicular to OA to meet OA in E. Join EC, EC is the required circumference.
FIG. 5.1
FIG. 5.2
FIG. 5.3
FIG. 5.4
5.0: POLYGONS
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides. There are two classes of polygons, regular and irregular polygons. A regular polygon is one that has all its sides equal and therefore all its exterior angles equal and its interior angles equal. An irregular polygon is the one that has unequal sides and also unequal angles (both interior and exterior). Polygons are frequently referred to have particular names. Some of these are listed below. A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides. A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides. A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides. An octagon is plane figure bounded by eight sides. A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides. A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides. Etc.
pentagon
hexagon
octagon
CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGONS:
Method 3:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the side Bisect GA. From A construct an angle of 450 to intersect the bisector at point 4. From G construct an angle of 600 to intersect the bisector at point 6. Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 5. Point 4 is the centre of a circle containing a square: point 5 is a the centre of a circle containing a pentagon. Point 6 is the centre of a circle containing a hexagon. By marking off points at similar distances the centers of circles containing any regular polygon can be obtained. Mark off point 7 so that 6 to 7 = 5 to 6 etc. With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 to A (=7 to G). Step off the sides of the figure from A to B, B to C, etc. ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.
Fig. 5.11
6. 7. 8.
Fig. 5.12
3.
4 5
6.1
PROPERTIES OF AN ELLIPSE:
An ellipse has two foci, major axis, minor axis and two directrices.
Fig. 6.1
6.2 A.
Fig. 6.2
B.
C.
2. keep B on the minor axis ,A on the major axis and slide the trammel. 3. mark at frequent intervals the position of P. Figure 6.4 shows the trammel in position for plotting the top half of the ellipse; to plot the bottom half , A stays on the major axis and B goes above the major axis, still on the minor axis.
Fig. 6.5
D.
1. 2.
To construct the normal and the tangent of an ellipse, and to find the foci.
Normal: Normal at any point P. Draw two lines from P, one to each focus and bisect the angle thus formed. This bisector is a normal to the ellipse. Tangent: Tangent at any point P. since the tangent and normal are perpendicular to each other by definition, construct the normal and erect a perpendicular to it from P. this perpendicular is the tangent. Foci: Foci with compasses set at a radius of half (1/2) major axis, center at the point where the minor axis crosses the top (or the bottom) of the ellipse, strike an arc to cut the major axis twice, these are the foci.
3.
TANGENT
TANGE NT
Fig. 6.6
FOCI
FO CI
TASK SHEET 6
1. Fig. T6.1 shows an elliptical fish-pond for a small garden. The ellipse is 1440 mm long and 720 mm wide. Using a scale of 1/12 draw a true elliptical shape of the pond. (Do not draw the surrounding stones.) All construction must be shown.
FIG. T6.1
Fig. T6.2 shows a section, based on an ellipse, for a handrail which requires cutting to form a bend so that the horizontal overall distance is increased from 112 mm to 125 mm. Construct the given figures and show the tangent construction at P and P1. Show the true shape of the cut when the horizontal distance is increased from 112 mm to 125 mm.
FIG T6.2
(Fig. 7.1) 7.1 HOW TO DRAW IN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION: To draw in isometric you will need a 30/60 degree set square (FIG. 7.2). Follow the steps below to draw a box in isometric. (Fig. 7.2)
2. The sides of the box are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal to the required length.
4. Drawn in top view with all lines drawn 30 degrees to the horizontal
Note: All lengths are drawn as actual lengths in standard isometric. Figures 7.3 to 7.6 illustrate four (4) isometric pictorial drawing of components, study the drawing and by using scale 1:1 re-draw them.
Note: All dimensions are in mm
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.4
Fig. 7.5
Fig. 7.6
Fig. T7.1
Fig.T7.2
Fig. T7.3
Fig. T7.4
Fig. (8.2)- Illustrating the difference between 1st. and 3rd. Angles projection
8.1
ANGLE OF PROJECTIONS
Figures (8.3 to 8.6) shows isometric pictorial drawing of a number of components, study the drawing and using 1st and 3rd angle of projection and a scale of 1:1 draw the following: A front view in direction "A". Side view in direction "B". Top view in direction "C". Note: All dimensions are in mm
Fig. (8.3)
Fig. (8.4)
Fig. (8.5)
Fig. (8.6)
8.2
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Any object can be viewed from six mutually perpendicular directions, as shown in Figure (8.7) below. Thus, six views may be drawn if necessary. These six views are always arranged as shown below, which the American National Standard arrangement of views. The top, front, and bottom views line up vertically, while the rear, left-side, front, and right-side views line up horizontally.
Fig. (8.7)
Fig. (8.8) If the front view is imagined to be the object itself, the right-side view is obtained by looking toward the right side of the front view, as shown by the arrow RS. Likewise, if the right-side view is imagined to be the object, the front view is obtained by looking toward the left side of the right-side view, as shown by the arrow F. The same relation exists between any two adjacent views. Obviously, the six views may be obtained either by shifting the object with respect to the observer, as we have seen, or by shifting the observer with respect to the object Fig. (8.8).
8.3
Using one point perspective (Fig.8.9), parallel lines converge to one point somewhere in the distance. This point is called the vanishing point (VP). This gives objects an impression of depth.
(Fig.8.9) The sides of an object diminish towards the vanishing point. All vertical and horizontal lines though are drawn with no perspective. I.e. face on. One point perspective though is of limited use, the main problem being that the perspective is too pronounced for small products making them looking bigger than they actually are. (Fig 8.10) (Fig 8.10)
Although it is possible to sketch products in one point perspective, the perspective is too aggressive on the eye making products look bigger than they actually are.(Fig 8.11).
(Fig 8.11)
8.4
Two Points Perspective is a much more useful drawing system than the simpler One Point Perspective. Objects drawn in two point perspective have a more natural look (Fig 8.12). In two point perspective the sides of the object vanish to one of two vanishing points on the horizon. Vertical lines in the object have no perspective applied to them. By altering the proximity of the vanishing points to the object, you can make the object look big or small (Fig. 8.13).
(Fig. 8.12 )
(Fig 8.13) Fig (8.13) Shows affect of different locations of Vanishing Points
8.5
Three points perspective is a development of two points perspective. Like two point it has two vanishing points somewhere on the horizon. But three points perspective also has a vanishing point somewhere above or below the horizon which the vertical vanish to. The nearer the vanishing point is to the object, the bigger the object looks. Look at these buildings (FIG.8.14), all the vanishing points are too close. This has caused an excessive amount of vertical perspective. Learning how to apply vertical perspective is the key to making your drawings realistic.
(Fig 8.14)
In general most designers create drawings with a vanishing point far below the horizon so that the depth added to the verticals is only slight. In many cases the vanishing point is not even on the paper (FIG. 8.15). Learning how to apply vertical perspective will make your drawings more and more realistic.
(FIG.8.15)
8.6
Figures (T13a to T13d) shown are isometric pictorial drawings for a number of components, study the drawing and using 1st and 3rd angle of projection with scale of 1:1 draw the following: A front view in direction "A". Side view in direction "B". Top view in direction "C". Note: All dimensions are in mm
Fig. (T8.1a)
Fig. (T8.1b)
Fig. (T8.3c)
Fig. (T8.4d)
WEEK (9): 8.7 MULTI-VIEWS DRAWING USING 1ST & 3RD ANGLE OF PROJECTION 8.7.1 Multi views projection:
Multi views projection is a mean of producing the true shape and dimension of all details of three-dimensional object or two-dimensional plane surface such as tile drawing paper. For this reason, this method of projection is universally used for the production of working drawing, which is intended for manufacturing purposes.
Fig. 9.1- Multi-views projection In multi-views projection, the observer looks directly at each face of the object and draws what can be seen directly (90 Degree rays). Consecutively, other sides are also seen and drawn in the same way (Fig. 9.1).
Hence, there are two system of multi-views projection that is acceptable as British standard (Fig. 9.2), these are known as: 1. First Angle (1st Angle) or European projection. 2. Third Angle (3rd Angle) or American projection.
8.8
In first-angle projection, each view of the object is projected in the direction (sense) of sight of the object, onto the interior walls of the box Fig.9.3.
Fig.9.3
A two-dimensional representation of the object is then created by "unfolding" the box, to view all of the interior walls Fig.9.4.
Fig.9.4
Fig.9.5
In third-angle projection, each view of the object is projected opposite to the direction (sense) of sight, onto the (transparent) exterior walls of the box Fig.9.6
Fig.9.6
A two-dimensional representation of the object is then created by unfolding the box, to view all of the exterior walls Fig.9.7.
Fig.9.7
Fig.9.8
8.9
1.
TASK (8.2)
Figures T8.2a and T8.2b show two (2) isometric pictorial drawing of components, study the drawing and by using scale 1:1 draw the following: Fig. (T8.2a) use 1st angle of projection draw,1- Front view 2 -Side view 3Top view.
Fig. T8.2a Fig (T8.2b) use 3st angle of projection draw,1- Front view 2-Side view view 3 - Top
Fig. T8.2b
2.
Fig T8.2c and T8.2d show two (2) isometric pictorial drawing of components, study the drawing and by using scale 1:1 and third angle of projection draw the following:- Front view- Side view - Top view
Fig T8.2c
Fig T8.2d
WEEK -10 9.0: ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS USED ON MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS. 9.1: INTRODUCTION
There is a number of common engineering terms and expression, which are frequently replaced by abbreviation or symbols on drawing, to save space and drafting time. This will include the electrical, electronic, pneumatic and hydraulic symbols (Table 10.1).
Table (10.1)
Table (10.2)
Table (10.3)
Fig. (10.1)
Fig. (10.2) The diagram indicates the standard symbols representing the functional components and connection disregarding their physical size or position Fig. (10.2).
9.9
TASK (10)
1) The drawing in Figure (10.6) illustrates assembled mechanical parts, study the drawing then list the items below accordingly.
Fig. (10.6) 2) The drawing in Figure (10.7) illustrates a pneumatic/Hydraulic diagram, study the drawing then list the items in a tabular form below accordingly.
Figure (10.7)
3) The drawing in Figure (10.8) illustrates an electrical circuit, study the drawing and then list the items below accordingly.
Fig. (11.1). Note that: The top view is the same width as front view. The top view is placed directly above or below the front view depending on the angle of projection (1st or 3rd). The same relation exists between front and side view, same height. The side view is placed directly right or left to the front view, (right side view or left side view).
10.1
The Fig. (11.2) is a pictorial drawing of given object, three-views of which are required using first angle of projection. Each corner of the object is given a number as shown. At I the top view and the front view are shown, with each corner properly numbered in both views. Each number appears twice, once in the top view and again front view.
Fig. (11.2) At I point 1 is visible in both views, therefore placed outside the corner in both views. however point 2 is visible in the top view and number is placed outside, while in the front view it is invisible and placed inside.
10.2
Fig. (11.3)
Fig. (11.4)
Fig (11.5)
Fig (11.6)
Fig. T11
(Fig. 12.1)
(Fig. 12.2)
Fig. T12.1 2) Use A4 sheet with a pencil and try to draw the component shown in Fig. T12.2 below.
Fig. T12.2
1. Look at the object carefully and choose the right position that shows the best three main views (Fig. 13.1).
(Fig. 13.1)
2. Estimate the proportions carefully, sketch lightly the rectangles of views and set them according to the projection method (1st or 3rd angle) chosen. 3. Hold the object, keeping the front view toward you (Fig. 13.2), and then start sketching the front view.
(Fig. 13.2)
4. To get the top view, revolve the object so as to bring the top toward you, then sketch the top view (Fig. 13.3)
(Fig. 13.3)
5. To get the right side view, revolve the object so as to bring the side view in position relative to the front view, and then sketch the side view (Fig. 13.4)
(Fig. 13.4) 6. make sure the relationships between all views are carried out correctly (Fig. 13.5)
(Fig. 13.5)
(Fig. 13.6) 2. Sketch the front face of the object in suitable proportional dimensions (Fig. 13.7)
(Fig. 13.7) 3. Sketch the receding lines parallel to each other or a convenient angle between (3045) with horizontal, these lines may in full length to sketch a caviller oblique or may be one half sizes to sketch cabinet oblique.
(Fig. 13.8) 4. Complete the required sketch as explained for isometric sketch previously.
(Fig. 13.9)
Fig. T13
WEEK 14
Construction: Interpenetration:
13.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLID WITH INTERPENETRATION
13.2
The end elevation shows where corners 1 and 3 meet the larger prism and these are projected across to the front elevation the plan shows where corners 2 and 4 meet the larger prism and this is projected up to the front elevation.
Fig 14.1
Fig 14.2
Fig 14.3
3.6
Two dissimilar cylinders meeting at an angle. Fig 14.5 The method is identical with above principle. The smaller cylinder is divided in to 12 equal sector on the front elevation and on plan, the plan shows where these sectors meet the larger cylinder and these intersections are projected down to the front elevation to meet there corresponding sector at 1,2,3,etc Fig 14.5
Fig 15.1
A typical interpenetration curve is given in fig. 15.2. The development of part of the cylindrical portion is shown viewed from the inside. The chordal distances on the inverted plan have been plotted on either side of the centre line of the hole, and the corresponding heights have been projected from the front elevation. The method of drawing pattern for the branch is identical to that shown for the two piece elbow in fig. 15.1 An example of radial-line development is given in fig. 15.3. The dimensions required to make the development are the circumference of the base and the slant height of the cone. The chordal distances from the plan view have been used to mark the length of arc required for the pattern; alternatively, for a higher degree of accuracy, the angle can be calculated and then subdivided. In the front elevation, lines 0 1 and 07 are true lengths, and distances OG and OA have been plotted directly onto the pattern. The lines 02 to 06 inclusive are not true lengths, and, where these lines cross the sloping face on the top of the conical frustum, horizontal lines have been projected to the side of the cone and been marked B, C, D, E, and F. True lengths OF, OE, OD, OC, and OB are then marked on the pattern. This procedure is repeated for the other half of the cone. The view
Fig 15.2
on the sloping face will be an ellipse, Part of a square pyramid is illustrated in Fig 15.3 fig. 15.4. The pattern is formed by drawing an arc of radius OA and stepping off around the curve the lengths of the base, joining the points obtained to the apex O. Distances OF The development of part of a hexagonal pyramid is shown in fig. 15.5. The method is very similar to that given in the previous example, but note that lines OB, OC, OD, OE, and OF are true lengths obtained by projection from the elevation. Fig. 15.6 shows an oblique cone which is developed by triangulation, where the surface is assumed to be formed from a series of triangular shapes. The base of the cone is divided into a convenient number of parts (12 in this case) numbered 0-6 and projected to the front elevation with lines drawn up to the apex A. Lines OA and 6A are true-length lines, but the other five shown all slope at an angle to the plane of the paper. The true lengths of lines IA, 2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A are all equal to the hypotenuse of right-angled triangles where the height is the projection of the cone height and the base is obtained from the part plan view by projecting distances 131, B2, B3, B4, and B5 as indicated. Assuming that the join will be made along the shortest edge, the pattern is formed as follows. Start by drawing line 6A, then from A draw an arc on either side of the line equal in length to the true length 5A. From point 6 on the pattern, draw an arc equal to the chordal distance between successive points on the plan view. This curve will intersect the first arc twice at the points marked 5. Repeat by taking the true length of line 4A and swinging another arc from point A to intersect with chordal arcs from points 5. This process is continued as shown on the solution. Fig. 15.7 shows the development of part of an oblique cone where the procedure described above is followed. The points of intersection of the top of the cone with lines 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A are transferred to the appropriate true-length constructions, and true-length distances from the apex A are marked on the pattern drawing. A plan and front elevation is given in fig. 15.8 of a transition piece which is formed from two halves of oblique cylinders and two connecting triangles. Fig 15.4 The plan view of the base is divided
into 12 equal divisions, the sides at the top into 6 parts each. Each division at the bottom of the front elevation is linked with a line to the similar division at the top. These lines, P l, Q2, etc., are all the same length. Commence the pattern construction by drawing line S4 parallel to the component. Project lines from points 3 and R, and let these lines intersect with arcs equal to the chordal distances C, from the plan view, taken from points 4 and S. Repeat the process and note the effect that curvature has on the distances between the lines projected from points P, Q, R, and S. After completing the pattern to line Pl, the triangle is added by swinging an are equal to the length B from point P, which intersects with the arc shown, radius A. This construction for part of the pattern is continued as indicated.
Fig. 15.5
RAD C
Fig T15.1
2.
Fig. T15.2 shows the plan and elevation of a tin-plate dish. Draw the given views and construct a development of the dish showing each side joined to a square base. The plan of the base should be part of the development.
Fig T15.2