ARCHIVAL ANALOGUE GEOPHYSICAL LOGS A NEW LIFE

by Marian Kielt

Geofizyka Torun Sp. z o.o.

In Poland, the analogue geophysical logging in boreholes has been performed during 35 years. In the archives there are a lot of geophysical analogue data from thousands of wells. The application of digital recording caused the necessity to make the data analysis again and this way to prepare appropriate technical, pre-interpretation and interpretation procedures [8, 11]. INTRODUCTION Basing on the analogue geophysical log analysis and well data from different parts of the world it was possible to create a catalogue of errors most often occurred. The catalogue helped to prepare the appropriate procedures that allowed speeding up the analysis of geophysical logs. The errors are of a different genesis and frequency of occurrence. The arrangement of the database and verification of information contained there is often a timeconsuming work and requires a lot of professional knowledge, many years experience, patience and appropriate software. Most often such a work is considered by geologists and geophysicists to be uninteresting. They forget the basic fact that they would work on such a database as they prepared or accepted before. To discuss the digital archival geophysical databases one should consider two cases [7, 8]: - Scanning and converting the analogue geophysical logs into a digital form. - Work on a disordered database obtained from an outsiders analogue-to-digital conversion performer. In the first case it is possible to prepare the digital database according to uniform rules given by the geophysical logs owner or interpreter. The second case is much more difficult, because the interpreter and earlier the unconscious owner of geophysical logs receives a disordered database. In this paper the conventional procedures applied in such situations are presented: - Investigation procedure in order to identify the content, - Quality control and evaluation of data usefulness, - Organisational procedure (assignation of geophysical logs to particular boreholes and intervals), - Re-animation procedure (identification of types and places of errors, their removal etc), - Reproduction procedure (search for a relation between particular geophysical parameters and its determination, construction of missing parameters), - Determination of lithotypes in a borehole plan, - Interval formational interpretation. Sets of archival analogue geophysical logs Taking into account a long period of time and modified sets of geophysical logs the archival logs should be understood as non-standardised logs recorded in an analogue form [1-6]. They can be divided into the following groups: - The first Schlumberger set containing SP and 3 x EL, applied till mid-forties, - Extended Schlumberger set containing SP and 5 x EL, continued and developed during many years in the SU and countries using Russian-type recorders (GR, NGR, PS, 3 6 x EL, AL, CAL), - Traditional set containing SP, GR, NG, 3 x EL and then AL.
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The amount and type of geophysical measurements do not play an important part for the scanning and analogue-to-digital transformation but they are essential for the interpretation work according to the rule that the lesser geophysical logs are to a disposal the lesser geological information can be obtained. Characteristics of archival analogue geophysical logs The archival geophysical logs performed during tens of years are characterised by [9]: - Common application of non-compensated tools, - Different and not complete logging sets, - Missing standardisation, - Not very clear relations between geophysical and petrophysical parameters and geological features, - Analogue recording (today often not understood by the users fig.1). For a long time the geophysical logs have been recorded and stored in an analogue form in different regions of the world. Beginning from the nineties they have been successively scanned and transformed into a digital form. However, their specific features cause a lot of errors in geophysical logs and because of that they are not suitable for interpretation in their original form.

Fig. 1 Example of archival diagrams containing original measurements (Poland). Analogue-to-digital transformation In 1991 the author of this paper initiated the work on formation of a complex digital database instead of hitherto existing analogue database (fig. 2). Orlik J. and Podolak J. elaborated appropriate programs. The catalogues prepared contained the following data [8]: - Data related to borehole geophysics, - Geophysical logs together with identification codes, - Basic analogue characteristics of geophysical logs.

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Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the pre-interpretation and interpretation procedures (Romaniuk W.). The following procedures were also prepared: Organisation of scanning and analogue-to-digital transformation of geophysical logs (log identification, verification of measuring units, reading of maximum indications for particular logs, determination of initial and final depth, division into measuring time intervals, determination of scale types, automatic coding of logs); Analogue-to-digital transformation of geophysical logs (controlled by an organisational procedure); Digital recording (with automatic division into measuring intervals in LAS format); Creation of archives and catalogues of digital data sets for particular boreholes.

Such a routine (removal of errors before the transformation and organisational work) makes it possible to obtain the databases ordered and prepared separately for each borehole. It enables management of the borehole data. The digitised geophysical logs may be presented identically (according to API rules) with logs recorded digitally (fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Examples of digitised geophysical logs.

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Creation of archival geophysical logs databases Generally, the digital databases containing the geophysical logs can be divided into disordered and ordered (arranged) ones. The disordered databases are not suitable for the direct interpretation work and require a change into databases friendly for the user. Disordered databases The disordered analogue databases are most often a reason for the formation of disordered digital databases. Accidental people most often perform the scanning and analogue-to-digital transformation and this way the disordered and most often not verified databases are created containing thousands of various data sets. Though they do not occupy physically a lot of space, they are unclear for a potential user for two reasons. Firstly, they are not related to a catalogue (not a mathematical record of data sets with accidental names) and secondarily, the original analogue materials necessary for comparisons and graphical verification of digital data sets are missing. They also contain original errors, connected with recording, interpretation variants, authors approach, etc. Besides, there are also scanning and digitising errors (in case of several logs crossing) [9, 10]. Ordered databases The other situation is when the scanning and digitising of analogue geophysical logs run according to the prepared procedure called ORGANIZACJA. It enables verification of profiles before scanning and transformation into a digital form. The disordered databases require verification, catalogues, removal of errors and improperly prepared data, description of problems, etc. It is performed in the 2nd stage of the verified database construction (= verification stage). It requires several reports containing the data related to [9, 10]: - Preliminary total and thematic contents, - Number and type of useless data sets, - Number and type of repaired data sets, - Number and type of missing data sets - Useful data sets, - Final recommendations. Re-animation (detective) work The digitised data sets are usually a digital copy of analogue geophysical logs. It means, that they contain all original errors and limitations. Pretty often the digitising errors are added. It concerns particularly the disordered databases discussed earlier. Thus, the following operations should be performed before using the geophysical logs [8]: - Quality and usability control (knowledge about the tool types, verification of scales, identification of acoustic cycle skips and recording of cavernous intervals, verification of zero records); - Transformation of the physical units scale into pseudo-petrophysical one (API, porosity, resistivity) by means of lithological benchmarks; - Pre-interpretation (removal of acoustic cycle skips, approximate elimination of the borehole diameter effects) (fig. 4 and 5);
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Computation (interval time computation from original times and comparison with the measured interval time, computation of pseudo-laterologs of two penetration ranges based on at least 3 electric logs of different length) (fig. 5); - Comparison of the scaled curves with skeleton values and verification of their consistency. The above operations make it possible to obtain a set of geophysical logs useful for interpretation or to reject non-informative measurements.

Fig. 4. Graphical visualisation of corrected geophysical logs (GR, NGR and AL) using the INZAL program (Furgal G.).

Fig. 5. Graphical visualisation of corrected geophysical logs (GR, NGR and EL) and pseudolaterologs computed by means of the INZAL program (Furgal G.).
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Geological standardisation of geophysical logs On the way from physical parameters to information and geological features there are the following stops: non-standardised geophysical logs standardisation standardised geophysical logs calibration of indications and geophysical images on models based on interpreters experience information and geological phenomena. During a long period of the borehole geophysics evolution the greater part of this way has been fully automatised, however, the last part calibration is only partly automatised. The theoretical and practical knowledge of the interpreter is still very important on this stage. The interpreter should have knowledge of borehole geophysics, petrophysics and geology [9, 11].
SET3.EL14_1

0.2
SET3.EL07_1 SET3.SP_1 95 0 MV SET3.GR_2 GAPI -5 17

200 200
SET3.EL03_1 SET3.NECN_2 SET6.LL3_2

DEPTH
METRES

0.2 0.2
SET3.EL02_1

200 0
SET4.DT_2

25 0.2 US/M 150 0.2

OHMM
SET6.LL3_1

2000 2000

0.2

OHMM

200 350

OHMM

4980

5000

5020

5040

5060

5080

5100

5120

5140

5160

Fig. 6. Example of re-standardisation of selected geophysical logs (Poland, Miocene). In case of the interpretation of non-standardised geophysical logs the interpreter must go this way unaided, using his knowledge and experience (fig. 6). It should be emphasised, that a presentation of geophysical logs in petrophysical units (API, bulk density, porosity, resistivity) is only a preparation of the parameters measured in standardised (comparable) units for the formational and geological interpretation [1 17]. Interpretation methods applied Types of interpretation work There are three basic groups of the interpretation work: General interpretation including a construction of selected profiles of combined geophysical logs, scaled in pseudo-petrophysical units (natural gamma-ray intensity, neutron porosity, interval time, resistivity) and computation of acoustic interval times for seismic purposes, unless such measurements have been performed or thy are of poor quality; - Geological interpretation enabling the basic lithofacies and lithophysical units of different types to be determined and computation of synthetic interval times and bulk pseudodensity, based on a known lithology.

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Formational interpretation, which makes it possible to evaluate the properties and saturation of collector horizons with fluids. The following interpretation methods are very useful [11]: Macroscopic analysis of geophysical logs; Analysis of petrophysical parameters variability with depth; Sequential analysis of petrophysical parameters; Analysis of cross-plots; Analysis of clay and pure sands line; Analysis of the bed boundary variability gradient; Analysis of log shapes; Analysis of functional relations between petrophysical parameters; Analysis of petrophysical parameters magnitude. Modelling

During the re-animation and interpretation work the modelling of lithology, fluid types as well as continuous correcting and comparing of modelled lithofacial profiles with geophysical logs are very useful. Another possibility is a comparison of the obtained results with testing and other geological data. Unfortunately, such data are accessible only in some intervals. The modelling play an important part, especially when the interpreter has a limited set of geophysical logs at his disposal. In such a situation one should assume different types of lithology and saturation with fluids (hydrocarbons, water) [11]. Software When the geophysical logs are prepared according to the rules mentioned above, the interpretation does not create a problem. However, one should remember of a limited amount of geological information contained in logs and of their vertical resolution. When we have a limited set of logs we cannot expect that the results will be the same as in case of modern sets of geophysical logs, in accordance with the rule, that the number of unknown quantities must not exceed the number of known ones. The INZAL program (Zalayev N.) was applied to the re-animation and some part of interpretation work. During the pre-interpretation and interpretation in a borehole scale the GEOLOG program was used. Selected results of geological and reservoir interpretation The interpretation of geophysical logs includes a wide range of geological and reservoir problems. It depends on quantity and quality of accessible geophysical logs, interpretation methods and computation procedures as well as on the interpreters knowledge and experience. The interpretation enables localisation and determination of - horizons with a resistivity anisotropy, - basic lithofacies, including horizons saturated with hydrocarbons (fig. 8), - basic lithofacies, porosity class and identification of fluids, - coal horizons (fig. 9), - fault surface and zone (fig. 10), - basic lithofacies (fig. 11). The interpretation makes it possible to construct the borehole profiles based on selected geophysical logs (fig. 12 and 13).
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The formational interpretation is also possible in different litho-stratigraphic units (fig. 1467) as well as presentation of results of a complex interpretation of borehole geophysical logs in the time and depth scales (fig. 17).
WIRE4.EN16_1

DEPTH
20000 1800 WIRE4.NEGR_1 IMP/MIN WIRE4.NGR_1 IMP/MIN METRES 26000 2500

0.15 WIRE4.EL18_2 0.2 0.15 WIRE4.EN64_1 OHMM

15 20 2500 20 0.2 WIRE4.NGR_1 IMP/MIN WIRE4.EL18_2 OHMM

20000 1800 10 20 0

WIRE4.NEGR_1 IMP/MIN WIRE4.ELSP_1

26000 28

WIRE4.EN16_1 OHMM

2450

2475

2500

2525

Fig. 7 Horizons with anisotrophy.

PICKS_1.TABLE_1

SET3.NECN_2

SET3.EL14_1

DEPTH
METRES SET3.EL14_1

SET3.GR_2 0 GAPI 17

SET3.SP_1
-25 MV 130

SET4.DT_2

SET3.NECN_2

SET6.LL3_2

OHMM

200

350

US/M

150

C/MN

25

OHMM 2000

4980

5000

SET6.LL3_2

SET3.GR_2

SET3.SP_1

SET4.DT_2

5020

ilowce

5040

5060

5080

piaskowce zailone
5100

GAS
5120

5140

ilowce
5160

Fig. 8 Basic lithofacies.

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LITHOLOGY MODEL

LITHOLOGY

WIRE_2.CAL2_1
8
RHOB

WIRE_2.CAL2_1
8 8 IN 18

IN 18 IN 18 3 150 1 10

WIRE_2.CAL2_1
8

WIRE_2.CAL2_1

DEPTH

DEPTH
WIRE_12.RHOB_1

IN 18 3 65

METER

METRES 4 10 1.1

WIRE_12.PE_1

WIRE_12.DT_1

WIRE_13.RHOB_1
75 2.9
1.05 G/C3 2.75

WIRE_13.RHOB_1
G/C3

WIRE_13.GR_1
0 215 GAPI 80 0

1 15

G/C3
WIRE_12.GR_1

B/E G/C3

0 165 2.8 1.1

US/F G/C3

1 0

G/C3

WIRE_12.RHOB_1

WIRE_12.RHOB_1

GAPI

150

WIRE_13.GR_1
GAPI

WIRE_13.GR_1
GAPI

WIRE_13.DT_2
G/C3

1650

1450
1700

DESCRIPTION:

- SHALE

- SHALE 1

- SAND

- PROBABLY 70% LIGNITE, 30% SHALE etc.

1750

- CLAY

- CLAYEY SAND

- LIGNITE

- ANHYDRITE

Fig. 9 Coal horizon localisation (India). Fig. 11 shows a unique example. The analogue geophysical measurements (GR, NGR, 6 x EL) and digital ones (dipmeter logs, SGR) have been performed in a borehole. Such a combination of non-standardised and standardised geophysical measurements made it possible to verify and combine the information obtained from two sources. The Rotliegende conglomerates of different geophysical characteristics (also in other boreholes) could be attributed to the inter-dune deposit environment and the sandy deposits represent the dune environment. The combination of the analogue and digital measurements caused an increase in geological informativity of the first ones.

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DEPTH
METRES

8000 WIRE5.NTCN_1 14000 40000 20 0.3 WIRE.GR_2 GAPI WIRE5.EL28_2 OHMM 80

WIRE.THOR_2

WIRE5.NTCN_1 40000 WIRE5.EN20_1 200 WIRE5.EL14_1 300 WIRE5.EL28_2 OHMM 500

3380

3400

3420
MODELOWY WYKRES KRAWEDZI

Fig. 10. Localisation of a tectonic zone and unconformity in the Rotliegendes deposits (Poland).

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METRES

0.07 0.06

COMMENTARY WYKRES WEKTOROWY

SHIVA 6: 0.5 M X 0.25 M X 45

0 %

PPM

WIRE.POTA_1

WIRE.URAN_1

500 2

0 0.5 PPM 2.5 0.03

UNCONFORMITY

3387 3389

dune sand
16

3405

inter-dune sand
19

3424

PLASZCZYZN TNACYCH

3525

3550

3575

3600

3625

DEPTH

WIRE6.GGDN_1

10000
WIRE.GR_2

0 GAPI 200 2 120 WIRE.DT_1 US/F 5 WIRE6.EL28_1 17 0 30 0 WIRE6.LL3_1 OHMM 10 WIRE6.EL14_1 25 WIRE6.EL28_1 OHMM 20

WIRE.URAN_1

0 PPM

WIRE.THOR_1

0 PPM 10
WIRE.POTA_1

WYKRES WEKTOROWY
SHIVA 6: 0.5 M X 0.25 M X 45

WYKRES WEKTOROWY
SHIVA 6: 1 M X 0.5 M X 45

5 20

WIRE.GR_2 GAPI 200 0

PLOT NO 1
PLOT NO 2

WELL LOG ANALYSIS

CHROBREGO 50 ST. 87-100 TORUN, POLAND

WELL LOG ANALYSIS

CHROBREGO 50 ST. 87-100 TORUN, POLAND

COMPANY: WELL: COUNTY: STATE / PROVINCE: GROUND ELEVATION: PERMANENT DATUM: KB: ANALYSIS DATE: ANALYSIS PLACE: WITNESSED BY:

UAB MINIJOS NAFTA,LITHUANIA ABENRA-1

SCALE: 1:500 INTERVAL PLOTTED: 1820.00-2353.10 METRES LATITUDE: N 55 DEGREE 1.53 MINUTES LONGITUDE: W 3 DEGREE 13.38 MINUTES SCHLUMBERGER

C O M P A N Y : W E L L :

UAB MINIJOS NAFTA,LITHUANIA HONNING-1

SCALE: 1:500 INTERVAL PLOTTED: 1920.00-2500.00 METRES L A T I T U D E : N5 5D E G R E E1 0 . 8 6 3M I N U T E S L O N G I T U D E :W3D E G R E E4 0 . 1 7 5M I N U T E S L O G SM E A S U R E DB Y :S C H L U M B E R G E R L O G SM E A S U R E DF R O M :P R O B A B L YR O T A R YT A B L E D R I L L I N GM E A S U R E DF R O M : F I R S TR E C O R D E DD E P T H : L A S TR E C O R D E DD E P T H :2 4 8 9 . 5M M E A S U R E M E N TD A T E :O C T O B E R1 9 ,1 9 5 8

C O U N T Y : HONNING VILLAGE S T A T E/P R O V I N C E : DENMARK E L E V A T I O N : 3 2 . 3 8M P E R M A N E N TD A T U M :P R O B A B L YR O T A R YT A B L E K B : 3 . 8 8M A N A L Y S I SD A T E : J A N U A R Y2 0 0 3 A N A L Y S I SP L A C E :W E L LL O GA N A L Y S I SD E P A R T M E N T W I T N E S S E DB Y : M A R I A NK I E L T

DENMARK
173 FT PROBABLY GROUND ELEVATION JANUARY 2003 WELL LOG ANALYSIS DEPARTMENT MARIAN KIELT LOGS MEASURED BY: LOGS MEASURED FROM: DRILLING MEASURED FROM: FIRST RECORDED DEPTH: LAST RECORDED DEPTH: MEASUREMENT DATE: 7700 FT JULY 04, 1953

LTHOLOGICAL COLUMN

PROBABLY GROUND LEVEL

LITHOLOGY DESCRIPTION

LITHOSTRATYGRAPHY

GR PSEUDO-IMAGING

LOGS.L16FT
0.05 OHMM 500

DEPTH
M E T R E S

LOGS.SP
0 MV 150

DEPTH0.05
METRES 0.05

LOGS.L38IN
OHMM 500

LOGS.GR
0 U R / H 1 0 0

LOGS.NEUT
IMP/MIN 6 0 0 0.25

LOGS.LL
O H M M 2 5 0 0

LOGS.GR
0 API 500

LOGS.L10IN
OHMM 500

1924

1940

1852

A8?

1855

clayey anhydrite

1960

BUNTER
71

claystone

1980
A5
40

salt

1995

anhydrite

2000
1895

salt salty shalestone

1900
A4
18

anhydrite
2020

A3

1913 1915

salty anhydrite
Z4
68

salt

2040

anhydrite
B5
63

salt

2060
2064

2080

1978

B4
4 1982

anhydrite
2100

salt

B3
28

dolomite
Z3
107

2000

2120

2010

B1 C8
7

2012

dolomitic shale anhydrite

2019

2140

anhydritic dolomite

2160

limy shalestone
C5
61

salt

2170

anhydrite
2180

2200
2080

salt

C4
12

dolomitic anhydrite
2092

2220
C3
9

dolomite
2101

2100

shalestone
C2
22

ooitic limestone

2240

limy shalestone

2123

dolomite (breccia)

shalestone

2260

limy shalestone

clayey anhydrite
D4
57

dolomitic anhydrite

2280

shalestone limy shalestone Z2

236

anhydrite

2300

shalestone clayey dolomite anhydrite shalestone

2181

dolomite anhydritic dolomite anhydrite

2320

limy shalestone

shalestone

dolomitic anhydrite 2200

D3
41

limy shalestone

anhydrite
2340

clayey dolomite limy shalestone

limy dolomite

dolomite anhydrite

2222

2360
E9
16

dolomite anhydrite

limy anhydrite

2238

2380

dolomite

2400
E4
54

anhydrite
2406

2420

anhydrite
2293

dolomite 2300
E3
15

2440

Z1
68

limestone
2307

dolomite limestone dolomitic limestone

E2
26

2460

dolomite

limy dolomite
shaly breccia
2474

E1

2333 2335

shale breccia

2480

PRE-ZECHSTEIN
13

argillite

PRE-ZECHSTEIN
23

argillite

2349

2497
0 200

GAMMA RAY AND SP LOGS

DEPTH
METRES

RESISTIVITY LOGS

GAMMA RAY LOG

DEPTH
METRES

NEUTRON LOG

LATEROLOG

Fig. 11 Determination of basic lithofacies in the Zechstein formation (Denmark).

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LITHOLOGY DESCRIPTION

LITHOLOGICAL COLUMN

LITHOSTRATYGRAPHY

GR PSEUDO-IMAGING

Fig. 12. Construction of selected geophysical logs profiles (Poland, Miocene). The diameter effects were not taken into account.

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The verification and correction of the acoustic interval time is practically very important (removal of cycle skips and borehole diameter effects). Such corrected measurements help to identify seismic velocities.
WIRE3.CALI_1
700 MM 0

WIRE2.GR_1
0 GAPI 5500

WIRE1.CALI_1
700 MM 0

WIRE3.CALI_1
0 MM 700

WIRE1.CALI_1
0 MM 700

WIRE1.GR_2
0 GAPI 5000 20000

WIRE3.NENE_1
MSEC 500000 500

WIRE1.DTC2_1
US/M 0

WIRE3.GR_2
0 GAPI 3500

DEPTH
METRES 1000

WIRE1.NEGR_1
100000 1

WIRE1.EL14_3
100

WIRE1.GR_2
0 GAPI 5000 500

WIRE1.DTC1_2
US/M 0 2.5

WIRE1.EL28_2
OHMM 250

25

50

75

100 Czwartorzed + Trzeciorzed Kajper dln Wapien muszlowy

502

125

Fig. 13. Verification and change of selected geophysical measurements scale (Poland, the Zechstein, Bunter Sandstone and Muschelkalk formations).
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248 38 210 148 236 322 57 29 55 86 212

150

175

200

225

254 292

250

275

300

325

350

375

400

425

450

475

500

525

550

Ret
650

575

600

625

650

675

700

725

Pstry piaskowiec srodkowy Pstry piaskowiec dolny Leine Stassfurt Anhydryt gorny Sol najstarsza Wapien podstawowy

750

775

800

825

850

875

885 1208 1264 1293 1348 1434

900

925

950

975

1000

1025

1050

1075

1100

1125

1150

1175

1200

1225

1250

1275

1300

1325

1350

1375

1400

1425

1450

1475

1500

1525

1550

1575

1600

1625

The INZAL procedure (Zalayev N.) is very essential. It is applied to a formational interpretation of geophysical logs recorded in an analogue form. The procedure has several options that support the interpretation process (fig. 14 16).
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG GAMMA RAY LOG CALIPER LOG RESISTIVITY FLUIDS FORMATION VOLUMETRICS

INZAL.KPEF
100 % 0

INZAL.KPT
0 % 50 100

INZAL.KPH
% 0

LOGS.SP
150 MV 50 0

INZAL.KPW
% 50 100

INZAL.KPH1
% 0

LOGS.GR
0 UR/H 30

DEPTH
METRES 0.1

INZAL.R0
OHMM 10000 0

INZAL.KPW1
% 50 0

INZAL.SAND
% 100

LOGS.CALI
-4 IN 16 0.1

INZAL.RT
OHMM 10000 0

INZAL.KPBW
% 50 0

INZAL.KCL
% 100

4740

4760

4780

4800

Fig. 14 Formational interpretation (Poland, Miocene) (Furgal G.).

Fig. 15 Results of the formational interpretation (Poland, the Miocene and Carboniferous formations) (Furgal G.).
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Fig. 16 Results of the formational interpretation (Poland, the Zechstein and Miocene formations) (Furgal G.). The next, very important and useful type is the interpretation of well logs performed in the whole well and presented in depth and time scales. The results are lithological benchmarks, which also enable identification of seismic reflecting horizons.

Fig. 17 Results of a complex interpretation in a depth scale (Majak S., Pabian M., Smiechowska E.).
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Conclusions The experience acquired during the analogue and digital interpretation of well logs, knowledge of the digital recording properties together with appropriate programs and methods of interpretation make it possible to recover a lot of valuable geological information, which is coded in the analogue measurements. Thus, the opinions of some geologists about a direct loss of numerous geological data contained in the analogue geophysical logs are wrong. The conception of archives as well as accessible methodical and technical tools allows the data to be stored in databases recorded on compact and magneto-optical discs (fig. 18). This way, the analogue data archives change into ones recorded on different media.

Fig. 18. Digital database. References

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