9.2 Production of materials 9.2.

1 Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials, such as ethylene, for the production of other substances Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer An industrial source of ethylene comes from petroleum. The larger molecules in the mixture are cracked forming smaller molecules such as ethylene. This can be done by heating the heavier fractions at high temperatures. The double bond in ethylene has high reactivity allowing it to react quickly and easily with other molecules thus making it a useful starting point for producing many compounds. Ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made by breaking the double bond. Polyethylene is an addition polymer. An addition polymer is made by adding monomers together to form a chain. Low density polyethylene production requires temperatures of 80 300C and high pressures up to 3000 atmospheres. Oxygen or organic peroxide initiates the reaction producing free radicals so the chain grows. Long and short branches of chains are produced. It is soft, tough, flexible and translucent which can be easily melted. High density polyethylene production is carried out at temperatures above 300C and normal room pressure in the presence of metal oxide catalysts. So the chain is unbranched making it dense. It is chemically resistant and crystalline rigid. Vinyl chlorides systematic name is chloroethene. Styrenes systematic name is ethenylbenzene.

Identify the following as commercially significant monomers: - Vinyl chloride - Styrene by both their systematic names Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of properties

Chloroethene properties are: thermoplastic, flexibility and resist degradation by UV rays. It is used for cable coverings, hose pipe, roofing and credit cards. Ethenylbenzene properties are: hard and transparent. It is used for food containers, CD cases, plastic cups and thermal insulation. LDPE is used for plastic wrap, plastic bags and bottles. HDPE is used for petrol tanks, rubbish bins and crates.

Gather and present information from firsthand or secondary sources to write equations to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the HSC course Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process

Br2(aq) +C6H10 (l) C6H10Br2 (aq)

9.2.2 Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry Explain what is meant by condensation polymer Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed Petrochemicals are extracted from the ground are used for its compounds however they take millions of years to form so they are a limited source. So the need for alternative sources of these compounds has increased.

A condensation polymer is a polymer that releases another product (water) whilst being formed by monomers.

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass

No bonds open but the oxygen and hydrogen atoms are displaced to form the polymer forming water at the same time. Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long chain of linked glucose sugar molecules. It is a condensation polymer which is a common component of plant cell walls.

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbonchain structures needed to build petrolchemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material

Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use of the polymer produced related to its properties

The BASIC carbon-chain structures that are used to make petrochemicals are short-chained alkenes such as ethylene (2C), propene (3C) and butene (4C) while Glucose, the basic structure in cellulose, is a 6C molecule. Hence it has to potential to be transformed into the above compounds. Although theoretically, cellulose can provide limitless amounts of renewable raw materials, this is currently too expensive and impractical. This is because in order to derive ethylene, etc., from cellulose, firstly, cellulose must be broken into glucose (using either bacterial digestion or acidic decomposition), then fermented (with yeast) into ethanol and then dehydrated (using H2SO4) into ethene; this is a lengthy and expensive process. Hence, cellulose has great potential, but is currently not economical. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a polyester type of polymer. It is produced by micro-organisms (bacillus megaterium) to conditions of physiological stress. This is a form of energy storage molecule. It is much like polypropylene, stiff and brittle but demonstrates a high degree of crystallinity, a high melting point and biodegradability. However production costs are high and it cannot handle high impact. Research is going into having GM plants to produce PHB.

9.2.3 Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as it dehydrates ethanol and acts as a catalyst. It breaks the C-OH and C-H bonds allowing formation of double bonds and water.

Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as solvent for polar and non-polar substances Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable source Describe the conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value of ethanol from first hand data Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss its advantages and disadvantages of its use

Concentrated phosphoric acid opens the double bond allowing water to attach to form ethanol.

Ethanol is a solvent for polar substances due to its polar nature, forming hydrogen bonds. It is also a solvent for non-polar substances as the hydrocarbon end of ethanol allows it to be soluble in other hydrocarbons. Ethanol burns in the presence of oxygen and at high enough temperatures. It is a renewable source as it can be produced from plant material. Sugars are fermented when there is a suitable micro-organism (yeast, amylase), water, suitable temperatures, low oxygen concentrations and small amount of yeast nutrients. Yeast will die when the ethanol is at 15%. Amylase breaks down the carbohydrate molecules in starch producing glucose. The yeast then breaks the glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide. A molar heat of combustion of a compound is the heat generated during the complete combustion of one mole of the substance. The molar heat of ethanol is 1367kJ. Ethanol is a renewable source produced from waste cellulose and energy dense. It is carbon neutral and has more complete combustion. It s biodegradable and easily diluted. However disadvantages are large tracts of land, disposal of waste fermentation liquors, high current cost of distillation and removal of water from ethanol is needed. It has 20% less range than petrol and spills are difficult to contain. Methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, pentanol, hexanol, heptanol and octanol.

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straightchained alkanols from C1 to C8 Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies or computer simulations to model: - The addition of water to ethylene - The dehydration of ethanol Process information from

Sugar cane is harvested and grinded into a pulp. It is heated and dilute sulfuric

secondary sources to summarise the process involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage

acid is added, hydrolysing the cellulose and sucrose into glucose. It is filtered to extract the glucose while the residue is hydrolysed again with stronger acids. Calcium hydroxide is added to produce precipitate from neutralising the sulfuric acid. It is filtered and yeast is added to produce ethanol. After 15% concentration is reached, it is distilled. Ethanol/Petrol Mixtures: Significant quantities of 10% ethanol are sold in some parts of Australia; however, there has not been much success as the public holds suspicions about the effect of ethanol on their engines. Pure Ethanol Fuels: Pure ethanol is ethanol with maximum 1% water. It is a very clean fuel. Engines must be modified to deal with such high levels of ethanol. It is currently being used in Brazil and Argentina as a complete alternative to gasoline. A quarter of all Brazilian cars run on pure ethanol. It has proven to be a very efficient fuel.

Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol

Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a firsthand investigation to determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three different liquid alkanols per gram and per mole

9.2.4 Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons A displacement reaction is a reaction in which a more reactive metal changes a less reactive metals ions into solid atoms by gaining electrons from the reactive metal. A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal in the solution. The bigger the difference in activity then the more vigorous the reaction.

Oxidation state is similar to valency as it is the amount electrons it can lose but uses roman numerals. Oxidation is loss of electrons.

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions

A Galvanic cell consists of two half-cells, each with an electrode in an electrolyte solution. In one half-cell oxidation takes place while reduction in the other. The electrons move through the wire connecting the electrodes and ions move along the salt bridge.

Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow

Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the difference in potential of a different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following: - Button cell - Fuel cell - Vanadium redox cell - Lithium cell - Liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg the Gratzel cell) In terms of: - Chemistry - Cost and practicality - Impact on society - Environmental impact

Anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs, cathode is the electrode is where reduction occurs, electrode is a device which carries electric current in and out of the cell and electrolyte is a chemical that conducts electricity by movement of its ions.

Mercury button cell compared to dry cell Mercury button cell Dry cell Zinc anode Zinc anode C and HgO cathode C and MnO2 Paste type electrolyte Paste type electrolyte KOH electrolyte NH4Cl electrolyte Anode reaction: Zn +2OH- Anode reaction: Zn Zn2+ + 2eZnO + H2O + 2eCathode reaction: HgO +H2O Cathode reaction: 2NH4++2MnO2 + + 2e- Hg + 2OH2e- Mn2O3 + 2NH3 + H2O Dry cell is the first fully portable battery. It is robust and easy to store making other products more portable. Due to the mercury buttons small size, it has miniaturised calculations, cameras and watches. Voltage drops during use of a dry cell so it is only useful for infrequent use. Mercury cells provide a long constant voltage so no need to change often. Dry cells do not cause environmental damage but mercury cells need to be recycled so that mercury does not contaminate the environment.

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half-equations

9.2.5 Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable Describe how transuranic elements are produced A radioactive isotope is one that spontaneously emits radiation. It is unstable if Z (atomic number)> 83 or Z > 20 (1:1), Z = 30 (1:1.3) Z = 80 (1:1.5) Transuranic elements are those that have a large atomic number than uranium (Z > 92). They are created by neutron bombardment in nuclear reactors but for Z> 95, they are produced in particle accelerators by accelerating a charged nucleus into a transuranic nucleus. Commercial radio isotopes are produced in a nuclear reactor or in a cyclotron. Through neutron bombardment or particle acceleration. Photographic film, cloud chambers, scintillation counter and Geiger-Muller tube can detect radiation. Industry carbon-14 Medicine Technetium -99m Carbon-14 is used to determine the age by radiocarbon dating. The amount of carbon-14 is used to determine the age as it has a half life of 5730 years. Technetium-99m is used to detect blood clots as it has a half life of 6 hours and has weak radiation.

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation Identify one use of a named radioisotope: - In industry - In medicine Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of properties Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes in identified industries and medicine