Intro

The Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) is an All-India examination conducted by the Indian Institute of Technology and Indian Institute of Science, angalore, on behalf of the !ational "oordinating oard # GATE, $epartment of Education, %inistry of &uman 'esources $e(elopment ( %&'$ ), Go(ernment of India) The ob*ecti(e of GATE is to identify meritorious and moti(ated candidates for admission to +ostgraduate +rograms in engineering at the !ational ,e(el) To ser(e as benchmar- for normali.ation of the /ndergraduate Engineering Education in the country) Tips and Tric-s for GATE Aspirants
1. Aim for ta-ing GATE exam (aries from candidate to candidate) Students from pri(ate

engineering colleges try to get into %)Tech in order to ha(e stamp of the better -no0n institutions and for them reasonable percentile ser(es the purpose) 1n the other hand, students studying in 0ell established institutes may aim to get into IIT or other e2ui(alent institutions) 3or them (ery high percentile is essential)
2. !ormally 4 to 5 months of serious study 0ill be sufficient for the preparation) 3. Those students 0ho are in final year ha(e to schedule their studies as semester exam in

0inter and other engagements may absorb lot of time)

4. 3irst of all ma-e a proper strategy before starting preparation of the examination) 5. 6ou ha(e to choose the sub*ect and study as per the syllabus mentioned in the GATE

brochure)
6. "ollect the Syllabus for the GATE exam) 7. "ollect all the rele(ant boo-s for the sub*ect) This collection must include the boo-s for

3undamental and basic concepts as 0ell as for specific problems, guide boo- for GATE and pre(ious year 2uestion papers)
8. Al0ays try to go through the standard boo-s 0hich are easily a(ailable and in 0hich you

can easily understand the concepts) This 0ill impro(e your learning ability)
9. %ean time you should be in touch 0ith some GATE experienced persons for proper

guidance)
10. 'ead syllabus and 2uestion papers carefully so that it 0ill easy for you to ma-e a proper

approach)

11. Start preparing from the initial topics i)e) the basic ones and note do0n the basic concepts

(definitions, unit, dimension etc)) as 0ell as necessary theories, formulae etc)

12. Try to sol(e as many problems as possible from different boo- as 0ell as try to find more

and more tric-s)

13. Try to apply your o0n logics and tric-s in sol(ing problems and note it do0n because it

0ill sa(e your time in the examination hall)

14. "onduct self tests based on (arious chapters) "ontinue the self tests and try to achie(e a

(ery good score)

15. +ractice more and more problems and follo0 the same procedure for the rest of the

chapters and sub*ects)

16. 3inally, go for self tests based on 0hole syllabus and if necessary ta-e help of others in

conducting self-tests)
17. To do all these things one has to spend lots of time on studies and should be (ery sincere

throughout the preparation)

18. 1ne month before the examination you should start re(ising the course as many times as

possible so that on the day before the exam you 0ill be prepared enough to crac- the exam)
19. In the re(ision stage concentrate more on the selected topics) 20. Al0ays reach the examination centre 47 min before the start of the exam) It helps you to

stay cool and calm during exam)

21. 8eep all your necessary stationeries and admit card 0ith you before going to the

examination centre)
22. $uring exam try to attempt section A 0hich is compulsory and that to 9: carrying one

mar- each and those in 9; carrying t0o mar-s each)

23. It<s (ery important to manage the time 0ell during the exam) So manage the time 0ell

during the exam)

24. In the examination hall one should not get panic-ly upon recei(ing the 2uestion paper

rather candidates should stay cool before the test so that they do not get confused 0hile attempting the paper)
25. Time management is important but not at the cost of ans0ering the paper accurately)

26. Al0ays try to attempt only those 2uestions in 0hich you are pretty confident and you

-no0 the ans0er (ery 0ell)

27. 'ead the 2uestions carefully and apply proper logic before mar-ing the ans0er) 28. Al0ays a(oid the negati(e mar-ing) 29. $o not attempt unnecessary 2uestions in 0hich you are not confident because that may

cost you much)

30. $o not try to get hold of the entire syllabus prescribed by GATE) A selecti(e preparation

0ould be a (ery helpful concept and should be learned accurately)

31. %emori.ation of any problem 0ithout a clear idea of the concept 0ill be a futile exercise) 32. I feel that it is better to ha(e flexible time plan before going to exam and ha(e a balance

of mind) It helps in a(oiding the silly mista-es)

33. 'esults of 2ualified candidates in GATE 0ill gi(e All India 'an- and indicate percentile

score) 3or example, a percentile score of == means you are in the top :> category of the candidates 0ho appeared for GATE)
34. "andidates 0ho get less than ?7 percentile get no score card) 35. After publication of GATE results, students must apply to indi(idual Institutes to get their

application forms)
36. Institutes ad(ertise %)Tech admissions in leading ne0spapers from :st April till end @uly)

&o0e(er some Institutes do not ad(ertise and therefore students ha(e to get the forms themsel(es)
37. Admission in the Institute is based on GATE percentile) 38. The concerned Institute may conduct 0ritten test andAor inter(ie0 for the purpose of

admission)
39. $uring the pursuit of %)Tech, you are paid a scholarship of 's) B777 per month by the

Go(ernment of India) This amount is enough for li(ing expenses including purchase of boo-s etc) the scholarship is paid for the entire period of %)Tech)

Syllabus for Architecture and Planning (AR)

City planning: E(olution of citiesC principles of city planningC types of cities D ne0 to0nsC planning regulations and building byela0sC eco-city conceptC sustainable de(elopment) HousingE "oncept of housingC neighbourhood conceptC site planning principlesC housing typologyC housing standardsC housing infrastructureC housing policies, finance and managementC housing programs in IndiaC self help housing) Landscape DesignE +rinciples of landscape design and site planningC history of landscape stylesC landscape elements and materialsC plant characteristics D planting designC en(ironmental considerations in landscape planning) Computer Aided DesignE Application of computers in architecture and planningC understanding elements of hard0are and soft0areC computer graphicsC programming languages # " and Fisual asic and usage of pac-ages such as Auto"A$, 4$-Studio, 4$ %ax) n!ironmental Studies in "uilding ScienceE "omponents of EcosystemC ecological principles concerning en(ironmentC climate responsi(e designC energy efficient building designC thermal comfortC solar architectureC principles of lighting and styles for illuminationC basic principles of architectural acousticsC en(ironment pollution, their control D abatement) #isual and $rban DesignE +rinciples of (isual compositionC proportion, scale, rhythm, symmetry, harmony, datum, balance, form, colour, textureC sense of place and space, di(ision of spaceC barrier free designC focal point, (ista, image ability, (isual sur(ey, figure-bac-ground relationship) History of ArchitectureE Indian # Indus (alley, Fedic, uddhist, Indo-Aryan, $ra(idian and %ughal periodsC European # Egyptian, Gree-, 'oman, medie(al and renaissance periodsconstruction and architectural stylesC (ernacular and traditional architecture) De!elopment of Contemporary ArchitectureE Architectural de(elopments and impacts on society since industrial re(olutionC influence of modern art on architectureC 0or-s of national and international architectsC art no(uea, eclecticism, international styles, post modernism, deconstruction in architecture) "uilding Ser!icesE Gater supply, se0erage and drainage systemsC sanitary fittings and fixturesC plumbing systems, principles of internal D external drainage systems, principles of electrification of buildings, intelligent buildingsC ele(ators D escalators, their standards and usesC air-conditioning systemsC fire fighting systems, building safety and security systems) "uilding Construction and %anagementE uilding construction techni2ues, methods and detailsC building systems and prefabrication of building elementsC principles of modular

coordinationC estimation, specification, (aluation, professional practiceC pro*ect management techni2ues e)g), +E'T, "+% etcC %aterials and Structural SystemsE eha(ioral characteristics of all types of building materials e)g) mud, timber, bamboo, bric-, concrete, steel, glass, 3'+, different polymers, compositesC principles of strength of materialsC design of structural elements in 0ood, steel and '""C elastic and limit state designC complex structural systemsC principles of pre-stressingC tall buildingsC principles of disaster resistant structures) Planning &heoryE 'egional planningC settlement system planningC history of human settlementsC gro0th of cities D metropolisesC principles of E-isticsC rural-urban migrationC urban conser(ationC urban rene0alC 3i(e-year planC structural and sectoral plan) &echni'ues of PlanningE +lanning sur(ey techni2uesC preparation of urban and regional structure plans, de(elopment plans, action plansC site planning principles and designC statistical methods of data analysisC application of G)I)S and remote sensing techni2ues in urban and regional planningC decision ma-ing models) &raffic and &ransportation PlanningE +rinciples of traffic engineering and transportation planningC traffic sur(ey methodsC design of roads, intersections, grade separators and par-ing areasC hierarchy of roads and le(els of ser(icesC traffic and transport management in urban areas, intelligent transportation systemC mass transportation planningC para-transits and other modes of transportation, pedestrian D slo0 mo(ing traffic planning) (nfrastructure) Ser!ices and AmenitiesE +rinciples of 0ater supply and sanitation systemsC 0ater treatmentC solid 0aste disposal systemsC 0aste treatment, recycle D reuseC urban rain0ater har(estingC po0er supply and communication systems H net0or-, design D guidelinesC demography related standards at (arious le(els of the settlements for health, education, recreation, religious D public-semi public facilities) De!elopment Administration and %anagementE +lanning la0sC de(elopment control and .oning regulationsC la0s relating to land ac2uisitionC de(elopment enforcements, urban land ceilingC land management techni2uesC planning and municipal administrationC disaster mitigation managementC ?4rdD ?5th "onstitutional amendmentsC (aluation D taxationC re(enue resources and fiscal managementC public participation and role of !G1 D " 1C Institutional net0or-ing D capacity building

*ate %atri+
S.NO 1 TOPIC NAME City planning 2012 1 2011 4 2010 1 2009 1 2008 4 2007 3

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Housing Landscape design Computer aided design n!ironmental studies in "uilding science #isual $ ur"an design History o% arc&itecture 'e!elopment o% contemporary arc&itecture (uilding ser!ices (uilding Construction $ )anagement )aterials $ structural systems *lanning t&eory +ec&ni,ues o% planning +ra%%ic $ transportation planning -n%rastructure. ser!ices $ amenities 'e!elopment administration $ management /eneral aptitude +otal no.o% 0uestions +otal )ar1s

5 1 1 4 3 6 3 3 6 10 2 6 3 1 0 10 65 100

5 1 1 4 4 5 3 5 5 6 4 3 2 1 2 10 65 100

4 2 2 8 2 7 3 3 4 7 2 3 1 1 5 10 65 100

6 1 1 1 4 7 5 5 6 9 5 1 2 4 2 60 100

6 1 3 6 4 7 7 9 7 5 9 12 2 1 2 85 150

8 3 2 8 1 7 9 8 11 12 5 4 1 2 1 85 150

"asic $nits
1 i#ch = 2.54 cm 1 i#ch = 25.4 mm 1 f$$t = 12 i#ches 1 feet = 30.48 cm 1 cm = 10 mm 1 cm = 0.3937 i#ches 1 m = 100 cm 1 m = 1000 mm 1 meter = 39.37 (40) i#ches 1 meter (m) = 1.094 (1.1) ar! 1 ar! = 0.9144 meters 1 mm = 0.03937 i#ches 1 meter=3.28 feet 1 mete =0.0006214 miles 1 km=0.6214 miles 1 km = 1000 m 1acre = 4046.86 Sq. mts 1 acre = 43560.174 square feet 1 acre = 0.4047 (.4) hectares 1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 (2.5) acres 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 square meters 1 hectare = 11959.9 square ar!s 1 hectare = 107639.1 square feet 1 mile = 1609 meters 1 sq. mile = 640 acres 1 acre = 4840 sq. ar! 1 meter = 1.09361 "ar!

1 sq. ar! = 9 sq. feet 1 sq. f$$t = 144 sq. i#che 1 square kil$meter (sq km) = .3861 (.4) square miles 1 square mile = 2.590 (2.6) square kil$meters 1 square kil$meter = 100 hectares 1 square kil$meter = 247.1 (250) acres 1 square mile = 259 (260) hectares

A""R #(A&(,-S
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-ai# s$il *i*e -ai# S$il <aste *i*e )#ter tr$*ical c$#5er(e#ce B$#e <et :ul: tem*erature 0r 8ul: 4em*arature saturati$# *$i#t ,umi!it 3elati5e ,umi!it &##ual mea# tem*erature 1$rrect effecti5e tem*erature 9quat$rial c$mf$rt i#!eC ,eat stress )#!eC -ea# 3a!ia#t tem*erature 9Cter#all reflecte! 1$m*$#e#t 8ritish thermal u#it +$rt %$u#!e! Sec$#! 2utli#e 0e5el$*me#t *la# &ll )#!ia ,$usi#( 0e5el$*me#t ass$ciati$# ;ati$#al e#5ir$#me#tal %$lluti$# &ct 8e#efit 1$st &#al sis

A to 6
Accessibility: +&e a"ility o% people to mo!e round an area and to reac& places and %acilities. including elderly and disa"led people. t&ose 2it& young c&ildren and t&ose encum"ered 2it& luggage or s&opping. Action plannin : *articipation tec&ni,ues. including community planning 2ee1ends and 3r"an 'esign Action Tea!s 43'5+s67 2&ic& ena"le local people and in!ited teams o% pro%essionals to e8plore design ideas %or particular areas o!er one or se!eral days. Acti"ity spine: 9treet or streets along 2&ic& acti!ity is concentrated. Acti"ity no#e: Concentration o% acti!ity at a particular point. A#aptability: +&e capacity o% a "uilding or space to "e c&anged so as to respond to c&anging social. tec&nological and economic conditions. A#"ocacy plannin : t&e preparations o% plans or planning proposals and t&eir ad!ocacy "y pro%essionals planners on "e&al% o% an organi:ation. interest group. or community as an alternati!e or in opposition to plans. or planning proposals prepared "y an o%%icial agency.

A o$a7 t&e principal pu"lic space o% a /ree1 city. 2&ic& 2as t&e commercial and social center o% t&e city. )eaning;assem"ly. arlier t&e Ac$opolis &ad "een t&e center.

Ai$ con#itionin : t&e control o% air in a "uilding to a desired temperature and &umidity. and its cleaning and circulation. o"tained "y means o% plants designed and installed %or t&e purpose. Ai$ poll%tion: pollution o% t&e air "y smo1e is caused mainly "y t&e incomplete com"ustion o% %ossil %uel. 2&ic& emit car"on mono8ide. %ine car"onaceous particles. and tarry droplets.

Apa$t!ent: a "uilding. generally o% se!eral stories. contains a num"er o% separate d2ellings 2it& a common entrance %rom t&e street and o%ten 2it& ser!ices li1e &eating and lig&ting in common. Acti"ity analysis: acti!ity analysis is studies concerned 2it& patterned 2ays in 2&ic& &ouse&olds. %irms. and !arious ot&er institutional entities pursue t&eir a%%airs in time and space. +&ese studies classi%y entity systems into su"systems. and t&ey identi%y pattern in t&e %lo2 o% acti!ities or transactions o% eac& system as it e!ol!es in time and space. A&%e#%ct: ; a duct or conduit %or con!eying 2ater %rom place to place "ut commonly regarded as an ele!ated structure carrying t&e duct. A$ca#e: ' a series o% arc&es; as distinct %rom lintels; supported on columns suc& as is seen in medie!al cloisters. t&e interiors o% "asilicas and c&urc&es and in <enaissance pia::as. A$ea app$aisal: 5n assessment o% an area=s land uses. "uilt and natural en!ironment. and social and p&ysical c&aracteristics. A$c(itect%$e an# plannin cente$: 5n institution. 2&ic& pro!ides a %ocus %or a range o%

acti!ities and ser!ices 4suc& as discussions. in%ormation. e8&i"itions. colla"oration and pro%essional ser!ices6 relating to arc&itecture and planning. )$ie*: +&is guide re%ers to site;speci%ic "rie%s as de!elopment "rie%s. 9ite;speci%ic "rie%s are also called a !ariety o% ot&er names. including design "rie%s. planning "rie%s and de!elopment %rame2or1s. )%il#in ele!ents: 'oors. 2indo2s. cornices and ot&er %eatures. 2&ic& contri"ute to t&e

o!erall design o% a "uilding. )%il#in en"elope: /uidelines 'iagram4s6 2it& dimensions s&o2ing t&e possi"le site and

massing o% a "uilding. )%il#in e+plo$ato$y: 5 center %or e8plaining. interpreting and pro!iding in%ormation on t&e "uilt en!ironment. )%il#in line: +&e line %ormed "y t&e %rontages o% "uildings along a street. +&e "uilding line can "e s&o2n on a plan or section.

)%l,: +&e com"ined e%%ect o% t&e arrangement. !olume and s&ape o% a "uilding or group o% "uildings. 5lso called massing. )IOTEC-NIC: ' +&is and ot&er similar terms 4paleotec&nic6 2ere coined "y *atric /eddes. 5ll t&e terms apply to modern tec&nology and its e%%ect on economic and social li%e. C(a$acte$: assessment 5n area appraisal identi%ying distinguis&ing p&ysical %eatures and emp&asi:ing &istorical and cultural associations. C(a$$ette: 5n e!ent 4ranging %rom a couple o% &ours to se!eral days6. 2&ic& "rings toget&er a range o% people to discuss design issues. 5 c&arrette may or may not use tec&ni,ues o% colla"orati!e design. 5lso 1no2n as a design 2or1s&op. Conse$"ation a$ea: c&aracter appraisal 5 pu"lis&ed document de%ining t&e special arc&itectural or &istoric interest 2&ic& 2arranted t&e area "eing designated. Conte+t: +&e setting o% a site or area. including %actors suc& as tra%%ic. acti!ities and land uses as >ell as landscape and "uilt %orm. Conte+t .o$ site an# a$ea/ app$aisal: 5 detailed analysis o% t&e %eatures o% a site or area 4including land uses. "uilt and natural en!ironment. and social and p&ysical c&aracteristics6 2&ic& ser!es as t&e "asis %or an ur"an design %rame2or1. de!elopment "rie%. design guide or ot&er policy or guidance. Co%nt$ysi#e #esi n: summary 9upplementary;planning guidance prepared "y a local aut&ority to encourage a more regionally and locally "ased approac& to design and planning. C$i!e Patte$n Analysis: Carried out "y t&e *olice and is a!aila"le t&roug& liaison 2it& t&e 5rc&itectural Liaison ?%%icer@Crime *re!ention 'esign 5d!iser. -t comprises %our components7 crime series identi%ication. trend identi%ication. A&ot;spot= analysis and general pro%ile analysis. +&is last aspect includes an e8amination o% demograp&ic and social c&ange and its impact on criminality and la2 en%orcement. 0e*ensible space: *u"lic and semi;pu"lic space t&at is Ade%ensi"le= in t&e sense t&at it is sur!eyed. demarcated or maintained "y some"ody. 'eri!ed %rom ?scar Be2man=s 1973 study o% t&e same name. and an important concept in securing pu"lic sa%ety in ur"an areas.

de%ensi"le space is also dependent upon t&e e8istence o% escape routes and t&e le!el o% anonymity. 2&ic& can "e anticipated "y t&e users o% t&e space. 0ensity: +&e %loor space o% a "uilding or "uildings or some ot&er unit measure in relation to a gi!en area o% land. (uilt density can "e e8pressed in terms o% plot ratio 4%or commercial de!elopment6C num"er o% units or &a"ita"le rooms per &ectare 4%or residential de!elopment6C site co!erage plus t&e num"er o% %loors or a ma8imum "uilding &eig&tC or a com"ination o% t&ese. 0esi n a#"iso$y panel: 5 group o% people 4o%ten arc&itects6 2it& specialist 1no2ledge. 2&ic& ad!ises a local aut&ority on t&e design merits o% planning applications or ot&er design issues. 5lso 1no2n as an arc&itect=s panel. 0esi n assess!ent: 5n independent assessment o% a design usually carried out %or a local aut&ority "y consultants. anot&er local aut&ority or some ot&er agency. 0esi n %i#e: 5 document pro!iding guidance on &o2 de!elopment can "e carried out in

accordance 2it& t&e design policies o% a local aut&ority or ot&er organi:ation o%ten 2it& a !ie2 to retaining local distincti!eness. 0esi n p$inciple: 5n e8pression o% one o% t&e "asic design ideas at t&e &eart o% an ur"an design %rame2or1. design guide. de!elopment "rie% or a de!elopment. 0esi n stan#a$#s: 9peci%ic. usually ,uanti%ia"le measures o% amenity and sa%ety in residential areas. 0esi n state!ent: 4a6 5 pre;application design statement is made "y a de!eloper to indicate t&e design principles on 2&ic& a de!elopment proposal in progress is "ased. -t ena"les t&e local aut&ority to gi!e an initial response to t&e main issues raised "y t&e proposal. 4"6 5 planning application design statement sets out t&e design principles t&at t&e planning applicant &as adopted in relation to t&e site and its 2ider conte8t. as re,uired "y **/1. 0esi$e line: 5n imaginary line lin1ing %acilities or places. 2&ic& people 2ould %ind it con!enient to tra!el "et2een easily. 0e"elop!ent b$ie*: 5 document. prepared "y a local planning aut&ority. a de!eloper. or Dointly. pro!iding guidance on &o2 a site o% signi%icant si:e or sensiti!ity s&ould "e de!eloped. 9ite; speci%ic "rie%s are sometimes 1no2n as planning "rie%s. design "rie%s and de!elopment %rame2or1s.

Ele"ation: +&e %acade o% a "uilding. or t&e dra2ing o% a %acade. Enclos%$e: +&e use o% "uildings to create a sense o% de%ined space. Ene$ y e**iciency: +&e e8tent to 2&ic& t&e use o% energy is reduced t&roug& t&e 2ay in 2&ic& "uildings is constructed and arranged on site. 1easibility: +&e !ia"ility o% de!elopment in relation to economic and mar1et conditions. 1enest$ation: +&e arrangement o% 2indo2s on a %acade. 1i %$e an# $o%n# 4or %igure@ground. or Bolli6 diagram7 5 plan s&o2ing t&e relations&ip

"et2een "uilt %orm and pu"licly accessi"le space 4including streets6 "y presenting t&e %ormer in "lac1 and t&e latter as a 2&ite "ac1ground 4or t&e ot&er 2ay round6. 1o$!: +&e layout 4structure and ur"an grain6. density. scale 4&eig&t and massing6. appearance 4materials and details6 and landscape o% de!elopment. 1$%in analysis: 5 met&od o% analy:ing pedestrian mo!ement de!ised "y (ernard Eruin. -t applies a Ale!el o% ser!ice= concept to pedestrian %lo2s. Eruin de%ined capacity and speeds o% mo!ement in !arious %orms o% corridors. pa!ements and ot&er pedestrian routes. 1%t%$e Sea$c(: 5 participation tec&ni,ue ena"ling groups o% people to identi%y common interests. discuss ideas and s&are in%ormation and e8perience. A?pen space= is a similar tec&ni,ue. /rain 9ee Aur"an grain=. -ei (t: +&e &eig&t o% a "uilding can "e e8pressed in terms o% a ma8imum num"er o% %loorsC a ma8imum &eig&t o% parapet or ridgeC a ma8imum o!erall &eig&tC any o% t&ese ma8imum &eig&ts in com"ination 2it& a ma8imum num"er o% %loorsC a ratio o% "uilding &eig&t to street or space 2idt&C &eig&t relati!e to particular landmar1s or "ac1ground "uildingsC or strategic !ie2s. -%!an scale: +&e use 2it&in de!elopment o% elements. 2&ic& relate 2ell in si:e to an indi!idual &uman "eing and t&eir assem"ly in a 2ay. 2&ic& ma1es people. %eel com%orta"le rat&er t&an o!er2&elmed. -n;curtilage par1ing *ar1ing 2it&in a "uilding=s site "oundary. rat&er t&an on a pu"lic street or space. -ndependent design audit an assessment o% a design. carried out %or a local aut&ority "y consultants. anot&er local aut&ority or some ot&er agency. In#icati"e s,etc(: 5 dra2ing o% "uilding %orms and spaces. 2&ic& is intended to con!ey t&e "asic elements o% a possi"le design.

2an#!a$,: 5 "uilding or structure t&at stands out %rom its "ac1ground "y !irtue o% &eig&t. si:e or some ot&er aspect o% design. 2an#scape: +&e c&aracter and appearance o% land. including its s&ape. %orm. ecology. natural %eatures. colors and elements and t&e 2ay t&ese components com"ine. Landscape c&aracter can "e e8pressed t&roug& landscape appraisal. and maps or plans. -n to2ns Ato2nscape= descri"es t&e same concept. 2ayo%t: +&e 2ay "uildings. routes and open spaces are placed in relation to eac& ot&er. 2ayo%t st$%ct%$e: +&e %rame2or1 or &ierarc&y o% routes t&at connect in t&e local area and at 2ider scales. 2e ibility: +&e degree to 2&ic& a place can "e easily understood and tra!ersed. 2i"e e# e: *ro!ided "y a "uilding or ot&er %eature 2&ose use is directly accessi"le %rom t&e street or space. 2&ic& it %acesC t&e opposite e%%ect to a "lan1 2all. 2ocal #istincti"eness: +&e positi!e %eatures o% a place and its communities. 2&ic& contri"ute to its special c&aracter and sense o% place. 2ync(ian analysis: +&e 2idely used met&od o% conte8t appraisal de!ised "y t&e ur"an designer Fe!in Lync&. -t %ocuses on gate2ays to an area. nodes. landmar1s. !ie2s and !istas. and edges and "arriers. Massin : +&e com"ined e%%ect o% t&e &eig&t. "ul1 and sil&ouette o% a "uilding or group o% "uildings. Mi+e# %ses: 5 mi8 o% uses 2it&in a "uilding. on a site or 2it&in a particular area. AHori:ontal= mi8ed uses are side "y side. usually in di%%erent "uildings. A#ertical= mi8ed uses are on di%%erent %loors o% t&e same "uilding. Mo#al split: Ho2 t&e total num"er o% Dourneys in an area or to a destination is split "et2een di%%erent means o% transport. suc& as train. "us. car. 2al1ing and cycling. Mo"e!ent: *eople and !e&icles going to and passing t&roug& "uildings. places and spaces. +&e mo!ement net2or1 can "e s&o2n on plans. "y space synta8 analysis. "y &ig&2ay designations. "y %igure and ground diagrams. t&roug& data on origins and destinations or

pedestrian %lo2s. "y desire lines. "y details o% pu"lic transport ser!ices. "y 2al1 "ands or "y details o% cycle routes. Nat%$al s%$"eillance 4or super!ision67 +&e discouragement to 2rong;doing "y t&e presence o% passers;"y or t&e a"ility o% people to "e seen out o% surrounding 2indo2s. 5lso 1no2n as passi!e sur!eillance 4or super!ision6. No#e: 5 place 2&ere acti!ity and routes are concentrated o%ten used as a synonym %or Dunction. Pe$*o$!ance c$ite$ion 4pl. criteria67 5 means o% assessing t&e e8tent to 2&ic& a de!elopment ac&ie!es a particular %unctional re,uirement 4suc& as maintaining pri!acy6. +&is contrasts 2it& a standard. 2&ic& speci%ies &o2 a de!elopment is to "e designed 4"y setting out minimum distances "et2een "uildings. %or e8ample6. +&e art o% ur"an design lies in "alancing principles 2&ic& may con%lict. 9tandards may "e too in%le8i"le to "e o% use in ac&ie!ing a "alance. *er%ormance criteria. on t&e ot&er &and. ma1e no prior assumptions a"out t&e means o% ac&ie!ing a "alance. Pe$!eability: +&e degree to 2&ic& an area &as a !ariety o% pleasant. con!enient and sa%e routes t&roug& it. Pe$specti"e: -llustration s&o2ing t&e !ie2 %rom a particular point. as t&e &uman eye 2ould see it. Place c(ec,: 5 type o% ur"an design audit ad!ocated "y t&e 3r"an 'esign 5lliance. "ased on t&e Connected City approac&. 5 local colla"orati!e alliance or partners&ip uses c&ec1lists to in!estigate t&e connections in t&e "uilt en!ironment. in its mo!ement net2or1 and among t&e people 2&o s&ape it. +&e *lace c&ec1 "ecomes t&e %irst step in a continuing colla"orati!e process o% ur"an design. Plannin b$ie*: +&is guide re%ers to site;speci%ic "rie%s as de!elopment "rie%s. ?t&er names.

including planning "rie%s. design "rie%s and de!elopment %rame2or1s are also used. *lanning %or <eal 5 participation tec&ni,ue 4pioneered "y t&e Beig&"our&ood -nitiati!es Eoundation6 t&at in!ol!es residents and ot&ers 2it& an interest coming toget&er to ma1e a model o% t&eir area and using it to &elp t&em determine t&eir priorities %or t&e %uture.

Plannin

Policy 3%i#ance notes 4**/s67 'ocuments em"odying /o!ernment guidance on

general and speci%ic aspects o% planning policy to "e ta1en into account in %ormulating de!elopment plan policies and in ma1ing planning decisions. Plot $atio: 5 measurement o% density generally e8pressed as gross %loor area di!ided "y t&e net site area. P$oacti"e #e"elop!ent cont$ol: 5ny process "y 2&ic& a local aut&ority 2or1s 2it& potential planning applicants to impro!e t&e ,uality o% de!elopment proposals as early as possi"le "e%ore a planning application is su"mitted. P%blic a$t: *ermanent or temporary p&ysical 2or1s o% art !isi"le to t&e general pu"lic. 2&et&er part o% t&e "uilding or %ree;standing7 can include sculpture. lig&ting e%%ects. street %urniture. pa!ing. railings and signs. P%blic #o!ain: +&e parts o% a !illage. to2n or city 42&et&er pu"licly or pri!ately o2ned6 t&at are a!aila"le. 2it&out c&arge. %or e!eryone to use or see. including streets. s,uares and par1s. 5lso called pu"lic realm. P%blic4p$i"ate inte$*ace: +&e point at 2&ic& pu"lic areas and "uildings meet pri!ate ones. P%blic $eal!: 9ee Apu"lic domain= 0uality audit 5 re!ie2 o% its management o% t&e design and planning process "y a local aut&ority or ot&er organi:ation. Scale: +&e impression o% a "uilding 2&en seen in relation to its surroundings. or t&e si:e o% parts o% a "uilding or its details. particularly as e8perienced in relation to t&e si:e o% a person. 9ometimes it is t&e total dimensions o% a "uilding. 2&ic& gi!e it its sense o% scale7 at ot&er times it is t&e si:e o% t&e elements and t&e 2ay t&ey are com"ined. +&e concept is a di%%icult and am"iguous one7 o%ten t&e 2ord is used simply as a synonym %or Asi:e=. 9ee AHuman scale=. 9ection 'ra2ing s&o2ing a slice t&roug& a "uilding or site. Settle!ent patte$n: +&e distincti!e 2ay t&at t&e roads. pat&s and "uildings are laid out in a particular place. Si (t lines: t&e line o% sig&t %rom a tra!eling !e&icle or person. 9ig&t lines 2ill &elp to determine &o2 %ast !e&icles are li1ely to mo!e and &o2 sa%e ot&er road users are li1ely to "e. Space synta+ analysis7 5 tec&ni,ue %or analy:ing mo!ement t&roug& ur"an space and predicting t&e amount o% acti!ity li1ely to result %rom t&at mo!ement.

Spine St$eet: streets along 2&ic& acti!ity is concentrated. St$ate ic "ie5: t&e line o% sig&t %rom a particular point to an important landmar1 or s1yline. St$eet *%$nit%$e: 9tructures in and adDacent to t&e &ig&2ay 2&ic& contri"ute to t&e street scene. suc& as "us s&elters. litter "ins. seating. lig&ting. railings and signs. S%ccess *acto$: ?ne o% t&e c&aracteristics o% a place 4or places in general6 t&at tends to ma1e it attracti!e to li!e in. 2or1 in. or !isit. 9uccess %actors can "e e8pressed as design principles. S%$"eillance: +&e discouragement to 2rong;doing "y t&e presence o% passers;"y or t&e a"ility o% people to "e seen %rom surrounding 2indo2s. S%stainable #e"elop!ent: 'e%ined "y t&e (rundtland Commission 41987. and ,uoted in **/16 as A'e!elopment 2&ic& meets present needs 2it&out compromising t&e a"ility o% %uture generations to ac&ie!e t&eir o2n needs and aspirations=. +&e 3FGs strategy %or sustaina"le de!elopment H5 "etter ,uality o% li%eI 2as pu"lis&ed in )ay 1999 and &ig&lig&ts t&e need %or en!ironmental impro!ement. social Dustice and economic success to go &and;in;&and. Tiss%e st%#y: Comparison o% scale and layout o% di%%erent settlements. +&is tec&ni,ue ma1es use o% o!erprinting or tracing maps o% success%ul places o!er t&e proposed de!elopment site or area. at t&e same scale. -ts gi!es t&e designer a clue to t&e capacity o% a place and &o2 it may "e structured. Topo $ap(y: 5 description or representation o% arti%icial or natural %eatures on or o% t&e ground. 6$ban #esi n: +&e art o% ma1ing places. 3r"an design in!ol!es t&e design o% "uildings. groups o% "uildings. spaces and landscapes. in !illages. to2ns and cities. and t&e esta"lis&ment o% %rame2or1s and processes. 2&ic& %acilitate success%ul de!elopment. 6$ban #esi n *$a!e5o$,: 5 document 2&ic& in%orms t&e preparation o% de!elopment plan policies. or sets out in detail &o2 t&ey are to "e implemented in a particular area 2&ere t&ere is a need to control. guide and promote c&ange. 5rea de!elopment %rame2or1s are also called a !ariety o% ot&er names. including ur"an design strategies. area de!elopment %rame2or1s. spatial master plans. and planning and ur"an design %rame2or1s. 6$ban $ain: +&e pattern o% t&e arrangement and si:e o% "uildings and t&eir plots in a

settlementC and t&e degree to 2&ic& an area=s pattern o% street;"loc1s and street Dunctions is respecti!ely small and %re,uent. or large and in%re,uent.

7e$nac%la$: +&e 2ay. in 2&ic& ordinary "uildings 2ere "uilt in a particular place. ma1ing use o% local styles. tec&ni,ues and materials and responding to local economic and social conditions. 7ie5: >&at is !isi"le %rom a particular point. 7ista: 5n enclosed !ie2. usually a long and narro2 one. 7is%al cl%tte$: +&e uncoordinated arrangement o% street %urniture. signs and ot&er %eatures. 7illa e app$aisal: 5 study identi%ying a local community=s needs and priorities. 7illa e #esi n state!ent: 5n ad!isory document. usually produced "y a !illage community. suggesting &o2 de!elopment mig&t "e carried out in &armony 2it& t&e !illage and its setting. 5 !illage design statement can "e gi!en 2eig&t "y "eing appro!ed as supplementary planning guidance. +&e use o% !illage design statements is promoted "y t&e Countryside 5gency. 8al, ban#: 5 line on a map or plan s&o2ing t&e %urt&est distance t&at can "e 2al1ed %rom a particular point at an a!erage pace in a certain time 4usually %i!e or ten minutes6.

Concepts
"ity eautiful 'egional +lanning Garden city ,inear city Satellite to0n A city industrially 'ed burn neighbourhood (super bloc- layout):A; mile !eighbourhood concept I mile 0al-ing distance from house!e0 to0n in to0n 3inger plan 3loating neighbourhoods 'an- si.e rule In(entory of 0ord resources &uman trends D needs "entral place theory Grid iron, +iraeus -port ,a0 of primate city "oncept of an ecosystem Ecology Jonning 3ather of modern "onser(ation 7 uc- minister fuller christaller hippodamus %)S)Jipt Transhey &ac-el Ed0ard asset @ohn 'us-in %ash 7 uc- minister fuller "larence +erry "larence stein Dhenry 0right $axiel ramham +atric Geeddes Eben.er &o0ard Soria y)morta 'aymond /n0in Tony garnier

3ather of Ecology To create a beautiful city, Ge must start 0ith beautiful "oncept Ideal To0n Srilan-an Sans-rit 8endra, $elhi Shilpa Gram, @aipur

1dum

8ubla -han Albexy Geo fferey a0a /ppal Ghosh Ass 'a*i( 8hanna @ames Ingofred lue,green purple lacEd0ard herings theory S(en &assel ;dimensional 4dimensional &ue or "hroma &unsell, prang etc) :A? of total body neight :E:)K:B standards

&olocaust memorial museum ,Gashington 'elasing Subdiuing Epressing !atural colour system "olour attas Shape 3orm "olour Farious colour system &ead Golden mean Thomas "hurch -

a land scape architect (employed the re(erse cur(e)

ARCH(& C&S A-D &H (R 3,R8S

Contemporary Architecture AL#AR AAL&,
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

3rench Architect Tuberculosls Sanatorium,3ixland a-erhouse,%)I)T, %IT $ormitory Sports D"ultural "entre-(ienna T) Sanatorium Fu*uri library 3innish pa(ilion o-)Experimental To0n &ouse of "ulture /ni(ersity of @y(as-yla 3ixland hall,&elsin-i "i(ic "entre -&elsin-i

PA-L L H$DS - "$,-HA%

. . . .

American +ipcer city planner +lan for "hicago 'eliance ldg,"hicago

CL(9 CA-DDA
. . .

+loneor in '"" Shell structure 'estaurant,Lochimilco Stoc- exchange,mexico city

L$C(, C,S&A
. . .

ra.ilian %aster plan for rasilia 'estoration of iron historic buildings in ra.il(S+&A!)
.

+ar2ue guine flat,'io de @anero +ioneer in '""

Anatole De Pandot ":#: D,SH(

. . . . . . . . . . .

Tagore memorial theatre, Ahmedabad) Gandhi labour institution, Ahmedabad) Institute of Indology "E+T(0ith $)" ) +anchaat) School of Aechitecture,Ahmedabad) Industrial to0nships at orada, &yderabad, -alol

&ousing at 8ota) ,!I3$, $elhi) II% angalore Sangath, Ahmedabad Aranya,Indore %+SE , @abalpur

A$S&A#
. .

(44 L

Steel beams braced by lattice Grides Eiffel To0er

AR&H$R CHARL S 4R(C8S,. .

"anadian "anadian pa(illion at 1sa-a Exhibition) pioneer in prestreeed reinforced concrete)

ugene freyssinet

R(CHARD "$C8 %(-(S& R 4$LL R

. . . .

$ymxion &ouse) +roto type, Geodesic $omes /S pa(ilion %ontreal Exhibitions (Geodesic) +a(illion Seattle D !e0 6or- Gorld fair

5 A- L,$(S CHARL R CARR( R

. .

3rench "lasssical 1pera house , paris +ort land public ser(ices building

%ichaed *ra!es

C:P:8$8R 5A -@)!)/, $elhi -To0n ship of I33"1 -%angement $e(elopment Institute "ampus Ambadeep, !e0 $elhi - &ailey 'oad Apartment !e0 $elhi -%$I library sunbren.e Apartment South city plus - Indian &igh "ommission, 8ualampur) - G0alior Airport - +a(ilion for national small industries "rop) $elhi) &eritage city Apartment)

",R8S
. .

Arch of India- uddhist D&indu, Islamic uilding eyond orders

SA&(SH *R,# R

. . . .

Tal-atora indoor s0imming pool, $elhi &imachal ha(an, $elhi) 1herai hotel, hubanesh0ar) !$%" s0imming pool

A:P: 8A-#(-D IIA , $elhi !ational Science centre $elhi, !ational Insurance Academy, pune $ainy pro*ect(messana) Gu*arat &ostel To0er, !ational dainy de(elopment board(!$$ ) IIT 8anpur Atira

HAS%$8H C:PA& L
. .

+along re(ol(ing restaurant International stadium, "ochin)

1ASH3A-& RA, CHA$HA. . .

Academy of $e(elopment Administration,pune) harath $imond ourse ombay)

I!TA"& , $elhi) # 8A&H("AL(A

ASS,C(:AR(CH& C&)RA5
. . .

sardar saro(ar !armada !igam Administration building Ahmadabad) Sa0ai Gandhar(a Smara-,'ine)

%,H(& *$5RAL
. . . . .

Administration loc--Goa /ni(ersity elglan Embassy-!e0 delhi) Indian Embassy # 8atmandu) ")%)" #&yderabad I)S) )T # $elhi

D S(*- *R,$P
. . . . .

Indian Embassy, 8u0ait &otel %ughal Sheraton Agra 6amuna Apartments 6)&)")A , Staff,9urts, $elhi @ana-pur $istrict "entre

AR& -A- A$
. . . .

3irst ornamental latest structure $ecorati(e feature "ur(ed lined floral, geometric patterns) Ended in :=:5)

AR& D C,
. . . .

Also @AJJ %1$E'!E !o strong discipline essence Simplified form of classical architecture 0ith metifs 3orm ofter culture

%aterials- charminar plats)stained glass,coloured tiles,smooth render o(er bric-s)

9PR SS(,-(S%

. . . .

9uality of 3antasy 1uttiner suggested mo(ement Sculptural formed due to plastic 2uality of concrete Ended in :=;M)

"R$&AL(S%
. . .

3rench term N etron urt< mean rough concerete(unfinished) Explosed steel frame on extensi(e Iregh surfaced paintings

RA$HA$LS 2 4$-C&(,-AL(S%
. . . . . . .

'auhaus art D eroyts school(:=;7) cermany Arst $irector(:=:M-;7)Galter Gropiem Se(erely 3unctional teachings 3unctional $ictation form %aterials- steel, '"",Glass in large Sheets) "losed under !a.i 'egime Teachers D pupih hed to /)8 D /)S

C,-S&R$C&(#(S%
. . . . .

Srarted clearing botshe(i- re(olution :=:? !atural successor in 3unctionalism Emphasised ne0 materials Steel frame, glass, exposed *oints ,arge 0indo0s, scondsetrs, alconies, 0hite exteriors

H(*H & CH
. .

uilding ser(ices and function right colour

. .

Steel cladding ,arge clear spaces

P,S& %,D R-(S%

. .

'e(olt against se(erity D monotony !e0 materials ,past bytes

S(R D3(- L$&1 -S

. . .

$elhi 'ashtrapathi ha(an $eanery Garden,sonning, er-s

RA1%,-D $-3(- 2 "ARR1 PAR8 R

. .

,etch Gorth !e0 Ear 0ic- model (illage, ne0 yor-

L,$(S 8HA. . . . .

'ichards medical 'esearch "entre $ha-a Assembly II%, Ahmedabad 6ale art Gallery (connectient) +ost modernism)

L,$(S S$LL(#A-

. . . . .

"hicago &otel +rudential uilding Gain Gright uilding ,arsen pieries Dscott $ept)sto 1rnament in arch

LA "ARR - 5 -- 1
. .

,eister building &ome insurance uilding (3irst S-y scrapper)

L C,R"$S( R
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

,a Tourette Suriss +a(illion "ity /ni(ersity Suriss &ostel !otre $ame "haple 'on champ Filla Saroie /nited of &abitation Sal(ation army &ospital "arpenter centre for Fisual Arts &o0ard /ni(ersity "handigarh,(&igh court,Assembly,"entral place, secretariat) ,eague of !ations ,e "orbusier Jurish centre(,ast 0or- :=K?) %arine centre for Algiers( S-y Scrapers) ,a(ille 'adiance ,a(ille "ontemparaine &ome of manorama sarabhai Ahmedabad

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Filla sodhan- Ahmedabad &ill o0ner<s association building, Ahmedabad The culture centre of Ahmedabad, the museum 'aise soleil (Sun rea-ers) Ghen cathedral 0ere 0hite "oncerning to0n planning To0ards a ne0 arch "ity of tomorro0 The modular "hapel of !otre dame,'on "hamp Filla Sa(oye 3rance /nited habitation S0iss &otel,paries Filla les terrace,paries "ontemparary city 'adiant city

3AL& R *R,P($S
. . . . .

3ugues 0or-s &or-ness Araduate centre #&a0ard 3abric- uilding #"ologne Scinensstodt &ousing #deston Scope of total arch

. . . . .

3ugus 3actory &ouses at Gay land, massa chusets ,inclon, massa chusets Graduate centre,&a(ard uni( %assachusets auhaus,$essan

%( S #A- D R R,H
. . . . . . . . . . .

"hapel-illionl institute of technology #"hicago Seagram uilding !e0 6or- (0ith +hilip *ohn son) ,a-e shore dri(e Apts #"hicago ar2ue lambart rassels 3ederal uilding arcade rum 3actory Geissenhoff &ousing Settlement Tugendhat &ouse ".ech 3arns0orth &ouse plan 4 !ational Gallery # erlin +ermontry Apts,chicago

4L3
. . .

$a(id 0right &ouse #Ari.ona 3alling Gales &ouse # p %ain "ountry ci(ic "entre- c

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3alling 0ater,+)A 3riedman &ouse,!6 @ohnson 0ax factory @ohn son 0or- shop %ile &igh To0er Guggenheim museum # !e0 6orroad Acre city Imperial hotel %arine country ci(ic centre, california /nity church # oa- par- "hicago +iraire &ouse +rince To0er # 1-lahoma A testament An Autobiography The $issappearing city "oin slo0 house, 'i(er 3orest

A$*$S& P RR &
. .

!otre $ome "hurch 'ue 3ran-line

- R#(
. . . .

/!ES"1 building Exhibition &all # Turin Sports +ala.elto $ello Spent # 'ome 3erro "ements

,SCAR - (% 1 R
. . .

ra.ili 3oreign office # ra.ilia "hurch of S)3rancisco, ra.il

R, SAAR(- . . . . . .

TGA -ennedy airport $ulle Air port &oc-ey 'ing - &o0ard uni(ersity %ITS "hapel D Auditorium " S uilding @ohn $eere D "ompany ,td)

RA5 R 3AL
. . . . .

Sahu *ain pa(ilion - +ragathi %aidan hi-a*igana a.ar # !e0 $elhi 3rench Embassy staff 9uarters # !e0 $elhi Gu*ral &ouse !e0 $elhi +erment Exhibition complex #!e0 $elhi

:=K;-K4 :=KK :=K?-K= :=?7-?: :=?7-?5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(&alley nationsAhall of Industries) !ehru +a(ilion # !e0 $elhi Tele(ision "entre phase :- !e0 $elhi 'e0al &ouse #!e0 $elhi Shamlal &ouse # !e0 $elhi "entre institution of education Technology- !e0 $elhi Arbita &ousing # Tehran Stats Trading "orporation # !e0 $elhi !orth Eastern hill /ni(ersity- Shillong Engineer India &ouse # !e0 $elhi &"$ Indoor Stadium # !e0 $elhi %rs)+ra-ash 'esidence # !e0 $elhi Scope 1ffice "omplex # !e0 $elhi Asian "arer (illage # !e0 $elhi :=?:-?; :=?4-B? :=?4-?M :=?4-?M :=?M-B7 :=?K-?? :=?K-B= :=?K :=?B-B4 :=?B :=?=-B7 :=B7-B= :=B7-B;

!ational institute of public 3inance D +olicy #!e0 $elhi :=?=-B7 Ja-ir &ussain "o-operati(e Group housing # !e0 $elhi Asaid (illage "IET $elhi ("entral Institution of Education) Gorld an-, $elhi &all of !ation STG :=?=-B5

CH(S&,PH R AL 8A-D R
. . .

The pattern language Time less 0ay of uilding !e0 theory of urban design

. . . .

!oteron synthesily form "ommunity D pri(acy The orgon Experiment Arch today

CHARL S C,RR A
. . . . . . . . . . . .

&otel cidade de Goa Gandhi smara- Sangalay 8anchan*una Apartments, ombay Fidhan ha(an, hopal 8o(alam each resort uilding, $elhi 8ala 8endra, @aipur ha0an elapur housing Tara apartment !e0 ombay ritish high commission

5,H- -ASH Salford rill section :B7:) Jons # 'S@ Architecture in Iron Grought Iron &artas 'ue de Turin # :B:4

7 7

'oyal pa(ilion righton oullon D 0alt( eam D "olumns o3 ca( Iron,3irst time I

@ames ogarders 3air 'oain

,)S) uffing ton # In(entor of s-y scrapper :BB7 Ele(ator # :BM4 Ele(ator in :BB4 used in Eiffel To0er erlage # Amstesdam Stoc- Exchange

L C&R(CAL) L(*H&(-* (R C,%% -D) ,/L 'oads Substation M to 47 :77 :M7 477-;777 ;7

'ecreational playTournament play 1utdoor storage -

(-& R(,R 'ough Gor- %edium 0or- 3ix 0or:M7 477 M77-:777 ,/L

Air Fal(es 'eflux Fal(es Safety (al(es Scour (al(es %ixing Fal(es C,L,$RS

'elief Fal(es !on return or 3oat Fal(es +ressure release (al(es 0ash out (al(es or lo0 out (al(es $omestic

%ixing t0o secondary colours

Tertiary colour

%odern Architecture Arch (a critical &istory) +recast "oncrete Arch 8enneth 3rampton A3@ &1''IS

Arch %orphology

@)+) Steadman

Theory of %odern Arch +ioneers of modern design &o0 building Gor-

ruce Allsopp !i-olas +e(sner Ed0ard Alton

$esign D +lanning of s0imming pools # $a0es uilding constructing in Garm "limate # '),) 3ullerton Site planning, 3orm of cities Arch Shado0 +ro*ection %usic, Acoustics D Arch Small is eautiful A brief &istory of Time 8e(in ,ynch @) &olmes ,eo) ,) erarrE)3) Schumacher Stephen 0 &o0ling

A-&,-( *A-D(
. . . .

+alan Guell, arcellone "asa milla "hurch of Sal(ada 3amilla, arcelona Sagrada frili arcelona # Antoni Gandi

(1riginal design by) # (illar y le.ar0(charlen Ed0ard *enneret)

",,8S ,4 ARCH(& C&S !e0 Archiecture !e0 To0n 5 or-s on arch Arch in Transition Atfred 'olb 3)@) 1sbem Andrea +alladio $oxidias

/$ # Arch of to0n Dcities ,oo-ing ac-0ard Arch,+lanner of cities /rban land uses Indian %etropolis Shelter in India Tradition of Indian arch Arch for poor, &ud arch $elhi Stores D Strees After the %aster Griting Architecture $elhi the deepring urban crisis

+aul $)Spreiregen Ed0ard ellary $anniel urnham &arland orthlomen !omar E(enson Aromar 'e(i G)&)' Tillotson &asan 3atty ") S)&) @has0ala Fi-ran halt,+eter Seri(er 'oger "onnals pat0ant singh D 'am chari*a

Sur(i(al though design,lifeD humen settlements # 'ichard!eutra In the nature of material Arch := th D ;7th "entury The city yesterday, todayD tomorro0 +ichere place :7 boo- of Arch Guide to modern arch The ne0 rutalism Theory D design :st machine age The master builder +ioneer of modern $esign(mo(ement) Sources of modern arch The city in history &itech cocl,&enri +ussel &itech cocl,&enri +ussel @ames E D (an.antt $curis sharp Fitru(ius yran enham yran enham 'eymer benham +eter lac!icholar +e(sner $ernin sharp ,e0is mumford

The ideal city Story of benia Se(en lamps of arch !ational e(il D practical remedies 1beroi hotel, $elhi Secreteriat uilding,"alcutta %ahatma Gandhi Smara-,+anchayath Golconda Apartments,+ondicherry &igher secondry school,chandigarh A-has &otel ,!e0 $elhi Sriram "entre $elhi "enter for de(elopment for Studies,T$% "haple at loyal college,T dum India International "entre,$elhi 8ashmir conference centre, singapur Escort 3actories 8othain uilding, %adras !$%" IIT , $elhi &aryana agriculture uni(ersity &issa( I)S) )T $elhi &ousing of aspiration,+anidcherry Shelters at auromodel,auro(ille To0nship at srihari-ota 8ala-shetra,Theatre,%adron

')'oseran @ohn 'es-in @ohn 'es-in @)S) uc-ingham $urga a*pai, pullo hody &abib 'ehman Farun G) hatta Antonio 'aymond @eet lal %alhotra Si(nath +rasad Si(nath +rasad louise a-er ,ouise a-er Stein Stein Stein ,)"hitale 8uldeep Sing @)8 "ho0dary @)8) "ho0dary 'a*ender 8umar D F)+)+hamilia 'oger Auger 'oger Auger +ita(ardian $)App-httan !air

Fidan Sadan Atira Staff &ouse I)S)I $elhi %arble arch apartments, ombay Engineering "ollege, "handigarh 8irorimal college,$elhi Tagore theatre,"handigarh 'a(indra bha(an,$elhi Administrati(e uilding,& $ "i(ic centre,$elhi "hana-ya cinema,$elhi India +a(illion St)Thomas church,$elhi "hinmaya mission centre ,o0 cast housing at ne0 o-hla hopal hopal I3%, hopal /ni(ersity of -ota /ni(ersity of @odhapur Ta* engal Sitaram badiya Institute,!e0 delhi Fice 'oys palace "entral secretariat &ousing("handigarh)

+G$ Anant d ra*e Anant d ra*e G) ) %ahtre @)8) "ho0dary @habar0ala Aditya pra-ash &asib 'ehman "handra(ar-ar D Thac-ar 8uldeep singh Satish dha0anD 'a*ender %athe0

1scar permira %ahendra -othri Anil ,aul Sen -apadia Anant de rope Sen 8apadia /)")*ain /)") @ain

sumit Ghosh Ed0ard lutyn ,ishert asmer +ierre @ean Austre

Gandhi ha(an !ehru place %arine front housing,"ochin St)*hon cattedral $ena an"rystal palace +iscadilly &otel !e0 Scotland yard 6)%)")A building %anchester "ollete factory,middles 1pera &ouse, paris Ghite house,Gashington &onadnocl uilding,"hicago /nited states capital Einstein to0er, erlin /!ES"1, secretariat build 3erro cement Exhibition hall,Turi Turbine 3actory, erlin Garden Apartment " S uilding $/,,E Airport %ITS chapel D Auditorium TGA 8ennedy Airport Amsterdam stoc- exchange

+ierre @ean Austre 'am sharma 8uldeep Singh ,ausie a-er &asmu- patel @osephpaxton ')!)Sha0 ')!) Sha0 A)E)"orbett 'annister 3letcher @),)" )Gardnics @ama &oban $ad(el urnham F)&),atrobe Eric- %endelsm +), !er( +),)!eo(i +),)!eo(i +eter ehrens Andre0)@)Thomas E(iel Saa(inen E(iel Saa(inen E(iel Saa(inen E(iel Saa(inen &)+ arlage

ac- bay centre 1pera house cydney 'ural to0n ,oo-ing bac-0ard "ities in Education To-eyo Architecture 6ou D me "ity in &istory @ohn /t.on @) ) +ap0orth Ed0ard ellary pattric Geddes

8en.o Tange S)Guedion ,e0in %umford

Gandinagar Islamabad hubanes0ar Satellite city, To0n planning in practice 'ad burn Gashington $" Ste(enage /8 'e building ,ondon "apital 'ome aro2ue 'ome "ulture of cities +rogress D po(erty 'edburn E(iel Saa(iren &elsin-s udepet

%e;ada C:A: Do+iadis otto <oeingsbergers Raymond $n;in Clarence stein 2Henry ;right Pie Charles L nfant Sir patric Ambererombie !elyn %ichelangelo Si+tes # ,e0in %umford &enery George &igh0ayless to0n

'e(al ,inear uilding ,ouis S-idmore

4ormulas
Built up area of buildings
1. 8uilt.u* $r c$5ere! area = *l$t area D $*e# s*aces

2. +l$$r area rati$, +&3

c$5ere! area $f all fl$$rs C100 %l$t area

3.

li(ht i#ci!e#t $# a# $:@ect ca# :e !istri:ute! as 3eflecta#ce r &:s$r:a#ce a 4ra#smitta#ce t rFaFt=1

4.

i# case $f $*aque $:@ects, t=0, rFa=1

5. >alue D the su:@ecti5e measures $f reflecta#ce, li(ht $r !ark a**eara#ce acc$r!i#( t$

scale fr$m 0(a:s$lute :lack)t$ 10(a:s$lute Ahite) c$#5erti:le i#t$ reflecta#ce r=5(5.1)
6.

the e e res*$#!s t$ a ra#(e $f illumi#ati$# le5els eCte#!i#( $5er a milli$# $r!ers $f <he# !elta 9 (maC)?9(s)=4, Ae ha5e a c$m*letel me#$ !irecti$#al li(ht. 9 :eta = 9(#)Gc$s(:eta) 9 :eta = illumi#ati$# $# a *la#e fitle! : :eta !e(ree 9 (#) = illumi#ati$# $# a #$rmal *la#e

ma(#itu!e fr$m 0.1 luC (full m$$#li(ht) t$ 100000 luC(:ri(ht su# li#e)
7. 8.

8eta = a#(le $f i#ci!e#ce

9. 10.

the *r$*$rti$# $f ceme#t, sa#! a#! a((re(ates is 1H2 $r 3H4 $r 6 'ime c$#crete D miCture $f slake! lime, fi#e a((re(ate, a#! c$urse a((re(ate. (1H2H4), Iua#tit $f Aater arri5i#( at a# *$i#t i# a Aatershe! is !eri5e! fr$m I=&1) &= area $f Aatershe! i# acres 1=c$efficie#t $f ru#$ff

Aater.
11.

)=is a qua#tit !eri5e! fr$m the am$u#t $f rai# that ca# :e eC*ecte! f$r a selecte! freque#c c$m:i#e! Aith the farthest !ista#ce.
12.

st$rm

/seful scales $f ma*s em*l$ e! f$r re(i$#al *la##i#( are 1H250000, 1H50000.
13. 1H50,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*h ma *r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 10 mts. 14. 1H25,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*h ma :e *r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 5 mts. 15. 1H10,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*h ma :e *r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 2 mts. 16. )t is rec$mme#!e! f$r 1e#tral 8usi#ess 0istrict Ahere m$re accurac a#! lar(e scales

(1H1000. 1H2000) are require! f$r *la##i#(.

17.

%arallel *arki#( ;='?5.9 L X

30 Ja#(le ;='.1.25?5

1.25

N= number of parking spaces

5 45 angle N=L-1.25/3.54 6 angle N=L-2.16/2.!" #ig$t angle N=L/2.5

18. 3u##i#( s*e! is the a5era(e s*ee! mai#tai#e! : a 5ehicle $5er a (i5e# c$urse Ahile the

5ehicle is i# the m$ti$#.

19. 3u##i#( s*ee! = le#(th $f c$urse

le#(th $f c$urse @$ur#e time D !ela

3u##i#( time

20. K$ur#e s*ee! is k#$A# as $5er all tra5el s*ee! i#clu!i#( all !ela s i#curre! e#.r$ute.

K$ur#e s*ee! =

!ista#ce 4$tal @$ur#e time (i#clu!i#( !ela s)

21. %ar&ing inde'( *erce#ta(e $f the the$reticall a5aila:le #um:er $f *arki#( :a s actuall

$ccu*ie! : *arke! 5ehicles. %arki#( i#!eC = #$ $f :a s $ccu*ie! C 100

4he$retical #um:er $f :a s a5aila:le

22. 4he humi!it

$f air ca# :e !escri:e! as a:s$lute humi!it (&,), i.e., the am$u#t $f

m$isture actuall *rese#t i# u#it mass $r u#it 5$lume $f air, i# terms $f (?L( $r (?cu:ic meter. 4he relati5e humi!it (3,) is, h$Ae5er, a much m$re useful f$rm $f eC*ressi$#, as it (i5es a !irect i#!icati$# $f e5a*$rati$# *$te#tial. 3,=&,?S,G100 S,=saturati$# humi!it . 4he atm$s*heric *ressure (%) is the sum $f the *artial *ressure $f !r air (%a) a#! the *artial 5a*$ur *ressure6 (%5)H %=%aF%5 3,=&,?S,G100=%a?%5G100. >a*$ur *ressure u#its=;eAt$# *er meter square. (;?m3).
23. 1$#!ucti$# heat fl$A rate thr$u(h a Aall $f a (i5e# area ca# :e !escri:e! : the equati$#

Ic = & C / C 4
24. 4he rate $f 5e#tilati$# heat fl$A is !escri:e! : H I5 = 1300 C > C 4 25. 4he am$u#t $f Aater a5aila:le at the reser5$ir site ma :e c$m*ute! as f$ll$AsH

<=3 M & M % <= the am$u#t $f Aater a5aila:le i# cu:ic meters. 3= a##ual rai#fall i# m &= catchme#t area i# sq.m %= the likel *erce#t $f ru#.$ff f$r that ear.
26. >$lume $f the reser5$ir= >=(,?6)G(&1F&3F4&2) 27. 4he ru# $ff reachi#( the seAer is (i5e# : the eC*ressi$#H

I=10 1i& <here NI6 is ru# $ff i# cu. -? hec 1.c$efficie#t i...i#te#sit $f rai# fall i# mm?hec & is the area $f the !rai#a(e !istrict i# hectares.
28. <ater f$r fire !ema#!H the requireme#t $f Aater f$r firefi(hti#( i# OIP liters? !a ma :e

calculate! : f$rmula f$r )#!ia# c$#!iti$#sH I=100,000 C )* <here N%6 is *$*ulati$# i# th$usa#!s.

29. %$Aer (<) = 5$lta(e 5 C curre#t i

1 L<= 1.34 ,% 1,%=746 <

4(# R 1 AR PLA-S (- (-D(A

P2AN NOTES -t 2as "ased on Harrod;'omar )odel. Community 'e!elopment *rogram launc&ed in 1952 Eocus on agriculture. price sta"ility. po2er and transport Eirst *lan 41951 J 566 5lso called )a&alano"is *lan named a%ter t&e 2ell 1no2n economist 9econd *lan 41956 ; 616 +arget /ro2t&7 4.5K 5ctual /ro2t&7 4.27K Eocus ; rapid industriali:ation 5d!ocated &uge imports t&roug& %oreign loans 9&i%ted "asic emp&asis %rom agriculture to industry %ar too soon. 'uring t&is plan. prices increased "y 30K. against a decline o% 13K during t&e Eirst *lan 5t its conception. it 2as %elt t&at -ndian economy &as entered a ta1e;o%% stage. +&ere%ore. its aim 2as to ma1e -ndia a Gsel%;reliantG and Gsel%; generatingG economy (ased on t&e e8perience o% %irst t2o plans. agriculture 2as gi!en top priority to support t&e e8ports and industry. Complete %ailure in reac&ing t&e targets due to un%oreseen e!ents ; C&inese aggression 419626. -ndo;*a1 2ar 419656. se!ere droug&t 1965; 66 *re!ailing crisis in agriculture and serious %ood s&ortage necessitated t&e emp&asis on agriculture during t&e 5nnual *lans 'uring t&ese plans a 2&ole ne2 agricultural strategy 2as implemented. -t in!ol!ing 2ide;spread distri"ution o% &ig&;yielding !arieties o% seeds. e8tensi!e use o% %ertili:ers. e8ploitation o% irrigation potential and soil conser!ation. 'uring t&e 5nnual *lans. t&e economy a"sor"ed t&e s&oc1s generated during t&e +&ird *lan -t pa!ed t&e pat& %or t&e planned gro2t& a&ead )ain emp&asis 2as on gro2t& rate o% agriculture to ena"le ot&er sectors to mo!e %or2ard -t 2as a success%ul plan primarily "ecause o% good &ar!ests in t&e last t2o years o% t&e plan

+&ird *lan 41961 ; 666 L+arget /ro2t&7 5.6K 5ctual /ro2t&7 2.84K

+&ree 5nnual *lans 41966;696 *lan &oliday %or 3years

Eourt& *lan

41969 ; 746 +arget /ro2t&7 5.7K 5ctual /ro2t&7 3.30K

Eirst t2o years o% t&e plan sa2 record production. +&e last t&ree years did not measure up due to poor monsoon. -n%lu8 o% (anglades&i re%ugees "e%ore and a%ter 1971 -ndo;*a1 2ar 2as an important issue +&e %i%t& plan 2as prepared and launc&ed "y '.'. '&ar.

Ei%t& *lan 41974;796 +arget /ro2t&7 4.4K 5ctual /ro2t&7 3.8

-t proposed to ac&ie!e t2o main o"Decti!es7 Gremo!al o% po!ertyG 4/ari"i Hatao6 and Gattainment o% sel% reliance *romotion o% &ig& rate o% gro2t&. "etter distri"ution o% income and signi%icant gro2t& in t&e domestic rate o% sa!ings 2ere seen as 1ey instruments +&e plan 2as terminated in 1978 4instead o% 19796 2&en Manta *arty /o!t. rose to po2er. +&ere 2ere 2 9i8t& *lans. Manta /o!t. put %or2ard a plan %or 1978; 1983. Ho2e!er. t&e go!ernment lasted %or only 2 years. Congress /o!t. returned to po2er in 1980 and launc&ed a di%%erent plan

<olling *lan 41978 J 806 9i8t& *lan 41980 ; 856 +arget /ro2t&7 5.2K 5ctual /ro2t&7 5.66K

Eocus ; -ncrease in national income. moderni:ation o% tec&nology. ensuring continuous decrease in po!erty and unemployment. population control t&roug& %amily planning. etc.

9e!ent& *lan 41985 ; 906 +arget /ro2t&7 5.0K 5ctual /ro2t&7 6.01K

Eocus ; rapid gro2t& in %ood;grains production. increased employment opportunities and producti!ity 2it&in t&e %rame2or1 o% "asic tenants o% planning. +&e plan 2as !ery success%ul. t&e economy recorded 6K gro2t& rate against t&e targeted 5K.

+&e eig&t& plan 2as postponed "y t2o years "ecause o% political uncertainty at t&e Centre >orsening (alance o% *ayment position and in%lation during 1990;91 2ere t&e 1ey issues during t&e launc& o% t&e plan. +&e plan undertoo1 drastic policy measures to com"at t&e "ad economic situation and to underta1e an annual a!erage gro2t& o% 5.6K 9ome o% t&e main economic outcomes during eig&t& plan period 2ere rapid economic gro2t&. &ig& gro2t& o% agriculture and allied sector. and

ig&t& *lan 41992 ; 976

+arget /ro2t&75.6K 5ctual /ro2t&7 6.78K Bint& *lan 41997; 20026 +arget /ro2t&7 6.5K 5ctual /ro2t&7 5.35K

manu%acturing sector. gro2t& in e8ports and imports. impro!ement in trade and current account de%icit. -t 2as de!eloped in t&e conte8t o% %our important dimensions7 0uality o% li%e. generation o% producti!e employment. regional "alance and sel%; reliance.

/oals7 +o ac&ie!e 8K /'* gro2t& rate <eduction o% po!erty ratio "y 5 percentage points "y 2007. *ro!iding gain%ul &ig& ,uality employment to t&e addition to t&e la"our %orce o!er t&e tent& plan period. +ent& *lan 42002 ; 20076 +arget /ro2t&7 8.1K 5ctual /ro2t&7 7.7K 3ni!ersal access to primary education "y 2007. <eduction in gender gaps in literacy and 2age rates "y at least 50K "y 2007. <eduction in decadal rate o% population gro2t& "et2een 2001 and 2011 to 16.2K -ncrease in literacy rate to 72K 2it&in t&e plan period and to 80K "y 2012. <eduction o% -n%ant )ortality <ate 4-)<6 to 45 per 1000 li!e "irt&s "y 2007 and to 28 "y 2012. -ncrease in %orest and tree co!er to 25K "y 2007 and 33K "y 2012. 5ll !illages to &a!e sustained access to pota"le drin1ing 2ater "y 2012. Cleaning o% all maDor polluted ri!ers "y 2007 and ot&er noti%ied stretc&es "y 2012. /oals7 5ccelerate /'* gro2t& %rom 8K to 10K. -ncrease agricultural /'* gro2t& rate to 4K per year. Create 70 million ne2 2or1 opportunities and reduce educated unemployment to "elo2 5K. <aise real 2age rate o% uns1illed 2or1ers "y 20 percent <educe dropout rates o% c&ildren %rom elementary sc&ool %rom 52.2K in

2003;04 to 20K "y 2011;12. -ncrease literacy rate %or persons o% age 7 years or a"o!e to 85K. Lo2er gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point. -ncrease t&e percentage o% eac& co&ort going to &ig&er education %rom t&e present 10K to 15K le!ent& *lan 42007 ; 20126 +arget /ro2t&7 8.3K 5ctual /ro2t&7 7.9K <educe in%ant mortality rate to 28 and maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 li!e "irt&s <educe +otal Eertility <ate to 2.1 *ro!ide clean drin1ing 2ater %or all "y 2009. <educe malnutrition among c&ildren "et2een 0;3 years to &al% its present le!el. <educe anaemia among 2omen and girls "y 50K. <aise t&e se8 ratio %or age group 0;6 to 935 "y 2011;12 and to 950 "y 2016;17 nsure t&at at least 33 percent o% t&e direct and indirect "ene%iciaries o% all go!ernment sc&emes are 2omen and girl c&ildren nsure all;2eat&er road connection to all &a"itation 2it& population 1000 and a"o!e 4500 in &illy and tri"al areas6 "y 2009. and ensure co!erage o% all signi%icant &a"itation "y 2015 Connect e!ery !illage "y telep&one "y Bo!em"er 2007 and pro!ide "road"and connecti!ity to all !illages "y 2012 -ncrease %orest and tree co!er "y 5 percentage points. 5ttain >H? standards o% air ,uality in all maDor cities "y 2011;12. +reat all ur"an 2aste 2ater "y 2011;12 to clean ri!er 2aters. -ncrease energy e%%iciency "y 20 percentage points "y 2016;17

Chapter ;ise gate material

C(&1 PLA--(-*:
95$luti$# $f citiesQ %ri#ci*les $f cit *la##i#(Q t *es $f cities 7 #eA t$A#sQ *la##i#( re(ulati$# a#! :uil!i#( : e laAsQ ec$.cit c$#ce*tQ sustai#a:le !e5el$*me#t.

%rin*iples of *it+ planning

1. /r:a# area is *rimaril the seat $f *$litical, reli(i$us, c$mmercial a#! cultural lea!ers $f the s$ciet . 2. >illa(e . ,uma# settleme#t #$t eCcee!i#( 5000 *$*ulati$#. %ri#ci*le $ccu*ati$# is a(riculture 3. 4$A#s . *ri#ci*les $ccu*ati$# is $ther tha# a(riculture 5000R*$*ulati$#S 20000 -e!ium t$A#.20000.50000 'ar(e t$A#.50000.100000 4. 5. 1e#tral 5illa(e . -$re tha# 2000 *$*ulati$#, Su**lies, tra!e, i#stituti$#. ;eA t$A# . #eAl esta:lishe! f$r the *ur*$se $f s*ecific ec$#$mic acti5ities, f$r

09 c$#ce#trati#( the *$*ulati$# $f lar(e ur:a# settleme#t a#! l$cati$#. 6. 1it . *$*ulati$#S100000

c$#ce#trati#( i# a se*arate

Ne, to,ns

;eA ur:a# settleme#ts ha5e c$me i#t$ :ei#( all $5er the A$rl! thr$u(h$ut huma# hist$r , ma# s*$#ta#e$usl : the N$r(a#ic (r$Ath6 $f 5illa(es a#! ma# : !eli:erate *la#tati$#. 4he #eA t$A#s m$5eme#t here !escri:e! :e(a# Aith 9:e#eBer ,$Aar!6s *r$*$sal f$r =ra!e cities a#! the esta:lishme#t i# 9#(la#! $f 'etch A$rth (1903) a#! <elA # =ar!e# 1it . )ts *rimar *ur*$se is t$ *r$5i!e a# alter#ati5e t$ the $5er(r$Ath, c$#(esti$# a#! Su:ur:a# s*raAl $f cities : creati#( #eA m$!erate siBe! t$A#s i# Ahich *e$*le ca# ha5e ($$! h$mes i# health a#! *leasa#t surr$u#!i#(s #ear their *laces $f A$rk, Aith ur:a# ser5ices a#! cultural facilities a#! access t$ the $*e# c$urt ar!.

1. 4$A# *la##i#( is a scie#ce c$#sists i# c$llecti#(, c$rrelati#( a#! a#al si#( the facts a:$ut a t$A#.

2. 4he art lies i# arra#(i#( the c$m*$#e#ts $f a t$A# i# such a Aa that the fi#al result is i# the f$rm $f a :eautiful, c$#5e#ie#t, ec$#$mical a#! efficie#t u#it. 3. 4he t$A# *la##i#( eC*ress the life $f a# area a#! the architecture re5eals its s*irit. 4. -$ha#@$ D !ar$ Aas !isc$5ere! : 8ritish archae$l$(ist sir @$h# marshall i# 1922. 5. %$*ulati$# $f m$ha#@$ D !ar$ (2600 81) Aas estimate! as 40000 D 60000 6. 2:@ects $f t$A# *la##i#(
8eaut 1$#5e#ie#ce 9#5ir$#me#t ,ealth

7. %ri#ci*les $f t$A# *la##i#(

=ree# :elt ,$usi#( %u:lic :uil!i#(s 3ecreati$# ce#ters 3$a! s stem 4ra#s*$rt facilities E$#i#(

8. 4$*$l$(ical features c$#tri:uti#( t$ the $ri(i# $f t$A#s are

1$#!iti$#s fa5$ura:le f$r i#!ustrial u#its. ,ill areas t$ achie5e the $:@ect $f securit .

 %lai# areas useful f$r :usi#ess acti5ities. 3i5er :a#ks Sea $r $cea# fr$#ts.

9. +u#cti$#al as*ects res*$#si:le f$r the $ri(i# a#! t$A#s are

e!ucati$# health res$rts *$litical 3eli(i$us

10. =r$Ath $f t$A#s 1. ;atural D Aith$ut a# future *la##i#(

1$#ce#tric s*rea! 3i::$# !e5el$*me#t D al$#( mai# r$a!s Satellite (r$Ath D i#!i5i!ual scattere! (r$Ath D irre(ular

2. %la##e! (r$Ath D c$#tr$lle!

3ules a#! re(ulati$# 0istri:uti$#

%lanning regulations and building b+ela,s

Lines of building frontages

8uil!i#( li#e Dli#e u* t$ Ahich the *li#th $f a :uil!i#( a!@$i#i#( a street $r a# eCte#si$# $f street. 1$#tr$l li#e D eCtra mar(i# fr$m :uil!i#( li#e Ahich attracts 5ehicle *arki#(.

-+pe of road

.*tual li/its in urban areas Building line 30 m 15 m 9m 9m 0ontrol line 45 m 24 m 25 m 15 m

;ati$#al a#! state hi(hAa s -a@$r !istrict r$a!s 2ther !istrict r$a!s >illa(e r$a!s

Built up area of buildings

8uilt.u* $r c$5ere! area = *l$t area D $*e# s*aces +l$$r area rati$, +&3 = c$5ere! area $f all fl$$rs C100 %l$t area )# a :usi#ess area, the c$5ere! area shall #$t eCcee! 75T $f *l$t area )# a# i#!ustrial, the c$5ere! area shall #$t eCcee! 60T )# a resi!e#tial area, .rea of plot 'ess tha# 200 SIm 200 D 500 500 D 1000 -$re tha# 1000 60T 50T 40T 33.33T

"uilding bye7la;s
& : elaA is a l$cal laA frame! : a su:$r!i#ate auth$rit . 8uil!i#( c$!es $r : e.laAs are !efi#e! as sta#!ar!s a#! s*ecificati$#s !esi(#e! t$ (ra#t mi#imum safe(uar!s t$ the A$rkers !uri#( c$#structi$#Q t$ the health a#! c$mf$rt $f usersQ a#! t$ *r$5i!e e#$u(h safet t$ the *u:lic i# (e#eral. 2:@ects $f : elaAsH
1. =ui!eli#es t$ the !esi(#i#( architect $r e#(i#eer. 2. %re5e#t ha*haBar! !e5el$*me#t.

&**lica:ilit $f :uil!i#( : elaAsH

1. &!!iti$#s a#! alterati$#s t$ a :uil!i#(H 2. ;eA c$#structi$# 3. 3equireme#t $f $*e# s*ace.

1loor spa*e inde'( the rati$ $f the t$tal :uilt u* area i#clusi5e $f Aalls $f all the fl$$rs t$ the area $f the la#! $# Ahich the :uil!i#( the :uil!i#( sta#!s is k#$A# as fl$$r s*ace i#!eC $r +.S.). 4he l$cal auth$rit !etermi#es the 5alue $f +S) a#! it ma :e !iffere#t f$r !iffere#t areas a#! f$r !iffere#t :uil!i#(s $f the t$A#. 2atellite to,ns(

4erm first a**lie! : =ar!e# cit a!5$cates $f ;eA t$A#s, Ahich Aere th$u(ht $f as mai#l self.c$#tai#e! a#! se*arate! : (ree# :elts fr$m ma@$r cities, :ut ec$#$micall a#! culturall relate! t$ term. Su:seque#tl the term Aas s$metimes use! f$r lar(e.scale cit fri#(e !e5el$*me#ts m$re i#telli(i:ilit #ame!6 i#!ustrial su:ur:s6.

4he term6quasi.satellite6 Aas a**lie! : the '$#!$# c$u#tr c$u#cil a:$ut 1930 t$ s$me $f its su:ur:a# h$usi#( *r$@ects $f a *urel !$rmit$r character. Satellite t$A#s are $fte# *la##e! t$ im*leme#t a *$lic $f !ece#traliBati$# fr$m a lar(e cit i# *refere#ce t$ su:ur:a# !e5el$*me#t.

1it *la##i#( is the attem*t t$ eCert a Aell.c$#si!ere! c$#tr$l $# :ehalf $f the *e$*le $f

a cit $5er the !e5el$*me#t $f their *h sical e#5ir$#me#t as a Ah$le.

 1it

*la##i#( sta#!s #$t $#l

f$r a l$#(er l$$k ahea! i# *la##i#( mu#ici*al

im*r$5eme#ts tha# has :ee# cust$mar i# the *ast, :ut es*eciall f$r a :r$a!er a#! m$re *e#etrati#( 5isi$# $f the i#terrelati$#s :etAee# a**are#tl !isti#ct li#es $f *la##i#( i# cities a#! re(i$#s, a#! $f the *r$f$u#! i#flue#ce Ahich acti5ities carrie! $# i# $#e *art $f the fiel! a#! Aith a 5ieA t$ $#e set $f *ur*$ses ma ha5e u*$# c$#!iti$#s i# a#$ther *art $f the fiel!.

)t takes acc$u#t $f the i#flue#ce $f street *la#s a#! !e*ths $f :l$cks u*$# the *re5aili#( t *e $f :uil!i#( a#! thus u*$# the am$u#t $f li(ht a#! air a#! *ri5ac i# the *e$*leUs !Aelli#(sQ $f the effect $f railr$a! l$cati$#s $# the !istri:uti$# $f fact$ries a#! $# the c$#(esti$# $f *$*ulati$# a#! character $f h$usi#(Q $f the ec$#$mic i#terrelati$# :etAee# Aater.su**l la#!s a#! *ark la#!sQ $f the s$cial a#! ec$#$mic 5alues t$ :e secure! : (r$u*i#( e!ucati$#al a#! recreati$#al fu#cti$#s Ahich ha5e $r!i#aril :ee# se*arate!Q a#! $f $ther c$m:i#ati$#s i##umera:le. 4he c$mm$#.se#se a**licati$# $f the cit *la##i#( i!eal ma :e *hrase! thusH <hether the like it $r #$t, Ahether the k#$A it $r #$t, a c$llecti5e res*$#si:ilit rests u*$# citiBe#s $f the *rese#t (e#erati$# f$r maki#( $r marri#( their cit Us future i# c$u#tless Aa s. 1it *la##i#( ma c$#5e#ie#tl :e c$#si!ere! u#!er three mai# !i5isi$#sH 4he first c$#cer#s the mea#s $f circulati$#..the !istri:uti$# a#! treatme#t $f the s*aces !e5$te! t$ streets, railAa s, AaterAa s, a#! all mea#s $f tra#s*$rtati$# a#! c$mmu#icati$#. 4he sec$#! c$#cer#s the !istri:uti$# a#! treatme#t $f the s*aces !e5$te! t$ all $ther *u:lic *ur*$ses. 4he thir! c$#cer#s the remai#i#( $r *ri5ate la#!s a#! the character $f !e5el$*me#t there$#, i# s$ far as it is *ractica:le f$r the c$mmu#it t$ c$#tr$l such !e5el$*me#t. +acilit $f c$mmu#icati$# is the 5er :asis f$r the eCiste#ce $f citiesQ im*r$5e! meth$!s $f (e#eral tra#s*$rtati$# are at the r$$t $f the m$!er# *he#$me#$# $f 3a*i! 1it (r$AthQ

a#! the success $f a cit is m$re !e*e#!e#t u*$# ($$! mea#s $f circulati$# tha# u*$# a# $ther *h sical fact$r u#!er its c$#tr$l. 4he meth$!s $f taCati$# a#! assessme#t (reatl i#flue#ce the acti$#s $f la#!$A#ers, a#! $f th$se ha5i#( m$#e t$ i#5est i# la#!, :uil!i#(s, $r :uil!i#( m$rt(a(es. 4hese meth$!s ha5e a !irect i#flue#ce u*$# the s*eculati5e h$l!i#( $f u#*r$!ucti5e *r$*ert Q u*$# the eCte#t t$ Ahich !e5el$*me#t is carrie! $# i# a scattere!, s*$ra!ic ma##er, s$ as t$ i#5$l5e relati5el lar(e eC*e#se t$ the c$mmu#it f$r streets, tra#s*$rtati$#, seAera(e, etc., i# *r$*$rti$# t$ the i#ha:ita#ts ser5e!Q u*$# the qualit a#! !ura:ilit $f :uil!i#(Q a#!, i# th$se states Ahere *r$*ert is classifie! a#! taCe! at 5ar i#( rates, u*$# the class $f im*r$5eme#ts fa5$re!. 9Cem*ti$# fr$m taCati$# f$r a certai# *eri$!, $r $ther similar :$#us, is a familiar !e5ice i# s$me cities t$ e#c$ura(e a !esire! class $f !e5el$*me#ts, such as #eA fact$ries. 8ut the m$st !irect a#! c$#s*icu$us mea#s $f c$#tr$lli#( !e5el$*me#ts $# *ri5ate *r$*ert is thr$u(h the eCercise $f the *$lice *$Aer, as i# the case $f :uil!i#( c$!es, te#eme#t.h$use laAs, a#! s*ecial !istrict re(ulati$#s. o 4he first $:@ect $f :uil!i#( c$!es, a#! $f the s stem $f :uil!i#( *ermits a#! i#s*ecti$#s thr$u(h Ahich the sta:ilit . o & sec$#! $:@ect is t$ re!uce the !a#(er $f fire t$ a reas$#a:le *$i#t. o & thir! $:@ect is t$ (uar! a(ai#st c$#!iti$#s u#reas$#a:l !a#(er$us t$ health. 4e#eme#t.h$use laAs, fact$r laAs, a#! $ther s*ecial *r$5isi$#s $*erati#( i# a!!iti$# t$ the (e#eral :uil!i#( c$!e $f a cit , are !irecte! mai#l t$Aar! the *r$tecti$# $f *e$*le usi#( s*ecial ki#!s $f :uil!i#(s a(ai#st u#healthful c$#!iti$#s a#! a(ai#st *ers$#al risk fr$m fire a#! acci!e#t. 8uil!i#(s are classifie! acc$r!i#( t$ the *ur*$ses f$r Ahich the are use!, acc$r!i#( t$ their l$cati$# Aith res*ect t$ :$u#!aries (such as fire limits), acc$r!i#( t$ the materials $f Ahich the are :uilt, a#! i# !$Be#s $f $ther Aa sQ a#! f$r each class mi#ute a#! 5arie! *rescri*ti$#s a#! *r$hi:iti$#s are ma!e Ahich, i# the a((re(ate, *la a# im*$rta#t *art i# !etermi#i#( the siBe, hei(ht, *ur*$ses, *la#, (e#eral a**eara#ce, a#! c$st $f the are e#f$rce!, is t$ e#sure *r$*er structural

structures Ahich a l$t $A#er ca# erect a#! th$se Ahich he ca# eC*ect his #ei(h:$r t$ erect. 4he am$u#t $f li(ht e#teri#( a# (i5e# Ai#!$A i# a cit , a#!, i# a (e#eral Aa , the am$u#t $f air, is !e*e#!e#t mai#l u*$# the !ista#ce t$ the #eCt $**$site :uil!i#( Aall, a#! the hei(ht t$ Ahich that Aall rises a:$5e the le5el $f the Ai#!$A. &# eCami#ati$# $f the :uil!i#( c$!es a#! te#eme#t.h$use laAs $f &merica# cities sh$As a c$#fusi#( !i5ersit i# the re(ulati$#s limiti#( :uil!i#( hei(hts a#! h$riB$#tal s*aces t$ :e left $*e#, a#! there are s$me cities i# Ahich there is *racticall #$ effecti5e re(ulati$# at all. 4he m$re m$!er# B$#i#( $r!i#a#ces are :ase! $# stu!ies has li(ht a#! air requireme#ts, a#! *r$mise much f$r the im*r$5eme#t $f c$mmu#it health. <e ha5e c$#si!ere! the three mai# !i5isi$#s $f cit *la##i#(, !eali#( res*ecti5el Aith the la#!s !e5$te! t$ the mea#s $f circulati$#, the la#!s !e5$te! t$ $ther *u:lic *ur*$ses, a#! the la#!s t$ *ri5ate $A#ershi*. <ithi# all $f these !i5isi$#s, the actual A$rk $f cit *la##i#( c$m*rises the f$ll$Ai#( ste*sH o 4he first ste* is a stu! $f c$#!iti$#s a#! te#!e#cies, a sur5e $f the *erti#e#t facts a#! a# estimate $f the m$st *r$:a:le future cha#(es i# th$se facts. o 4he sec$#! ste* is a !efi#iti$# $f *ur*$ses t$ :e attai#e!. o 4he thir! ste* is the *la##i#( $f *h sical results suita:le t$ these *ur*$ses. o 4he f$urth a#! last ste* is the :ri#(i#( $f th$se *la#s t$ eCecuti$# thr$u(h suita:le le(al a#! a!mi#istrati5e machi#er . o 95er $#e $f th$se ste*s $f *r$(ressi$# is 5italQ e5er *art $f the three mai# !i5isi$#s $f the fiel! is im*$rta#t. 4he f$ll$Ai#( cha*ters $f this :$$k, Aritte# : as ma# !iffere#t me#, illustrate t *ical *arts $f the fiel! c$#si!ere! fr$m the *$i#t $f 5ieA s$metimes $f $#e ste* $f *r$(ressi$#, s$metimes $f a#$ther. 95er eleme#t i# their *h sical e#5ir$#me#t affects the *e$*le i# s$me !e(ree :$th $# the ec$#$mic si!e, as !etermi#i#( their efficie#c , a#! $# the aesthetic si!e, as

!etermi#i#( their e#@$ me#t $f life. 4heref$re i# the !esi(# $f e5er thi#( Ahich e#ters i#t$ the cit , :$th $f these as*ects must :e (i5e# Aei(ht

3*o-*it+ *on*ept(
$ttp(///+,eb.tis*ali.*o.u&/doubleplus/*lo4erleaf5*it+/old//ore/definitions/e*o-*it+.$t/ 3*o-*ities are $u/an settle/ents t$at respe*t t$e natural en4iron/ent. 4he use the least *$ssi:le res$urces a#! kee* Aaste a#! *$lluti$# t$ a mi#imum. )#stea!, their ec$#$mies are la:$ur i#te#si5e. 4heir :uil!i#(s make ($$! use $f su#, Ai#! a#! rai#. +$$! a#! ($$!s are s$urce! l$call . &#! tra#s*$rtati$# is limite! t$ Aalki#( a#! c cli#(, Aith *u:lic tra#s*$rt f$r l$#(er @$ur#e s. 4he e#c$ura(e :i$!i5ersit : *reser5i#( #atural ha:itats. 3*o *it+ ai/s at( 6 0e5el$*i#( a# ur:a# ec$s stem Ahich is ec$l$(icall s$u#! mi#imiBi#( the #e(ati5e im*act $f !e5el$*me#t $# the e#5ir$#me#t. V 3e!ucti$# $f ec$l$(ical f$$t*ri#t $f !e5el$*me#t thus sha*i#( a# im*r$5eme#t i# the qualit $f life. V &chie5i#( e#5ir$#me#tal sustai#a:ilit thr$u(h re!uce! (ree#h$use (as emissi$#s, utiliBati$# $f re#eAa:le e#er( , a#! (ree# tra#s*$rtati$#. V 1reati$# $f a 5i:ra#t ec$#$m thr$u(h e#5ir$#me#t.frie#!l *r$!ucti$# a#! i#!ustr that su**$rts hi(h ca*ita (r$ss !$mestic *r$!uct (=0%) le5el V -ai#tai#i#( hi(h air a#! Aater qualit sta#!ar!s a#! a# a:$5e.a5era(e rati$ $f (ree# s*ace *er ca*ita V S$cial harm$# Aith a!equate e!ucati$#al a#! em*l$ me#t $**$rtu#ities a#! a s$cial safet #et V %r$tecti$# $f ec$l$(icall se#siti5e ha:itats, *h sical a#! #$#*h sical cultural le(acies a#! *r$m$ti$# $f (ree# lifest les a#! re(i$#al i#te(rati$#

%rin*iples in 3*o 0it+ 7e4elop/ent 4he (l$:al *$*ulati$# is #$A $# the thresh$l! $f tra#siti$#i#( i#t$ a *rimaril ur:a# s$ciet . <hile ur:a# areas c$5er $#l 2T $f the earth6s la#! surface, a**r$Cimatel half $f the A$rl!6s *$*ulati$# #$A li5es i# these areas. 8 2030 the /#ite! ;ati$#s estimates m$re tha# 60T $f the A$rl!6s *$*ulati$# Aill li5e i# cities (/#ite! ;ati$#s. 2004. <$rl! %$*ulati$# %r$s*ectsH 4he 2004 3e5isi$#.AAA.esa.u#.$r( ? u* (accesse! i# 2ct$:er 2008). 4his re!istri:uti$# $f the (l$:al *$*ulati$# Aill tra#sf$rm t$A#s i#t$ cities, cities i#t$ me(a.cities, a#! me(a.cities i#t$ me(a. re(i$#s. Such u#*rece!e#te! rates $f (r$Ath a#! !e5el$*me#t Aill strai# the ca*acit !e#sities. )# res*$#se t$ :$th the ec$l$(ical a#! s$cial challe#(es resulti#( fr$m these ur:a# tra#siti$#s, Ae must take time t$ re.eCami#e $ur ur:a# 5alues, re!efi#e curre#t meth$!s i# ur:a# !esi(# a#! *la##i#(, a#! search f$r i##$5ati5e a**r$aches t$ e#ha#ci#( s$cial equit a#! ec$l$(ical health. 4his requires i#te(rati#( ma# k#$Ale!(e :ases a#! *r$fessi$#al *ractices i# $r!er t$ u#!ersta#! the *r$:lems that cities face a#! create i# their full c$m*leCit . 4he 9c$ 1it c$#ce*t is $#e such a**r$ach. )t is a h$listic c$#ce*t that A$rks t$ u#!ersta#! a#! !e5el$* ur:a# areas i#t$ sustai#a:le *laces : re.c$#ce*tualiBi#( the *la##i#( a#! structures that su**$rt ur:a# life. 4he f$u#!ati$#al te#ets $f this c$#ce*t acti5el e#(a(e *ractiti$#ers a#! aca!emics fr$m a Ai!e ra#(e $f !e5el$*me#t f$cuse! !isci*li#es t$ A$rk t$(ether t$ ma#a(e ur:a# e#5ir$#me#ts as ! #amic s*atial, s$ci$.*$litical, a#! ec$l$(ical *laces. 4his i!ea has rece#tl (e#erate! a#! (ai#e! su**$rt i# &sia, 9ur$*e, a#! the &mericas. 4ra#slate! i#t$ im*leme#tati$# strate(ies the 9c$ 1it c$#ce*t is c$m*rehe#si5el a**lie! t$ a Ai!e ra#(e $f ur:a# c$#cer#s fr$m !e5el$*me#t *atter#s t$ e#er( c$#sum*ti$#, fr$m Aater treatme#t t$ tra#s*$rtati$# *la##i#(, t$ the 5er s$ci$.structural c$m*$#e#ts that esta:lish the f$u#!ati$#s $f ur:a# life. &lth$u(h limite!, the issues liste! a:$5e reflect the c$m*leCit $f the *r$:lems at ha#!. <e as *r$fessi$#al *la##ers, e#(i#eers, ur:a# !esi(#ers a#! (l$:al citiBe#s sh$ul! stri5e t$ A$rk Aith $r(a#iBati$#s such as the )#ter#ati$#al /r:a# 4rai#i#( 1e#ter t$ !e5el$* a#! refi#e ur:a# *laces :ase! $# i#clusi5e m$!els that i#te(rate ec$l$(ies, ec$#$mics, a#! s$cial equit . $f ec$s stems a#! curre#t *$litical a#! ec$#$mic structures t$ su**$rt these i#crease! ur:a#

8uide lines for 3*o-0it+ de4elop/ent 9c$ cit !e5el$*me#t is a Ah$le.s stems a**r$ach c$m:i#i#( a!mi#istrati$#, ec$l$(icall

efficie#t i#!ustr , *e$*le6s #ee!s a#! as*irati$#s, harm$#i$us culture, a#! la#!sca*es Ahere #ature, a(riculture a#! the :uilt e#5ir$#me#t are fu#cti$#all i#te(rate!. 9c$ cit !e5el$*me#t requiresH 3*ologi*al se*urit+ 1lea# air, a#! safe, relia:le Aater su**lies, f$$!, health h$usi#( a#! A$rk*laces, mu#ici*al ser5ices a#! *r$tecti$# a(ai#st !isasters f$r all *e$*le. 3*ologi*al sanitation 9fficie#t, c$st.effecti5e ec$.e#(i#eeri#( f$r treati#( a#! rec cli#( huma# Aaste, (ra Aater, a#! all Aastes. 3*ologi*al industrial /etabolis/ 3es$urce c$#ser5ati$# a#! e#5ir$#me#tal *r$tecti$# thr$u(h i#!ustrial tra#siti$#, em*hasiBi#( materials re.use, life.c cle *r$!ucti$#, re#eAa:le e#er( , efficie#t tra#s*$rtati$#, a#! meeti#( huma# #ee!s. 3*ologi*al infrastru*ture integrit+ &rra#(i#( :uilt structures, $*e# s*aces such as *arks a#! *laBas, c$##ect$rs such as streets a#! :ri!(es, a#! #atural features such as AaterAa s a#! ri!(eli#es, t$ maCimiBe accessi:ilit $f the cit f$r all citiBe#s Ahile c$#ser5i#( e#er( a#! res$urces a#! alle5iati#( such *r$:lems as aut$m$:ile acci!e#ts, air *$lluti$#, h !r$l$(ical !eteri$rati$#, heat isla#! effects a#! (l$:al Aarmi#(. 3*ologi*al a,areness

,el* *e$*le u#!ersta#! their *lace i# #ature, cultural i!e#tit , res*$#si:ilit f$r the e#5ir$#me#t, a#! hel* them cha#(e their c$#sum*ti$# :eha5i$ur a#! e#ha#ce their a:ilit t$ c$#tri:ute t$ mai#tai#i#( hi(h qualit ur:a# ec$s stems.

W 8uidelines adopted b+ t$e 5t$ 9nternational 3*o *it+ 0onferen*e delegation: 2$en;$en 0$ina: 2 2

H,$S(-*
1$#ce*t $f h$usi#( Q#ei(h:$urh$$! c$#ce*tQ site *la##i#( *ri#ci*lesQ h$usi#( t *$l$( Q h$usi#( sta#!ar!sQ h$usi#( i#frastructureQ h$usi#( *$licies, fi#a#ce a#! ma#a(eme#tQ h$usi#( *r$(rammes i# )#!iaQ Self hel* h$usi#(. (ntroduction

4here has :ee# a# e#$rm$us i#crease i# the le5el $f ur:a#iBati$# i# the thir! A$rl! i# the last 4 !eca!es. )#!ia is a *$$r c$u#tr Aith a lar(e *art $f its *$*ulati$# A$rki#( i# i#f$rmal a#! f$rmal sect$r. )# 1984.85, #earl 37T $f its *$*ulati$# li5e! :el$A the *$5ert li#e. )# )#!ia, the estimate $f i#a!equate h$usi#( $f ur:a# *$*ulati$# is as hi(h as 20.25T. )t has c$#ti#ue! t$ !eteri$rate $5er the last 30 ears. 4he ur:a# *$$r are hit 5er :a!l , ca##$t aff$r! a h$use Aith mi#imum :asic ame#ities a#! theref$re tr t$ fi#! a shelter f$r them i# areas that lack the ser5ices esse#tial f$r a health a#! a!equate life.

%r$5isi$# $f h$usi#( a#! ur:a# ser5ices t$ the ur:a# *$$r is $#e $f the m$st critical challe#(es $f thir! A$rl! =$5er#me#ts. 4he situati$# is *articularl !e*l$ra:le i# lar(e t$A#s a#! cities, es*eciall i# the metr$*$lita# areas Ahere $#e .thir! $f cit Us *$*ulati$# is either *a5eme#t !Aellers $r li5i#( i# slums a#! squatter settleme#ts.

<ousing t$e urban poor 4he ur:a# *$$r *$*ulati$# c$#stitutes 8 cr$re i# the t$tal *$*ulati$# $f )#!ia. 4he ur:a# *$$r li5e Ahich is as f$ll$AsH
)# auth$riBe! slums

 )# u#auth$riBe!?ille(al settleme#ts al$#( railAa tracks, #ear (ar:a(e. 2# streets a#! *a5eme#ts 1it $utskirts )# mi(ra#t $r c$#structi$# c$l$#ies )lle(all e#cr$achi#( the la#!

4he *rese#ce $f slums a#! squatter *rese#ts clearl the failure $f the s$ciet a#! the =$5t. t$ *r$5i!e the a!equate facilities. 8el$A the !efi#iti$#s $f slums a#! squatter are as f$ll$AsH 2lu/( . Ahich i#!icate h$usi#( that falls :el$A a certai# le5el, Ahich is #ecessar t$ c$#tri:ute a huma# !e5el$*me#t. 2=uatter( . Ahich i#!icate h$usi#( that is either the result $f ille(al $ccu*ati$# $r has :ee# !e5el$*e! i# a# u#auth$riBe! fashi$#. )t !e*e#!s u*$# the c$#!iti$#s, characteristics $f the $ccu*a#ts. )# )#!ia, the ma c$#sist $f l$A. i#c$me a#! l$A status *ers$#s Ah$ ha5e :ee# f$rce! t$ li5e $utsi!e the :$u#!s $f te#ure! la#! h$l!i#( i# $r!er t$ sur5i5e i# a# ur:a# setti#(. 9nfor/al se*tor( . the i#f$rmal sect$r arises f$r reas$#s $f ec$#$mic sur5i5al Ahere f$rmal @$: creati$# la(s :ehi#! ur:a# *$*ulati$# (r$Ath. ,$usi#( has 5ari$us relati$#shi*s t$ the i#f$rmal sect$r. )#f$rmal sect$r *$5ert lea!s t$ i#f$rmal squatter settleme#ts a#! *a5eme#t !Aelli#(s. )#!ustrial A$rkers m$stl i#ha:it the slums $r $ther f$rmal sect$r A$rkers, Ahich re5eals the sh$rta(e $f la#! a#! !Aelli#( u#its arisi#( i# the *r$cess $f i#!ustrialiBati$# a#! c$mmercialiBati$#. 2trategies for $ousing t$e urban poor ,$usi#( strate(ies f$r the ur:a# *$$r #ee! a h$listic a#! multi.*r$#(e! a**r$ach c$5eri#( ma# as*ects f$rem$st am$#( them A$ul! :e e#suri#( a!equate su**l $f ser5ice! la#!. 4he #ati$#al re*$rt f$r ha:itat has f$cuse! $# the f$ll$Ai#( strate(ies t$ im*r$5e the a5aila:ilit $f la#! f$r ur:a# h$usi#( i# (e#eral a#! h$usi#( f$r the *$$r i# *articularH

 'a#! !e5el$*me#t sh$ul! :e a @$i#t acti5it $f the *u:lic sect$r a#! *ri5ate sect$r, i#clu!i#(

the c$.$*erati5e sect$r Aith a!equate safe(uar!s t$ *r$tect the l$Aer i#c$me (r$u*s.
%r$m$ti$# $f $*timum utiliBati$# $f la#! a#! releasi#( la#!s i#t$ the ur:a# market. 0e5el$*me#t $f a# aut$mate! a#! ca!astral a#! la#! tilti#( s stem thr$u(h$ut the c$u#tr i#

$r!er t$ e#sure effecti5e fu#cti$#i#( $f la#! market.

1r$ss su:si!iBati$# ca# :e use! effecti5el f$r maki#( aff$r!a:le h$usi#( accessi:le t$ the

ur:a# *$$r.
-a# !e5el$*e! a#! !e5el$*i#( c$u#tries ha5e use! the s stem $f i#clusi$#ar B$#i#( f$r

maki#( a5aila:le la#! a#! h$usi#( t$ the *$$r.

)t A$ul! :e esse#tial t$ create a la#! :a#k f$r the ur:a# *$$r i# $r!er t$ facilitate the *r$cess

$f maki#( them a5aila:le the aff$r!a:le shelter.

.pproa*$es ( 4he sta#!ar!s, i# terms $f s*ace a#! materials, Aere t$$ hi(h a#! the resulta#t c$st $f h$usi#( Aas :e $#! the *a i#( ca*acit $f the *$$r. 4his a**r$ach requires l$t $f fi#a#ce that Aas mea(er. 4he earliest res*$#se $f this situati$# Aas a tech#$l$(ical a**r$ach, Ahich s$u(ht t$ re!uce the (a* :etAee# c$st a#! aff$r!a:ilit : !e5el$*i#( tech#$l$(ical alter#ati5es f$r l$A c$st h$usi#(. 4his a**r$ach ha! its $A# limitati$#s. &#$ther a**r$ach a!$*te! Aas slu/ *learan*e a#! t$e relo*ation of slu/ d,ellers into publi*l+ built, hi(hl su:si!iBe! sta#!ar! h$usi#( u#its. &(ai# this a**r$ach ma!e e5e# the chea*est h$use :uilt u#!er s$cial h$usi#( schemes :e $#! the mea#s $f the tar(et (r$u*. 4he i#a!equate u#!ersta#!i#( $f the ma(#itu!e a#! #ature $f h$usi#( *r$:lems resulte! i# a lar(e *r$liferati$# $f slums a#! squatter settleme#ts i# t$A#s a#! cities. ;$A the ($5t. u#!erst$$! that the a**r$ach that is t$ :e ma!e sh$ul! #$t :e a c$#structi5e $#e. )# terms $f *la##e! eff$rts slum im*r$5eme#t: self-$elp $ousing: in*re/ental $ousing: sites and ser4i*es et*. has emer(e! as alter#ati5es t$ h$usi#( *r$:lems $f the ur:a# *$$r. &ll these a**r$aches acce*t a m$!el $f *r$(ressi5e h$use c$#structi$# f$cusi#( $# *r$5isi$# $f secure te#ure a#! a ra#(e $f :asic ser5ices.

0uri#( the 1950s a#! 1960s, the alm$st u#i5ersal res*$#se t$ slums a#! squatter settleme#ts Aas t$ c$#struct *u:lic h$usi#(. +r$m mi!.60s a !iffere#t a**r$ach :e(a# t$ :e c$#si!ere!H i#stea! $f c$#structi#( sta#!ar! h$uses f$r themsel5es i.e. self.hel* h$usi#(. 4his a**r$ach tra#slate! i#t$ eCecuti$# $f tA$ mai# t *es $f *r$@ectsH sites and ser4i*es a#! slu/ upgrading. /*(ra!i#( i#5$l5es le(aliBati$# $f te#ure a#! i#stallati$# $f i#frastructure. S$me c$u#tries ha5e (i5e# *ri$rit t$ $#e $f the a**r$aches, Ahereas i# s$me c$u#tries :$th ha5e :ee# im*leme#te! simulta#e$usl .

9/pa*t of self-$elp $ousing )# (e#eral, self.hel* h$usi#( *r$@ects ha5e *erf$rme! :etter i# re(ar! t$ aff$r!a:ilit a#!

accessi:ilit Ahe# c$m*are! t$ c$#5e#ti$#al h$usi#(. <ith re(ar! t$ the im*act $f self.hel* h$usi#( *r$(rammes $# ur:a# h$usi#(. -alaAi is the $#l c$u#tr Ahere a su:sta#tial #um:er $f the ur:a# *$*ulati$# is a h$use! i# sites a#! ser5ices h$use. Self.hel* h$usi#( i#ter5e#ti$#s ha5e :ee# affecte! : a #um:er $f *r$:lems a#! c$#strai#ts. Self .hel* h$usi#( seeks t$ :ri#( !$A# the# c$st $f h$usi#( a#! make it h$Ae5er, there a**ears t$ :e relucta#ce $# the *art $f =$5t. t$ l$Aer sta#!ar!s.

2ite and 2er4i*es )# the Usite a#! ser5icesU a**r$ach, each famil is *r$5i!e! Aith a small *l$t, Ahich is ser5ice! Aith a Aater ta*, st$rm Aater !rai#a(e, a seAera(e c$##ecti$# a#! a *a5e! access Aith street li(hti#(. 4he le5el $f ser5ici#( 5aries Aith the :e#eficiar Us a:ilit t$ *a . 4he site a#! ser5ices a**r$ach has 5ari$us a!5a#ta(esH
)t ca# c$5er :e#eficiaries $f 5er l$A.i#c$me (r$u*s Aith$ut hea5 su:si!es thus re!uci#(

fi#a#cial :ur!e# $# *u:lic a(e#cies.

4his a**r$ach i#c$r*$rates the c$#ce*t $f *r$(ressi5e !e5el$*me#t $f ser5ices a#! facilities

!e*e#!i#( $# the res$urce a5aila:ilit a#! (r$Ath $f settleme#t.

)t all$As *e$*le t$ u#!ertake i#creme#tal h$usi#( c$#structi$# at a s*ee! that matches their

#ee!s a#! their #ee!s a#! a:ilit t$ (e#erate res$urces.

Li/itations )t has its $A# limitati$#s likeH

4he :e#eficiaries, *rimaril

<eak#ess i# the im*leme#tati$# *r$cess. +ailure i# the l$cati$# i#te#!e! t$ :e fr$m 9<S, #ee! t$ li5e cl$se t$ their

A$rk*lace i# $r!er t$ kee* their tra5el c$st a#! #$#.a5aila:ilit $f la#! i# *rime l$cati$#s results i# ma# $f these *r$@ects :ei#( l$cate! i# the *eri*heral areas $f ur:a# ce#ters. S$, these settleme#ts remai# u#$ccu*ie!.

9n*re/ental $ousing 4he l$A.i#c$me h$useh$l!s i# )#!ia suffer #$t $#l fr$m sh$rta(e $f cash f$r !$A# *a me#t :ut als$ fr$m lack i#f$rmati$#. 'ack $f i#f$rmati$# is als$ a ma@$r fact$r res*$#si:le f$r l$Aer i#c$me (r$u*s t$ :e ke*t $ut $f the $r(a#iBe! sect$r h$usi#(. 4he c$#ce*t $f U i#creme#tal h$usi#(U has #$t f$u#! acce*ta#ce Aithi# the =$5t.?f$rmal sect$r a#! he#ce, the *$$r *erf$rma#ce, ha5e t$ !e*e#! u*$# the i#f$rmal sect$r f$r their h$usi#( #ee!s. <hether it is a rural $r ur:a# area, la#! a5aila:ilit a#! la#! te#ure f$rm the :ase $f the h$usi#( *r$:lem. )# ur:a# areas, there is #$ such scheme a#! the *rice $f ur:a# la#! :ei#( Ahat it is, it is :e $#! the reach $f the *$$r. 1$#seque#tl , resulti#( i# la#! e#cr$achme#t : the *$$r. &ls$, the l$A.i#c$me (r$u* h$useh$l!s te#! t$ :u u#auth$riBe! *l$ts fr$m *ri5ate !e5el$*ers Ah$X ille(all X c$#5ert a(ricultural la#! i#t$ resi!e#tial c$l$#ies. 4he le(al status $f these la#!s is als$ #$t 5er clear as m$st $f these are s$l! $# X%$Aer $f &tt$r#e X si#ce laA *r$hi:its e5e# su:!i5isi$# $f rural h$l!i#(s. <hile #$ e#umerati$# has :ee# ma!e s$ far, it is felt that (r$Ath $f squatter a#! u#auth$riBe! c$l$#ies is much faster tha# th$se $f re(ular h$usi#( i# ur:a# areas i# )#!ia. 4he task f$rce $# ,$usi#( a#! /r:a# 0e5el$*me#t a**$i#te! : %la##i#( 1$mmissi$# $ffere! tA$ estimates. 4he slum &cts $f 5ari$us states ha5e (i5e# le(itimac t$ #$tifie! slums a#! their im*r$5eme#t has :ec$me a matter $f state *$lic , the m$st #e(lecte! area is the s$ calle! u#auth$riBe!

c$l$#ies c$#sisti#( $f ec$#$micall Aeaker secti$#s Ah$ ha5e s$me i#c$me t$ :ec$me eli(i:le f$r a h$usi#( l$a#. )t ma als$ :e #$te! that the state $f -a!h a %ra!esh is the $#l state i# )#!ia, Ahich has (ra#te! secure la#! te#ure t$ ur:a# squatters : *assi#( a# act *$*ularl calle! the X%atta &ctX. )t e#titles a# la#!less *ers$# $ccu* i#( u* t$ 50 sq.m $f la#! f$r resi!e#tial *ur*$ses $# 10 th &*ril 1984.

8o4ern/ent >s approa*$ =$5er#me#t $f )#!ia hea5il !e*e#!e! $# $ther c$u#tries i# !eali#( Aith the slum *r$:lem. &s re(ar!s *$lic t$Aar!s slums a#! squatters, =$5t. starte! $ff Aith a #e(ati5e a**r$ach $f slum cleara#ce Aa :ack i# fi5e. ear *la#s. Slum cleara#ce must aim at im*r$5i#( the cit Us su:sta#!ar! l$calities as Aell as su:sta#!ar! resi!e#tial :uil!i#(s. 0rastic acti$# Aas take# t$ arrest the (r$Ath $f u#auth$riBe! huts $# 5aca#t la#!s. Such c$#structi$#s ser5e as a #ucleus f$r the creati$# $f #eA slums. 8ut it c$ul! #$t im*leme#t success. ;ati$#al 1$mmissi$# $# ur:a#iBati$# set !uri#( se5e#th fi5e. ear *la# als$ l$$ke! i#t$ the *r$:lem $f h$usi#( the slum !Aellers a#! i#f$rmal sect$r. 3ec$mme#!ati$#s f$r h$usi#( the ur:a# *$$r i# 1988, Ahich is as f$ll$AsH
1. ,$usi#( *$lic

must aim at i#creasi#( the su**l $f ser5ice! la#! a#! l$A c$st shelter,

im*r$5i#( a#! u*(ra!i#( slums a#! c$#ser5i#( the eCisti#( st$ck.

2. 4he state must facilitate h$usi#( a#! e#sure access t$ :asic i#*uts. )t sh$ul! #$t :ec$me a

real estate !e5el$*er.

3. 4he sites a#! ser5ices *r$(ram sh$ul! :e eCte#!e! t$ c$5er a# e#tire cr$ss secti$# $f s$ciet .

8esi!es *r$5i!i#( h$usi#(, the *r$(ram sh$ul! :e use! t$ (e#erate em*l$ me#t.
4. %u:lic a(e#cies i# the h$usi#( sect$r sh$ul! :e restructure! f$r fulfillme#t $f their #eA r$le

as facilitat$rs rather tha# *r$5i!ers $f h$usi#(.

/o!ernment action as suc& is t&e only e%%ecti!e measure %or securing ade,uate supply o% &ousing "ecause o% t&e !ery nature o% t&e &ousing mar1et. -t is understood t&at 2it& t&e present rate o% gro2t& o% population. it 2ill ta1e time %or t&e aut&orities to pro!ide a &ome %or eac& and e!ery %amily. +&us a massi!e program &as to "e launc&ed "y our country %or pro!iding &ouses %or t&e ur"an poor. 2&ic& in!ol!es &uge capital cost.

0o//unit+ %lanning
0E1INITION: Community is an interacting population o% !arious 1inds o% indi!iduals in a common space. 5 group o% people 2it& a common c&aracteristic or interest toget&er 2it& a larger city.

Essential ele!ents o* a co!!%nity: 3$o%p o* people7 community is a group o% &uman "eings it can=t e!en "e imagined 2it&out a group o% &uman "eing. 0e*inite locality: t&e %irst condition o% t&e community is de%inite locality. Co!!%nity senti!ent: a community is a local area 2&ic& people using t&e same mores. languages. %eeling more or less common sentiments and acting upon t&e same attitudes. Pe$!anency: 5 community is not transitory and temporary li1e a cro2d. Eor it is essentially a permanent li%e in a de%inite place. Nat%$al: Communities are not made or created "y an act o% 2ill "ut t&ese are natural. 5n indi!idual is "orn in a community it is "y !irtue o% t&e community t&at &e de!elops. Pa$tic%la$ na!e: !ery community &as some particular name. 2&ic& is e8pressi!e o% t&e indi!iduality or personality o% its locality. E11ACTE0 1ACTO9S IN T-E 39O8T- O1 COMM6NIT:: +&e gro2t& o% community is not caused "y any one %actorC !arious %actors li1e

/eograp&ic. 9ocial. conomic and cological %actors &a!e "een acti!e participant in t&is gro2t&. 3eo $ap(ic 1acto$s: +&e more important o% t&is 1ind o% %actor is Land. >ater and Climate.

2an#: +&e most important geograp&ical or topograp&ical 2it& respect to

permanent community is landC in t&is "ot& t&e %ertility and t&e layout o% t&e land are important. 8ate$: +&e %acilities o% 2ater &as muc& to do 2it& t&e gro2t& o% communities at any particular locality it is almost in concei!a"le t&at communities can come up 2&ere 2ater is not a!aila"le. Cli!ate: +&e climate o% a place is also an important %actor in t&e gro2t& o% !illage or ur"an community. Social *acto$s: 9ocial %actors in t&e gro2t& o% communities include peace. security. Co;operation and "usiness etc. Peace: %or a permanent and &ealt&y de!elopment o% communities it is essential t&at t&ere s&ould "e e8ternal and internal peace. Sec%$ity: *eace is "ased on security. t&e permanently gro2t& o% communities "eing -mpossi"le in t&e a"sence o% t&e latter. Co'ope$ation: Community de!elopment is di%%icult to ac&ie!e 2&en t&ere is no co; operation. -n t&e !illages people are so close to eac& ot&er t&at t&ey cannot ma1e progress

2it&out co;operation. Intelli ence an# b%siness: t&e "iggest single social %actor responsi"le %or t&e gro2t& o% a !illage or ur"an communities is t&e intelligence. 8; +&e credit %or t&e impro!ed conditions o% communities must go to t&eir (usiness and -ntelligence. Mi $ation: +&e mo!ement o% people %rom place in t&eir searc& %or "etter li!ing

conditions is a potent %actor in t&e demand %or ne2 &ouses or communities. Econo!ic *acto$s: conomic %actors in t&e gro2t& o% communities includes t&e communities 5griculture and Cottage -ndustries etc.. A $ic%lt%$e: !en today t&e mainstays o% t&e !illage community is agriculture and t&eir gro2t& depends upon t&e state o% agriculture.

In#%st$ies: -ndustries are a !ery important economic %actor in t&e gro2t& o% t&e community.

4hese i#!ustries *r$5i!e a mea#s $f li5elih$$! t$ la#! less *e$*le the als$ $ffer, mea#s $f utiliBati$# $f the leisure.
Ecolo ical *acto$s:

4he Aa $f li5i#( $f !iffere#t *e$*le refers fr$m t$A# t$ t$A# $r 5illa(e t$ 5illa(e acc$r!i#( t$ the 5ariati$# i# ec$l$(ical fact$r. 4here are s$me ec$l$(ical eleme#ts $f the c$mmu#it is %$*ulati$#, 0ista#ce fr$m the t$A#, =e$(ra*hic l$cati$#.
Pop%lation: -ts population considera"ly in%luences t&e li%e o% a community. >&en population increases t&e !illages are denoted "y t&e term to2n 2&ile a %urt&er increase leads to t&e same unit "eing called a city "ecause t&e increase in population also means t&e construction or esta"lis&ments o% mar1ets. increase in t&e no o% s&ops 2&ere ne2 commodities a!aila"le. t&e opening sc&ools and colleges and t&e arrangements o% police and ot&er security measures.

7istan*e fro/ t$e to,n( 4he c$mmu#it is als$ i#flue#ce! c$#si!era:l : the fact$r $f its !ista#ce fr$m the t$A#. 4he su:.ur:a# $r 5illa(es Ahich are at a (reat !ista#ce fr$m the t$A# c$mm$!ities such as c$smetics, #eA cl$thes, fashi$#a:le $:@ects are #$t a5aila:le i# 5illa(es, #$r the *e$*le $f the 5illa(e are i# cl$se c$#tact Aith the *e$*le i# the t$A# i# res*ect $f ec$#$mic $r s$cial status. 8eograp$i* lo*ation( )# the 5illa(es situate! if f$rests, m$u#tai#s, *lai#s, i# the %$lar 3e(i$#s there a**are#tl a s$me !iffere#t i# res*ect $f their s$ci$, ec$#$mic, cultural a#! *$litical life.

'esign o% residential areas7 +&e residential areas to "e care%ully designed 2it& respect to "e %ollo2ing aspects7 1. Aest(etics 2. )asic !ate$ials.

3. -o%sin %nit 4. 2ayo%t 5. Si;e an# s(ape 6. St$eet syste!

4he cre!it $f !esi(#i#( the first true sk scra*er ($es t$ -a@$r <illiam '.@e## .a# architect $f 1hica($.

A encies *o$ -o%sin

+$ll$Ai#( are the three a(e#cies, Ahich ma :e c$#si!ere! res*$#si:le f$r the c$#structi$# $f h$usesH
1. /o!ernment. 2. Co;operati!e &ousing societies. 3. -ndi!iduals.

,$usi#( schemes !ema#! hi(h i#itial ca*ital c$st a#! :ecause $f the l$#( !ura:ilit $f ma# h$uses, the #et a!!iti$# *r$5es t$ :e $f mar(i#al #ature. =$5t has i#tr$!uce! 4he ur:a# la#! (ceili#( a#! re(ulati$#) act, 1976 Ahich mai#l aims at securi#( eCcess ur:a# 5aca#t la#!s i# *ri5ate ha#!s f$r !e5el$*me#t $f h$uses $f acce*ta:le sta#!ar!s f$r the Aeaker secti$#s $f the s$ciet .
9ome o% t&e o"Decti!es in &ousing policy7 1. -t s&ould "e a compre&ensi!e policy. 2. C&ec1 t&e populations gro2t& 3. Hap&a:ard gro2t& s&ould "e pre!ented. 4. nsure ade,uate %inancial pro!isions. 5. Lo2 cost tec&ni,ues. 2. Co;operati!e &ousing societies7 Eirst is t&e sa$as5at( co'ope$ati"e (o%sin society'191<.

&t *rese#t, this a(e#c :ec$me 5er *$*ular :ecause $f e#c$ura(eme#t at ($5er#me#t le5el Aith res*ect t$ tA$ mai# as*ects $f h$usi#(, #amel ,
1. 5c,uisition o% land at reasona"le priceC and

2. Einancial &elp in t&e %orm o% loans to "e paid in installments at lo2 rates o% interest. 5 group o% &ouse;see1ing persons com"ine and %orm a legal "ody. 1no2n as &ousing society.

9n4est/ent in <ousing( it is estimate! that h$usi#( *r$@ect A$rth 3s.1 cr$re *er ear Aill *r$5i!e @$:s t$ a:$ut 8000 me# a#! A$me# !irectl a#! i#!irectl . 4he i#5estme#t i# h$usi#( results i# $5er.all i#crease i# *r$!ucti5it f$ll$Ai#( three Aa sH
1. It inc$eases t(e !obility o* !anpo5e$. 2. It p$o!otes social #e"elop!ent. 3. It p$o"i#es an incenti"e to p$o#%cti"e 2abo%$. 5 massi!e in!estment in &ousing may "e ta1en up in t&e %ollo2ing order7 1. 9lum impro!ement sc&eme. 2. 3r"an &ousing. 3. <ural &ousing.

$f ec$#$m

i# the

<?70@( 4he ,$usi#( &#! /r:a# 0e5el$*me#t 1$r*$rati$# Aas set u* i# 1970 a#! its mai# fu#cti$#i#( is t$ *r$m$te h$usi#( a#! ur:a# !e5el$*me#t *r$(rammes i# the c$u#tr . ,/012 ser5es as the &*eC c$#tr$l &(e#c f$r m$:iliBati$# $f fi#a#cial res$urces f$r h$usi#( a#! ur:a# !e5el$*me#t *r$(rammes. 2#e $f the mai# $:@ecti5es $f ,/012 is als$ t$ fi#a#ce $r u#!ertake the setti#( u* $f :uil!i#( material i#!ustries :ecause $f the fact that :uil!i#( materials c$#stitute a:$ut 70T $f the t$tal c$st $f the c$#structi$#.
CI0CO: C-+N 5B' -B'39+<-5L ' # L?*) B+ C?<*?<5+-?B.

?nder *o/panies a*t. 4he fu#cti$#s $f 1)012 are *la##i#(, im*leme#tati$#, a!mi#istrati$# a#! mai#te#a#ce $f the ;eA 8$m:a a#! $ther areas Ahich ma :e e#truste! t$ it : the ($5er#me#t. 4he #eA *r$@ect is -34 (mass ra*i! tra#sit).

4he mai# $:@ecti5e $f 1)012 is take $ff the e5er.i#creasi#( l$a! $f the eCisti#( cities : *r$5i!i#(, am$#( $ther thi#(s, h$usi#( a#! s$cial ame#tias f$r the *$*ulati$# i# these carefull selecte! ur:a# (r$Ath ce#tres. 9(. ;eA &ura#(a:a!, ;eA ;asik, ;eA ;a#!e!

2ite planning prin*iples

%rin*iples
1. Lee*i#( i# 5ieA the *ur*$se $f :uil!i#( 2. +ast !e5el$*i#(, s$cial a#! frie#!l #ei(h:$rh$$! 3. <here c$mmu#it ser5ices, utilities, ame#ities, mea#s $f tra#s*$rt are a5aila:le 4. <ithi# the limits $f area, :uil!i#( : elaAs 5. <ith *$ssi:ilities $f future eCte#si$# 6. Situati$# $# ele5ate! *lace, Aith u#if$rm sl$*es 7. =$$! s$il surface f$r f$u#!ati$# 8. ;aturall :eautiful a#! ma#.ma!e e#5ir$#me#t 9. =$$! la#!sca*e a#! aAa fr$m quarries, kil#s, fact$ries 10. 1$#si!er le(al, fi#a#cial as*ects. ($A#ershi* ri(hts)

2ite plan s$ould in*lude t$e infor/ation of

1. 4he :$u#!ar $f the *l$t, sha*e $f the site a#! eCteri$r h$use !ime#si$#s 2. Set :ack li#e at the fr$#t, :ack a#! sites 3. &# *erma#e#t :$u#!aries $r marks 4. ;ames a#! Ai!ths $f eCisti#( streets, (ra!e ele5ati$# at ce#tre li#e 5. SiBe a#! l$cati$# $f (ara(es 6. ;um:er $f *l$t, :l$ck 7. 0irecti$#s $f *re5aili#( Ai#!s a#! #$rth li#e 8. +$$t *aths, Ai!ths a#! ki#!s 9. E$#i#( a#! :uil!i#( restricti$#s 10. SiBe a#! l$cati$# !etails $f (as li#e, u#!er(r$u#! !rai#a(e, Aater mi#es, ma#

h$les, 5e#tilati#( *i*es

11. '$cati$# $f fire h !ra#t

Role of go!ernment agencies

1. 1$$*erati5e h$usi#( s$cieties are hel*e! : the ($5t. i# a. &cquiri#( la#! at chea* rates ". %r$5i!i#( fi#a#cial hel* at reas$#a:le rates 2. +irst 1915 SarasAat 1$$*. ,$usi#( S$ciet , 8$m:a . 3. <?70@ A1"B C <ousing and ?rban de4elop/ent *ooperation ( aims t$ hel*

:ackAar! classes, S1,S4 0ategor+ 0ost *eiling #ate of int. #epa+/ent period D of loans fro/ <?70@ 9<S ')= -)= ()) -)= ())) ,)= 8000 18000 25000 42000 100000 5T 7 9.5 10.5 11.5 20 rs 15 12 12 10 30 25 25 20

4. 0970@ A0it+ and 9ndustrial 7e4elop/ent *ooperationC: Bo/ba+. a. -34 (mass ra*i! tra#sit ) thr$u(h ca#cr$i!s $f resi!e#tial a#! i#!ustrial #$!es ". 9ach #$!e ha5i#( 1 lakh *$*ulati$#

Housing policies and design

1. *onstraints of $ousing *o//odit+ a. imm$:ilit ". i#itial i#5estme#ts c. fi#a#ce, tra#s*$rt, la#! *$lic 2. $ousing poli*ies in 9ndia E t,o approa*$es are a. !ema#!.le! h$usi#( a**r$ach .

rural !e5el$*me#t

8ri#( !$A# the mi(rati$#s 9#c$ura(i#( small a#! me!ium t$A#s

". su**l .le! a**r$ach .

maCimiBe the #$ $f !Aelli#( u#its )m*r$5e the qualit $f e#5ir$#me#t %r$m$te l$A c$st alter#ati5es /se $f 5aca#t la#! 4aCati$# *$licies Suita:le ame#!me#ts f$r re#t c$#tr$l

3. $ousing a*ti4it+ depends on a. a5aila:ilit $f la:$r ". a5aila:ilit $f chea* fi#a#ce c. a5aila:le tra#s*$rt facilities d. meth$!s $f c$#structi$# e. rate $f i#terest $r i#5estme#t %.

*re!icti$#s $f future !ema#!s

g. !e5el$*me#t $f *$*ulati$# &. taCati$# *$lic $# real estates i.

4$ur *la##i#( a#! e#5ir$#me#tal c$#!iti$#s.

4. 8eneral re=uire/ents of residential Buildings a. ,ei(ht D Art r$a!, street. ". '$cati$# D #ear sch$$ls, ame#ities, aAa fr$m #$ise, sm$ke. c. %ri5ac d. 2rie#tati$# D Art su#, Ai#!s. e. Securit D safe c$#structi$#. %.

S*ace D 4.56 -2 *er *ers$#.

g. /tilities D electricit , Aater, !rai#a(e, at reas$#a:le rates. &. >e#tilati$#. 5. *lassifi*ation of residential buildings

a. !etache! h$uses

Ahere la#! 5alue is l$A ,$use a#! little la#! surr$u#!i#( it -ar(i#s $# all si!es ,i(hest f$rm $f h$usi#(

". Semi.!etache! h$uses.

*l$t !i5i!e! i#t$ 2 : a Aall &!5a#ta(es like shari#( $f c$sts

c. 3$A h$uses

mi# requireme#ts Aith re(ar!s t$ s*ace Si#(le $r !$u:le stra e! "iel! m$re #et resi!e#tial !e#sit %referre! f$r ')=

d. &*artme#ts e. Sk scra*ers 6. 7esign of residential areas a. &esthetics ". 8asic materials c. ,$usi#( u#it . d. 'a $ut

. .

shari#( the c$st $f la#! a#! ame#ities similar as a*ts.

300.1000 *e$*le sh$Ai#( *arks, sch$$ls, c$mm. ce#ters

e. SiBe a#! sha*e3000.12000 *$*. 2f a resi!e#tial /#it %.

Street s stem

7. National $ousing poli*+

=$5t has *asse! the ur:a# la#! act, 1976 f$r securi#( eCcess la#! fr$m *ri5ate la#! h$l!ers f$r !e5el$*me#t $f h$usi#( schemes f$r the Aeaker secti$#s. @bFe*ti4es
1. +$r i#creasi#( h$usi#( su**l t$ Aeaker secti$#s 2. 4$ check the (r$Ath $f *$*ulati$#

3. %r$*er la#! use *$lic t$ *re5e#t ha*haBar! !e5el$*me#t 4. 3em$5al $f slums 5. 9#c$ura(e h$usi#( c$$*erati5es 6. &!equate fi#a#cial *r$5isi$#s f$r h$usi#( 7. %r$*a(ati$# a#! use $f #eA, chea* l$call a5aila:le :uil!i#( -aterial.

Concept of shelter
1. 5gglomeration J 5n ur"an region 2&ose "oundaries may e8ceed t&ose o% one. usually large city. 2. *rimary city J ?ne or more o% t&e largest cities in a country t&at &olds a relati!ely &ig& percentage o% t&e total ur"an population. 3. 3r"an population gro2t& J re%ers to t&e increase in t&e a"solute num"er o% people residing in cities. 4. 3r"ani:ation J re%ers to t&e proportion o% t&e o!erall population t&at resides in ur"an areas. 5. 'ecentrali:ation J t&e process 2&ere "y gro2t& in ur"an population and employment ta1es place in secondary cities t&at may "e 150 1m a2ay %rom t&e metropolitan area and "eyond 6. 'econcentration J t&e e8pansion o% employment and population in perip&eral areas around a city. 7. Housing is a medium %or sel%;e8pression as 2ell as a sanctuary %or old age.

Landscape Design
%ri#ci*les $f la#!sca*e !esi(# a#! site *la##i#(Q hist$r $f la#!sca*e st lesQ la#!sca*e eleme#ts a#! materialsQ *la#t characteristics 7 *la#ti#( !esi(#Q e#5ir$#me#tal c$#si!erati$#s i# la#!sca*e *la##i#(.

1. 'a#!sca*e is a reflecti$# $f ! #amic #atural a#! s$cial s stems. 2. 'a#!sca*e the$r

. #atural *r$cess, s$cial *r$cesses, meth$!$l$( , a#! tech#$l$( $f

5alues.
3. =$als $f art $f la#!sca*e . Sur*rise, 5ariet , c$#cealme#t, the !e5el$*me#t $f i! llic

*r$s*ects, li#e $f :eaut , ma#i*ulati$# $f #ature u#!ulati#( c$#t$urs, elimi#ati$# $f 5isual :reak :etAee# (ar!e# a#! la#!sca*e.
4. 'a#!sca*e !esi(# !eals Aith . surfaces, e!(es a#! @$i#ts, ste*s a#! ram*s, c$##ecti#(

s*ecific !iffere#ces i# ele5ati$#, *a5i#( a#! !rai#a(e.

5. 4rees act as Nscale tra#siti$#6 fr$m the multi*le :uil!i#( t$ the i#!i5i!ual. 6. 89&/4" D the e5i!e#t harm$#i$us relati$#shi* $f all se#se! c$m*$#e#ts. 7.

>)9< D

& sce#e $:ser5e! fr$m a fi#e 5a#ta(e *$i#t, )s a theme that ma

su((est a#! (i5e a!!e! mea#i#( t$ Aill relate! fu#cti$#sY >)S4& D &# u#frame! se(me#t $f 5ieA, )s a fu#cti$# $f aCis.

8. &M)S D a li#ear *la# eleme#t c$##ecti#( tA$ $r m$re *$i#ts. 9. ,9)=,4 D c$##ects attai#me#t, *$te#tial, eC*a#si$#, eChilarati$#, i#s*irati$#, the

su:lime a#! release.

10. 09%4, D c$##ects re(ressi$#, c$#ce#trati$#, c$#fi#eme#t, shelter, the *r$fa#e a#!

Aei(ht $f *ressure.
11. S9I/9;19 D a successi$# $f *erce*ti$# ha5i#( c$u#ti#(. 12. 4he :est s$urce $f !esi(# criteria is fiel! $:ser5ati$#. 13. 4he :est test $f !esi(# is *erf$rma#ce. 14. stages of lands*ape planning

Sur5e a#! a#al sisH classificati$# $f la#!sca*e t *es 95aluati$# %$lic $r !esi(# s$luti$# )m*leme#tati$#

15. 4rees D e#tra*me#t, scale i#!ucti$#, :ack!r$*, $r#ame#tati$#, #$ise a:ateme#t, a#!

sha!e (r$u#! s*ace.

16. trees are the :asis

17. =r$u* trees t$ stimulate #atural sta#! 18. /se ca#$* trees t$ u#if the site 19. )#stall i#terme!iate trees f$r u#!erstu! scree#i#(, Ai#! :reak, a#! 5isual i#terest. 20. Shru:s f$r su**leme#tar l$A le5el :affles a#! scree#s. 21. 4reat 5i#es as #ets a#! !ra*eries. 22. )#stall (r$u#! c$5ers $# the :ase *la#e t$ retai# s$ils. 23. S$il m$isture, !efi#e *aths, a#! use areas a#! *r$5i!e turf Ahere require!. 24. 1h$$se as a !$mi#a#t theme tree a t *e that i#!i(e#$us, m$!eratel fast (r$Ai#( a#!

a:le t$ thri5e Aith little care.

25. 9C$tic s*ecies t$ :e limite! t$ areas $f hi(h rei#f$rceme#t. 26. /se trees t$ sheathe traffic Aa s. 27. =i5e em*hasis t$ traffic Aa s #$!e. 28. Lee* the si(htless clear at r$a! Aa i#tersecti$#s. 29. &rra#(e the tree (r$u*i#(s t$ *r$5i!e 5ieAs a#! eC*a#si5e $*e# s*ecies. 30. /se *la#ti#(s t$ rei#f$rce the ali(#me#t $f *aths a#! r$a! Aa s. 31. 1$#ceali#( u#Aa#te! areas, u#*leasa#t 5ieAs, elimi#ate (lare a#! re!uce #$ise le5els. 32. %r$5i!e e5$l5i#( seque#ces $f s*ace t$ e#cl$se a#! li#k the 5ari$us site use areas. 33. Stre#(the# the *r$tru!i#( *$i#ts $f mass *la#ti#( Aith !$mi#a#t *la#ts. 34. 9sta:lish 5e(etati$# al$#( the malls a#! Aater Aa s. 35. 1$m*leme#t the t$*$(ra*hical f$rm. 36. /se *la#ts as s*ace !efi#es. 37. 1reate a har:$r like e#tra#ce *$rtal t$ each #ei(h:$urh$$!. 38. 2ite planning pro*edure o o o o o o o

0efi#iti$# $f i#te#t %r$cureme#t $f t$*$(ra*hical sur5e %r$(ram !e5el$*me#t 0ata (atheri#( a#! a#al sis Site rec$##aissa#ce 2r(a#iBati$# $f refere#ce *la# set a#! file %re*arati$# $f eC*l$rat$r stu!ies

1$m*arati5e a#al sis a re5isi$# $f stu!ies D lea!i#( t$ a# a**r$5e! c$#ce*tual *la# 0e5el$*me#t $f *relimi#ar !e5el$*me#t *la#s a#! estimate $f c$sts %re*arati$# $f c$#structi$# *la#s, s*ecificati$#s a#! :i!!i#( !$cume#ts.

o o

39. Get$ods of planting

4ra#s*la#ti#( fr$m ;urseries %r$*a(ati$# : cutti#( =rafti#( 'a eri#( suite! t$ climate a#! s$il har!l a#! r$:ust sha!i#( :ut #$t se#!i#( $ut lar(e :ra#ches e5er(ree#?:e i# leaf !uri#( summer !ee* r$$te! S*ecies ha5i#( lar(e a#! thick la5es t$ :e a5$i!e! are the require m$5e m$isture. )# hea5 cla s$ils kee* fast (r$Ai#( trees at least 15 m aAa fr$m the r$a!. Sh$ul! :e *la#te! 1.8 t$ 3m aAa fr$m the $uter e!(e $f the si!e Ai!th. Suita:le s*aci#( D 9 t$ 15 m

40. #oad side trees

41. 0riteria for plantation on t$e roadside

ha:itual r$$t s stem start $f ca#$* !e#sit $f f$lia(e f$rm *eri$! $f leaf fall #uisa#ce fr$m fruit lifes*a# rate $f (r$Ath resista#ce t$ Ai#!

s*rea! hei(ht rati$ s$il t *e !e*th $f (r$u#! Aater

42. 1$i#a(e $f term Nla#!sca*e architect6 : +re!erick 'aA 2lmste!. 43. 1arless $f >ersailles : &#!re 'e ;$rth ($r!ere! la#!sca*e) 44. %hila!el*hia Aas la#!sca*e! : <illiam %e## 45. 8irki#hea! %ark #ear 'i5er*$$l K$se*h %aCt$#. 46. 4he *r$cess : Ahich a# i#!i5i!ual mai#tai#s its i#ter#al e#5ir$#me#t i# a#

a**r$Cimatel *erma#e#t state is calle! h$me$stasis.

47. 1$mf$rt E$#e c$#ce*t : >ict$r 2l(a(. 48. Site *la##i#( :$$k D Le5i# 'u#ch. 49. 4urfi#( is artificiall *la#ti#( (rass $# $utsi!e sl$*es $f em:a#kme#ts a#! er$!i:le s$ils. 50. street *$les sh$ul! :e ke*t 0.6 m :ack fr$m the cur: si!e Aalks mi#. Ai!th=1m 51. la#!sca*e architecture D K.2. Sim$#!s 52. S$me (ar!e# cities $f &merica D 3est$#, 1$lum:ia. 53. 0r s$il te#!s t$ hi(her tem*, l$A humi!it . 54. =ra!ie#t D rate $f sl$*e :etAee# tA$ *$i#ts eC*resse! as a *erce#ta(e, $r as rati$ $f

h$riB$#tal !ista#ce t$ 5ertical cha#(e i# ele5ati$#, $r as a# a#(le

55. 4he 5ul#era:le area ar$u#! a tree is equal t$ its s*rea! F 1?3r! the area ar$u#! it. 56. Iua#tit $f Aater arri5i#( at a# *$i#t i# a Aatershe! is !eri5e! fr$m

I=&1) &= area $f Aatershe! i# acres 1=c$efficie#t $f ru#$ff )=is a qua#tit !eri5e! fr$m the am$u#t $f rai# that ca# :e eC*ecte! f$r a selecte! st$rm freque#c c$m:i#e! Aith the farthest !ista#ce.
57. 0L9G.-3 D is the se#sati$# *r$!uce! : the c$m:i#ati$# $f ra!iati$#, am:ie#t tem*.,

relati5e humi!it , a#! air m$5eme#t.

58. .LB37@ D +racti$# $f the t$tal ra!ia#t e#er( $f a (i5e# Aa5ele#(th i#ci!e#t $# a

surface that is reflecte! :ack i#stea! $f :ei#( a:s$r:e! f$r mirr$r 1.0, f$r matte :lack

surface 0, Aater surface usuall has l$A al:e!$ :ut its a#(le $f i#ci!e#ce is !ecrease! after.
59. +$r i#frare! ra!iati$# the al:e!$ $f m$st #atural material is l$A. 60. 1$#!ucti5it $f the material !ecreases as the are !rier a#! less !e#se c$#5ecti$#. 61. 9NH3#29@N D is a situati$# Ahe# air is c$l!est at the (r$u#! a#! Aarmer hi(her u*. 62. 377I . is the B$#e $f l$A *ressure Ahe# the air is relati5el quiet :ut m$5i#(

erraticall .
63. G90#@0L9G.-@L@8I D Nscie#ce $f small scale Aeather6.

9limi#ate the eCtremes $f heat, c$l!, humi!it , air e#5ir$#me#t a#! eC*$sure. %r$5i!e !irect structural *r$tecti$# a(ai#st the !isc$mf$rt $f s$lar ra!iati$#, *reci*itati$#, Ai#!, st$rm a#! c$l!. 3es*$#! t$ the seas$#s. &!@ust t$ the m$5eme#t $f the su#. 1$#si!er the Ai#! als$ as a time teste! s$urce $f e#er( . /tiliBe the e5a*$rati$# $f m$isture as a *rimar meth$! $f c$$li#(. -aCimiBe the :e#eficial effects $f a!@ace#t Aater :$!ies. %reser5e the eCisti#( 5e(etati5e c$5er. 1$#si!er the effect $f attitu!e a#! latitu!e. 3e!uce the humi!it . &5$i! u#!rai#e! catchme#t areas a#! fr$st *$ckets. &5$i! Ai#ter Ai#!s, fl$$!s a#! *aths $f cri**li#( st$rms.

Computer Aided Design

&**licati$# $f c$m*uters i# architecture a#! *la##i#(Q u#!ersta#!i#( eleme#ts $f har!Aare a#! s$ftAareQ c$m*uter (ra*hicsQ *r$(rammi#( la#(ua(es 1 a#! >isual 8asic a#! usa(e $f *acka(es such as &ut$1&0, 30.Stu!i$, 30 -aC.

n!ironmental Studies in "uilding Science

1$m*$#e#ts $f 9c$s stemQ ec$l$(ical *ri#ci*les c$#cer#i#( e#5ir$#me#tQ climate res*$#si5e !esi(#Q e#er( efficie#t :uil!i#( !esi(#Q thermal c$mf$rtQ s$lar architectureQ *ri#ci*les $f li(hti#( a#! st les f$r illumi#ati$#Q :asic *ri#ci*les $f architectural ac$usticsQ e#5ir$#me#t *$lluti$#, their c$#tr$l 7 a:ateme#t.

"asic principles of architectural Acoustics

1. 2. 3. 4.

0efH 4he scie#ce $f s$u#!. S$u#! is *r$!uce! Ahe# *art $f atm$s*here is c$m*resse! su!!e#l . S$u#! ca#6t tra5el i# 5acuumQ it requires a me!ium f$r tra#smissi$#. 4he s*ee! at Ahich the s$u#! Aa5es tra5el $r *ass thr$u(h a# me!ium is terme! as s$u#! s$u#! Aa5es str$ke! $# the Aalls $f a# e#cl$se! r$$m Aill :e S$me is refle*ted ba*&. S$me is absorbed b+ t$e surfa*e a#! liste#ers. S$me are trans/itted outside the r$$m thr$u(h 5i:rati$#. 1$#ca5e surface lea!s t$ c$#ce#trati$# $f reflecte! s$u#! Aa5es a#! are *r$5i!e! t$ A$rk 1$#5eC surface te#!s t$ s*rea! the reflecte! Aa5es. 0efects !e5el$*e! !ue t$ the reflecti$# $f s$u#! are ech$es .the re*etiti$# $f s$u#! : reflecti$# $f s$u#! Aa5es 3e5er:erati$# .the (ra!ual *r$cess $f tra#sf$rmati$# $*erates $5er a certai# i#ter5al &:s$r:e#t materials are soft and porous <$rki#( *ri#ci*le is the sound ,a4es penetrate into t$e pores a#! i# this *r$cessQ 4he a:s$r:i#( ca*acit !e*e#!s $# t$i*&ness: densit+ and fre=uen*+ of t$e

5el$cit .
5. a. ". c. 6.

as the reflect$rs.
7. 8. a. ".

$f time.
9. a.

the s$u#! Aa5es are *on4erted into ot$er for/ of energ+ b+ fri*tion.
".

sound.

c.

-$e suspended absorbers i# the f$rm $f i#5erte! c$#es make the hall ac$usticall Lo, fre=uen*+ a:s$r:e#t material sh$ul! :e use! t$ achie5e $*timum t *e $f a:s$r:e#t materials hair felt ac$ustical tiles straA:$ar! *ul* :$ar!s . . 0.30.500 (13mm) 0.17 0.30.0.52 0.40 (13mm) 0.95.0.20 0.20 (25mm) . 0.60 (25mm) 0.15.0.30 (20mm) ac$ustic *laster

($$!.
d.

re5er:erati$# time o4er a ,ide range of fre=uen*+ of sound.

10. a. ". c. d. e. %. g. &. i. D.

c$m*resse! fi:er:$ar! *erf$rate! *l A$$! A$$! A$$l :$ar! quilts a#! mats . .

c$m*resse! A$$! *article :$ar!

Air pollution) control

1. &ir *$lluti$# is mai#l c$#tri:ute! : i#!ustr , fast m$5i#( 5ehicles, a#! aut$m$:iles. 2. fact$rs res*$#si:le f$r air *$lluti$# !ust fertiliBer *r$!ucer i#!ustries

1eme#t !ust 4hermal *$Aer stati$#s ;uclei c$#!e#sati$# )#!ustries &er$ *la#es =ases

, !r$(e# sul*hi!e ;itr$(e# +lu$ri!e ;itric aci! &mm$#ia h !r$car:$#s 3a!i$acti5e s$urces, 1ar:$# m$#$Ci!e.

3. &ir *$lluta#ts e#ter huma# f$$! a#! a((ra5ate res*irat$r ailme#ts such as :r$#chitis,

asthma, lu#( ca#cer.

4. &ir *$lluti$# effects st$#es, metals, m$rtar, A$$! etc.

&mm$#ia D e es 8est$s D lu#( ca#cer

8arium D heart muscles )r$# D s$# i#t$ lu#(s

5. 40T $f air *$lluti$# is cause! :

aut$ m$:iles (12, h !r$car:$#s, a#! $Ci!es $f

#itr$(e#).
6. c$#tr$l tech#iques a. =as a:s$r*ti$#

. .

efflue#t (asses are *asse! thr$u(h the a:s$r:ers *assi#( efflue#t (as thr$u(h s$li! a:s$r:ers

c$#tai#i#( liqui! a:s$r:e#ts Ahich treat the $ffe#!i#( c$#stitue#ts.

". =as a!s$r*ti$#

c$#tai#e! i# a# a!s$r*ti$# c$llecti#( !e5ice.

c. 1$m:usti$# d. =as clea#i#( e. S$urce rel$cati$# %.

+uel su:stituti$#

g. %r$cess cha#(es &. =$$! $*erati#( *ractice i.

S$urce shut !$A# a#! !is*e#si$#.

-oise pollution) control

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

4he *aths $f tra#smissi$# are air $r s$li! *arts $f :uil!i#( c$#structi$# a#! equi*me#t. 4he (reatest qualit Aill fl$A thr$u(h the *ath $f least resista#ce. ;$ises $ri(i#ati#( Aith i# a r$$m Aill :e air :$r#e. ;$ises $ri(i#ati#( Aith$ut a r$$m Aill :e air a#! s$li! :$r#e. )f tA$ *artiti$#s termi#ate at the ceili#( s$u#! Aill easil *ass 0e(ree $f #$ise re!ucti$# is achie5e! : the !iff. i# s$u#! le5el *r$!uce! at the s$urce a#! )#strume#t f$r measuri#( the s$u#! is sound le4el meter. )t c$#sists $f micr$sc$*ic *h$#e Ahich fee!s $# electrical si(#al i#t$ a# am*lifier. &ir $utlets a#! u#it heaters usuall ha5e s$u#! le5els s*ecifie! f$r the air c$#!iti$#s $f

the le5el !esire! at the liste#er6s *$siti$#.

7. 8. 9.

$*erati$#.

10.

<e sh$ul! $:tai# the #$ise re!ucti$# $f !iff. :etAee# *r$:a:le $r eCisti#( le5el a#! &:#$rmall hi(h.le5el are ass$ciate! Aith i#!ustries Ahere as s*eech i#terfere#ce is

!esira:le le5el.
11.

i#flue#ce! : !urati$# a#! !ista#ce $f c$mmu#icati$#.

12.

&cc$r!i#( t$ i#5erse square laA, a !$u:li#( the !ista#ce :etAee# s$urce a#! liste#er Aill <i#! !irecti$# a#! 5el$cit , tem*erature a#! (ra!ie#ts affects s$u#! atte#uati$# i# air. S$u#! tra5el $ut!$$rs Aill :e i#flue#ce! : reflecti5e surfaces $f the (r$u#! a#! :uil!i#(s. %$$r $f a!equate Aei(ht must cl$se ti(htl a(ai#st ru::er (askets $# st$*s a#! :e seale! at 0$u:le !$$rs ma :e use! f$r a!!iti$#al i#sulati$#. 4he tra#smissi$# l$ss $f the material Aith Ahich the !$$r is ma!e a#! $f the i#stalle! !$$r <e (ai# i#sulati$# : assumi#( ti(ht fit $f sash a#! : usi#( hea5ier (lass i# !$u:le $r -ai# i#tersu*ti$#s i# :uil!i#( c$#structi$# Ahich cause i#sulati$# are *i*e slee5es,

cause a s$u#! *ressure le5el re!ucti$# $f 6 !:.

13. 14. 15.

the thresh$l!.
16. 17.

are #$t same.

18.

e5e# tri*le *la#s.

19.

electrical race Aa s, :ack t$ :ack electrical $utlet :$Ces i# Aalls, !uct $*e#i#(s a#! recesse! *a#el :$ar!s.
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

-aCimum *$ssi:le re!ucti$# $f s$u#! Aith a!!iti$#al treatme#t is 6 !:. 3eflecti5e surfaces Aill sustai# the #$ise. ;$ise re!ucti$# = estimate! $r $:ser5e! le5el D !esire! le5el. 1$m*are! t$ air :$r#e s$u#!, s$li! :$r#e s$u#! is a*t t$ c$#tai# m$re e#er( . 4he e#er( ma :e relate! : the 5i:rati#( structure at s$me !ista#ce fr$m the s$urce. &ir :$r#e :ec$mes s$li! :$r#e if it sets c$#structi$# i# m$ti$#. 4he *ath $f s$u#! tra5eli#( fr$m the r$$m, a:$5e t$ the r$$m, :el$A thr$u(h si!e Aalls is 3esi!e#t fl$$r fi#isher *r$5i!es 5ar i#( !e(ree $f im*act i#sulati$#. 4hi# c$m*$siti$# tiles $# c$#crete fl$$rs re!uce tra#smitte! s$u#! t$ 2 D 5 !: 1$rk tile, 5?16 i#ches thick *r$5i!es 10 !:. 4hick car*et D 20 !:

calle! fla#ki#( tra#smissi$#.

27. 28. 29. 30.

31. 32.

& fl$$r $# :atle#s 6 D 7 !:. 3esilie#t stri*s $f $#e i#ch mi#eral A$$! $r fi:er(lass u#!er the :atte#s Aill a:$ut !$u:le Semi !isc$#ti#u$us c$#structi$#s are als$ ($$! air :$r#e s$u#! i#sulati$#s. &# eCcelle#t s$luti$# is the use $f a f$u#!ati$# f$r equi*me#t Ahich rests $# the (r$u#! )s$lat$r eleme#ts like s*ri#(s, ru::er, ma als$ :e use!. ,i(h 5el$cit a#! tur:ule#t fl$A c$#tri:ute t$ hi(h #$ise le5els.

i# i#sulati$# 5alue.
33. 34.

a#! is i#!e*e#!e#t $f the :uil!i#( structure.

35. 36.

Principles of lighting and illumination

Hisual responses( the se#siti5e surface $f the e e, the reti#a, aut$maticall a!@usts itself t$ the am$u#t $f li(ht falli#( u*$# it, a#! this e#a:les t$ the am$u#t $f li(ht falli#( u*$# it, a#! this e#a:les the e e t$ *erf$rm usefull :ri(ht#ess.

$5er a# eCtremel

Ai!e ra#(e $f

4his mecha#ism $f Na!a*tati$#6 is h$Ae5er, limite! i# the se#se that at a# i#sta#t $#l a *$rti$# $f its ra#(e ca# :e useful. 9 es ca# see the thi#(s clearl a:$5e $r :el$A the JadoptionK le5el. 4his i#a:ilit $f the e es t$ a!a*t themsel5es t$ Ai!el c$#trasti#( !e(rees $f :ri(ht#ess is at the r$$t $f m$st li(hti#( *r$:lems. 4he effects are terme! c$llecti5el as N(lare6. 7is*o/fort( the !e(ree $f !isc$mf$rt Aill !e*e#! $# the :ri(ht#ess $f the s$urce relati5e t$ the :ri(ht#ess $f the :ack(r$u#!. 9Cam*leH . m$t$r car hea!li(ht. 2our*e area( .a lam* cl$se t$ the e es causes m$re !isc$mf$rt tha# the same lam* i# the !ista#ce. )# $ther A$r!s !isc$mf$rt is !e*e#!e#t $# the area $f the :ri(ht s$urce. .dditi4e effe*ts( the effects $f (lare s$urces are a!!iti5eQ that is t$ sa , a lar(e #um:er $f small s$urces cause the same !e(ree $f !isc$mf$rt as a small #um:er $f lar(e s$urces $f the same :ri(ht#ess.

#elations$ip bet,een Brig$tness of 2urroundings( a#$ther fact$r $f ma@$r im*$rta#ce i# *ractice is that, if the :ri(ht#ess $f the s$urce is i#crease!, the :ri(ht#ess $f the

surr$u#!i#(s must :e i#crease! : m$re tha# a *r$*$rti$#al eCte#t i# $r!er t$ mai#tai# the same !e(ree $f c$mf$rt.

-$re li(ht A$ul! ha5e t$ :e thr$A# $# t$ the Aalls a#! ceili#( $r else li(hter 1$l$ur A$ul! ha5e t$ :e use! i# the !irecti$#. )# #atural li(hti#( the !isc$mf$rt cause! : :ri(ht cl$u! see# thr$u(h a Ai#!$A is m$re *r$#$u#ce! tha# that cause! : a :lue sk $f l$A :ri(ht#ess. e5e# th$u(h the cl$u! sk i#creases the r$$m6s illumi#ati$# i# *r$*$rti$# t$ its $A# hi(her :ri(ht#ess.

3ffe*t of Her+ Brig$t 0onditions( i# !a li(ht a#! su#li(ht, !e(rees $f :ri(ht#ess a**r$ach the u**er limit t$ Ahich the e e ca# a!a*t itself a#! *r$(ressi5el !isc$mf$rt is felt irres*ecti5e $f surr$u#!i#( c$#!iti$#s. m$re

<ith 5er :ri(ht skies lar(e Ai#!$As cause m$re !isc$mf$rt tha# small $#esQ t$ i#crease the :ri(ht#ess $f the surr$u#!i#(s Aill #$t re!uce !isc$mf$rt :ut Aill i#crease it. 0ontrast grading( & shar* @um* $f :ri(ht#ess fr$m a li(ht s$urce t$ the area surr$u#!i#( it causes !isc$mf$rt, :ut (ra!i#( the :ri(ht#ess :etAee# the tA$ re!uces it. 4he *ractical a**licati$# $f this is k#$A# as N*ontrast gradingK.

.ngle of 7ispla*e/ent( & (lare s$urce, Ahich is u#c$mf$rta:le Ahe#, 5ieAe! !irectl is acce*ta:le Ahe# rem$5e! :e $#! 50Z fr$m the !irecti$# $f 5isi$#. 4his fact$r chiefl !etermi#es the a#(le $f cut.$ff require! t$ scree# a lam* :ecause, f$r #$rmal tasks, 5isi$# is (e#erall h$riB$#tal $r :el$A e e. le5el. )#!ustrial fitti#(s rarel ha5e a cut.$ff (reater tha# 20 !e(rees, Ahich is clearl

i#a!equate, :ut there are si(#s that u* t$ 40 $r 50 !e(rees Aill :e em*l$ e! i# the future.

2$ape of 8lare 2our*e( rece#t stu!ies i#!icate that a l$#( s$urce mai#tai#e! h$riB$#tall is #$ m$re (lari#( tha# a square s$urce, :ut that a l$#( s$urce m$u#te! 5erticall i#creases !isc$mf$rt. 4hus a flu$resce#t tu:e set 5erticall Aill :e m$re (lari#( tha# $#e set h$riB$#tall , a#! a tall Ai#!$A Aill :e m$re (lari#( tha# a l$#( Ai#!$A $f equal area.

7isabilit+( 0isa:ilit al$#e arises Ahe# there are l$A le5els $f illumi#ati$# Ahere the li(hti#( is fr$m 5er lar(e s$urces $f l$A :ri(ht#ess, as, f$r eCH fr$m a lar(e Ai#!$A $# a !ull !a , fr$m a lar(e la li(ht, $r Ahe# the s$urce is a# i#!irectl li(hte! ceili#(.

0isa:ilit effects are !e*e#!e#t #$t $# the :ri(ht#ess $f the s$urce :ut $# its i#te#sit , that is, $# the t$tal am$u#t $f li(ht reachi#( the e es, i.e. area ' brig$tness. 0isa:ilit effects are A$rst i# the area cl$sest t$ the s$urce.

-$e -as& and its 2urroundings( >isual *erce*ti$# $f fi#e !etail is at its :est Ahe# the A$rk $r the thi#( Ae are l$$ki#( at is a little :ri(hter tha# its surr$u#!i#(s. '$st $f 5isual acuit $ccurs Ahe# the :ri(ht#ess $f the surr$u#!i#( area is either 5er much l$Aer $r hi(her tha# the *$i#t $f i#terest, :ut the l$ss is (reater Ahe# the surr$u#!i#( area is :ri(hter. 0isa:ilit is m$re marke! Ahe# the task is small.

Se5ere c$#!iti$#s $f !isa:ilit are alm$st alAa s acc$m*a#ie! : !isc$mf$rt, $r e5e# *ai#, a#! it is s$metimes #$t eas t$ !isti#(uish 5isual !isc$mf$rt cause! : actual !iffere#ces $f :ri(ht#ess fr$m the me#tal !isc$mf$rt $r irritati$# $f #$t :ei#( a:le t$ see a thi#( *r$*erl .

.ttenti4eness( 2#e $f the m$st i#flue#tial $f the #umer$us fact$rs t$ :e :$r#e i# mi#! : li(hti#( !esi(#ers is that the e e is attracte! t$ li(ht.s$urces. 4he term Jp$ototropis/K has :ee# c$i#e! rece#tl t$ !escri:e this refleC acti$#.

%$oto- tropis/ is i#sti#cti5eH Ae te#! t$ l$$k at the :ri(htest a#! m$st c$#trast thi#(s i# a 5ieA, a#! als$ at m$5i#( thi#(s. -$e relations$ip bet,een .ttention: 0o/fort and .*uit+( -aCimum *h$t$tr$*ic effect $ccurs Ahe# the area $f i#terest is 5er :ri(ht a#! the surr$u#!i#(s are 5er !arkQ maCimum acuit $ccurs Ahe# the surr$u#!i#(s are a little less :ri(ht tha# the *$i#t $f i#terestQ maCimum c$mf$rt $ccurs Ahe# the *$i#t $f i#terest a#! its surr$u#!i#(s are equal :ri(ht#ess.

1learl , there, c$#!iti$#s *r$!uci#( str$#( 5isual attracti$# are #$t c$mf$rta:le a#! !$ #$t result i# ($$! 5isual acuit . 2# the $ther ha#!, the c$#!iti$#s *r$!uci#( ($$! acuit are #$t c$mf$rta:le i# the se#se that the require a fiel! $f 5ieA $f u#if$rm :ri(ht#ess, Ahich ca##$t *r$5i!e a resti#( *lace f$r the e e.

3ffe*t of ba*&ground to 4isual tas& on .*uit+: 0o/fort and .ttention( 9ach $f the 5isual fact$rs !iscusse! here ha5e a (reater $r lesser i#flue#ce $# :uil!i#( a#! li(hti#( !esi(#.

1ertai# $f them Aill eCert themsel5es str$#(l i# *articular *r$:lems. 4hus, f$r eCQ the effect $f the sha*e $f a (lare s$urce is $f c$m*arati5el little si(#ifica#ce i# m$st artificial li(hti#( i#stallati$#s as there are feA situati$#s i# Ahich a 5ertical s$urce ca# :e efficie#t a#! (i5e a!equate !istri:uti$# $f li(htQ :ut i# !a li(hti#( it ma :e a critical fact$r as it affects the !esi(# $f Ai#!$As.

+$r (e#eral (ui!a#ce t$ !esi(#ers, the f$ll$Ai#( c$#clusi$#s emer(e clearl fr$m these fact$rsQ
16 4he $:@ect $f atte#ti$# sh$ul! :e the :ri(htest *art $f the fiel! $f 5ieA. 26 4he Nl$cal surr$u#!6 t$ the $:@ect $f atte#ti$# a#! the (e#eral :ack(r$u#! sh$ul!

:e $f *r$(ressi5el l$Aer :ri(ht#ess.

36 4he s$urces $f li(ht sh$ul! :e limite! i# :ri(ht#ess a#! area, a#! sh$ul! :e

(ra!e! i#t$ their surr$u#!i#(s.

3/otional #esponses( 9m$ti$#s ra#(e fr$m ha**i#ess t$ s$rr$A, eCciteme#t t$ !e*ressi$#, calm t$ irritati$#Q A$rk, *ers$#alit , c$m*a# a#! e#5ir$#me#t affect them. -$st $f the su:@ecti5e effects $f li(hti#( *r$:a:l c$me u#!er the (e#eral hea!i#( 2ti/ulation. &# e#5ir$#me#t Aith$ut s*arkle a#! c$#trasts i# :ri(ht#ess is likel t$ :e !e*ressi#(Q the lack $f stimulati$# i#!uces i#atte#ti$# a#! slee*i#ess.

)#!irect li(hti#(, f$r eCQ *r$!uces @ust these reacti$#s :ecause the illumi#ati$# is Ah$ll !iffuse! a#! he#ce Aith$ut c$#trast. )t has :ee# $:ser5e! that Ahat is c$mm$#l u#!erst$$! t$ :e N=l$$m6 i# :ri(ht#ess. c$#trastH t$*.li(hte! museums are #$t$ri$us f$r their (l$$mi#essQ 4he (l$$m is cause! #$t s$ much : lack $f li(ht as : !isa:ilit (lare Ahich *re5e#ts the e e fr$m seei#( i#t$ Ah$le areas $f !etail. )f the c$#trasts are 5er shar*, Ae eC*erie#ce !isc$mf$rt als$Q it is likel e#$u(h that the c$m:i#ati$# $f !isc$mf$rt a#! !isa:ilit lea! t$ a# em$ti$#al state $f irritati$#.

Natural lig$t(

-$e /easure/ent of da+ lig$t(

4he !a li(ht at a *$i#t i#!$$rs is measure!, i# the same Aa as the e e, as a *erce#ta(e $f the illumi#ati$# $utsi!e, a**raises it. 4he rati$ is terme! a 7a+lig$t 1a*tor A7.1C

0.+ is $fte# c$#fuse! Aith a s&+ fa*tor a similar rati$ use! t$ eC*ress $#l !irect li(ht fr$m the sk Q a 0a li(ht fact$r i#clu!es all reflecte! li(ht. -$e 7esign of Lindo,s( 4he sha*e a#! siBe $f a Ai#!$A affects the !istri:uti$# $f li(ht a#! the f$ll$Ai#( sim*le rules (i5e (e#eral (ui!a#ceH !etermi#es the *e#etrati$# $f !a li(htQ Ai!th has

1. 4he hei(ht $f a Ai#!$A chiefl

c$m*arati5el little i#flue#ce.

2. =e#erall , a hi(h Ai#!$A, area f$r area, is m$re efficie#t #$t $#l :ecause it (i5es

($$! *e#etrati$# :ut :ecause it *r$5i!es a lar(er !a li(hte! area Aithi# a (i5e# s&+ fa*tor *ounter.
1. 2. 3. 4.

artificial li(hti#( i# i#!e*e#!e#t $f l$cati$#, climate $r e5e# $f the :uil!i#( fa:ric Ahich it :ri(ht su#shi#e the illumi#ati$# is ar$u#! 100kluC the i#te#sit $f thermal ra!iati$# is likel t$ :e a:$ut 1kA?m sq <hat Ae *ercei5e as li(ht, is a #arr$A Aa5e le#(th :a#! $f electr$ma(#etic ra!iati$# fr$m )t c$#sists $f e#er( *articles D *h$t$#s. 4he Aa5e le#(th !etermi#es its c$l$r. 'i(ht c$#tai#i#( all 5isi:le Aa5es is *ercei5e! as Ahite. the huma# e e6s se#siti5it 5aries Aith the Aa5ele#(th, it is (reatest ar$u#! 550 #m. >el$cit $f li(ht 3G10 *$A8 (air,5accum) 2.25G10 *$A8 (Aater) 1.98G10 %2< 8((lass)

a:$ut 380 t$ 780.

5. 6. 7. 8.

( ell$A)
9.

10.

li(ht i#ci!e#t $# a# $:@ect ca# :e !istri:ute! as 3eflecta#ce .r &:s$r:a#ce. a

4ra#smitta#ce. t rFaFt=1
11. 12.

i# case $f $*aque $:@ects, t=0, rFa=1 surfaces Aith neutral refle*tion *r$*erties Aill :e see# i# Ahite li(ht <hite, if r is a:$5e 0.75 =re if r is :etAee# 0.05 a#! 0.75 8lack if r :el$A 0.05

13.

i# miCi#( c$l$re! *i(me#ts, the a:s$r*ti$#s are a!!iti5e a#! reflecti$#s Aill :e su:tracti5e "ell$A *ai#t a:s$r: :lue 8lue *ai#t a:s$r: re!, reflects re!, ell$A, (ree# ell$A reflects :lue, (ree#

-iCture $f tA$ a:s$r: :lue, re!, ell$A reflects $#l (ree#

14. 15.

& miCture $f all ki!s $f *i(me#t Aill :e :lack, as it a:s$r:s all Aa5e le#(ths. 1$l$rs Ahich a!! u* fr$m Ahite li(ht are terme! c$#tem*$rar c$l$urs. 9.(. D re! a#! (ree#, ell$A a#! :lue

16.

,ue D the c$#ce*t $f c$l$ur, usi#( the c$mm$# c$l$ur termsH re!, ell$A, (ree#, :lue a#! >alue D the su:@ecti5e measures $f reflecta#ce, li(ht $r !ark a**eara#ce acc$r!i#( t$ scale 1hr$maD the !e(ree $f c$l$ur full #ess $r i#te#sit $f c$l$ur, !isti#(uishi#( 14 classes. & 4he i#te#sit $f a li(ht s$urce is measure! i# u#its $f ca#!ela ()). 4he fluC (fl$A) $f li(ht is measure! i# lume#s (+). 2# lume# is the fl$A $f li(ht emitte! : a u#it i#te#sit *$i#t s$urce, Aith i# a u#it s$li! )llumi#ati$# is measure! as the am$u#t $f fluC falli#( $# u#it area, (9) )m?m sq Ahich is 'umi#a#ce is the measure $f :ri(ht#ess $f a surface.(')

*ur*$se, :ut further su: !i5i!i#( each i#t$ 5 cate($ries.

17.

fr$m 0(a:s$lute :lack)t$ 10(a:s$lute Ahite) c$#5erti:le i#t$ reflecta#ce r=5(5.1)

18.

l$A 1hr$ma A$ul! :e alm$st (re Q the :ri(htest c$l$rs ha5e a 1hr$ma $f 12 t$ 14.
19. 20. 21.

a#(le.
22.

the luC, the u#it $f illumi#ati$# i# the s stem i#ter#ati$#al.

23.

24. 25.

)llumi#ati$# fr$m a *$i#t s$urce re!uces Aith the square $f the !ista#ce. 9=1?! sq )llumi#ati$# $f a surface fr$m se5eral s$urces Aill :e the sim*le sum $f c$m*$#e#t S$lar illumi#ati$# is the a5era(e illumi#ati$# recei5e! $# the surface $f a small s*here 4he *ur*$se $f li(hti#( D *ractical D t$ facilitate the *erf$rma#ce $f a 5isual task a#! &rtistic D t$ create certai# em$ti$#al effects >isual acuit = 1?5isual a#(le (%)

illumi#ati$# 9=91F92F[[[[[..
26.

fr$m all !irecti$#s.

27.

e#sure 5isual c$mf$rt

. 28.

1$#trast se#siti5it = least *erce*ti:le lumi#a#ce ! e. G 100T?l$Aer $f the tA$ ('2.'1)G100?'1

29. 30.

5isual *erf$rma#ce is the time require! f$r seei#( the e e res*$#!s t$ a ra#(e $f illumi#ati$# le5els eCte#!i#( $5er a milli$# $r!ers $f <he# !elta 9 (maC)?9(s)=4, Ae ha5e a c$m*letel me#$ !irecti$#al li(ht. 9 :eta = 9(#)Gc$s(:eta) 9 :eta = illumi#ati$# $# a *la#e fitle! : :eta !e(ree 9 (#) = illumi#ati$# $# a #$rmal *la#e 8eta = a#(le $f i#ci!e#ce

ma(#itu!e fr$m 0.1 luC (full m$$#li(ht) t$ 100000 luC(:ri(ht su# li#e)
31. 32.

Climate
0li/ateH a re(i$# Aith certai# c$#!iti$#s $f tem*erature, !r #ess, Ai#!s, li(ht, etc. N)#te(rati$# i# time $f the *h sical states $f the atm$s*heric e#5ir$#me#t, characteristic $f a certai# (e$(ra*hical l$cati$#6. 4r$*ical climates are th$se Ahere heat is the !$mi#a#t *r$:lem, Ahere, f$r the (reater *art $f the ear :uil!i#(s ser5e t$ kee* the $ccu*a#ts c$$l, rather tha# Aarm, Ahere the a##ual mea# tem*erature is #$t less tha# 20Z1. 4he s*ectrum $f s$lar ra!iati$# eCte#!s fr$m 290 t$ 2,300 #m.

1. /ltra5i$let ra!iati$#W290.380#m, *r$!uci#( *h$t$chemical effects, :leachi#(, a#! su#:ur#. 2. >isi:le li(ht, 380(5i$let\.700#m(re!). 3. Sh$rt i#frare! ra!iati$#, 700.2300#m, ra!ia#t heat Aith s$me *h$t$chemical effects.

3art$Mtroposp$ere A3-1 CMstratosp$ere A1 -3 CM/esosp$ere A3 -1 A1 -3 CM3'osp$ere A3 -1 C ---

CMt$er/osp$ere

@;one la+er---16N/s-4 N/s 4he i#te#sit $f ra!iati$# reachi#( the u**er surface $f the atm$s*here is take# as the s$lar c$#sta#t. 1395<?metre square. 21st Ku#e D l$#(est !a . 23.5Z. 21st 0ecem:er, sh$rtest !a . 4here is a sli**a(e at the :$u#!ar la er :etAee# the earth a#! its atm$s*here cause! : Ahat is k#$A# as the N1$ri$lis f$rce6. 4he !r :ul: $r true air tem*erature is a 5alue i# the sha!eQ the therm$meter :ei#( m$u#te! i#si!e a l$u5ere! A$$!e# :$C, k#$A# as the 2te4enson s*reen and alternati4e is t$er/ograp$. 4he humi!it $f air ca# :e !escri:e! as a:s$lute humi!it (&,), i.e., the am$u#t $f m$isture actuall *rese#t i# u#it mass $r u#it 5$lume $f air, i# terms $f (?L( $r (?cu:ic meter. 4he relati5e humi!it (3,) is, h$Ae5er, a much m$re useful f$rm $f eC*ressi$#, as it (i5es a !irect i#!icati$# $f e5a*$rati$# *$te#tial. 3,=&,?S,G100 S,=saturati$# humi!it . ,umi!it is (e#erall measure! : Aet.a#!.!r :ul: h (r$meter. 084.!r :ul: tem*. <84.Aet :ul: tem*.

&#$ther i#!icati$# $r eC*ressi$# $f atm$s*heric humi!it is the 5a*$ur *ressure, i.e., the *artial *ressure $f Aater 5a*$ur *rese#t i# the air. 4he atm$s*heric *ressure (%) is the sum $f the *artial *ressure $f !r air (%a) a#! the *artial 5a*$ur *ressure6 (%5)H %=%aF%5 3,=&,?S,G100=%a?%5G100. >a*$ur *ressure u#its=;eAt$# *er meter square. (;?m3). 4he relati$#shi* $f all these qua#tities, i.e., $f !r :ul: a#! Aet :ul: tem*erature, a:s$lute, relati5e humi!it a#! $f 5a*$ur *ressure is sh$A# : the ps+*$o/etri* *$art.

<u/idit+ re*orded b+ <+drograp$. %reci*itati$# is the c$llecti5e term use! f$r rai#, s#$A, hail, !eA a#! fr$st. )t is measure! : rai# (au(es, i.e., cali:rate! rece*tacles a#! eC*resse! i# millimeter *er a time u#it.

4he !ri5i#( rai# i#!eC characteristics a (i5e# l$cati$# a#! eC*resses the !e(ree $f eC*$sure. it is the *r$!uct $f a##ual rai#fall (i# m) a#! the a##ual a5era(e Ai#! 5el$cit . 4he eC*$sure is m$!erate if the i#!eC is :etAee# 3 a#! 7 m2?s a#! se5ere if $5er 7m2?s. 2:5i$usl this i#!eC $#l :r$a!l classifies the (i5e# l$cati$#Q the actual rai# *e#etrati$# Aill !e*e#! $# the i#sta#ta#e$us rai# i#te#sit a#! the simulta#e$us Ai#! 5el$cit .

Sk lumi#$us 5alues are #ee!e! if !a li(hti#( i# :uil!i#(s is t$ :e *re!icte!.& sim*le su#shi#e rec$r!er Aills re(istrar the !urati$# $f su#shi#e, Ahich ca# :e eC*resse! i# #um:er $f h$urs *er !a , as a# a5era(e f$r each m$#th.

S$lar ra!iati$#H a #um:er $f s$*histicate! i#strume#ts s$lrimeter, heli$meter, acti#$meter a#! * ra#$meter.u#it are Aatt *er metre square. <?mGm=K?mGm. & %it$t tu:e a#! its !irecti$# measure! : Ai#! Aa#e measure : a cu* t *e $r *r$*eller a#em$meter $r Ai#! 5el$cit . &# a#em$(ra*h ca# *r$!uce c$#ti#u$us rec$r!i#(s $f Ai#! 5el$cit a#! !irecti$#al cha#(es. +$r the *ur*$ses $f sh$Ai#( the !iur#al 5ariati$#s $f $#e climatic *arameter thr$u(h$ut the ear, a# is$*leth6s chart ca# :e use!. 4he i#teracti$# $f s$lar ra!iati$# Aith the atm$s*here a#! the (ra5itati$#al f$rces, t$(ether Aith the !istri:uti$# $f la#! a#! sea masses. 4r$*ical climatesH tA$ fact$rsWair tem*erature a#! humi!it . 1our t+pes of *li/ates( 1. ,ar/-$u/id *li/ate( #ear the equat$r. 'ittle seas$#al 5ariati$# thr$u(h$ut the earQ (ust rai#sQ 3, remai#s hi(h, at a:$ut 75T f$r the m$st timeQ 5a*$ur *ressure is 2500.3000 ;?mGm. &##ual rai#fall ca# 5ar fr$m 2000.5000 mmQ cl$u! c$5ers 5ar :etAee# 60.90T. =usts $f 30 m?s ha5e :ee# re*$rte!. S*ecial characteristicsH hi(h humi!it accelerates m$ul! a#! al(al (r$Ath, rusti#( a#! r$tti#(. 2. Lar/-$u/id island *li/ate( 'ittle seas$#al 5ariati$# #e(li(i:leQ (ust rai#sQ 3, remai#s hi(h, at a:$ut 55T f$r the m$st timeQ 5a*$ur *ressure is 1750.2500 ;?mGm. &##ual rai#fall ca# 5ar fr$m 1250.1800 mmQ cl$u! c$5ers #$rmall clear. =usts $f 30 m?s ha5e :ee# re*$rte!. S$lar ra!iati$# is str$#( a#! mai#l !irect, Aith a 5er small !iffuse c$m*$#e#t.

S*ecial characteristics are the tr$*ical c cl$#es $r hurrica#es Aith Ai#! 5el$cities fr$m 45.70 m?s, Ahich c$#stitute a seri$us haBar!. 4he hi(h salt c$#te#t $f the atm$s*here e#c$ura(es c$rr$si$# i# c$astal areas. 3. <ot- dr+ desert *li/ate( 15!e(rees.30 4A$ marke! seas$#s $ccurH a h$t a#! a s$meAhat c$$ler *eri$!. 0iur#al ra#(e is 5er (reatH 17.22 !e( 1Q 3, 5aries 10.55TQ 5a*$ur *ressure is #$rmall :etAee# 750.1500 ;?mGm. &##ual rai#fall ca# 5ar fr$m 50.155 mmQ s$lar ra!iati$# is !irect a#! str$#( !uri#( the !a . S*ecial characteristics !uri#( certai# m$#th6s !ust a#! sa#! st$rms ma :e freque#t.
4. <ot dr+ /ariti/e desert *li/ate(

0iur#al mea# 5aries :etAee# 9.12 !e( 1.3, is stea!il hi(h, :etAee# 50.90TQ Aith 5a*$ur *ressure $f 1500.2500 ;?mGm. rai#fall is 5er l$A. S*ecial characteristicsH !ust a#! sa#! st$rms ma $ccur.
5. 0o/posite or /onsoon *li/ate(

3,.20.55TQ a##ual rai#fall 5aries fr$m 500.1300 mmQ 5e(etati$#, Ahich is s*arse. characteristic $f a re(i$# Aith :r$A# a#! re! :arre# (r$u#!, cha#(es ra*i!l a#! !ramaticall Aith the rai#. S*ecial characteristicsH seas$#al cha#(es i# relati5e humi!it cause ra*i! Aeake#i#( $f :uil!i#( material. 0ust a#! sa#! st$rms ma $ccur. 6. -ropi*al upland *li/ate( the !iur#al ra#(e is (reatQ 3,.45.99T. >%=800.1600 #?mGmQ *reci*itati$# is less tha# 1000mm.5e(etati$# is (ree# alth$u(h #$t 5er luCuria#t !uri#( the Aest seas$#. 4he s$il ma :e !am* i# the rai#s :ut !ries quickl . 34er+ *it+: t$A# $r 5illa(e a#! e5e# a *reci#ct i# a t$A# ma ha5e its $A# climate, sli(htl !iffere#t fr$m climate !escri:e! f$r the re(i$#Wthe macroclimate. Site climate esta:lishes the scaleQ 0esi(#er6s task is t$ i!e#tif the area m$st suita:le f$r ha:itati$#. +act$rs ($5er#i#( the l$cal c$#!iti$#H 4$*$(ra*h : sl$*e, $rie#tati$#, eC*$sure, ele5ati$#, hills $r 5alle s, at $r #ear the site.

Ground surface: Ahether #atural $r ma#.ma!e, its reflecta#ce, *ermea:ilit tem*erature. 4hree.!ime#si$#al $:@ectsH such as trees, $r tree.:elts, fe#ces, Aalls a#! :uil!i#(s.

a#! s$il

4em*erature i#5ersi$#, as the !a time situati$# $f !ecreasi#( tem*erature Aith the i#crease $f hei(ht is take# as #$rmal. 4he relati5e humi!it !e*e#!s as much $# the air tem*erature as $# the actual am$u#t $f Aater 5a*$ur *rese#t i# the air. <he# the !eA *$i#t tem*erature is reache! the f$rmati$# $f f$( Aill start, a#! if there is #$ further ra*i! c$$li#( a#! #$ air m$5eme#t.

9soseis/i* /aps( /aps s$o,ing t$e eart$=ua&es lo*ations. 4he *r$cess i#5$l5e! i# c$#5erti#( f$$!stuff i#t$ li5i#( matter a#! useful f$rm $f e#er( are k#$A# as meta:$lism. 0uri#( the *ast 50 ears ma# attem*ts ha5e :ee# ma!e a#! ma# eC*erime#ts ha5e :ee# carrie! $ut i# $r!er t$ !e5ice a si#(le scale Ahich c$m:i#es the effects $f these f$ur fact$rs. Such scales are c$llecti5el referre! as thermal i#!ices $r c$mf$rt scales. 3-( the fi#!i#(s *l$tte! $# *s ch$metric chart, *r$!uci#( Ne=ual *o/fort linesK. 4he #ame! the #eA scale as effe*ti4e te/p. )t ca# :e !efi#e! as the tem*erature $f a still, saturate! atm$s*here, Ahich A$ul!, i# the a:se#ce $f ra!iati$#, *r$!uce the same effect. 194H c$rrelate! effecti5e tem*eratureH i#clu!es 94 a#! air m$5eme#t. 9<H equi5ale#t Aarmth. Scale Aas c$#structe! a#! !efi#e! : a ;$m$(ra*h. 24H $*erati5e tem*erature. )t c$m:i#e! the effects $f ra!iati$# a#! air tem*. 91)H equat$rial c$mf$rt i#!eCH t$(ether Aith measureme#ts $f air tem*. ,umi!it m$5eme#t. 34H resulta#t tem*. %re!icte! f$ur.h$ur sAeat rate (%4S3). ,eat stress i#!eC (,)S). -$e bio *li/ati* *$art( $# Ahich the c$mf$rt B$#e is !efi#e! i# terms $f 084 a#! 3,, :ut su:seque#tl it is sh$A#, : a!!iti$#al li#es, h$A this c$mf$rt B$#e is *ushe! u* : the *rese#ce $f air m$5eme#ts a#! h$A it is l$Aere! : ra!iati$#. 3ffe*ti4e te/perature- its use a#! air

)#c$r*$rati#( the a**r$*riate m$!ificati$#, a ;$m$(ra*h has :ee# c$#structe! Ahich !efi#es the 94 i#!eC fr$m 084 a#! <84 rea!i#(s. 4hese scales (:asic scale) still !$ #$t make a# all$Aa#ce f$r ra!iati$# heat eCcha#(e :etAee# the :$! a#! its e#5ir$#me#t. -34 /ean radiant te/perature( if all surfaces i# as e#5ir$#me#t Aere u#if$rml at this tem*erature, it A$ul! *r$!uce the same #et ra!ia#t heat :ala#ce as the (i5e# e#5ir$#me#t Aith its 5ari$us tem*eratures. 4he (l$:e therm$meter rea!i#( a#! the -34 are i!e#tical $#l if the air is c$m*letel still a#! there is #$ c$#5ecti5e heat eCcha#(e :etAee# the (l$:e a#! the air. )f there is #$ ra!iati$# l$ss $r (ai# a#! air is saturate!, the (l$:e a#! Aet.:ul: tem*erature Aill :e i!e#ticalH the c$##ecti#( li#e Aill :e h$riB$#tal. .ne/o/eters Aith m$5i#( *arts Aill rarel res*$#! t$ air m$5eme#ts :el$A 0.5.m?s. e5e# small air s*ee!s $f ra#!$m !irecti$#s ca# :e measure! thr$u(h their c$$li#( effect. 4he Kata thermometer is a# i#strume#t use! f$r this *ur*$se. Lata air s*ee! ;$m$(ra*h...Lata fact$r, c$$li#( *$Aer, air s*ee!, c$$li#( time, tem*. 4he thermal c$mf$rt B$#eH .the ra#(e $f c$#!iti$#s Aithi# Ahich at least 80T $f the *e$*le A$ul! feel c$mf$rta:le. )t is sh$A# $# the :i$climatic chart. &:$5e 1.5 m?s the air m$5eme#t ca# *r$!uce sec$#!ar $r si!e effects, Ahich ma :e anno+ing. -$e -$er/al =uantities( -e/perature(

4he tem*erature is as the $utAar! a**eara#ce $f the thermal state $f the :$! . )f the

m$lecular m$5eme#t is s*rea! $5er t$ $ther :$!ies (e(H air) its i#te#sit Aithi# the :$! !ecreases a#! the :$! a**ears t$ :e c$$li#(.

4he 1elsius scale measures tem*erature. 4his has :ee# c$#structe! : taki#( the

free;ing a#! boiling points $f Aater (at #$rmal atm$s*heric *ressure) as fiCe! *$i#ts a#! !i5i!i#( the i#ter5al i#t$ 100 !e(rees.

4he i#ter5al $f the Lel5i# scale tem*erature is the same as the 1elsius scale, :ut the

starti#( *$i#t is Ber$,

i.e., Absolute zero, which is 273.15 degC.

<eat(

,eat is a f$rm $f e#er( , a**eari#( as m$lecular m$5eme#t i# su:sta#ces $r as

Nra!ia#t heat6, a certai# Aa5ele#(th :a#! $f electr$ma(#etic ra!iati$# i# s*ace (700 t$ 10,000 #m). &s such it is measure! i# K$ules.

4he K$ule is !eri5e! fr$m the 3 :asic u#itsH

1. 2. 3.

Helo*it+( a m$5eme#t $f u#it le#(th i# u#it time, /etre/se*ond. .**eleration( a u#it cha#(e i# 5el$cit i# u#it time, /etre/se*ond s=uare. 1or*e( Ahich ca# cause u#it accelerati$# $f a :$! ha5i#( u#it mass,

Ne,ton

Leig$t .is actuall the (ra5itati$#al accelerati$# $f a u#it mass. 4he (ra5itati$#al accelerati$# is ".! /et/se* s=uare. Lor& - u#it A$rk is carrie! $ut if a u#it f$rce is acti#( $5er a u#it 3nerg+- is the *$te#tial $r ca*acit f$r carr i#( $ut a certai# A$rk, -$e Britis$ -$er/al ?nit ABtuC Aas !efi#e! as the am$u#t $f heat 1 Btu = 1 56. 6 O 1 &*al = 41!6.! O 2pe*ifi* $eat - the am$u#t $f heat e#er( #ecessar t$ cause u#it 4he hi(her the s*ecific heat $f a su:sta#ce, the m$re heat it Aill <ater has the hi(her s*ecific heatH 4187 K?L(. 0e(1. +$r (ases $fte# the 5$lumetric s*ecific heat $f air is ar$u#! 1300 Latent $eat( late#t heat $f a su:sta#ce is the am$u#t $f heat e#er( u#it mass $f the su:sta#ce at cha#(e $f state Aith$ut a# cha#(e i#

le#(th, Ooule.

Lor&.

#ecessar t$ raise the tem*erature $f 1l: $f Aater : 1 !e(+.

tem*erature i#crease $f a u#it mass $f a su:sta#ce, K?L(. !e(1.

a:s$r: f$r a (i5e# i#crease i# tem*erature.

K?metre cu:e. 0e(1.

a:s$r:e! :

tem*erature. K?L(.

-$er/al *apa*it+ $f a :$!

is the *r$!uct $f its mass a#! the

s*ecific heat $f its material. )t is measure! as the am$u#t $f heat require! t$ cause u#it tem*erature i#crease $f the :$! , K?!e(1.

0alorifi* 4alue is the am$u#t $f heat release! : u#it mass $f a fuel

$r f$$! material : its c$m*lete c$m:usti$# a#! it is measure! i# K?L(. %er 5$lume it is K?metre cu:e. <eat flo,(

4he (reater the tem*erature !iffere#ce, the faster the rate $f heat fl$A. %o,er is the a:ilit t$ carr $ut a certai# A$rk i# u#it timeQ its u#itsQ &s a *$u#! $f ice requires 144 8tu $f heat t$ melt it i# t$ Aater $f the 7ensit+. the rate heat fl$A i# u#it area, u#itsQ <?metre square.

K?sec $r N<att6.

same tem*erature.

0ondu*ti4it+H

-$er/al *ondu*ti4it+( 4hermal c$#!ucti5it

4he rate at Ahich m$lecular m$5eme#t

s*rea!s 5aries Aith !iffere#t materials a#! is !escri:e! as the *r$*ert $f material.

ca# :e measure! as the rate $f heat fl$A

thr$u(h u#it area $f u#it thick#ess $f the material. <? m. !e(1.

#esisti4it+( 3esisti5it is the reci*r$cal $f c$#!ucti5it . /#itsQ m. 8etter i#sulat$rs Aill ha5e hi(her 3esisti5it 5alues. <ater has c$#!ucti5it $f D 0.580 <?m. !e(1 &ir has c$#!ucti5it $f D 0.026 <? m. !e(1 )f air i# the *$res $f a material is re*lace! : Aater, its c$#!ucti5it 4he m$re *$res a material, the (reater the i#crease i# c$#!ucti5it

!e(1 ? <.

ra*i!l i#creases.

Aith i#crease! m$isture c$#te#t.

0ondu*tan*e- is the heat fl$A rate thr$u(h a u#it area $f the :$!

Ahe# the tem*erature !iffere#ce :etAee# the tA$ surfaces is 1 !e(1. /#itsQ <?metre square. 0e(1

2urfa*e *ondu*tan*e(

Surface c$#!ucta#ce i#clu!es the c$#5ecti5e a#! the ra!ia#t 4he $5erall, air-t$.air resista#ce is the sum $f the :$! 6s resista#ce 4he ma(#itu!e $f surface $r film.c$#!ucta#ce is a fu#cti$# $f surface

c$m*$#e#ts $f the heat eCcha#(e at surfaces.

a#! the surface resista#ces.

qua#tities a#! $f the 5el$cit $f air *assi#( the surface. -rans/ittan*e(

4he reci*r$cal $f this air.t$.air resista#ce is the air.t$.air tra#smitta#ce, $r /.5alue=1?3a 4his is the qua#tit m$st $fte# use! i# :uil!i#( heat (ai# *r$:lems, as its use (reatl sim*lifies the calculati$#s.

0a4ities(

)f a# air s*ace $r ca5it is e#cl$se! Aithi# a :$! , thr$u(h Ahich the heat tra#sfer is c$#si!ere!, this Aill $ffer a#$ther :arrier t$ the *assa(e $f heat.

0on4ention(
4he rate $f heat tra#sfer i# c$#5e#ti$# !e*e#!s $# three fact$rsH 1. 4em*erature !iffere#ce 2. 4he rate $f m$5eme#t $f the carr i#( me!ium i# terms $f L(?s. 3. 4he s*ecific heat $f the carr i#( me!ium i# K?metre cu:e. 0e(1.

#adiation(

)# ra!iati$# heat tra#sfer the rate $f heat fl$A !e*e#!s $# the tem*eratures $f the emitti#( a#! recei5i#( surfaces a#! $# certai# qualities $f these surfacesQ the emitta#ce a#! a:s$r:a#ce.

3a!iati$# recei5e! : a surface ca# :e *artl a:s$r:e! a#! *artl reflecte!. 'i(ht c$l$re!, sm$$th a#! shi# surfaces te#! t$ ha5e a hi(her reflecta#ce. +$r the *erfect reflecti5e the$retical Ahite surfaceH r =1, a =0 4he *erfect a:s$r:er, the the$retical :lack :$! A$ul! ha5e the c$efficie#tsQ r =0, a =1.

4he Aa5ele#(th $f emitte! ra!iati$# !e*e#!s $# the tem*erature $f the emitter. 4he su# Aith its surface ar$u#! 5 500 !e(1. 8ri(ht metal f$ils are successfull tra#smitte! mai#l : ra!iati$#. use! f$r i#sulati$# i# situati$#s Ahere heat is

3a!iati$# i#ci!e#t $# a *la#e surface ca# :e measure! i#strume#tall a#! its i#te#sit !escri:e! i# terms $f <?meter square.

2ol-air te/perature(

+$r :uil!i#( !esi(# *ur*$se it is useful t$ c$m:i#e the heati#( effect $f ra!iati$# i#ci!e#t $# a :uil!i#( Aith the effect $f Aarm air. 4he i#ci!e#t ra!iati$# i#creases the surface tem*erature far a:$5e the air tem*erature, thus s$me heat is !issi*ate! t$ the $ut .!$$r air imme!iatel . 4he (reater the surface c$#!ucta#ce 5alue, the m$re heat Aill :e !issi*ate!.

2olar gain fa*tor(

4he s$lar (ai# fact$r is !efi#e! as the heat fl$A rate thr$u(h the c$#structi$# !ue t$ s$lar ra!iati$# as a fracti$# $f the i#ci!e#t s$lar ra!iati$#. )t mi(ht :e useful t$ c$#si!er the c$m:i#e! effect $f reflecti5e surfaces a#! thermal i#sulati$#. )ts 5alue sh$ul! #$t eCcee! 0.04 i# Aarm.humi! climates $r 0.03 i# the h$t.!r seas$# $f c$m*$site climates, Ahe# 5e#tilati$# is re!uce!. 4he c$#sta#t 5alue f$r eCter#al surface c$#!ucta#ce asH +$ = 20 <?metre square. 0e(1.

<eat e'*$ange of buildings(

4he thermal :ala#ce. the eCisti#( thermal c$#!iti$# is mai#tai#e! ifQ

P1QPsQP*QP4QP/-Pe =

)f the sum $f this equati$# is less tha# Ber$ (#e(ati5e), the :uil!i#( Aill :e c$$li#(, a#! if it is m$re tha# Ber$, the tem*erature i# the :uil!i#( Aill i#crease. 1$#!ucti$# heat fl$A rate thr$u(h a Aall $f a (i5e# area ca# :e !escri:e! : the equati$# Ic = & C / C 4

1$#5e#ti$# heat fl$A rate :etAee# the i#teri$r $f a :uil!i#( a#! the $*e# air !e*e#!s $# the rate $f 5e#tilati$#. 4he rate $f 5e#tilati$# heat fl$A is !escri:e! : H I5 = 1300 C > C 4

9nternal $eat gain(

,eat $ut*ut fr$m a :$! (i#si!e the :uil!i#() is a heat (ai# f$r the :uil!i#(. 4he t$tal rate $f e#er( is emissi$# $f electric lam*s ca# :e take# as i#ter#al heat (ai#. 4he lar(e *art $f this e#er( emitte! as heat (95T f$r i#ca#!esce#t lam*s a#! 79T f$r flu$resce#t lam*s. 4he emitte! li(ht Ahe# i#ci!e#t $# surfaces Aill :e c$#5erte! i# t$ heat. 4he rate $f c$$li#( : e5a*$rati$# ca# $#l :e measure! if the rate $f e5a*$rati$# itself is k#$A#.

)f the e5a*$rati$# rate is eC*resse! i# k(?h, the c$rres*$#!i#( heat l$ss rate ca# :e f$u#!H Ie=666 M L(?h. ,eat (ai# is usuall calculate! f$r the *ur*$ses $f air c$#!iti$# !esi(#. 0ondensation( Ahe# the 3, reaches 100T, i.e., saturati$#, !eA $r c$#!e#sati$# a**ears. 4he tem*erature at Ahich this ha**e#s is referre! t$ as N!eA *$i#t6 tem*erature. -$st :uil!i#( materials are *$r$us a#! $ffer little resista#ce t$ the *assa(e $f 5a*$ur. )f the i#si!e humi! air *e#etrates the Aall, Ahe# it reaches a la er ha5i#( a tem* less tha# its $A# !eA *$i#t tem*. -$isture Aill c$#!e#se. 4his *he#$me#$# is k#$A# as interstitial *ondensation.

Role of micro climate in design

1. 2. 3. 4.

-icr$climate D im*l l$cal !e5iati$# fr$m the climate $f a lar(e area. t$*$(ra*h D Sl$*e, $rie#tati$#, eC*$sure, ele5ati$#, hills $r 5alle s & !iffere#tial $f 7 t$ 8 m i# hei(ht ca# cause a !iffere#t $f 5 t$ 6 !e( 1 i# air tem*erature. St$#e, c$#crete, as*halt surface ca# reach a tem*erature u* t$ 44 !e( 1 tha# the 8 c$5eri#( the (r$u#! Aith 5e(etati$#, the surface $f c$#tact is tra#sferre! t$ a hi(her the fact$rs causi#( !e5iati$#s $f the ur:a# climate fr$m the re(i$#al macr$ climate are

surr$u#!i#( air tem*erature

5.

la er a#! is i#crease! 4 t$ 12 times.

6.

1ha#(e! surface qualities D i#crease! a:s$r:a#ce $f s$lar ra!iati$# re!uce! 8uil!i#(s 9#er( see*a(e &tm$s*heric *$lluti$#

e5a*$rati$#.

&hermal comfort
1.

4he *r$cess i#5$l5e! i# c$#5erti#( f$$! at su#li(ht i#t$ li5i#( matter a#! useful f$rm $f 4he meta:$lic heat *r$!ucti$# ca# :e !i5i!e! i#t$ 8asal meta:$lism D *r$!ucti$# $f 5e(etati5e, aut$matic *r$cess -uscular meta:$lism D *r$!ucti$# $f muscles. 2f all the e#er( *r$!uce! i# the :$! , $#l a:$ut 20T is utiliBe!. 80T is surplus heat a#! must :e !issi*ate! t$ the e#5ir$#me#t 4he !ee* :$! tem*erature must remai# :ala#ce! a#! c$#sta#t ar$u#! 37 !e( 1 8$! ca# release heart t$ its e#5ir$#me#t : c$#5ecti$#, ra!iati$# a#! 95a*$rati$#, a#! t$ 0on4e*tion is !ue t$ heat tra#smissi$# fr$m the :$! t$ the air i# c$#tact Aith the ski# $r #adiation heat l$ss !e*e#!s $# the tem*erature $f the :$! surface a#! the tem*erature $f 34aporation !e*e#!s $# the humi!it $f air (the !r er the air, the faster the e5a*$rati$#) 1$#!ucti$# !e*e#!s $# the tem*erature !iffere#ce :etAee# the :$! -et D 95a* F $r D c$#! F $r D c$#5 F $r D ra! = 0 4he rate $f sAeati#( ma 5ar fr$m a:$ut 20 (?h t$ 3 k(?# )# a tem*erature climate, i#!$$rs Ahe# the air tem*erature is ar$u#! 181 Ahe# the air is surface a#! the

e#er( are k#$A# as meta:$lism.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

a lesser eCte#t : c$#!ucti$#.

7.

cl$thi#(
8.

$**$si#( surfaces.
9. 10.

$:@ect, the :$! is i# !irect c$#tact Aith

11. 12. 13.

clam i.e., air 5el$cit !$es #$t eCcee! 0.25 m?sec. Ahe# the humi!it is :!t 40 a#! 60T, a *ers$# e#(a(e! i# se!e#tar A$rk Aill !issi*ate the sur*lus heat Aith$ut a# !ifficult as :

3a!iati$# 45T 1$#5ecti$# 30T

95a*$rati$# 25T

14. 15.

;$rmal ski# tem*erature is :etAee# 31 !e( 1 a#! 34 !e( 1. 4hermal *refere#ces are i#flue#ce! : cl$thi#(, acclimatiBati$#, a(e a#! se#, :$! sha*e, ; !e( 1 = ;F273.15 kel5i# 4he (reater the tem*erature !iffere#tQ the faster the rate $f heat fl$A 4hermal c$#!ucti5it D the rate at Ahich m$lecular m$5eme#t s*rea!s 5aries Aith !iffere#t )ts 5alue 5aries :etAee# 0.03 A?m !e( 1 f$r i#sulati#( materials, a#! u* t$ 400 A?m !e( 1 4he l$Aer the c$#!ucti5it , the :etter i#sulat$r a material is resisti5it 1?k 8etter i#sulat$rs Aill ha5e hi(her resisti5it 5alues. 3esista#ce $f a :$! is 3=:?k (:=thick#ess i# m) '$A thermal ca*acit structures Aar# u* quickl :ut als$ c$$l ra*i!l 1$#structi$# Aith a l$A / D 5alue (air D t$ D air tra#smitta#ce) Aill re!uce all f$rms $f

su:cuta#e$us fat, state $f heath, f$$! a#! !ri#k, ski# c$l$ur.

16. 17. 18.

materials. (k = A?m. !e( 1)

19.

f$r metals
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

c$#!ucti$# heat tra#sfer. 3*olog+ !eals Aith the i#terrelati$#shi*s :etAee# li5i#( $r(a#isms :etAee# li5i#( $r(a#isms a#! their e#5ir$#me#ts. 9c$l$( , relati5el a #eA scie#ce, !eals Aith the 5ari$us *ri#ci*les, Ahich ($5er# such relati$#shi*s :etAee# $r(a#isms a#! their e#5ir$#me#t. 4he stu! $f ec$l$( is :ase! $# the rec$(#iti$# $f m$re $r less i#!e*e#!e#t u#its $f #ature tech#icall calle! ec$s stem. 9c$l$(ical *la##i#( must :e(i# Aith a c$m*rehe#si5e ec$s stem a#al sis. & c$#5e#ti$#al sur5e , Ahich merel characteriBes s$il, mi#erals, t$*$(ra*h , *la#ts,

a#imals6 etc., is i#a!equate i#stea!, these sur5e s must :e c$m*rehe#si5e. )#clu!i#( a# u#!ersta#!i#( $f e#er( fl$A, #utrie#t c cli#(, *$*ulati$# ! #amics, carr i#( ca*acit a#!

$ther s*ecies relati$#shi*s etc. the ultimate $:@ecti5es $f a# ec$s stem sur5e sh$ul! :e t$ *re!ict the im*licati$# $f *r$*$se! acti5ities. 4he #eCt im*$rta#t c$#si!erati$# i# ec$l$(ical *la##i#( is t$ eCami#e the 5ari$us alter#ati5es carefull :ef$re taki#( a# ma@$r !ecisi$#. &# i#ter !isci*li#ar team, c$#sisti#( $f ec$l$(ists, ec$#$mists, s$cial scie#tists a#! $ther c$#cer#e! s*ecialists i#clu!i#( !ecisi$# makers, sh$ul! c$#!uct such assessme#t a#! *re*are a# e#5ir$#me#tal im*act stateme#t f$r taki#( #ecessar *recauti$#ar measures. ;ati$#al e#5ir$#me#tal 9#(i#eeri#( 3esearch )#stitute c$#!ucts sur5e s. 3*ologi*al planning at all le4els of de*ision /a&ing /ust be regarded as a priorit+ in 4ie, of es*alating gro,t$ of population and our *o//it/ent to de4elop/ent. 4he im*$rta#t $f ec$l$( a#! e#5ir$#me#tal qualit is first rec$(#iBe! i# l$#( term *ers*ecti5e $f the f$urth fi5e. ear *la#. 7i4ersit+ is a c$m:i#ati$# $f the #um:er $f s*ecies a#! the #um:er $f i#!i5i!uals $f each s*ecies i# a c$mmu#it . &# ec$s stem is the Ah$le :i$tic c$mmu#it i# a (i5e# area *lus its a:i$tic e#5ir$#me#t. 4he :i$tic c$m*$#e#ts $f a# ec$s stem are li#ke! as f$$! chai#s. +$$! chai#s are i#terli#ke! t$ f$rm c$m*leC f$$! Ae:s. +$$! Ae:s are the :asic u#its $f ec$s stem ec$l$( . & population is a (r$u* $f i#!i5i!ual $r(a#isms $f the same s*ecies i# a (i5e# area. & *o//unit+ is a (r$u* $f *$*ulati$#s $f !iffere#t s*ecies i# a (i5e# area. &# feature $f the $r(a#ism $r its *arts, Ahich is $f !efi#ite si(#ifica#ce i# all$Ai#( that $r(a#ism t$ eCit u#!er the c$#!iti$#s $f its ha:itat, is thus calle! a!a*tati$#. 8i$l$(ical cl$cks. %la#t s*ecies *$ssess *h si$l$(ical mecha#isms that i#!icate *articular seas$#s $f the ear, a#! *la#t s*ecies are k#$A# as :i$l$(ical cl$cks.

E$#e $f tra#siti$#...9c$t$#e.

& life f$rm is the sum $f the a!a*tati$# $f the *la#t t$ climate. 4he fi#al, termi#al c$mmu#it that ca# mai#tai# itself m$re $r less i#!efi#itel i# equili:rium Aith the *re5aili#( e#5ir$#me#t is k#$A# as t$e *li/a' *o//unit+ a#! the sta(e is *li/a'. .ir %ollution and .*id rain 3ai#Aater $#ce Aas the *urest f$rm $f Aater a5aila:le :ut #$A is $fte# c$#tami#ate! : *$lluta#ts i# the air. &ci! rai# is cause! Ahe# i#!ustrial emissi$#s miC Aith atm$s*heric m$isture. %$lluta#ts ma :e carrie! i# cl$u!s f$r l$#( !ista#ces :ef$re falli#(, Ahich mea#s that f$rests a#! lakes far aAa fr$m fact$ries ma :e !ama(e! : aci! rai#. )# the #ear 5ici#it $f the fact$ries, a!!iti$#al !ama(e is cause! : !e*$siti$#, a ki#! $f !r rai# i# Ahich the lar(er *$lluta#t *articles fall t$ the (r$u#!. &ir *$lluti$# has :ee# i#creasi#( si#ce the )#!ustrial 3e5$luti$# :ut $#l rece#tl ha5e si!e effects such as aci! rai# :ec$me se5ere a#! Ai!es*rea! e#$u(h t$ e5$ke i#ter#ati$#al c$#cer#.

;$ise %$lluti$# $r S$u#! %$lluti$#, eC*$sure $f *e$*le $r a#imals t$ le5els $f s$u#! that are a##$ i#(, stressful, $r !ama(i#( t$ the ears. &lth$u(h l$u! a#! fri(hte#i#( s$u#!s are *art $f #ature, $#l i# rece#t ce#turies has much $f the A$rl! :ec$me ur:a#, i#!ustrial, a#! chr$#icall #$is . -$st #$ise *$lluti$# c$mes fr$m machi#es, es*eciall aut$m$:iles, trucks, a#! aircraft. i#si!e fact$ries ca# :e

1$#structi$# equi*me#t, farm machi#es, a#! the !i# $f machi#er

!a#(er$usl l$u!. S$me h$me a**lia#ces, sh$* t$$l, laA#m$Aers, a#! leaf :l$Aers ca# als$ :e #$is , as are (u#s, firecrackers, a#! s$me t$ s. 95e# music, Ahe# *la e! at 5er hi(h 5$lume, *articularl thr$u(h *ers$#al hea!*h$#es, is as !ama(i#( t$ the ears as a r$ari#( chai# saA. 95e# the $cea#s are i#creasi#(l #$is . 4he e#(i#es $f shi*s, es*eciall lar(e 5essels a#! su*erta#kers, *r$!uce a l$t $f s$u#!, a#! traffic is i#creasi#(. 2ffsh$re $il eC*l$rati$# a#! !rilli#( are als$ #$is . &#! m$re rece#tl , 5er l$u!, l$A.freque#c s$#ar si(#als are :ei#( se#t thr$u(h the seas t$ !etect su:mari#es a#! t$ (ai# i#f$rmati$# a:$ut Aater tem*eratures a#! (l$:al Aarmi#(.

4he m$st si(#ifica#t health *r$:lem cause! : #$ise *$lluti$# is heari#( l$ss (see 0eaf#ess). &# #$ise a**recia:l l$u!er tha# talki#( ca# !ama(e the !elicate hair cells i# the c$chlea, the structure i# the i##er ear that c$#5erts s$u#! Aa5es i#t$ au!it$r #er5e si(#als. 4he i#itial !ama(e t$ the c$chlea ma :e tem*$rar , :ut Aith re*eate! eC*$sure, the !ama(e :ec$mes *erma#e#t. '$u! #$ise !eafe#s quickl WeCtremel l$u! s$u#!s such as (u#sh$ts at cl$se ra#(e, ca# cause imme!iate heari#( l$ss. 8ut e5e# s$u#! le5els $f $#l 85 !eci:els Aill cause s$me heari#( l$ss after *r$l$#(e! eC*$sure. 95e# at le5els :el$A th$se that cause heari#( l$ss, #$ise *$lluti$# *r$!uces *r$:lems. ;$ise makes c$#5ersati$# !ifficult, i#terferes Aith s$me ki#!s $f A$rk, a#! !istur:s slee*. &s a s$urce $f stress, it ca# *r$m$te hi(h :l$$! *ressure a#! $ther car!i$5ascular *r$:lems, as Aell as #er5$us !is$r!ers. ;$ise als$ *uts stress $# !$mestic a#imals a#! Ail!life. )# rem$te areas, helic$*ters a#! militar aircraft $fte# fri(hte# a#imals. %$lluti$#, c$#tami#ati$# $f 9arth6s e#5ir$#me#t Aith materials that i#terfere Aith huma# health, the qualit $f life, $r the #atural fu#cti$#i#( $f ecos ste!s (li5i#( $r(a#isms a#! their *h sical surr$u#!i#(s). &lth$u(h s$me e#5ir$#me#tal *$lluti$# is a result $f #atural causes such as 5$lca#ic eru*ti$#s, m$st is cause! : huma# acti5ities. 4here are tA$ mai# cate($ries $f *$lluti#( materials, $r *$lluta#ts. 8i$!e(ra!a:le *$lluta#ts are materials, such as seAa(e, that ra*i!l !ec$m*$se : #atural *r$cesses. 4hese *$lluta#ts :ec$me a *r$:lem Ahe# a!!e! t$ the e#5ir$#me#t faster tha# the ca# !ec$m*$se ( see SeAa(e 0is*$sal). ;$#!e(ra!a:le *$lluta#ts are materials that either !$ #$t !ec$m*$se $r

!ec$m*$se sl$Al i# the #atural e#5ir$#me#t. 2#ce c$#tami#ati$# $ccurs, it is !ifficult $r im*$ssi:le t$ rem$5e these *$lluta#ts fr$m the e#5ir$#me#t. & small fish that (raBes $# these *la#ts accumulates a hi(h c$#ce#trati$# $f the t$Ci#. 'ar(er fish $r $ther car#i5$res that eat the small fish Aill accumulate e5e# (reater, a#! *$ssi:l life. threate#i#(, c$#ce#trati$#s $f the c$m*$u#!. 4his *r$cess is k#$A# as :i$accumulati$#. 9G%.0-2 @1 %@LL?-9@N 8ecause huma#s are at the t$* $f the f$$! chai#, the are *articularl 5ul#era:le t$ the effects $f #$#!e(ra!a:le *$lluta#ts. 4his Aas clearl illustrate! i# the 1950s a#! 1960s Ahe# resi!e#ts li5i#( #ear -i#amata 8a , Ka*a#, !e5el$*e! #er5$us !is$r!ers, trem$rs, a#! *aral sis i# a m steri$us e*i!emic. -$re tha# 400 *e$*le !ie! :ef$re auth$rities !isc$5ere! that a l$cal i#!ustr ha! release! mercur i#t$ -i#amata 8a . 4his hi(hl t$Cic eleme#t accumulate! i# the :$!ies $f l$cal fish a#! e5e#tuall i# the :$!ies $f *e$*le Ah$ c$#sume! the fish. -$re rece#tl research has re5eale! that ma# chemical *$lluta#ts, such as 004 a#! %18s, mimic seC h$rm$#es a#! i#terfere Aith the huma# :$! 6s re*r$!ucti5e a#! !e5el$*me#tal fu#cti$#s. 4hese su:sta#ces are k#$A# as e#!$cri#e !isru*ters. "ee 2ccu*ati$#al a#! 9#5ir$#me#tal 0iseases. %$lluti$# als$ has a !ramatic effect $# #atural res$urces. 9c$s stems such as f$rests, Aetla#!s, c$ral reefs, a#! ri5ers *erf$rm ma# im*$rta#t ser5ices f$r 9arth6s e#5ir$#me#t. 4he e#ha#ce Aater a#! air qualit , *r$5i!e ha:itat f$r *la#ts a#! a#imals, a#! *r$5i!e f$$! a#! me!ici#es. &# $r all $f these ec$s stem fu#cti$#s ma :e im*aire! $r !estr$ e! : *$lluti$#. -$re$5er, :ecause $f the c$m*leC relati$#shi*s am$#( the ma# $r(a#isms a#! ec$s stems, e#5ir$#me#tal c$#tami#ati$# ma ha5e t *es $f far.reachi#(

c$#seque#ces that are #$t imme!iatel $:5i$us $r that are !ifficult t$ *re!ict. +$r i#sta#ce, scie#tists ca# $#l s*eculate $# s$me $f the *$te#tial im*acts $f the !e*leti$# $f the $B$#e la er, the *r$tecti5e la er i# the atm$s*here that shiel!s 9arth fr$m the Su#6s harmful ultra5i$let ra s. &#$ther ma@$r effect $f *$lluti$# is the treme#!$us c$st $f *$lluti$# clea#u* a#! *re5e#ti$#. 4he (l$:al eff$rt t$ c$#tr$l emissi$#s $f car:$# !i$Ci!e, a (as *r$!uce! fr$m the c$m:usti$# $f f$ssil fuels such as c$al $r $il, $r $f $ther $r(a#ic materials like A$$!, is $#e such eCam*le. 4he c$st $f mai#tai#i#( a##ual #ati$#al car:$# !i$Ci!e emissi$#s at 1990 le5els is estimate! t$ :e 2 *erce#t $f the (r$ss !$mestic *r$!uct f$r !e5el$*e! c$u#tries. 9C*e#!itures t$ re!uce *$lluti$# i# the /#ite! States i# 1993 t$tale! ]109 :illi$#H ]105.4

:illi$# $# re!ucti$#, ]1.9 :illi$# $# re(ulati$#, a#! ]1.7 :illi$# $# research a#! !e5el$*me#t. 4Ae#t .#i#e *erce#t $f the t$tal c$st Ae#t t$Aar! air *$lluti$#, 36 *erce#t t$ Aater *$lluti$#, a#! 36 *erce#t t$ s$li! Aaste ma#a(eme#t. )# a!!iti$# t$ its effects $# the ec$#$m , health, a#! #atural res$urces, *$lluti$# has s$cial im*licati$#s. 3esearch has sh$A# that l$A.i#c$me *$*ulati$#s a#! mi#$rities !$ #$t recei5e the same *r$tecti$# fr$m e#5ir$#me#tal c$#tami#ati$#, as !$ hi(her.i#c$me c$mmu#ities. 4$Cic Aaste i#ci#erat$rs, chemical *la#ts, a#! s$li! Aaste !um*s are $fte# l$cate! i# l$A. i#c$me c$mmu#ities :ecause $f a lack $f $r(a#iBe!, i#f$rme! c$mmu#it i#5$l5eme#t i# mu#ici*al !ecisi$#.maki#( *r$cesses. -I%32 @1 %@LL?-9@N %$lluti$# eCists i# ma# f$rms a#! affects ma# !iffere#t as*ects $f 9arth6s e#5ir$#me#t. #oint$source *$lluti$# c$mes fr$m s*ecific, l$caliBe!, a#! i!e#tifia:le s$urces, such as seAa(e *i*eli#es $r i#!ustrial sm$kestacks. %on&oint$source *$lluti$# c$mes fr$m !is*erse! $r u#c$#tai#e! s$urces, such as c$#tami#ate! Aater ru#$ff fr$m ur:a# areas $r aut$m$:ile emissi$#s. 4he effects $f these *$lluta#ts ma :e imme!iate $r !ela e!. %rimar effects $f *$lluti$# $ccur imme!iatel after c$#tami#ati$# $ccurs, such as the !eath $f mari#e *la#ts a#! Ail!life after a# $il s*ill at sea. Sec$#!ar effects ma :e !ela e! $r ma *ersist i# the e#5ir$#me#t i#t$ the future, *erha*s ($i#( u##$tice! f$r ma# ears. 004, a #$#!e(ra!a:le c$m*$u#!, sel!$m *$is$#s :ir!s imme!iatel , :ut (ra!uall accumulates i# their :$!ies. 8ir!s Aith hi(h c$#ce#trati$#s $f this *estici!e la thi#.shelle! e((s that fail t$ hatch $r *r$!uce !ef$rme! $ffs*ri#(. 4hese sec$#!ar effects, *u:liciBe! : 3achel 1ars$# i# her 1962 :$$k, "ilent "&ring, threate#e! the sur5i5al $f s*ecies such as the :al! ea(le a#! *ere(ri#e falc$#, a#! ar$use! *u:lic c$#cer# $5er the hi!!e# effects $f #$#!e(ra!a:le chemical c$m*$u#!s. .ir %ollution ,uma# c$#tami#ati$# $f 9arth6s atm$s*here ca# take ma# f$rms a#! has eCiste! si#ce huma#s first :e(a# t$ use fire f$r a(riculture, heati#(, a#! c$$ki#(. 0uri#( the )#!ustrial 3e5$luti$# $f the 18th a#! 19th ce#turies, h$Ae5er, air *$lluti$# :ecame a ma@$r *r$:lem. /r:a# air *$lluti$# is c$mm$#l k#$A# as sm$(. 4he !ark '$#!$# sm$( that 95el # Ar$te $f is (e#erall a sm$k miCture $f car:$# m$#$Ci!e a#! $r(a#ic c$m*$u#!s fr$m i#c$m*lete c$m:usti$# (:ur#i#() $f f$ssil fuels such as c$al, a#! sulfur !i$Ci!e fr$m

im*urities i# the fuels. &s the sm$( a(es a#! reacts Aith $C (e#, $r(a#ic a#! sulfuric aci!s c$#!e#se as !r$*lets, i#creasi#( the haBe. Sm$( !e5el$*e! i#t$ a ma@$r health haBar! : the 20th ce#tur . )# 1948, 19 *e$*le !ie! a#! th$usa#!s Aere sicke#e! : sm$( i# the small /.S. steel.mill t$A# $f 0$#$ra, %e##s l5a#ia. )# 1952, a:$ut 4,000 '$#!$#ers !ie! $f its effects. & sec$#! t *e $f sm$(, *h$t$chemical sm$(, :e(a# re!uci#( air qualit $5er lar(e cities like '$s &#(eles i# the 1930s. 4his sm$( is cause! : c$m:usti$# i# car, truck, a#! air*la#e e#(i#es, Ahich *r$!uce #itr$(e# $Ci!es a#! release h !r$car:$#s fr$m u#:ur#e! fuels. Su#li(ht causes the #itr$(e# $Ci!es a#! h !r$car:$#s t$ c$m:i#e a#! tur# $C (e# i#t$ $B$#e, a chemical a(e#t that attacks ru::er, i#@ures *la#ts, a#! irritates lu#(s. 4he h !r$car:$#s are $Ci!iBe! i#t$ materials that c$#!e#se a#! f$rm a 5isi:le, *u#(e#t haBe. 95e#tuall m$st *$lluta#ts are Aashe! $ut $f the air : rai#, s#$A, f$(, $r mist, :ut $#l after tra5eli#( lar(e !ista#ces, s$metimes acr$ss c$#ti#e#ts. &s *$lluta#ts :uil! u* i# the atm$s*here, sulfur a#! #itr$(e# $Ci!es are c$#5erte! i#t$ aci!s that miC Aith rai#. 4his aci! rai# falls i# lakes a#! $# f$rests, Ahere it ca# lea! t$ the !eath $f fish a#! *la#ts, a#! !ama(e e#tire ec$s stems. 95e#tuall the c$#tami#ate! lakes a#! f$rests ma :ec$me lifeless. 3e(i$#s that are !$A#Ai#! $f hea5il i#!ustrialiBe! areas, such as 9ur$*e a#! the easter# /#ite! States a#! 1a#a!a, are the har!est hit : aci! rai#. &ci! rai# ca# als$ affect huma# health a#! ma#.ma!e $:@ectsQ it is sl$Al !iss$l5i#( hist$ric st$#e statues a#! :uil!i#( faca!es i# '$#!$#, &the#s, a#! 3$me. 2#e $f the (reatest challe#(es cause! : air *$lluti$# is (l$:al Aarmi#(, a# i#crease i# 9arth6s tem*erature !ue t$ the :uil!u* $f certai# atm$s*heric (ases such as car:$# !i$Ci!e. <ith the hea5 use $f f$ssil fuels i# the 20th ce#tur , atm$s*heric c$#ce#trati$#s $f car:$# !i$Ci!e ha5e rise# !ramaticall . 1ar:$# !i$Ci!e a#! $ther (ases, k#$A# as (ree#h$use (ases, re!uce the esca*e $f heat fr$m the *la#et Aith$ut :l$cki#( ra!iati$# c$mi#( fr$m the Su#. 8ecause $f this (ree#h$use effect, a5era(e (l$:al tem*eratures are eC*ecte! t$ rise 1.4 t$ 5.8 1elsius !e(rees (2.5 t$ 10.4 +ahre#heit !e(rees) : the ear 2100. &lth$u(h this tre#! a**ears t$ :e a small cha#(e, the i#crease A$ul! make the 9arth Aarmer tha# it has :ee# i# the last 125,000 ears, *$ssi:l cha#(i#( climate *atter#s, affecti#( cr$* *r$!ucti$#, !isru*ti#( Ail!life !istri:uti$#s, a#! raisi#( the sea le5el. &ir *$lluti$# ca# als$ !ama(e the u**er atm$s*heric re(i$# k#$A# as the strat$s*here. 9Ccessi5e *r$!ucti$# $f chl$ri#e.c$#tai#i#( c$m*$u#!s such as chl$r$flu$r$car:$#s (1+1s)

(c$m*$u#!s f$rmerl

use! i# refri(erat$rs, air c$#!iti$#ers, a#! i# the ma#ufacture $f

*$l st re#e *r$!ucts) has !e*lete! the strat$s*heric $B$#e la er, creati#( a h$le a:$5e &#tarctica that lasts f$r se5eral Aeeks each ear. &s a result, eC*$sure t$ the Su#6s harmful ra s has !ama(e! aquatic a#! terrestrial Ail!life a#! threate#s huma# health i# hi(h.latitu!e re(i$#s $f the #$rther# a#! s$uther# hemis*heres. Noise %ollution /#Aa#te! s$u#!, $r #$ise, such as that *r$!uce! : air*la#es, traffic, $r i#!ustrial machi#er , is c$#si!ere! a f$rm $f *$lluti$#. ;$ise *$lluti$# is at its A$rst i# !e#sel *$*ulate! areas. )t ca# cause heari#( l$ss, stress, hi(h :l$$! *ressure, slee* l$ss, !istracti$#, a#! l$st *r$!ucti5it . S$u#!s are *r$!uce! : $:@ects that 5i:rate at a rate that the ear ca# !etect. 4his rate is calle! freque#c a#! is measure! i# hertB, $r 5i:rati$#s *er sec$#!. -$st huma#s ca# hear s$u#!s :etAee# 20 a#! 20,000 hertB, Ahile !$(s ca# hear hi(h.*itche! s$u#!s u* t$ 50,000 hertB. <hile hi(h.freque#c s$u#!s te#! t$ :e m$re haBar!$us a#! m$re a##$ i#( t$ heari#( tha# l$A.freque#c s$u#!s, m$st #$ise *$lluti$# !ama(e is relate! t$ the i#te#sit $f the s$u#!, $r the am$u#t $f e#er( it has. -easure! i# !eci:els, #$ise i#te#sit ca# ra#(e fr$m Ber$, the quietest s$u#! the huma# ear ca# !etect, t$ $5er 160 !eci:els. 1$#5ersati$# takes *lace at ar$u#! 40 !eci:els, a su:Aa trai# is a:$ut 80 !eci:els, a#! a r$ck c$#cert is fr$m 80 t$ 100 !eci:els. 4he i#te#sit $f a #ear: @et taki#( $ff is a:$ut 110 !eci:els. 4he thresh$l! f$r *ai#, tissue !ama(e, a#! *$te#tial heari#( l$ss i# huma#s is 120 !eci:els. '$#(.lasti#(, hi(h. i#te#sit s$u#!s are the m$st !ama(i#( t$ heari#( a#! *r$!uce the m$st stress i# huma#s. S$luti$#s t$ #$ise *$lluti$# i#clu!e a!!i#( i#sulati$# a#! s$u#!.*r$$fi#( t$ !$$rs, Aalls, a#! ceili#(sQ usi#( ear *r$tecti$#, *articularl i# i#!ustrial A$rki#( areasQ *la#ti#( 5e(etati$# t$ a:s$r: a#! scree# $ut #$ise *$lluti$#Q a#! B$#i#( ur:a# areas t$ mai#tai# a se*arati$# :etAee# resi!e#tial areas a#! B$#es $f eCcessi5e #$ise. 0@N-#@LL9N8 %@LL?-9@N 8ecause $f the ma# e#5ir$#me#tal tra(e!ies $f the mi!.20th ce#tur , ma# #ati$#s i#stitute! c$m*rehe#si5e re(ulati$#s !esi(#e! t$ re*air the *ast !ama(e $f u#c$#tr$lle! *$lluti$# a#! *re5e#t future e#5ir$#me#tal c$#tami#ati$#. )# the /#ite! States, the 1lea# &ir &ct (1970) a#! its ame#!me#ts si(#ifica#tl re!uce! certai# t *es $f air *$lluti$#, such as sulfur !i$Ci!e emissi$#s. 4he 1lea# <ater &ct (1977) a#! Safe 0ri#ki#( <ater &ct (1974)

re(ulate! *$lluti$# !ischar(es a#! set Aater qualit sta#!ar!s. 4he 4$Cic Su:sta#ces 1$#tr$l &ct (1976) a#! the 3es$urce 1$#ser5ati$# a#! 3ec$5er &ct (1976) *r$5i!e! f$r the testi#( a#! c$#tr$l $f t$Cic a#! haBar!$us Aastes. )# 1980 1$#(ress *asse! the 1$m*rehe#si5e 9#5ir$#me#tal 3es*$#se, 1$m*e#sati$#, a#! 'ia:ilit &ct (1931'&), als$ k#$A# as Su*erfu#!, t$ *r$5i!e fu#!s t$ clea# u* the m$st se5erel c$#tami#ate! haBar!$us Aaste sites. 4hese a#! se5eral $ther fe!eral a#! state laAs hel*e! limit u#c$#tr$lle! *$lluti$#, :ut *r$(ress has :ee# sl$A a#! ma# se5ere c$#tami#ati$# *r$:lems remai# !ue t$ lack $f fu#!s f$r clea#u* a#! e#f$rceme#t. )#ter#ati$#al a(reeme#ts ha5e als$ *la e! a r$le i# re!uci#( (l$:al *$lluti$#. 4he -$#tr^al %r$t$c$l $# Su:sta#ces that 0e*lete the 2B$#e 'a er (1987) set i#ter#ati$#al tar(et !ates f$r re!uci#( the ma#ufacture a#! emissi$#s $f the chemicals, such as 1+1s, k#$A# t$ !e*lete the $B$#e la er. 4he 8asel 1$#5e#ti$# $# the 1$#tr$l $f 4ra#s:$u#!ar -$5eme#ts $f ,aBar!$us <astes a#! 4heir 0is*$sal (1989) ser5es as a frameA$rk f$r the i#ter#ati$#al re(ulati$# $f haBar!$us Aaste tra#s*$rt a#! !is*$sal. Si#ce 1992 re*rese#tati5es fr$m m$re tha# 160 #ati$#s ha5e met re(ularl t$ !iscuss meth$!s t$ re!uce (ree#h$use (as emissi$#s. )# 1997 the L _t$ %r$t$c$l Aas !e5ise!, calli#( f$r i#!ustrialiBe! c$u#tries t$ re!uce their (as emissi$#s : 2012 t$ a# a5era(e 5 *erce#t :el$A 1990 le5els. &t the e#! $f 2000 the L _t$ %r$t$c$l ha! #$t et :ee# ratifie!Q #e($tiat$rs Aere still A$rki#( t$ fi#! c$#se#sus $# the rules, meth$!s, a#! *e#alties that sh$ul! :e use! t$ e#f$rce the treat . 3e(ulati$#s a#! le(islati$# ha5e le! t$ c$#si!era:le *r$(ress i# clea#i#( u* air a#! Aater *$lluti$# i# !e5el$*e! c$u#tries. >ehicles i# the 1990s emit feAer #itr$(e# $Ci!es tha# th$se i# the 1970s !i!Q *$Aer *la#ts #$A :ur# l$A.sulfur fuelsQ i#!ustrial stacks ha5e scru::ers t$ re!uce emissi$#sQ a#! lea! has :ee# rem$5e! fr$m (as$li#e. 0e5el$*i#( c$u#tries, h$Ae5er, c$#ti#ue t$ stru((le Aith *$lluti$# c$#tr$l :ecause the 4he *r$:lem is c$m*$u#!e! : i#!ustr : lack clea# tech#$l$(ies a#! !es*eratel #ee! t$ im*r$5e ec$#$mic stre#(th, $fte# at the c$st $f e#5ir$#me#tal qualit . !e5el$*i#( c$u#tries attracti#( f$rei(# i#5estme#t a#! $fferi#( chea*er la:$r, chea*er raA materials, a#! feAer e#5ir$#me#tal

restricti$#s. 4he !a'uiladoras, assem:l *la#ts al$#( the -eCica# si!e $f the -eCic$./.S. :$r!er, *r$5i!e @$:s a#! i#!ustr f$r -eCic$ :ut are (e#erall $A#e! : #$#.-eCica# c$r*$rati$#s attracte! t$ the chea* la:$r a#! lack $f *$lluti$# re(ulati$#. &s a result, this

:$r!er re(i$#, i#clu!i#( the 3`$ =ra#!e, is $#e $f the m$st hea5il *$llute! B$#es i# ;$rth &merica. 4$ a5$i! ec$l$(ical !isaster a#! i#crease! *$5ert , !e5el$*i#( c$u#tries Aill require ai! a#! tech#$l$( fr$m $utsi!e #ati$#s a#! c$r*$rati$#s, c$mmu#it *artici*ati$# i# !e5el$*me#t i#itiati5es, a#! str$#( e#5ir$#me#tal re(ulati$#s. ;$#($5er#me#tal citiBe# (r$u*s ha5e f$rme! at the l$cal, #ati$#al, a#! i#ter#ati$#al le5el t$ c$m:at *$lluti$# *r$:lems A$rl!Ai!e. -a# $f these $r(a#iBati$#s *r$5i!e i#f$rmati$# a#! su**$rt f$r *e$*le $r $r(a#iBati$#s tra!iti$#all #$t i#5$l5e! i# the !ecisi$#.maki#( *r$cess. 4he %estici!e &cti$# ;etA$rk *r$5i!es tech#ical i#f$rmati$# a:$ut the effects $f *estici!es $# farmA$rkers. 4he 1itiBe#6s 1leari#(h$use f$r ,aBar!$us <aste, esta:lishe! : 5etera#s $f the '$5e 1a#al c$#tr$5ers , *r$5i!es su**$rt f$r c$mmu#ities tar(ete! f$r haBar!$us Aaste i#stallati$#s. & Aell.$r(a#iBe!, (rassr$$ts, e#5ir$#me#tal @ustice m$5eme#t has arise# t$ a!5$cate equita:le e#5ir$#me#tal *r$tecti$#s. =ree#*eace is a# acti5ist $r(a#iBati$# that f$cuses i#ter#ati$#al atte#ti$# $# i#!ustries a#! ($5er#me#ts k#$A# t$ c$#tami#ate la#!, sea, $r atm$s*here Aith t$Cic $r s$li! Aastes. +rie#!s $f the 9arth )#ter#ati$#al are a fe!erati$# $f i#ter#ati$#al $r(a#iBati$#s that fi(ht e#5ir$#me#tal *$lluti$# ar$u#! the A$rl!. .ir pollution &ir %$lluti$#, a!!iti$# $f harmful su:sta#ces t$ the atm$s*here resulti#( i# !ama(e t$ the e#5ir$#me#t, huma# health, a#! qualit $f life. 2#e $f ma# f$rms $f *$lluti$#, air *$lluti$# $ccurs i#si!e h$mes, sch$$ls, a#! $fficesQ i# citiesQ acr$ss c$#ti#e#tsQ a#! e5e# (l$:all . &ir *$lluti$# makes *e$*le sickWit causes :reathi#( *r$:lems a#! *r$m$tes ca#cerWa#! it harms *la#ts, a#imals, a#! the ec$s stems i# Ahich the li5e. S$me air *$lluta#ts retur# t$ 9arth i# the f$rm $f aci! rai# a#! s#$A, Ahich c$rr$!e statues a#! :uil!i#(s, !ama(e cr$*s a#! f$rests, a#! make lakes a#! streams u#suita:le f$r fish a#! $ther *la#t a#! a#imal life. %$lluti$# is cha#(i#( 9arth6s atm$s*here s$ that it lets i# m$re harmful ra!iati$# fr$m the Su#. &t the same time, $ur *$llute! atm$s*here is :ec$mi#( a :etter i#sulat$r, *re5e#ti#( heat fr$m esca*i#( :ack i#t$ s*ace a#! lea!i#( t$ a rise i# (l$:al a5era(e tem*eratures. Scie#tists *re!ict that the tem*erature i#crease, referre! t$ as (l$:al Aarmi#(, Aill affect A$rl! f$$! su**l , alter sea le5el, make Aeather m$re eCtreme, a#! i#crease the s*rea! $f tr$*ical !isease. &ut$m$:ile 4raffic %$lluti$# &ut$m$:ile eChaust c$#tai#s u#:ur#e! h !r$car:$#s, *articulates, car:$# !i$Ci!e, a#! $Ci!es $f #itr$(e# a#! sulfur that c$#tri:ute t$ aci! rai#, sm$(, a#! (l$:al

Aarmi#(. 4he $Ci!es c$m:i#e Aith Aater 5a*$r i# the air t$ f$rm aci!s, Ahich retur# t$ the (r$u#! as aci! rai#. Sm$(, a miCture $f sm$ke (*articulates) a#! f$(, irritates the e es, thr$at, a#! lu#(s a#! als$ !ama(es *la#ts. %h$t$chemical sm$(, a *articularl harsh f$rm $f sm$(, is create! Ahe# su#li(ht tri((ers a chemical reacti$# :etAee# the u#:ur#e! h !r$car:$#s a#! the $Ci!es $f #itr$(e# i# aut$m$:ile eChaust. 1ar:$# !i$Ci!e, *r$!uce! fr$m the :ur#i#( $f f$ssil fuels i#clu!i#( (as$li#e, is the lea!i#( cause $f the (ree#h$use effect, a *he#$me#$# th$u(ht t$ :e res*$#si:le f$r risi#( (l$:al tem*eratures. S*ruce +$rest 0ama(e! : &ci! 3ai# +$rests, lakes, *$#!s, a#! $ther terrestrial a#! aquatic e#5ir$#me#ts thr$u(h$ut the A$rl! are :ei#( se5erel !ama(e! : the effects $f aci! rai#. &ci! rai# is cause! : the c$m:i#ati$# $f sul*hur !i$Ci!e a#! #itr$(e# c$m*$u#!s Aith Aater i# the atm$s*here t$ *r$!uce rai# Aith a 5er l$A *,. ;$rmall , rai#Aater has a *, $f 6.5, maki#( it sli(htl aci!ic. ,$Ae5er, Aith the a!!iti$# $f sul*hur a#! #itr$(e# c$m*$u#!s, the *, $f rai#Aater ma !r$* t$ as l$A as 2.0 $r 3.0, maki#( it !a#(er$usl aci!ic. )# a!!iti$# t$ chemicall :ur#i#( the lea5es $f *la#ts, aci! rai# %$is$#s 'ake <ater, Ahich kills m$st if #$t all $f the aquatic i#ha:ita#ts. )#!ustrial Sm$kestacks 1ar:$# !i$Ci!e, sulfur !i$Ci!e, a#! $ther t *es $f c$#tami#a#ts *$uri#( fr$m i#!ustrial sm$kestacks c$#tri:ute t$ A$rl!Ai!e atm$s*heric *$lluti$#. 1ar:$# !i$Ci!e c$#tri:utes si(#ifica#tl t$ (l$:al Aarmi#(, Ahile sulfur !i$Ci!e is the *ri#ci*al cause $f aci! rai# i# the #$rtheaster# /#ite! States, s$utheaster# 1a#a!a, a#! 9aster# 9ur$*e. 2ther e#5ir$#me#tal *r$:lems stemmi#( fr$m sm$kestack emissi$#s i#clu!e res*irat$r *$is$#e! lakes a#! streams, a#! !ama(e! f$rests a#! cr$*s. !iseases,

G.O@# %@LL?-.N- 2@?#032 -$st air *$lluti$# c$mes fr$m $#e huma# acti5it H :ur#i#( f$ssil fuelsW#atural (as, c$al, a#! $ilWt$ *$Aer i#!ustrial *r$cesses a#! m$t$r 5ehicles. &m$#( the harmful chemical c$m*$u#!s this :ur#i#( *uts i#t$ the atm$s*here are car:$# !i$Ci!e, car:$# m$#$Ci!e, #itr$(e# $Ci!es, sulfur !i$Ci!e, a#! ti# s$li! *articlesWi#clu!i#( lea! fr$m (as$li#e a!!iti5esWcalle! *articulates. 8etAee# 1900 a#! 1970, m$t$r 5ehicle use ra*i!l eC*a#!e!, a#! emissi$#s $f #itr$(e# $Ci!es, s$me $f the m$st !ama(i#( *$lluta#ts i# 5ehicle eChaust, i#crease! 690 *erce#t. <he# fuels are i#c$m*letel :ur#e!, 5ari$us chemicals calle! 5$latile

$r(a#ic chemicals (>21s) als$ e#ter the air. %$lluta#ts als$ c$me fr$m $ther s$urces. +$r i#sta#ce, !ec$m*$si#( (ar:a(e i# la#!fills a#! s$li! Aaste !is*$sal sites emits metha#e (as, a#! ma# h$useh$l! *r$!ucts (i5e $ff >21s. S$me $f these *$lluta#ts als$ c$me fr$m #atural s$urces. +$r eCam*le, f$rest fires emit *articulates a#! >21s i#t$ the atm$s*here. /ltrafi#e !ust *articles, !isl$!(e! : s$il er$si$# Ahe# Aater a#! Aeather l$$se# la ers $f s$il, i#crease air:$r#e *articulate le5els. >$lca#$es s*eA $ut sulfur !i$Ci!e a#! lar(e am$u#ts $f *ul5eriBe! la5a r$ck k#$A# as 5$lca#ic ash. & :i( 5$lca#ic eru*ti$# ca# !arke# the sk $5er a Ai!e re(i$# a#! affect the 9arth6s e#tire atm$s*here. 4he 1991 eru*ti$# $f -$u#t %i#atu:$ i# the %hili**i#es, f$r eCam*le, !um*e! e#$u(h 5$lca#ic ash i#t$ the u**er atm$s*here t$ l$Aer (l$:al tem*eratures f$r the #eCt tA$ ears. /#like *$lluta#ts fr$m huma# acti5it , h$Ae5er, #aturall $ccurri#( *$lluta#ts te#! t$ remai# i# the atm$s*here f$r a sh$rt time a#! !$ #$t lea! t$ *erma#e#t atm$s*heric cha#(e. 2#ce i# the atm$s*here, *$lluta#ts $fte# u#!er($ chemical reacti$#s that *r$!uce a!!iti$#al harmful c$m*$u#!s. &ir *$lluti$# is su:@ect t$ Aeather *atter#s that ca# tra* it i# 5alle s $r :l$A it acr$ss the (l$:e t$ !ama(e *risti#e e#5ir$#me#ts far fr$m the $ri(i#al s$urces.

#isual and $rban Design

%ri#ci*les $f 5isual c$m*$siti$#Q *r$*$rti$#, scale, rh thm, s mmetr , harm$# , !atum, :ala#ce, f$rm, c$l$ur, teCtureQ se#se $f *lace a#! s*ace, !i5isi$# $f s*aceQ :arrier free !esi(#Q f$cal *$i#t, 5ista, ima(e a:ilit , 5isual sur5e , fi(ure.:ack(r$u#! relati$#shi*.

%rin*iples of 4isual *o/position

1. 9/portant fa*tor to be *onsidered in ?rban 7esign D &rra#(eme#t $f s*aces

=$$! c$m*$siti$# 2r!erl a#! *leasi#( %leasure f$ll$As $r!er

2. prin*iples of *o/position E

?nit+ E

2#e#ess a#! :ri#(s harm$# Aith the surr$u#!i#(s. Similar f$rms (i5e c$here#ce t$ the *arts a#! i#te(rit t$ the Ah$le. &# ur:a# f$rm s$ *la##e! a#! create! Aill create a si#(le *icture $f u#it . 0issimilar f$rms, teCture, c$l$r lack u#it . 2egregation E

1$m*$siti$# sh$ul! f$rm a# i#!e*e#!e#t u#it : se*arati#( fr$m $thers : e#cl$si#( masses. )t ca# :e ma!e u* #eutral f$rms, a5era(e teCtures $r su:!ue! c$l$rs $f :uil!i#( masses.

0o$eren*e E

1$m*licate! c$m*$siti$#s lack c$here#ce. 4$$ ma# s$rts $f :uil!i#(s, eleme#ts, a#! access$ries result i# lack $f c$here#ce.

2+//etri*al balan*e E Balan*e mea#s equalit a#! it ca# :e easil $:tai#e! : s mmetrical t *e $f *la#ts $r features $# either si!e $f the ce#tral aCis $f c$m*$siti$#. 8ala#ce sh$ul! :e ! #amic, 5ital he#ce it sh$ul! :e rh thmic. .s+//etri*al or @**ult balan*e E 4$$ u#equal masses $# either si!e $f the ce#tral aCis f$rm as mmetrical :ala#ce. -eticul$usl arra#(e! $ccult :ala#ce a!!s s$ft#ess a#! free!$m t$ the c$m*$siti$#. 2*ale E

4he :uil!i#( $r (r$u* $f :uil!i#(s must :e i# scale Aith its surr$u#!i#(s. 4he *arts $f the c$m*$siti$# i# relati$# t$ each $ther sh$ul! eChi:it their true siBe.

#$+t$/ and reputation E

)t is a !e5ise t$ (i5e c$#ti#uit t$ the !esi(#. )t !e5el$*s rh thmic seque#ce *r$!uci#( a c$here#t effect. /se !isti#cti5e eleme#ts f$r a rh thmic arra#(eme#t (c$lum#s, $*e#i#(s like Ai#!$As), t$ 0olor

h$l! t$(ether a#! carr the e e fr$m *art t$ the $ther.

Select *ai#ts f$r l$#( c$l$r effects. & feeli#( $f c$here#ce i# !esi(# is achie5e! : c$l$r as Aell $r : sim*le re*etiti$# $f the -e'ture

same c$l$r at re(ular i#ter5als.

)t is the surface qualit Ahich (i5e a teCtile se#sati$# Ahe# t$uche!, such as s$ft cum har!, Sa#!st$#e D c$urse. -ar:le D tra#sluce#t a#! s$ft

sm$$th, r$u(h etc.,

Lig$t and 2$ade E

2ccasi$#al Sha!es cast : lar(e $*e#i#(s *r$!uce a *ict$rial effect. 1$lum#s a#! arca!es thr$A sha!$As i# the m$r#i#( a#! e5e#i#( *r$!uci#( a c$#sta#t cha#(e Iualit $f c$l$r als$ cha#(es acc$r!i#( t$ the i#te#sit $f li(ht.

$f li(ht a#! sha!e.

3. Hisual aspe*t of plan arrange/ent D >ieAH is a sce#e $:ser5e! fr$m a (i5e# *lace. >istaH is a c$#fi#e! 5ieA t$ a !$mi#a#t feature. 9ach 5ista has a 5ieAi#( stati$#. & Aell.

c$#cei5e! 5ista has the :ala#ce a#! rh thm.

&CisH is a li#ear eleme#t c$##ecti#( tA$ $r m$re eleme#ts such as a !ri5e, a street $r a

*ark Aa . )t is !irecti$#al, $r!erl , !$mi#ati#(.

4. 0olor t$eor+ E

%rimar hues . 390, "9''2<, 8'/9, =399;. ,arm$#iBi#( c$l$rs D hues a!@ace#t $# the c$l$r Aheel. <ue D (first !ime#si$#), : !efi#iti$# it is *ure c$l$r, c$#tai#i#( #$ Ahite, :lack $r (re . Halue D (2P !ime#si$#), it is the !e(ree $f c$l$rs lumi#$sit "ell$A . the li(htest c$l$r $f s*ectrum Aheel. hi(her 5alue >i$let D the l$Aest 5alue. 9ntensit+ E (3P !ime#si$#), (i5e s$me measure $f qualit $f relati5e c$l$rful#ess $r (re #ess. &ls$ k#$A# as chr$ma, *urit $r saturati$#. &s s*ectral hues :ec$me (re er the are calle! as t$#es. 3e! is the m$st a!5a#ci#( c$l$r.
5. H9B8I@# 6. 9ffects $f hue

3ffe*t 9Cciti#(

<ue :ri(ht, re!, $ra#(e

0ontrast hi(h

Stimulati#( 1heeri#( ;eutraliBi#( 3etrai#i#( 3elaCi#( Su:!ui#( 0e*ressi#(

re!, $ra#(e li(ht $ra#(e ell$A, li(ht (re (re , Ahite?$ff Ahite c$$l (re , li(ht (ree#, li(ht :lue :lue, (ree# *ur*le :lack

m$!erate m$!erate l$A l$A l$A m$!erate l$A

7. 0olor ti/e si;e ,eig$t 4olu/e

<arm $5erestimate! thi#(s seem hea5ier !ecreases 1$$l u#!er estimate! thi#(s seem li(hter i#creases

8. /se c$$l c$l$rs sh$rter 7 f$r areas Ahere smaller r$uti#e $r m$#$t$#$us tasks are

*erf$rme!.
9. Natural *olor s+ste/ E 3d,ard <erings t$eor+ 10. 24en <assel *re*are! a c$l$r atlas. 11. <e ca#6t see a# $:@ect if :e $#! a !ista#ce $f 3500times its siBe. 12. ra#(e $f c$#5e#ti$#al !ista#ce D 306 13. t$ make $ut facial eC*ressi$#s D 406 14. t$ make rec$(#iBe a face D 806 15. -aC. 0ista#ce f$r !isc$5eri#( acti$# D 4506 f$r seei#( *e$*le D 4000. 16. 450a (1H1) full e#cl$sure 17. 300a (1H2) thresh$l! $f e#cl$sure 18. 180a (1H3) mi#imum e#cl$sure 19. 140a (1H4) l$ss $f e#cl$sure 20. sha*e is 2.!ime#si$#al 21. f$rm is 3.0

22. c$l$r D hue $r 1hr$ma 23. i#te#sit D (ra i#( effect 24. 5alue D ti#t (a!!i#( Ahite) (hi(h ke ) 25. sha!i#( (a!!i#( :lack) (l$A ke ) 26. t$#e D ra#(e $f ti#ts a#! sha!es 27. >ari$us c$l$r s stems D -u#sell, %ra#( etc

Sense of place and space) di!ision of space

1. )# ur:a# !esi(#, there sh$ul! :e skille! !e*l$ me#t $f architectural e#er( s$ that the

i#flue#ce $f fi#e :uil!i#(s ra!iates $utAar!, articulati#( the Ah$le fa:ric $f the cit .
2. &rchitecture is the articulati$# $f s*ace s$ as t$ *r$!uce i# the *artici*at$r a !efi#ite

s*ace eC*erie#ce i# relati$# t$ *re5i$us a#! a#tici*ate! s*ace eC*erie#ce.

)#5$l5eme#t -eeti#( the sk -eeti#( the (r$u#! %$i#ts i# s*ace 3ecessi$# *laces (%ati$s, e#tra#ce (ateAa s etc) 0esi(# i# !e*th (a se#se $f m$5eme#t i# !e*th) &sce#t a#! !esce#t (use $f 5ar i#( le5els as the eleme#ts) 1$#5eCit a#! c$#ca5it i# !esi(# 3elati$#shi* t$ ma# 0esi(#er as *artici*at$r &**rehe#si$#, re*rese#tati$# a#! realiBati$#. 3. 4he #ature $f !esi(# D simulta#e$us m$5eme#t s stems. 4. *ri#ci*les $f !esi(# u#it D re*etiti$# $f i!e#tical eleme#ts ,ea! $f Aell.*r$*$rti$#e! huma# fi(ure = 1?7 $f t$tal :$! hei(ht. %r$*$rti$# D ($l!e# mea# is a rati$ 1H1.618 sta#!ar!.

 1ertai# *r$*$rti$#s are m$re *leasi#( tha# $thers. Su:limi#al effect.

#isual and $rban Design

#aths are cha##els $f m$5eme#t. 4he i#clu!e AalkAa s, streets, railr$a!s, eC*ressAa s, a#! mass tra#sit li#es. 4hese are t *icall the *ers*ecti5e fr$m Ahich a# $:ser5er 5ieAs the cit .

(dges are li#ear, #$t u#like *aths, :ut !$ #$t facilitate m$5eme#t. 4he are $fte# :$u#!aries !efi#i#( a :reak i# c$#ti#uit :etAee# tA$ h$m$(e#e$us re(i$#s. 9Cam*les i#clu!e sh$res, Aalls, ri5ers, a#! railr$a!s cuts.

)istricts are the mi!.siBe! secti$#s $f a cit . 4he are !isti#(uisha:le as ha5i#( s$me c$mm$#, i!e#tif i#( characteristics. 4 *ical i!e#tif i#( traits i#clu!e a *articular architectural st le, li(ht *$sts, $r mail:$Ces.

%odes are strate(ic s*$ts i# the cit Ahere $:ser5ers ca# e#ter. 4he are t *icall li#ke! t$ tra5el a#! ma :e re*rese#te! : s$me t *e $f tra#s*$rtati$# hu: such as a mass tra#sit stati$#, :us st$*, $r traffic circle.

*and!ar+s are *$i#t.refere#ces that are eCter#al t$ the $:ser5er. 4he are #$t e#tere! i#t$ :ut rather are 5ieAe! fr$m a !ista#ce. & la#!mark must :e !isti#ct fr$m its surr$u#!i#(s a#! sh$ul! ha5e !irecti$#al i#f$rmati$# ass$ciate! Aith it. 0irecti$#al i#f$rmati$# is esse#tial t$ the #a5i(at$rUs a:ilit t$ remai# $rie#te! Aith the e#5ir$#me#t.

'a#!marks, #$!es, a#! !istricts !i5i!e the cit i#t$ X*lacesX Ahich are c$##ecte! : *aths a#! :$u#!e! : e!(es.

4here are certai# eleme#ts i# m$st cities that sha*e *e$*les u#!ersta#!i#( $f h$A the cit is $r(a#iBe!. %e$*le use these eleme#ts t$ l$cate themsel5es. 4his *r$5i!es a# im*$rta#t se#se $f securit . )# !is$rie#tati#( *laces this se#se $f securit is l$st, a#! *e$*le feel u#c$mf$rta:le. <e

#ee! t$ u#!ersta#! Ahat are the a**r$*riate *h sical f$rms t$ *r$!uce Ahat Le5i# ' #ch (i# the )ma(e $f the 1it , 1960) calle! legibilit+.

%er*eption and 0ognition )t is ar(ue! that the me#tal ma* is the e#! *r$!uct $f *erce*ti$# a#! c$(#iti$#. a. %er*eption( 4he e#5ir$#me#t is re(ar!e! as a mass $f Xt$ Ah$m it ma c$#cer#X messa(es thr$u(h Ahich a# i#!i5i!ual6s *erce*ti$# selects the messa(es that are $f c$#cer#. S$ *erce*ti$# is a# e#c$!i#( *r$cess. 4his e#c$!i#( all$As i#!i5i!uals t$ c$#5ert i#f$rmati$# a:$ut the e#5ir$#me#t i#t$ mea#i#(ful terms. %erce*ti$# im*lies that i#!i5i!uals select s*ecific $:@ects rather tha# Xthe Ah$le *ictureX. b. 0ognition( 1$(#iti$# refers t$ the Aa i#f$rmati$#, $#ce recei5e!, is st$re! a#! $r(a#iBe! i# the :rai# s$ that it fits Aith $ther alrea! accumulate! i#f$rmati$#. 1$(#iti$# is theref$re !e5el$*me#tal, a#! as it *r$(resses *erce*ti$# :ec$me su:$r!i#ate. X...2#e ma *ercei5e the street Ahere Ae li5e : *h sicall :ei#( there, :ut k#$Ai#( the r$ute t$ A$rk !e*e#!s $# c$(#iti5e $r(a#iBati$# $f *erce*ti$#s.X =$lle!(e, ' = a#! Stims$# 3 K (1987) &#al tical 8eha5i$ral =e$(ra*h , '$#!$#H 1r$$m ,elm -e#tal ma**i#( $r c$(#iti5e ma**i#( is see# as the *r$cess Ahich e#a:les i#!i5i!uals t$ acquire c$!e, st$re, recall a#! ma#i*ulate i#f$rmati$# a:$ut the #ature $f their e#5ir$#me#t. Legibilit+ a. 'e(i:ilit is the ease Aith Ahich the *arts $f a t$A# $r cit ca# :e rec$(#iBe! a#! $r(a#iBe! i#t$ a c$here#t *atter#. :. ' #ch ar(ue! that the a#Ciet that acc$m*a#ies (etti#( l$st sh$As clearl h$A le(i:ilit is li#ke! t$ $ur se#se $f Aell :ei#(. X& ($$! e#5ir$#me#tal ima(e (i5es its *$ssess$r a# im*$rta#t se#se $f em$ti$#al securit . ,e ca# esta:lish a harm$#i$us relati$#shi* :etAee# himself a#! the $utsi!e A$rl!. 4his is the $:5erse $f the fear that c$mes Aith !is$rie#tati$#.X ' #ch (1960)

c. ' #ch, i# his stu!ies, f$u#! that *e$*leUs ima(es $f a *lace $5erla*. 4hat !es*ite !ifferi#( mea#i#(s that the (a5e t$ *lacesQ *e$*le i!e#tifie! similar eleme#ts as im*$rta#t t$ :ei#( a:le t$ $rie#tate themsel5es. )t is fr$m the a#al sis $f me#tal ma*s that ' #ch i!e#tifie! the *h sical eleme#ts that ai! le(i:ilit . <hat is the *r$:lem Aith t$!a Us citiesY -a# *e$*le c$mme#t $# the c$#fusi$# that c$#tem*$rar cities *r$!uce :ecause $f a lack $f s*atial !isti#cti$# resulti#( fr$mH -$e/ati*/Non -$e/ati*( i. 4hematic :uil!i#(s a**ear i#!isti#ct a# #$rmal ie the are $f a theme. ;$#.4hematic :uil!i#(s are !isti#ct a#! sta#! $ut. ii. 4$!a #$#.thematic :uil!i#(s are $fte# l$cate! i# im*$rta#t *$siti$#s, a#! usuall mea# little t$ the ma@$rit $f *e$*le iii. %u:lic a#! *ri5ate :uil!i#(s als$ start t$ l$$k alike. -$e separation of pedestrians fro/ 4e$i*les( ). +reque#tl r$a!s are :$r!ere! : m$u#!s $f earth a#! 5e(etati$# t$ se*arate r$a!s fr$m *aths a#! h$usi#( (s*ee! a#! efficie#c ). )t is !is$rie#tati#( a#! requires relia#ce $# si(#s $#l . ii. +$$t*aths freque#tl require *e!estria#s t$ Aalk :etAee# the *ri5ate :acks $f h$uses, $r al$#(.si!e faceless fe#ces a#! *ri5ac scree#s, u#!er(r$u#! $r :etAee# fast m$5i#( r$a!s. )# these *laces there is !is$rie#tati$# a#! lack $f sur5eilla#ce. La*& of spatial definition( )t is als$ ar(ue! that em*hasis $# the !esi(# $f i#!i5i!ual :uil!i#(s i# a la#!sca*e?car *ark setti#( !$es #$t *r$5i!e the s*atial !efi#iti$# that the tra!iti$#al cl$se (rai# cit ca# *r$5i!e. Such e#5ir$#me#ts !$ #$t e#ha#ce $rie#tati$# :ecause the !$ #$t c$#tai# i!e#tifia:le eleme#ts f$rmi#( clearl i!e#tifia:le relati$#shi*s. -$ings to do in design to en$an*e legibilit+

a. #einfor*ing pat$s( : *r$5i!i#( *h sical characteristics, Ahich mark them fr$m surr$u#!i#( cha##els. b. #einfor*ing t$e net,or&( a !ef$rme! (ri! ca# shar*e# the relati$#shi* :etAee# *laces, a#! rei#f$rce the *atter# :etAee# eleme#ts. =ra!ual cur5es a#! Ai#!i#( cul.!e.sacs !is$rie#tate a#! !e# a# a**reciati$# $f actual *h sical 5ici#it . *. 3dges sh$ul! c$#tai# c$#ti#uit i# f$rm a#! use t$ :e clearl le(i:le a#! !efi#e!. d. Land/ar&s sh$ul! c$#trast Aith their c$#teCt, a#! sh$ul! :e use! i# seque#ce i# relati$# t$ the eCte#t $f *r$(ress al$#( a *ath, $r f$rmi#( u#if i#( relati$#shi*s :etAee# *aths (i.e. at @u#cti$#). e. Nodes sh$ul! :e rei#f$rce! a#! characteriBe! : a si#(ular a#! c$#ti#u$us qualit $f e.(. Aalls, fl$$r, :uil!i#( st le, massi#(. & *h sicall e#cl$se! #$!e is m$re #$ta:le tha# a su:ur:a# r$u#!a:$ut Aith #$ cl$se! :$u#!aries. 2f c$urse $u ma #$t ch$$se t$ use the eleme#ts t$ *r$5i!e le(i:ilit . "$u ma use $ur u#!ersta#!i#( t$ *r$!uce !eli:eratel ille(i:le *laces. Securit , it is ar(ue!, is s$metimes :est achie5e! Ahere *e$*le are !is$rie#tate!, a#! se#se that the !$ #$t :el$#(. &r(ume#ts state that, f$r eCam*le, ma# h$usi#( la $uts sh$ul! :e !esi(#e! t$ i#timi!ate a#! alie#ate the *u:lic. 1learl this is li#ke! t$ $ur earlier !iscussi$#s a:$ut accessi:ilit . 0on*lusion a. )f *e$*le are ($i#( t$ use the *h sical e#5ir$#me#t a#! u#!ersta#! the relati$#shi*s :etAee# its *arts, the# it must :e le(i:le. :. "$u ca# u#!ersta#! h$A le(i:le a *lace is : aski#( *e$*le t$ !raA a me#tal ma* $r : a#al si#( the area a#! l$$ki#( f$r *aths, e!(es, !istricts, #$!es a#! la#!marks. c. %laces that are #$t le(i:le result i# !is$rie#tati$# a#! are #$t usuall use! $r cr$sse!. )# a!!iti$# s$me *laces mi(ht :e *ercei5e! as !a#(er$us.

History of Architecture
)#!ia# )#!us 5alle , >e!ic, 8u!!hist, )#!$.&r a#, 0ra5i!ia# a#! -u(hal *eri$!sQ (uro&ean 9( *tia#, =reek, 3$ma#, me!ie5al a#! re#aissa#ce *eri$!s. c$#structi$# a#! architectural st lesQ 5er#acular a#! tra!iti$#al architecture.

(ndus !alley ci!ili=ation (Harappan)(0>>>) (ndian architecture (?>> "C to present)

1. 5000 rs a($, *e$*le fr$m Sumeria# $ri(i# came a#! settle! #earest ri5er )#!us. 2. )s a c$#tem*$rar $f a#cie#t -es$*$tamiaY 3. cities Aere s stematic a#! !i5i!e! i#t$ 12 :l$cks (365G244m each) 4. 9#(lish :$#!s i# Aalls. 5. Streets.9m Ai!e. 6. /#!er(r$u#! !rai#a(e li#es Aith i#s*ecti$# cham:ers at re(ular i#ter5als. 7. h$uses c$#siste! $f r$$ms ar$u#! a c$urt ar! a#! staircase.(kil# :ur#t :ricks) 8. 2C. !ri5e# carts $f lar(e s$li! Ahets f$r tra#s*$rtati$#. 9. 4$$ls $f st$#e a#! c$**er Aere i# use. 10. %$ts Aere ma!e $f cla , A$$!.

Hedi* A15

-1

B0C

1. 0ra5i!ia#s.4he :uil!ers $f the cit ci5iliBati$# $f )#!us 5alle .

"uddhist architecture (0>>"C7@/>"C)

1. -a@$r features. stu*as $r t$*es, stam:has $r lats, chait as, 5iharas $r m$#asteries.

2. stupa. m$#ume#t *r$*a(ates the N0$ctri#e6. 3. stu*a. circular, secti$# a#! the t$tal f$rm $f Ahich Aere all !eri5e! fr$m circle. 4. e(Hstu*as,sa#ch(25081), Sar$#ath(7th ce#tur ), &mara5ath(3r! c, &0), :ar hut(2r! c,

&0),:u!h (a a(7581)
5. 1$lum#.2t *es.*erse*$lita# t *e, (raec$.r$ma# t *e. 6. +irst.$cta($#al, :ell sha*e! ca*ital. 7. grae*o. r$ma# t *e is recta#(ular Aith shall$A flucts. 8. 9(H ash$ka *illars (274.237 81) 9. *$ait+as.tem*le as Aell as assem:l halls create! $ut $f *articular !ema#!s $f 8u!!hist

re(i$#.
10. 9(H 8ha@a,k$#!a#e,karle,a@a#ta(2#! 1,81), tll$ra. 11. Hi$ara- resi!e#tial *laces $f 8u!!hist *riests.

(ndo7Aryan (.?>>"C)
1. &r a# 5illa(e Aas ma!e $f tim:er a#! thatch huts. 2. %r$tecte! : tim:er fe#ce c$#sisti#( $f recta#(ular A$$!e# *$sts. 3. =ate Aa at e#tra#ce. 4. &ll )#!ia# art is !eri5e! fr$m the &r a# 5illa(e.

7ra4idian ar*$ite*ture A6

.7-1

.7C

1. 4em*le c$#sists $f (ar:ha.(ritha (A$m:.h$use) Aith a ma#!$*e $r the $*e# *$rch. 2. -ai#l a!$*te! tra:eate! s stem $f c$#structi$#. 3. ;$ arches, a5$i! m$rtar. 4. 4em*les Aere eC*a#!e! Aith c$urt ar!s calle! *rakaras e#cl$si#( ($*urams. 5. 4em*les $# hill t$*s, situate! ami!st :eautiful surr$u#!i#(s. 6. 5 t *es.*alla5a, ch$la, *a#! a, 5i@a a#a(ar, late *a#! a?ma!hura 7. palla4a. r$ck cut tem*le, structural tem*les(sh$re tem*le)

8. *$olaH tem*le c$#sists $f usual c$m*artme#t such as a *illare! halls attache! t$ the

5ima#a $r the t$Aer $5er the sa#ctum.(:riha!eshAar tem*le $f ta#@a5ur)

9. %and+a. *ractice $f c$#structi#( the 5imala $5er the cellaQ im*$rta#ce t$ the tem*le

e#tra#ce ($*uram.
10. HiFa+anagar st+le.tem*le $f m$!ulate siBes, rich i# :eaut , f$rm, *r$*$rti$#, )# a!!iti$#

t$ mai# tem*le i# ce#tre, there Aere se*arate shri#es, *illare! halls, a#! *a5ili$#s.
11. &#$ther im*$rta#t is kalia#.ma#ta*a. 12. 'ate pand+an//ad$ura st+le . .

4em*les Aith 5ast siBe a#! im*ressi5e a**eara#ce. %illare! halls, *arkares $utsi!e.

9(H 3a#(a#ath, -a!hura, 3amesAaram, 4iru*athi.

gyptian Architecture (0>>>"C7.>>AD)

1. 1$lum#ar a#! tra:eate! st le (tra:=:eam) 2. -ai#l t$m:s a#! tem*les. 3. c$#trast t$ Aest &siatic architecture(*alaces) 4. 9( *tia#.-assi5e Aalls, ma!e $f su# !rie! mu! :ricks 5. ,$usi#(. 2#e $r tA$ st$re hi(h, li5i#( hall i# ce#ter. 6. 4em*les. recta#(ular *la#, fr$#te! : m$#$lithic *illars, $rie#te! t$ A$r! ;ile. 7. 1$lum#s. 5e(eta:le $ri(i# like the l$tus stalk, tie! i#ter5als : :a#!s. 8. &!5a#ce! i# use $f c$l$rs, :lue, re!, ell$A 9. 4$m: Aas a# eter#al h$me t$ 9( *tia#s. 10. 3 t *es $f t$m:s.masta:as, r$ al * rami!s 7 r$ck cut ca5es. 11. -asta:a. ce#tral s*ace.sarc$*ha(us 12. % rami!s.$#l f$r *hara$hs.massi5e 7 im*re(#a:le t$m:s. 13. -aterial use! f$r c$re.'ime st$#e. 14. =ra#ite f$r ki#(6s cham:er, *assa(es. 15. 9#tra#ce fr$m #$rth. 16. =reat * rami! $f che$*s at =iBa(230.5mG230.5m), 146m hei(ht.

17. 8uilt i# s$li! st$#es Aith a casi#( $f fi#all !resse! 4ura lime st$#es 7 the a*eC st$#e

Aas $#ce c$ate! Aith ($l!.

18. 3$ck cut t$m:s. e(H 4rit.&ukh.&m$# at 4he:es. 19. tem*les 2 t *es. -$rtuar , -i#istrati$# t$ *hara$hs(cult) 20. -$rtuar .Series $f r$$ms, *illare! c$urt, *h *$ st le hall. the !ark m steri$us cham:er,

cha*el.
21. 2#l the r$ al 7 *ri5ile(e! *ers$#s Aere a!mitte! f$r statel 22. 3eli(i$us fu#cti$#s. 23. )# cult tem*les, the *r$cessi$#s Aere u#ique features. 24. S*hi#Ces 7 $:elisks Aere set u* i# *airs t$ !i(#if the tem*le e#tra#ces 25. e( $f cult tem*le, tem*le $f kh$#s at k$#ark. 26. 2:elisks are lar(e siBes m$#$liths square i# *la#(su# A$rshi*) 27. ,ei(ht $f $:elisk is 9 $r 1. times its l$Aer !iameter. 28. 4 si!es $f :ase are cut Aith fi#(ers $f hier$(l *h.

*ree< architecture (A?>"C70>"C)

1. =reek tem*les Aere surr$u#!e! : $*e# c$l$##a!es i# full 5ieA $f c$mm$# *e$*le 2. 2rie#te! t$ A$r!s east(su#) 3. 1i5iliBati$# s*rea! mai#l !uri#( :r$#Be a(es. 4. ,elle#ic(650.32381) 5. 1$lum#ar 7 tra:eate! st le e5$l5e! fr$m A$$!e# hut $f u*ri(ht *$sts 7 su**$rti#(

:eam 7 sl$*i#( rafters.

6. tA$ *eri$!s.,elle#ic *eri$!, ,elle#istic *eri$!. 7. &rches, !$mes, 5aults Aere #$t use! : the =reeks. 8. =reek use! tim:er 7 after :uilt. 9. )# 60081 . -as$#r fr$m c$urse! ru::le t$ fi#e ashlars. . .

;$ m$rtar Aas use!. -i#imiBe! the @$i#ts : usi#( lar(e siBe! st$#es.

10. 3 $r!ers $f architecture.0$ric, )$#ic, 1$ri#thia#.

11. ,elle#istic *eri$!(323.3081) 12. )#flue#ce! : -i!!le 9aster# culture. 13. 3eli(i$us character :ut after 4th ce#tur 81, *u:lic :uil!i#(s :e(a# 14. &rches starte! a**eari#( $# Aall $*e#i#(s. 15. 3r! ce#tur 81 r$$f trusses came t$ c$5er lar(er s*aces. 16. 2r#ate 1$ri#thia# $r!er Aas m$re *$*ularl use!.

Roman architecture (0>>"C70A?AC)

1. +$ll$Ae! c$lum#ar st le a#! als$ 9trusca#6s arch 75ault. 2. 1$lum#s Aere su*erim*$ses i# case $f c$l$sseum $f r$me. 3. /se $f lime c$#crete Aas starte!(ceme#t) 4. 1haracter $f r$me arch is the ca*acit t$ s*a# $5er lar(e s*aces. 5. 3$ma# :uil!i#(s Aere $f se5eral st$rie!, $r#ame#te! : half attache! c$lum#s

su*erim*$se! $#e a:$5e the $ther.

6. &rch. $f r$mes Aas esse#tiall a# art $f sha*i#( s*ace ar$u#! rituals. 7. -a# structures Aere utiliBati$# t *e such as acque!ucts 7 :ri!(es.

%edie!al period
1. 9arl 1hristia# architecture (313.800 &0) i. +all$Ae! r$ma# st le. ii. 1$lum#s Aere either cl$sel s*ace! t$ carr e#ta:lature $r Ai!el s*ace! t$ carr

semi.circular arches.
iii. 4he :asilica# churches Aere re#!ere! s*aci$us, (raceful, im*ressi5e a#! !i(#ifie!

: arra#(i#( the c$lum#s 7 r$As.

i!. -ai# e#tra#ce Aas *r$5i!e! i# $#e sh$rter si!e. !. 8i:lica# sce#es :ec$me usual features $f !ec$rati$#. !i. &rchitecture re*rese#ts their fa#tacism, *assi$# search f$r m ster

$f the real

*rese#ce.

2. 8 Ba#tic architecture ()330.1453&0) i.

1haracteriBe! :

the #$5el !e5t $f !$me c$5er square $r *$l ($# *la#s $f

churches a#! t$m:s.

ii.

>ari$us t *e $f !$mes use! Aere, sim*le, c$m*$u#!, mel$# sha*e!, $#i$# 0$mes Aere c$#structe! Aith$ut ce#teri#( Aith thi# ra!iati#( :ricks $r li(ht /se! the c$lum#s !ec$ratel as Aell as structurall t$ su**$rt (alleries a#!

sha*e!.
iii.

Aei(ht fumic st$#es.

i!.

semicircular arches.
!.

<alls Aere full c$5ere! Aith mar:le m$saics a#! fresc$.!ec$rati$#

3. -uslim architecture 7th ce#tur i. -a@$r c$#structi$#s. m$sque, t$m:s, *alaces. ii. 1$#structi$#s. Kama mas@i! . . . . . . .

ma!rassah rauBa !ar(ah kha#s the *$i#te! architecture the !$me ara:esque

3$ma#esque architecture (9 t$ 15th ce#tur )

i. )s !irect m$!ificati$# $f r$ma# architecture Ahich (reA i# )tal , +ra#ce,

=erma# , ce#tral 9ur$*e, S*ai#, a#! 8rita#.

ii. /se! li(hter materials. iii. Stai#e! (lass Aas little use!.

=$thic architecture (12th ce#tur )

i. )#tr$!ucti$# $f *$i#te! architecture, :uttress a#! hi(h *i##acle.

ii. )#5e#te! fl i#( :uttress i# *lace $f 5aults t$ su**$rt Aalls. iii. =$thic st le is a s #thesis $f aesthetic a#! tech#ical qualities. i!. )#5e#te! stai#e! c$l$re! (lass. !. 0esi(#e! t$A# halls, r$ al *laces, c$urt h$uses, h$s*itals. !i. 1hurches Aere c$#5e#ie#t rather tha# s mmetr .

Renaissance periods
6.

3e#aissa#ce architecture (15th 19th ce#tur )

i. )s the re5i5al $f classic =reek a#! r$ma# architecture. ii. 'ar(e siBe! st$#e :lacks Aere use! t$ !i(#it iii. 8uil!i#(s Aere arra#(e! Aith s*ecial re(ar! t$ s mmetr . i!. 5 $r!er $f architecture Aere sta#!ar!iBe! a#! use! :$th c$#structi5el a#!

!ec$rati5el .
!. 2r#ame#tati$# Aas :ase! $# classical meth$!$l$( a#! *a(a# su:@ect. !i. Status Aas #either *r$*$rti$# t$ huma# scale #$r a# i#te(ral *art $f the

:uil!i#(s.
!ii. )# *lace $f stai#e! (lass, fresc$ *ai#ti#(s Aere use!.

&he culture of cities

)2I3-T7 sometimes called A*L5BB-B/ (L-/H+= "ut among planner o%ten re%erred to simply as "lig&t. -t stems %rom depreciation in t&e !alue o% land and "uildings as t&e result o% planning proposals or planned de!elopment. +&is &appens 2&en 5lternati!e planning proposals %or pu"lic discussion. >&ere a speci%ic. con%irmed proposal. (lig&t can "e regarded as t&e opposite o% A"etterment=.

Pa"e!ents: 1750 minimum slope o% is desira"le %or most pa!ed sur%aces. *at&O0.9m. t2o a"reast;2.2m. t&ree a"reast;3.2m 9a!p: an inclined plane;%oot2ay or road2ayPconnecting t2o le!els. 9ecla!ation: in connection 2it& land use. reclamation means in its 2idest sense. t&e reco!ery or con!ersion o% land mainly agricultural purposed "ut occasionally also %or construction purposes. 9ec$eation: is t&e processes 2&ere "y indi!iduals and communities rene2 and re%res& t&emsel!es "y pleasant occupants. amusements and entertains "ot& p&ysical and mental a%ter 2or1 or study.

9ibbon #e"elop!ent: ur"an spread along main roads. especially t&ose leading to a city. +&e practice o% "uilding on eit&er side o% a main transport route &as "een common since t&e middle 5ges. and many #illages and to2ns &a!e arises on t&is 2ay. (uilding along transport routes is related to one %orm o% t&e linear city. 9a#ial plan: a de!elopment o% radiating roads %rom a city center=s. 2it& ur"an accretions along t&e roads. -t is a plan t&at results %rom natural uncontrolled &ap&a:ard gro2t&. (ut it o%ten %orms t&e "ias o% good planning o% com"ined 2it& concentric ring roads. in 2&ic& t&e spider;2e" plan e!ol!es.

Scale: t&e term scale as applied to t&e appearance o% a "uilding descri"es a ,uality o% t&e relations&ip "et2een dimensional o% t&e "uilding. 5nd its components and t&e modest range o% dimensions and distances implied "y t&e si:e o% a &uman "eing and "y &is p&ysical limitations. t&at is. t&e A&uman scale=. (uilding must also "e in scale 2it& t&eir surroundings and ot&er "uildings. 5t 1200! &eig&ts &uman %orm is Dust detecta"le. 2<! a person are recogni:a"le. 1<! &is %ace is %ully discerna"le.

1'=!. direct and signi%icant &uman relations&ip.

>&en t&e (ei (t: #istance ratio is 174. 14Q relati!ely small 173 2it& an 18Q cone o% !ision o"Dect is !isi"le. 172. 30Q;;compre&ensi"le. 171. 40Q;;strong e8perience. Sc%lpt%$e7 in addition to pu"lic monuments in appropriate places in cities and to2ns. sculpture is o%ten introduced to pro!ide decorati!e items o% interest so. as can "e seen in some o% t&e ne2 ur"an areas in /ermanyR Se!eiolo y: t&e modern science o% 9emeiology is concerned 2it& t&e meaning o% signs and %orms t&at appear and are employed in all social acti!ities.

Space7 ur"an design. li1e arc&itecture. is partly an art o% enclosing spaceC and t&e proportion or area o% space in relation to "uilding. t&e relations&ip o% !oids to solids. o%ten greatly contri"utes to t&e success or %ailure o% an ur"an de!elopment. *ia::a san petro;;;;;;;;<ome. *lace de concorde;;;;;;*aris C&amp de mars;;;;;;;;;*aris. +&ey are 1ept. as !alua"le ur"an space "ecause t&ey &a!e "een traditionally used %or !arious recreational ci!ic and religious purposes. "ecause t&e aest&etic result is pleasura"le and "ecome it is satis%actory to 1eep t&em so despite t&e %act t&at t&eir practical use%ulness &as decreased.

S%b%$bs an# s%b%$ban $o5t(: su"ur"s are t&e compactly de!eloped and de!eloping areas surrounding t&e central city in a metropolitan area. +&ese areas are distinguis&ed %rom t&e

central city "y t&eir more &omogeneous socioeconomic and p&ysical c&aracter. alt&oug& t&ey are seldom as un!aried as t&ey are pictured in muc& current literature.

T5ili (t a$ea: an area. commonly adDacent to or e!en surrounding a city center. 2&ic& t&e need %or rede!elopment is considera"le 2&ere "uildings are in poor condition and decrepit in appearance and 2&ere t&e 2&ole en!ironment is run do2n and deteriorate. +&ese areas are areas o% transition. >i %$at7 an ancient (a"ylonian and 5ssyrian structure li1e a stepped pyramid. 2it& a temple at

t&e top and approac&ed "y a processional 2ay.

Mo (al A$c(itect%$e: (uilding style t&at %louris&ed in nort&ern and central -ndia under t&e patronage o% t&e )ug&al emperors %rom t&e mid;16t& to t&e late 17t& century. +&e )ug&al period mar1ed a stri1ing re!i!al o% -slamic arc&itecture in nort&ern -ndia. 3nder t&e patronage o% t&e )ug&al emperors. *ersian. -ndian. and !arious pro!incial styles 2ere %used to produce 2or1s o% unusual ,uality and re%inement.

4he t$m: $f the em*er$r ,uma u# (:e(u# 1564) at 0elhi i#au(urate! the #eA st le, th$u(h it sh$As str$#( %ersia# i#flue#ces. 4he first (reat *eri$! $f :uil!i#( acti5it $ccurre! u#!er the em*er$r &k:ar (rei(#e! 1556D1605) at &(ra a#! at the #eA ca*ital cit $f +ateh*ur Sikri, Ahich Aas f$u#!e! i# 1569. 4he latter cit Us =reat -$sque (1571Q Kama -as@i!, Aith its m$#ume#tal >ict$r =ate (8ula#! 0arAaBa), is $#e $f the fi#est m$sques $f the -u(hal *eri$!. 4he (reat f$rt at &(ra (1565D74) a#! the t$m: $f &k:ar at Sika#!ar, #ear &(ra, are $ther #$ta:le structures !ati#( fr$m his rei(#. -$st $f these earl -u(hal :uil!i#(s use arches $#l s*ari#(l , rel i#( i#stea! $# *$st a#! li#tel c$#structi$#. 4he are :uilt $f re! sa#!st$#e $r Ahite mar:le.

)ug&al arc&itecture reac&ed its :enit& during t&e reign o%

mperor 9&a& Ma&an 41628J586. its

cro2ning ac&ie!ement "eing t&e magni%icent +aD )a&al. +&is period is mar1ed "y a %res&

emergence in -ndia o% *ersian %eatures t&at &ad "een seen earlier in t&e tom" o% Humayun. +&e use o% t&e dou"le dome. a recessed arc&2ay inside a rectangular %ronton. and par1 li1e surroundings are all typical o% 9&a& Ma&an period "uildings. 9ymmetry and "alance "et2een t&e parts o% a "uilding 2ere al2ays stressed. 2&ile t&e delicacy o% detail in 9&a& Ma&an decorati!e 2or1 &as seldom "een surpassed. >&ite mar"le 2as a %a!ored "uilding material. 5%ter t&e +aD )a&al. t&e second maDor underta1ing o% 9&a& Ma&anGs reign 2as t&e palace;%ortress at 'el&i. "egun in 1638. 5mong its nota"le "uildings are t&e red;sandstone;pillared 'i!an;e F&a 4HHall o% *u"lic 5udienceI6 and t&e so;called 'i!an;e F&a 4HHall o% *ri!ate 5udienceI6. 2&ic& &oused t&e %amous *eacoc1 +&rone. ?utside t&e citadel is t&e /reat )os,ue 41650J56C Mama )asDid6. +&e impressi!e mos,ue sits on a raised %oundation and is approac&ed "y a maDestic %lig&t o% steps. 2it& an immense courtyard in %ront.

+&e arc&itectural monuments o% 9&a& Ma&anGs successor. 5uranga:e" 4reigned 1658J17076. represent a distinct decline. t&oug& some nota"le mos,ues 2ere "uilt "e%ore t&e "eginning o% t&e 18t& century. 9u"se,uent 2or1s lost t&e "alance and co&erence c&aracteristic o% mature )ug&al arc&itecture.

To!b a$c(itect%$e

)ortuary arc&itecture in

gypt 2as &ig&ly de!eloped and o%ten grandiose. +&e tom" 2as not

simply a place in 2&ic& a corpse mig&t "e protected %rom desecration. -t 2as t&e &ome o% t&e deceased. pro!ided 2it& material o"Dects to ensure continued e8istence a%ter deat&. *art o% t&e tom" mig&t reproduce sym"olically t&e eart&ly d2elling o% t&e dead personC it mig&t "e decorated 2it& scenes t&at 2ould ena"le t&e indi!idual to pursue magically an a%terli%e suita"le and similar to &is 2orldly e8istence. Eor a 1ing t&e e8pectations 2ere ,uite di%%erentC %or &im t&e tom" "ecame t&e !e&icle 2&ere"y &e mig&t ac&ie!e &is e8clusi!e destiny 2it& t&e gods in a celestial a%terli%e.

)ost tom"s comprised t2o principal parts. t&e "urial c&am"er 4t&e tom" proper6 and t&e c&apel. in 2&ic& o%%erings %or t&e deceased could "e made. -n royal "urials t&e c&apel rapidly de!eloped

into a temple. 2&ic& in later times 2as usually "uilt separately and at some distance %rom t&e tom". -n t&e %ollo2ing discussion. %unerary temples "uilt separately 2ill "e discussed 2it& temples in general and not as part o% t&e %unerary comple8.

9oyal to!bs -n t&e earliest dynasties t&e tom"s o% 1ings and &ig& o%%icials 2ere made o% mud "ric1 and o% suc& similar si:e t&at it is di%%icult to distinguis& "et2een t&em. -t is no2 generally t&oug&t t&at t&e tom"s at 5"ydos 2ere royal. 2&ereas t&ose at arc& 2ere no"le. +&e latter. "etter preser!ed t&an t&e %ormer. re!eal rectangular superstructures. called )asta"as 4see "elo26. 2it& sides constructed in t&e %orm o% paneled nic&es painted 2&ite and decorated 2it& ela"orate HmattingI designs.

+&ese great superstructures contained many storage c&am"ers stoc1ed 2it& %ood and e,uipment %or t&e deceased. 2&o lay in a rectangular "urial c&am"er "elo2 ground. 5lso 2it&in t&e superstructure. "ut not al2ays clearly e!ident. 2as a lo2 mound o% eart&. possi"ly representing t&e primiti!e gra!e o% earlier times. 9ometimes t&is concealed mound 2as a lo2. stepped structure. per&aps t&e precursor o% t&e %irst great "uilding constructed o% stone in gypt.

+&e 9tep *yramid o% 'Doser. second 1ing o% t&e 3rd dynasty. 2as "uilt 2it&in a !ast enclosure on a commanding site at Sa,,4ra& o!erloo1ing t&e city o% )emp&is. 5 &ig& royal o%%icial. -m&otep. &as traditionally "een credited 2it& t&e design and 2it& t&e decision to use ,uarried stone. +&is %irst essay in stone is remar1a"le %or its design o% si8 superposed stages o% diminis&ing si:e. and also %or its &uge enclosure 41.784 T 909 %eet U544 T 277 meterV6 surrounded "y a paneled 2all %aced 2it& %ine limestone and containing a series o% Hmoc1I "uildings t&at pro"a"ly represent structures associated 2it& t&e palace in )emp&is. +&ere t&e gyptian stonemasons made t&eir earliest arc&itectural inno!ations. using stone to reproduce t&e %orms o% primiti!e 2ood and "ric1 "uildings. Eine relie% o% t&e 1ing and ela"orate 2all H&angingsI in gla:ed tiles in parts o% t&e su"terranean comple8es are among t&e inno!ations %ound in t&is remar1a"le monument.

NO9T- IN0IAN

9tyle o% arc&itecture produced t&roug&out nort&ern -ndia and as %ar sout& as (iDapur district. c&aracteri:ed "y its distincti!e i1&ara. a superstructure. to2er. or spire. +&e style is sometimes re%erred to as B4gara. a type o% temple mentioned in t&e Wilpa;X4stras 4traditional canons o% arc&itecture6. "ut e8act correlation o% t&e Wilpa;X4stra terms 2it& e8tant arc&itecture &as not yet "een esta"lis&ed.

+&e typical Hindu temple in nort&ern -ndia. on plan. consists o% a small s,uare;s&aped sanctuary 4called t&e gar"ageR&a. or H2om";roomI6 &ousing t&e main image. preceded "y one or more adDoining pillared mapCapas 4porc&es or &alls6. 2&ic& are connected to t&e sanctum "y an open or closed !esti"ule 4antarla6. +&e entrance door2ay o% t&e sanctum is usually ric&ly decorated 2it& %igures o% ri!er goddesses and "ands o% %loral. %igural. and geometric ornamentation. 5n am"ulatory is sometimes pro!ided around t&e sanctum. 5"o!e t&e main sanctuary rises a spire 4Xi1&ara6. 2&ic& is usually cur!ilinear in outline. and smaller rectilinear Xi1&aras o% t&e p&4msan4 type %re,uently top t&e mapCapas as 2ell. +&e 2&ole may "e raised on a terrace 4Dagati6 2it& attendant s&rines at t&e corners. -% a temple is dedicated to t&e god Wi!a. t&e %igure o% t&e "ull Bandi. t&e godGs mount. in!aria"ly %aces t&e sanctum. and. i% dedicated to t&e god #is&nu. standards 4d&!aDa;stam"&a6 may "e set up in %ront o% t&e temple.

+&e centre o% eac& side o% t&e s,uare sanctum is su"Dected to a gradated series o% proDections. creating a c&aracteristic cruci%orm plan. +&e e8terior 2alls are usually decorated 2it& sculptures o% myt&ological and semi di!ine %igures. 2it& t&e main images o% t&e deities placed in nic&es car!ed on t&e main proDections. +&e interior is also %re,uently ric&ly car!ed. particularly t&e co%%ered ceilings. 2&ic& are supported "y pillars o% !arying design.

+&at t&e prototype o% t&e Bort& -ndian temple already e8isted in t&e 6t& century can "e seen in sur!i!ing temples suc& as t&e temple at 'eogar&. (i&4r state. 2&ic& &as a small stunted i1&ara o!er t&e sanctuary. +&e style %ully emerged in t&e 8t& century and de!eloped distinct regional !ariations in ?rissa. central -ndia. <aDast&an. and /uDarat. 5 classi%ication o% Bort& -ndian

temples is generally made on t&e "asis o% i1&ara types. suc& as t&e rectilinear p&4msan4 and t&e cur!ilinear latina. 2it& its t2o !ariations. t&e e1&arN and t&e "&YmiDa 4see Xi1&ara6.

?ne typical %orm o% t&e Bort& -ndian style is seen in t&e early temples at ?rissa. suc& as t&e grace%ul 8t&;century *araurme!ara +emple at (&u"anes2ar. a city t&at 2as a great centre o% temple;"uilding acti!ity. Erom t&e 10t& century a c&aracteristic ?riya style de!eloped t&at e8&i"ited a greater ele!ation o% t&e 2all and a more ela"orate spire. +&e LingaraDa +emple at (&u"anes2ar. o% t&e 11t& century. is an e8ample o% t&e ?riya style in its %ullest de!elopment. +&e 9un +emple at Fonar1. t&e sanctum o% 2&ic& is "adly damaged. is t&e largest and per&aps t&e most %amous ?riya temple.

5 de!elopment %rom t&e simpler to a more ele!ated and ela"orate style is e!ident in central -ndia. e8cept t&at t&e Xe1&arN type o% superstructure. 2it& multiple tenets. is more %a!ored %rom t&e 10t& century on2ard. -nteriors and pillars are more ric&ly car!ed t&an in ?rissa. +&e Central -ndian style in its most de!eloped %orm appears at F&aDura&o. as seen in t&e FapC4rya )a&de!a +emple 4c. 11t& century6. +&ere. an o!erall e%%ect o% &armony and maDesty is maintained despite t&e e8u"erance o% sculpture on t&e outer 2allsC t&e ric& pro%usion o% miniature s&rines on t&e Xe1&arN spire rein%orces t&e ascending mo!ement considera"ly.

Large num"ers o% temples are preser!ed in /uDarat. "ut most o% t&em &a!e "een "adly damaged. +&e early 11t&;century 9un +emple at )od&era isone o% t&e %inest.

5lso called 'ra!idian 9tyle. arc&itecture in!aria"ly employed %or Hindu temples in modern +amil Badu %rom t&e 7t& to t&e 18t& century. c&aracteri:ed "y its pyramidal. or 1YZina;type. to2er. #ariant %orms are %ound in Farnata1a 4%ormerly )ysore6 and 5nd&ra *rades& states. +&e 9out& -ndian temple consists essentially o% a s,uare;c&am"ered sanctuary topped "y a superstructure. to2er. or spire and an attac&ed pillared porc& or &all 4mapCapa. or mapZapam6. enclosed "y a peristyle o% cells 2it&in a rectangular court. +&e e8ternal 2alls o% t&e temple are segmented "y pilasters and carry nic&es &ousing sculpture. +&e superstructure or to2er a"o!e t&e sanctuary is o% t&e 1YZina type and consists o% an arrangement o% gradually receding stories in a pyramidal

s&ape.

ac& story is delineated "y a parapet o% miniature s&rines. s,uare at t&e corners and

rectangular 2it& "arrel;!ault roo%s at t&e centre. +&e to2er is topped "y a dome;s&aped cupola and a cro2ning pot and %inial.

+&e origins o% t&e 'r4!iCa style can "e o"ser!ed in t&e /upta period. +&e earliest e8tant e8amples o% t&e de!eloped style are t&e 7t&;century roc1;cut s&rines at )a&a"alipuram and a de!eloped structural temple. t&e 9&ore +emple 4c. 7006. at t&e same site.

+&e 9out& -ndian style is most %ully reali:ed in t&e splendid (R&adNX!ara temple at +&anD4!Yr. "uilt a"out 1003J10 "y <4Dar4Da t&e /reat. and t&e great temple at /angai1opCac8dapuram. "uilt a"out 1025 "y &is son <aDendra C8la. 9u"se,uently. t&e style "ecame increasingly ela"orateP t&e comple8 o% temple "uildings enclosed "y t&e court "ecame larger. and a num"er o% successi!e enclosures. eac& 2it& its o2n gate2ay 4gopura6. 2ere added. (y t&e #iDayanagar period 41336J15656 t&e gopuras &ad increased in si:e so t&at t&ey dominated t&e muc& smaller temples inside t&e enclosures.

5lso called order o% arc&itecture in any o% se!eral styles o% classical or Beoclassical arc&itecture t&at are de%ined "y t&e particular type o% column and enta"lature t&ey use as a "asic unit. 5 column consists o% a s&a%t toget&er 2it& its "ase and its capital. +&e column supports a section o% an enta"lature. 2&ic& constitutes t&e upper &ori:ontal part o% a classical "uilding and is itsel% composed o% 4%rom "ottom to top6 an arc&itra!e. %rie:e. and cornice. +&e %orm o% t&e capital is t&e most distinguis&ing c&aracteristic o% a particular order. +&ere are %i!e maDor orders7 'oric. -onic. Corint&ian. +uscan. and Composite.

+&ere are many separate elements t&at ma1e up a complete column and enta"lature. 49ee t&e Eigure.6 5t t&e "ottom o% t&e column is t&e stylo"ateC t&is is a continuous %lat pa!ement on 2&ic& a ro2 o% columns is supported. <ising out o% t&e stylo"ate is t&e plint&. a s,uare or circular "loc1

t&at is t&e lo2est part o% t&e "ase. 5top t&e plint& and %orming t&e remainder o% t&e "ase are one or more circular moldings t&at &a!e !arying pro%ilesC t&ese may include a torus 4a con!e8 molding t&at is semicircular in pro%ile6. a scotia 42it& a conca!e pro%ile6. and one or more %illets. or narro2 "ands.

+&e s&a%t. 2&ic& rests upon t&e "ase. is a long. narro2. !ertical cylinder t&at in some orders is articulated 2it& %luting 4!ertical groo!es6. +&e s&a%t may also taper in2ard slig&tly so t&at it is 2ider at t&e "ottom t&an at t&e top.

5top t&e s&a%t is t&e capital. 2&ic& ser!es to concentrate t&e 2eig&t o% t&e enta"lature on t&e s&a%t and also acts as an aest&etic transition "et2een t&ose t2o elements. -n its simplest %orm 4t&e 'oric6. t&e capital consists 4in ascending order6 o% t&ree partsC t&e nec1ing. 2&ic& is a continuation o% t&e s&a%t "ut 2&ic& is set o%% %rom it !isually "y one or more narro2 groo!esC t&e ec&inus. a circular "loc1 t&at "ulges out2ard at its uppermost portion in order to "etter support t&e a"acusC and t&e a"acus itsel%. a s,uare "loc1 t&at directly supports t&e enta"lature a"o!e and transmits its 2eig&t to t&e rest o% t&e column "elo2.

+&e enta"lature is composed o% t&ree &ori:ontal sections t&at are !isually separated %rom eac& ot&er "y moldings and "ands. +&e t&ree parts o% t&e enta"lature 4in ascending order6 are called t&e arc&itra!e. %rie:e. and cornice.

+&e unit used in t&e measurement o% columns is t&e diameter o% t&e s&a%t at t&e "aseC t&us. a column may "e descri"ed as "eing eig&t 4lo2er6 diameters &ig&.

5ncient /ree1 arc&itecture de!eloped t2o distinct orders. t&e 'oric and t&e -onic. toget&er 2it& a t&ird 4Corint&ian6 capital. 2&ic&. 2it& modi%ications. 2ere adopted "y t&e <omans in t&e 1st century (C and &a!e "een used e!er since in >estern arc&itecture.

+&e 'oric order is c&aracteri:ed "y a slig&tly tapered column t&at is t&e most s,uat o% all t&e orders. measuring in &eig&t 4including t&e capital6 only a"out %our to eig&t lo2er diameters. +&e /ree1 %orms o% t&e 'oric order &a!e no indi!idual "ase and instead rest directly on t&e stylo"ate. alt&oug& su"se,uent %orms o% 'oric %re,uently 2ere gi!en a con!entional plint&;and; torus "ase. +&e 'oric s&a%t is c&anneled 2it& 20 s&allo2 %lutes. +&e capital. as stated "e%ore. consists o% a simple nec1ingC a spreading. con!e8 ec&inusC and a s,uare a"acus. +&e %rie:e section o% t&e 'oric enta"lature is distincti!e. -t is composed o% proDecting triglyp&s 4units eac& consisting o% t&ree !ertical "ands separated "y groo!es6 t&at alternate 2it& receding s,uare panels. called metopes. t&at may "e eit&er plain or car!ed 2it& sculptured relie%s. +&e <oman %orms o% t&e 'oric order &a!e smaller proportions and appear lig&ter and more grace%ul t&an t&eir /ree1 counterparts.

+&e -onic order di%%ers %rom t&e 'oric in &a!ing more %lutes on its s&a%t and in t&e scrolls. or !olutes. t&at droop o!er t&e %ront and rear portions o% t&e ec&inus in t&e capital. +&e ec&inus itsel% is car!ed 2it& an egg;and;dart moti%. +&e &eig&t o% t&e entire -onic orderPcolumn. "ase. capital. and enta"latureP is nine lo2er diameters. +&e "ase o% t&e column &as t2o tori 4con!e8 moldings6 separated "y a scotia. +&e s&a%t. 2&ic& is eig&t lo2er diameters &ig&. &as 24 %lutes. ?n t&e enta"lature. t&e arc&itra!e is usually made up o% t&ree stepped %asciae 4"ands6. +&e %rie:e lac1s t&e 'oric triglyp& and metope. and &ence t&is area can &old a continuous "and o% car!ed ornament. suc& as %igural groups.

+&e Corint&ian order is t&e most elegant o% t&e %i!e orders. -ts distinguis&ing c&aracteristic is t&e stri1ing capital. 2&ic& is car!ed 2it& t2o staggered ro2s o% syli:ed acant&us lea!es and %our scrolls. +&e s&a%t &as 24 s&arp;edged %lutes. 2&ile t&e column is 10 diameters &ig&.

+&e +uscan order is a <oman adaptation o% t&e 'oric. +&e +uscan &as an un%luted s&a%t and a simple ec&inus;a"acus capital. -t is similar in proportion and pro%ile to t&e <oman 'oric "ut is muc& plainer. +&e column is se!en diameters &ig&. +&is order is t&e most solid in appearance o% all t&e orders.

+&e Composite order. 2&ic& 2as not ran1ed as a separate order until t&e <enaissance. is a late <oman de!elopment o% t&e Corint&ian. -t is called Composite "ecause its capital is composed o% -onic !olutes and Corint&ian acant&us;lea% decoration. +&e column is 10 diameters &ig&.

+&e 'oric and -onic orders originated nearly simultaneously on opposite s&ores o% t&e 5egean 9eaC t&e 'oric on t&e /ree1 mainland and t&e -onic in t&e /ree1 cities o% 5sia )inor. 4+&e !olutes o% t&e -onic capital 2ere adapted %rom *&oenician and gyptian capital designs.6 +&e 'oric may "e considered t&e earlier order o% t&e t2o only in its de!eloped %orm. (ot& orders originated in temples constructed out o% 2ood. +&e earliest 2ell;preser!ed e8ample o% 'oric arc&itecture is t&e +emple o% Hera at ?lympia. "uilt soon a%ter 600 (C. Erom t&ese "eginnings. t&e e!olution o% t&e stone 'oric column can "e traced in arc&itectural remains in /reece. 9icily. and sout&ern -taly. 2&ere t&e 'oric 2as to remain t&e c&ie% order %or monumental "uildings %or t&e ne8t eig&t centuries.

+&e /ree1s as 2ell as t&e <omans regarded t&e Corint&ian as only a !ariant capital to "e su"stituted %or t&e -onic. +&e %irst 1no2n use o% a Corint&ian capital on t&e outside o% a "uilding is t&at o% t&e c&oragic )onument o% Lysicrates 45t&ens. 335@334 (C6. +&e Corint&ian 2as raised to t&e ran1 o% an order "y t&e 1st;century;(C <oman 2riter and arc&itect #itru!ius.

+&e <omans adopted t&e 'oric. -onic. and Corint&ian orders and modi%ied t&em to produce t&e +uscan order. 2&ic& is a simpli%ied %orm o% t&e 'oric. and t&e Composite order. 2&ic& is a com"ination o% t&e -onic and Corint&ian orders. 5not&er <oman inno!ation 2as t&e superposed orderC 2&en columns adorned se!eral successi!e stories o% a "uilding. t&ey 2ere normally o% di%%erent orders. in an ascending se,uence %rom &ea!iest to most slender. +&us columns o% t&e 'oric order 2ere assigned to t&e ground %loor o% a "uilding. -onic ones to t&e middle story. and Corint&ian or Composite ones to t&e top story. +o a!oid t&e complications o% separate orders %or eac& story. t&e arc&itects o% t&e <enaissance in!ented t&e Colossal order. 2&ic& is composed o% columns e8tending t&e &eig&t o% t2o or more stories o% a "uilding.

#itru!ius 2as t&e only ancient /ree1 or <oman 2riter on arc&itecture 2&ose 2or1s sur!i!ed t&e )iddle 5ges. >&en &is &and"oo1 %or <oman arc&itects. 'e arc&itectura. 2as redisco!ered in t&e early 15t& century. #itru!ius 2as at once &ailed as t&e aut&ority on classical arc&itecture. (ased on &is 2ritings. -talian arc&itects o% t&e <enaissance and (aro,ue periods de!eloped an aest&etic canon t&at esta"lis&ed rules %or superposing t&e classical orders. +&e arc&itects also laid do2n rules %or t&e proportions o% t&e orders and t&eir parts do2n to t&e most minute mem"ers. +&e e8act proportional dimensions o% e!ery element o% an order 2as speci%ied. so t&at. gi!en t&e diameter o% t&e column or any ot&er dimension. t&e entire order and all o% its separate elements could "e reconstructed t&roug& routine calculations. +&e rules 2ere t&us carried to e8tra!agant lengt&s t&at 2ere undreamed o% "y t&e /ree1s and rarely o"ser!ed "y t&e <omans.

9ucceeding artistic periods 2itnessed re!i!als o% t&e arc&eologically HcorrectI use o% t&e orders. t&oug& many arc&itects continued to use t&e !arious orders 2it& t&e utmost %reedom. -n )odernist arc&itecture o% t&e 20t& century. t&e orders &a!e tended to pass %rom use altoget&er as super%luous ornament. t&eir structural %unctions &a!ing "een ta1en o!er "y columns and piers made o% steel or rein%orced concrete.

+&e concept o% t&e <enaissance. 2&ose goal 2as t&e re"irt& or re;creation o% ancient classical culture. originated in Elorence in t&e early 15t& century and t&ence spread t&roug&out most o% t&e -talian peninsulaC "y t&e end o% t&e 16t& century t&e ne2 style per!aded almost all o% urope. gradually replacing t&e /ot&ic style o% t&e late )iddle 5ges. -t encouraged a re!i!al o% naturalism. seen in -talian 15t&;century painting and sculpture. and o% classical %orms and ornament in arc&itecture. suc& as t&e column and round arc&. t&e tunnel !ault. and t&e dome.

Fno2ledge o% t&e classical style in arc&itecture 2as deri!ed during t&e <enaissance %rom t2o sources7 t&e ruins o% ancient classical "uildings. particularly in -taly "ut also in Erance and 9pain. and t&e treatise 'e arc&itecture "y t&e <oman arc&itect #itru!ius. Eor classical anti,uity and. t&ere%ore. %or t&e <enaissance. t&e "asic element o% arc&itectural design 2as t&e order. 2&ic& 2as a system o% traditional arc&itectural units. 'uring t&e <enaissance %i!e orders 2ere used. t&e +uscan. 'oric. -onic. Corint&ian. and Composite. 2it& !arious ones pre!alent in

di%%erent periods. Eor e8ample. t&e ornate. decorati!e ,uality o% t&e Corint&ian order 2as em"raced during t&e early <enaissance. 2&ile t&e masculine simplicity and strengt& o% t&e 'oric 2as pre%erred during t&e -talian Hig& <enaissance. Eollo2ing ancient <oman practice 4e.g.. t&e Colosseum or t&e +&eatre o% )arcellus6. <enaissance arc&itects o%ten superimposed t&e order Pt&at is. used a di%%erent order %or eac& o% t&e se!eral stories o% "uildingPcommencing 2it& t&e &ea!ier. stronger +uscan or 'oric order "elo2 and t&en rising t&roug& t&e lig&ter. more decorati!e -onic. Corint&ian. and Composite.

Eor t&e <enaissance. proportion 2as t&e most important predetermining %actor o% "eauty. +&e great -talian &umanist and arc&itect Leon (attista5l"erti de%ined "eauty in arc&itecture as

Cellular ser!ices %irst installed in BC< 1. 5 pe$specti"e plan is a long term 420;25 years6 2ritten document supported "y necessary maps and diagrams pro!iding t&e state go!ernment t&e goals. politics. strategies and general programmes o% t&e ur"an local aut&ority regarding spatio;economic de!elopment o% t&e settlement under its go!ernance.

2. 5 #e"elop!ent plan concei!ed 2it&in t&e %rame2or1 o% t&e appro!ed perspecti!e plan is a medium term 4generally %i!e years6 plan. *ro!iding to t&e people t&e compre&ensi!e proposals %or socio;economic and spatial de!elopment o% t&e ur"an centre indicating t&e manner in 2&ic& t&e use o% land and de!elopment t&erein s&all "e carried out "y t&e local aut&ority and ot&er agencies.

3. 5n ann%al plan. concei!ed 2it&in t&e %rame2or1 o% de!elopment plan. is a plan containing t&e details o% ne2 and ongoing proDects t&at t&e local aut&ority intends to implement during t&e respecti!e %inancial year and %or 2&ic& necessary %iscal resources s&all "e mo"ili:ed t&roug& plan %unds and ot&er sources.

4. Concei!ed 2it&in t&e %rame2or1 o% appro!ed de!elopment plan. p$o?ects4 sc(e!es are detailed 2or1ing layouts 2it& all supporting in%rastructure. and documents including cost o%

de!elopment. source o% %inance and reco!ery instruments %or t&eir e8ecution "y a pu"lic or pri!ate agency.

+&e preparation o% A#e"elop!ent Plan@ is done %ollo2ing t&e to2n and country planning legislation o% t&e state concerned. a6 'eclaration o% intention to prepare de!elopment plan. "6 'eclaration o% appropriate aut&ority to 2&om t&e responsi"ility o% preparation o% t&e de!elopment plan is gi!en. c6 *ro!ision %or sur!ey t&roug& a re%erence 2it& an 8isting land use map and e8isting land use register. d6 *u"lication o% dra%t plan. e6 5ccommodating t&e pro!ision o% regional plan. %6 ?"Dection and suggestion to t&e dra%t plan. g6 )odi%ication o% dra%t plan. &6 Einali:ation and su"mission o% t&e plan. i6 5ppro!al o% dra%t plan.

De!elopment of Contemporary Architecture

&rchitectural !e5el$*me#ts a#! im*acts $# s$ciet si#ce i#!ustrial re5$luti$#Q i#flue#ce $f m$!er# art $# architectureQ A$rks $f #ati$#al a#! i#ter#ati$#al architectsQ art #$5uea, eclecticism, i#ter#ati$#al st les, *$st m$!er#ism, !ec$#structi$# i# architecture.

Architecture De!elopments
1. &rchitecture is a# art $f $r(a#iBi#( s*ace #$t $#l fu#cti$#all :ut als$ :eautifull . 2. 4he c$#stitue#ts $f :eaut are structure, utilit a#! aesthetics. 3. 9( *tia# architecture reflects the a:s$lute *$Aer $f the *hara$hs a#! sla5er $f the

*e$*le.
4. =reek architecture Aas the *r$!uct $f the !em$cratic :elief $f =reek ci5iliBati$#. 5. 3$ma# architecture.r$ma# im*erial *$Aer. 6. 8asilica# churches reflect reli(i$us e#thusiasm. 7. =$thic reflects the c$#!iti$# $f *assi$#ate e#thusiasm. 8. +re#ch re#aissa#ce sh$As the *$m*$us life $f m$#archs. 9. )#!ia# architecture sh$As its s*iritual c$#te#t a#! re*rese#ts. 10. %ri#ci*les $f architecture.($$!#ess $r c$#5e#ie#t arra#(eme#t. . .

:eaut truth

11. Iualities $f architecture. stre#(th, 5italit , restrai#t, res*$#se, (race, :rea!th, scale, ($$!

*ict$rial setti#(, eC*ressi$# $f *ur*$se.

12. +act$r i# architecture. mass, f$rm, *r$*$rti$#, :ala#ce, s mmetr , c$#trast. 13. &ll the *rehist$ric remai#s ha5e reli(i$us relati$#shi*. 14. 4he !e5el$*me#t $f hist$ric architecture is a rec$r! $f c$#ti#uati$# $f e5$luti$#,

:e(i##i#( Aith the 9( *tia# architecture.

,lynthus7*ree< city
%u:lic s*aceH the eC*a#!i#( affairs $f ($5er#me#t require! a**r$*riate facilities. 4he a($ra, $r market *lace, Aas the ce#ter $f :usi#ess a#! *$litical life, a#! a:$ut it Aere li#e! the sh$*s a#! market :$$ths. &ccessi:le fr$m the &($ra Square, :ut #$t faci#( u*$# it, Aere the assem:l hall, c$u#sel hall, a#! c$u#cil cham:er. 1$mm$# $*e# s*ace i# =reek cities Aas lar(el c$#fi#e! t$ e#cl$sure f$r *u:lic :uil!i#(s. 8uil!i#( re(ulati$#s i# =reek cities Aere there. )t Aas i# the c$l$#ial f$u#!e! : the cit .states $# the sh$res $f the -e!iterra#ea# that the *la##i#( the$ries $f ,i**$!amus f$u#! their fullest eC*ressi$#. )t is rec$r!e! that ,i**$!amus himself *la##e! %iraeus, the *$rt cit $f &the#s, as Aell as 4hurii, a#! 3h$!es. SiBe $f citiesH 40,000 a#! t$tal *$*ulati$# 100,000.150,000. <elleni* to,ns relie! *rimaril $# l$cal Aaterc$urses, Aells a#! s*ri#(s. 1hr$#icles $f the *eri$! referre! t$ the im*$rta#ce $f *r$*er $rie#tati$#. 4he h$uses that l$$k t$Aar! the s$uth the Ai#ter su# shi#es !$A# i#t$ the *aesta!es Ahile i# summer, *assi#( hi(h a:$5e $ur hea!s a#! $5er $ur r$$fs, it thr$As them i# sha!$A. 4he effect $f these criteria Aas a *la##i#( s stem that s*ru#( fr$m the eleme#ts $f the i#!i5i!ual u#it. -$e /edie4al to,n( 8ar:aric rulers esta:lishe! cit .states a#! f$rme! the #ucleus $f future #ati$#s. 4he ec$#$m r$$te! i# a(riculture, a#! the rulers *arcele! their !$mai#s am$#( 5assal l$r!s Ah$ *le!(e! militar su**$rt f$r the ki#(!$m. 4he feu!al s stem Aas the #eA $r!er. -e!ie5al cities $f the 12 a#! 13th ce#turies usuall ha! irre(ular street *atter#s a#! hea5 Aalls. )# it Ae see the castle Aith its $A# m$at a#! Aalls, the market *lace (&), a#! the church $f St. ;aBaire (c).

4he ra!ial a#! lateral *atter# $f irre(ular r$a!Aa s Aith the church *laBa as the *ri#ci*al f$cal *$i#t $f the t$A#. 4he cit $f the mi!!le a(es (reA Aithi# the c$#fi#es $f the Aalls. <hile the *$*ulati$# Aas small, there Aas s*ace i# the t$A#, :ut Ahe# it i#crease! the :uil!i#(s Aere *acke! m$re cl$sel a#! $*e# s*aces. Sa#itati$# a#! Aater su**l remai#e! same. 4he result Aas i#t$lera:le c$#(esti$#, lack $f h (ie#e, a#! *estile#ce. 0uri#( the 13th a#! 14th ce#turies $u#( em*ires t$ *r$tect their tra!e a#! *r$5i!e militar securit f$u#!e! c$l$#ial cities. 4he Aere *latte! f$r all$cati$# $f sites t$ settlers a#! the re(ular *la# is a !isti#ct t$ the i#f$rmal !e5el$*me#t $f the #$rmal me!ie5al t$A#. )t Aas the church rather tha# the *alace that !$mi#ate! the me!ie5al t$A#. 9#circle! : its *r$tecti5e Aalls, the t$A# Aas small. )# later !a s the :attleme#ts Aere ela:$ratel e#(i#eere!, as i# Naarden, a#! *$*ulace Aas further se*arate! fr$m the $*e# s*aces a:$ut the t$A#. 4he e#tire t$A# Aas treate! Aith a structural l$(ic that characteriBe! the architectural treatme#t $f the 3$ma#esque a#! earl =$thic :uil!i#(s. 2*e# s*aces D the streets a#! *laBas. !e5el$*e! as i#te(ral *arts $f the sites u*$# Ahich the :uil!i#(s Aere erecte!. <ith the eCce*ti$# $f a feA *arts :etAee# the (ates a#! the market *lace, streets Aere use! as *e!estria# circulati$# a:$ut the t$A# rather tha# traffic arteries as Ae k#$A them t$!a . 0Aelli#(sH c$#ser5ati$# $f heat i# the c$l! climates a#! the restricti5e area $f the t$A# cause! the h$uses t$ :e :uilt i# c$##ecte! r$As al$#( the #arr$A streets. 8ehi#! these r$As $f !Aelli#(s $*e# s*ace Aas reser5e! a#! i# them the !$mestic a#imals Aere ke*t a#! (ar!e#s culti5ate!. 'ife i# me!ie5al cities ha! 1$l$ur, a 1$l$ur 5isi:le t$ all the *e$*le. 4he church *r$5i!e! *a(ea#tr a#! (a5e !rama t$ the life $f e5er ma#. &5era(e hei(ht.tA$ st$re . -as$#r Aas the usual c$#structi$#. Brief points( )rre(ular street *atter#s a#! hea5 Aalls. G@N-%.R93#(

4he church $f m$#aster a#! the castle $f the l$r! !$mi#ate! the earl me!ie5al t$A#. 4he church *laBa :ecame the market *lace a#! Aith citiBe#shi* :est$Ae! u*$# the *e$*le a#! mercha#t (uil!s esta:lishe!. 4he e#tire t$A# Aas treate! Aith structural l$(ic that characteriBe! the architectural treatme#t $f the 3$ma#esque a#! earl ($thic :uil!i#(s. N..#73N.church !$mi#ate!. Neo *lassi* *it+( 4he tra!iti$#al hei(ht $f :uil!i#( i#creases fr$m tA$ st$re t$ 3 a#! 4 st$re . %$*ulati$# !e#sit i#creases Aith$ut i#crease i# Aater su**l a#! sa#itati$#. <heel traffic i#creases. 4he first seAer i#stalle! i# '$#!$# after the 8lack 0eath. 4he im*$rta#t as*ect c$#cer#s the h$uses t *es e#5isa(e! f$r !iffere#t s$ci$.ec$#$mic (r$u*s. 4he :asic !isti#cti$# is ma!e :etAee# *l$tte! a#! (r$u* h$usi#(. 4he !ecisi$# re(ar!i#( h$use t *es f$r !iffere#t i#c$me (r$u*s is esse#tiall :ase! $# tA$ c$#si!erati$#.h$usi#( *refere#ces a#! aff$r!a:ilit . )# !isti#(uishi#( :etAee# *l$tte! a#! (r$u* h$usi#( i# relati$# t$ fi#a#cial as*ects.

@rigin of to,ns %re hist$ric *eri$! the $ri(i# t$A#s Aere #$ s$cial c$#ce*t a#! the 5ari$us (r$u*s a#! tri:es li5e! t$(ether $#l f$r c$llecti5e securit fr$m the earl st$#e a(e the sl$A *r$cess $f !e5el$*me#t eCte#!i#( $5er a *eri$! $f #earl half a milli$# ears. Gedie4al to,ns 4$A#s $f this *eri$! ha! Aalls ar$u#! them f$r *r$tecti$# a#! !efe#se a#! Aere 5er cr$A!e! as result. S$me $f these t$A#s :ecame ce#ters $f Ai!er a#! Ai!er. #enaissan*e to,ns

4he :asic c$#ce*ts $f this *eri$! Aere 5ista f$rmi#( strai(ht streets. 9ur$*e a#! Kai*ur i# )#!ia c$ul! :e cite! as eCam*les $f this t *e $f t$A#s !uri#( this *eri$!.

-o,ns of toda+ 0ue t$ i#!ustrial re5$luti$#, the t$A#s $f t$!a ha5e their r$$ts i# the i#!ustrial re5$luti$# $f the #i#etee#th ce#tur . 4he *he#$me#all i#crease! *$*ulati$#s Aere i# #ee! $f shelter i# the f$rm $f h$usi#(.

Definitions of Renaissance) industrial re!olution

7efinition of t$e age of #enaissan*e( - i# the ear 1453 &.0 4urkish sulta# -$hamme! i#5a!e! 1$#sta#ti#$*le a cit that Aas a# a:$!e $f =reek culture. 4he =reek sch$lar fle! t$ $ther 9ur$*ea# #ati$#s al$#( Aith their a#cie#t =reek literature. 4he se sch$lars esta:lishe! sch$$ls a#! m$#asteries a#! tau(ht =reek literature all $5er 9ur$*e a#! i#culcate! i#terest am$#( the *e$*le i# the re5i5al $f a#cie#t literature a#! culture. 4his Aas k#$A# as re#aissa#ce *eri$!. 9ndustrial #e4olution( $ re5$luti$# is a su!!e# cha#(e i# a# fiel!. )#5e#ti$# $f machi#es that Aere use! i# i#!ustries a#! thr$u(h Ahich *r$!ucti$# $f ($$!s i#crease! Aas calle! i#!ustrial re5$luti$#. #enaissan*e st+le( $ literal mea#i#( $f this re#aissa#ce is Ure .:irthU. 4he term is use! t$ !esi(#ate the *eri$! :etAee# 1350 a#! 1600 &.0 i# !e5el$*me#ts $f the 15 th ce#tur i# 9ur$*e. 4he *ri#ci*al features $f this re#aissa#ce are as f$ll$AsH
1. 4he effect $f re!isc$5er $f the art $f a#tiquities. 2. 4he !e5el$*me#t $f the tech#ique $f *ers*ecti5e Ahere the artist c$ul! re*rese#t !e*th a#!

recessi$# a#! s$ *r$!uce realistic s*atial relati$#shi*s.

3. 4he achie5eme#t $f (reater U#aturalismU.

7es*ription of #enaissan*e 4he a(e $f re#aissa#ce Aas actuall starte! Aith re5i5al $f art a#! letters a#! the tra#siti$# fr$m the -i!!le &(es t$ the m$!er# A$rl!. 4he mai# cause f$r re#aissa#ce Aas the e5$luti$# $f str$#( a#! *r$s*er$us cit .states a#! mercha#t *ri#ces. 4he A$r! re#aissa#ce Aas #$t $ri(i#all use! t$ i#!icate a st listic *eri$! :ut Aas use! $#l a *art $f such *hrases as the re#aissa#ce $f the arts $f a#tiquit , it is reall :ecame a *$*ular s$urce $f i#s*irati$# *artl :ecause $f the #eAl aAake#e! hist$rical i#terest i# the *eri$!. 0uri#( 15th.19th ce#tur the f$rmati$# a#! !e5el$*me#t $f re#aissa#ce architecture :ase! $# fi5e c$#!iti$#s Ahich is as f$ll$AsH
1. 8eograp$i*al *ondition( re#aissa#ce architecture first starte! i# )tal i# the earl *eri$!

$f 15th ce#tur a#! later $# s*rea! $5er the c$u#tries like 3$me, >e#ice a#! +l$re#ce.
2. 8eologi*al *ondition: the c$u#tries c$mi#( u#!er this st le c$5ere! 5ast *art $f 9ur$*e

a#! Aere a5aila:ilities $f !iffere#t materials that !eci!e! the character $f architecture.
3. 2o*ial *ondition( the i#tellectual m$5eme#t. )t create! a :reak $f c$#ti#u$us e5$luti$#

$f 9ur$*ea# st les.
4. <istori*al *ondition( i# the earl

16th ce#tur , small c$u#tries u#ite! t$(ether a#!

f$rme! $#e ki#(!$m that #eA c$u#tries Aere !isc$5ere! such as &merica : 1$lum:us a#! #eA materials Aere i#5e#te!.

0$ara*teristi*s
4he m$!e $f li5i#( cha#(e! t$$ a#! :r$u(ht #eA :uil!i#(s i# c$mm$# use. %e$*le

realiBe! the :eaut $f classic st le.

4he re#aissa#ce !i5i!e! :r$a!l i#t$ three mai# *eri$!s like,

9arl re#aissa#ce .15th ce#tur ,i(h re#aissa#ce .16th ce#tur 8ar$que . 17th, 18th ce#tur .

 )# the earl re#aissa#ce, re(i$#al character mai#l sur5i5e!. )# the hi(h re#aissa#ce, it Aas *artiall era!icate! $Ai#( t$ a Ai!e#i#( !issemi#ati$# $f

i!eas f$stere! : tra5el a#! the c$#5er(e#ce $# 3$me $f s$ ma# architects f$r their trai#i#( Ahile Aith the :ar$que, it alm$st Ah$ll !isa**eare!.

4he re#aissa#ce A$rk *ri$r t$ the classical re5i5al mea#t (e#erall a retur# : ma# architects t$ 5ari$us *eri$!s fr$m the i#ce*ti$# $f the re#aissa#ce i# their c$u#tr t$ the e#! $f the 18th ce#tur . &s re#aissa#ce Aas i#flue#ce! i# its !e5el$*me#ts : the earlier tra!iti$#s $f each c$u#tr a#! : the A$rk $f i#!i5i!ual architects Ahich mea#s *artiall a retur# t$ #ati5e $f tra!iti$#s. 9.(.H . i# 9#(la#!, s$me architects s$u(ht f$r m$!els i# the tra#siti$# fr$m late re#aissa#ce !uri#( the 16th ce#tur .

)# a:$ut the 15th ce#tur ma# Aas tr i#( t$ fi#! s$me cha#(es a#! the# !isc$5er $f the ;eA <$rl! i# the fiel! $f architecture t$$k *lace :ecause a s$urce $f i#terest a#! i#s*irati$# t$ classical :uil!ers :ut i# s*ite $f marke! cha#(es $f st le $f art a#! architecture. 0o/ponents of renaissan*e 4he c$m*$#e#ts $f the re#aissa#ce are as f$ll$AsH
1. 4he *rimar strai(ht streets. 2. +$rtificati$# 3. =ar!e# !esi(# 4. 4he *lace 5. 4he (ri!ir$#.

<ousing *ondition %re #i#etee#th ce#tur *la##i#( $f resi!e#tial areas ($es f$r :ack i#t$ hist$r t$ the (ri! la $uts $f =reek a#! r$ma# cities. 4$ the a(ai# t$A#s $f mi!!le a(es a#! t$ the a#! t$ the ra!ial a#! circular *la#s $f 9ur$*ea# cities i# the re#aissa#ce *eri$! eC. i# 8ritai# the earlier remai#i#(

eCam*les $f lar(e scale (r$u*e! h$usi#( are t$ :e f$u#! i# the streets a#! squares that Aere :uilt i# t$A#s a#! cities i# ei(htee#th a#! earl #i#etee#th ce#tur

1"t$ *entur+ $ousing for t$e /asses )t Aas #$t u#til the start $f the #i#etee#th ce#tur that ma# h$usi#( :e(a# t$ :e c$#structe! as the i#!ustrial re5$luti$# !reA *e$*le i#t$ the t$A#s a#! cities Ahere the h$uses Aere :r$a!l c$#structe! Aith i# sufficie#t fl$$r s*ace a#! facilities i#a!equate sa#itar *r$5isi$# a#! *$$r 5e#tilati$#. 4he h$uses Aere cramme! t$ (ather i# cl$se *r$Cimit t$ each $ther Aith little $r #$ c$mmu#al s*ace. 9ndustrial re4olution 4he t$A#s $f i#!ustrial re5$luti$# ha5e their r$$ts i# the #i#etee#th ce#tur . 4he *he#$me#all i#crease! *$*ulati$# Aas i# #ee! $f shelter i# the f$rm $f h$usi#( this #eA h$usi#( Aas !e5$i! $f a!equate li(hti#( a#! 5e#tilati$# facilities a#! Aas a (reat s$cial e5il a#! ultimatel resulte! i# the creati$# $f slums. 4he *artial i!e#tit $f the mi!!le class Aith its c$##$tati$# $f ur:a# *lace hi#ts at a fu#!ame#tal relati$#shi* :etAee# ur:a#iBati$# a#! the mi!!le class. 4he structure $f ec$#$mic acti5it i# each ur:a# ce#ter Aas a ma@$r i#flue#ce. 4hese ec$#$mic structures each ha! !iffere#t im*licati$#s f$r the c$#flict $f the mi!!le classes Aith $ther s$cial (r$u*s. )t Aas s*ecific t$ the #ature $f the t$A#s $f the *eri$!. 4$A#s !$mi#ate! : the ec$#$mic relati$#shi*s $f tra!i#(, fi#a#ci#(, Aa(e la:$r a#! retaili#(. 4hese #ee!s le! t$ the creati$# a#! !e5el$*me#t $f ma# i#stituti$#s a#! s$cial f$rms, Ahich Aere i!e#tifie! Aith :ei#( Ua t$A#U i# 19th ce#tur . +$r eCam*le, $5er the *ast hu#!re! ears, the ra*i! i#!ustrialiBati$# i# the c$u#tr has :r$u(ht a:$ut !rastic cha#(es i# a#! ar$u#! , !era:a!. 9s*eciall i# the $l! cit 1harmi#ar a#! its surr$u#!i#( resulti#( i# c$#(esti$#, *$lluti$#, i#crease i# *$*ulati$# !e#sit etc. 4he hu(e !ema#! f$r the h$usi#( st$ck a#! c$mmercialiBati$# $f the area has :ee# cause f$r the

cha#(i#( *atter# $f sk li#e $f the area. )#crease i# the :uilt u*, multi st$rie! thus !istur:i#( the hist$rical a#! herita(e c$#structi$#s. #e*ent $ousing 4he i#!ustrialiBe! h$usi#( s stem (i5es the :asic $:@ecti5e. 4he :uilt h$usi#( sh$ul! $ffer hi(her !e(ree $f i#te(rati$# Aith the #atural e#5ir$#me#t. -$st im*$rta#t i# the i#!ustrialiBati$# h$usi#( is 4he are usi#( s$me t *es $f materials i# h$usi#( like c$#crete *a#el c$#structi$#, *lu(.i# li5i#( u#its, :$C u#its, m$ul!e! u#its, m$:ile h$usi#(, m$!ular *a#el h$usi#(, *lastic *a#el s stems, *recut h$usi#( *acka(es, h :ri! s stems ha5e :ee# !e5el$*e! !uri#( this *eri$!. 4he h$usi#( c$#!iti$#s are !e*e#!i#( u*$# their s$ci$.ec$#$mic a#! i#frastructure le5els. <ousing *onditions 4he i#!ustrial re5$luti$# is characteriBe! : certai# :asic cha#(es Ahich $ccurre! first i#

9#(la#! fr$m the mi!!le $f the 18 th ce#tur $#Aar!s .4he *$*ulati$# Aas i#crease i# i#!ustrial *r$!ucti$# a#! the mecha#iBati$# $f *r$!ucti5e s stems :ecause $f the i#creasi#( *$*ulati$#, ur:a#iBati$# a#! mi(rati$#, $5ercr$A!i#(, *$$r li5i#( c$#!iti$#s are ha**e#i#(. %roble/s 0uri#( the (15th.19th) ce#tur *eri$! ma# $f the *r$:lems, s$ci$ a#! ec$#$mic se(re(ati$# came !uri#( the i#!ustrial re5$luti$#. 4he i#ca*acit $f ur:a# ($5er#me#ts t$ e#lar(e their tra!iti$#al res*$#si:ilities at a time Ahe# cities Aere !e5el$*i#( ra*i!l le! t$ the *r$liferati$# $f su:sta#!ar! :uil!i#(s the i#termi#(li#( $f #$is$me i#!ustries a#! h$usi#(. &#! a !e#sit $f !e5el$*me#t that $5ertaCe! *rimiti5e Aater su**lies a#! seAera(e s stems.
0it+ planning is t$e atte/pt to e'ert a ,ell-*onsidered *ontrol on be$alf of t$e

people of a *it+ o4er t$e de4elop/ent of t$eir p$+si*al en4iron/ent as a ,$ole.

0it+ planning stands not onl+ for a longer loo& a$ead in planning /uni*ipal

i/pro4e/ents t$an $as been *usto/ar+ in t$e past: but espe*iall+ for a broader and /ore penetrating 4ision of t$e interrelations bet,een apparentl+ distin*t lines of planning in *ities and regions: and of t$e profound influen*e ,$i*$ a*ti4ities *arried

on in one part of t$e field and ,it$ a 4ie, to one set of purposes /a+ $a4e upon *onditions in anot$er part of t$e field.

9t ta&es a**ount of t$e influen*e of street plans and dept$s of blo*&s upon t$e pre4ailing t+pe of building and t$us upon t$e a/ount of lig$t and air and pri4a*+ in t$e people>s d,ellingsS of t$e effe*t of railroad lo*ations on t$e distribution of fa*tories and on t$e *ongestion of population and *$ara*ter of $ousingS of t$e e*ono/i* interrelation bet,een ,ater-suppl+ lands and par& landsS of t$e so*ial and e*ono/i* 4alues to be se*ured b+ grouping edu*ational and re*reational fun*tions ,$i*$ $a4e ordinaril+ been separatedS and of ot$er *o/binations innu/erable. -$e *o//on-sense appli*ation of t$e *it+ planning ideal /a+ be p$rased t$us( L$et$er t$e+ li&e it or not: ,$et$er t$e+ &no, it or not: a *olle*ti4e responsibilit+ rests upon *iti;ens of t$e present generation for /a&ing or /arring t$eir *it+>s future in *ountless ,a+s. 0it+ planning /a+ *on4enientl+ be *onsidered under t$ree /ain di4isions( -$e first *on*erns t$e /eans of *ir*ulation--t$e distribution and treat/ent of t$e spa*es de4oted to streets: rail,a+s: ,ater,a+s: and all /eans of transportation and *o//uni*ation. -$e se*ond *on*erns t$e distribution and treat/ent of t$e spa*es de4oted to all ot$er publi* purposes. -$e t$ird *on*erns t$e re/aining or pri4ate lands and t$e *$ara*ter of de4elop/ent t$ereon: in so far as it is pra*ti*able for t$e *o//unit+ to *ontrol su*$ de4elop/ent. 1a*ilit+ of *o//uni*ation is t$e 4er+ basis for t$e e'isten*e of *itiesS i/pro4ed /et$ods of general transportation are at t$e root of t$e /odern p$eno/enon of rapid *it+ gro,t$S and t$e su**ess of a *it+ is /ore dependent upon good /eans of *ir*ulation t$an upon an+ ot$er p$+si*al fa*tor under its *ontrol. -$e /et$ods of ta'ation and assess/ent greatl+ influen*e t$e a*tions of lando,ners: and of t$ose $a4ing /one+ to in4est in land: buildings: or building /ortgages. -$ese /et$ods $a4e a dire*t influen*e upon t$e spe*ulati4e $olding of unprodu*ti4e propert+S upon t$e e'tent to ,$i*$ de4elop/ent is *arried on in a s*attered:

sporadi* /anner: so as to in4ol4e relati4el+ large e'pense to t$e *o//unit+ for streets: transportation: se,erage: et*.: in proportion to t$e in$abitants ser4edS upon t$e =ualit+ and durabilit+ of buildingS and: in t$ose states ,$ere propert+ is *lassified and ta'ed at 4ar+ing rates: upon t$e *lass of i/pro4e/ents fa4ored. 3'e/ption fro/ ta'ation for a *ertain period: or ot$er si/ilar bonus: is a fa/iliar de4i*e in so/e *ities to en*ourage a desired *lass of de4elop/ents: su*$ as ne, fa*tories. But t$e /ost dire*t and *onspi*uous /eans of *ontrolling de4elop/ents on pri4ate propert+ is t$roug$ t$e e'er*ise of t$e poli*e po,er: as in t$e *ase of building *odes: tene/ent-$ouse la,s: and spe*ial distri*t regulations. o -$e first obFe*t of building *odes: and of t$e s+ste/ of building per/its and inspe*tions t$roug$ ,$i*$ t$e+ are enfor*ed: is to ensure proper stru*tural stabilit+. o . se*ond obFe*t is to redu*e t$e danger of fire to a reasonable point. o . t$ird obFe*t is to guard against *onditions unreasonabl+ dangerous to $ealt$. -ene/ent-$ouse la,s: fa*tor+ la,s: and ot$er spe*ial pro4isions operating in addition to t$e general building *ode of a *it+: are dire*ted /ainl+ to,ard t$e prote*tion of people using spe*ial &inds of buildings against un$ealt$ful *onditions and against personal ris& fro/ fire and a**ident. Buildings are *lassified a**ording to t$e purposes for ,$i*$ t$e+ are used: a**ording to t$eir lo*ation ,it$ respe*t to boundaries Asu*$ as fire li/itsC: a**ording to t$e /aterials of ,$i*$ t$e+ are built: and in do;ens of ot$er ,a+sS and for ea*$ *lass /inute and 4aried pres*riptions and pro$ibitions are /ade ,$i*$: in t$e aggregate: pla+ an i/portant part in deter/ining t$e si;e: $eig$t: purposes: plan: general appearan*e: and *ost of t$e stru*tures ,$i*$ a lot o,ner *an ere*t and t$ose ,$i*$ $e *an e'pe*t $is neig$bor to ere*t. -$e a/ount of lig$t entering an+ gi4en ,indo, in a *it+: and: in a general ,a+: t$e a/ount of air: is dependent /ainl+ upon t$e distan*e to t$e ne't opposite building ,all: and t$e $eig$t to ,$i*$ t$at ,all rises abo4e t$e le4el of t$e ,indo,.

 .n e'a/ination of t$e building *odes and tene/ent-$ouse la,s of ./eri*an *ities s$o,s a *onfusing di4ersit+ in t$e regulations li/iting building $eig$ts and $ori;ontal spa*es to be left open: and t$ere are so/e *ities in ,$i*$ t$ere is pra*ti*all+ no effe*ti4e regulation at all. -$e /ore /odern ;oning ordinan*es are based on studies $as lig$t and air re=uire/ents: and pro/ise /u*$ for t$e i/pro4e/ent of *o//unit+ $ealt$. Le $a4e *onsidered t$e t$ree /ain di4isions of *it+ planning: dealing respe*ti4el+ ,it$ t$e lands de4oted to t$e /eans of *ir*ulation: t$e lands de4oted to ot$er publi* purposes: and t$e lands to pri4ate o,ners$ip. Lit$in all of t$ese di4isions: t$e a*tual ,or& of *it+ planning *o/prises t$e follo,ing steps( o -$e first step is a stud+ of *onditions and tenden*ies: a sur4e+ of t$e pertinent fa*ts and an esti/ate of t$e /ost probable future *$anges in t$ose fa*ts. o -$e se*ond step is a definition of purposes to be attained. o -$e t$ird step is t$e planning of p$+si*al results suitable to t$ese purposes. o -$e fourt$ and last step is t$e bringing of t$ose plans to e'e*ution t$roug$ suitable legal and ad/inistrati4e /a*$iner+. o 34er+ one of t$ose steps of progression is 4italS e4er+ part of t$e t$ree /ain di4isions of t$e field is i/portant. -$e follo,ing *$apters of t$is boo&: ,ritten b+ as /an+ different /en: illustrate t+pi*al parts of t$e field *onsidered fro/ t$e point of 4ie, so/eti/es of one step of progression: so/eti/es of anot$er. 34er+ ele/ent in t$eir p$+si*al en4iron/ent affe*ts t$e people in so/e degree bot$ on t$e e*ono/i* side: as deter/ining t$eir effi*ien*+: and on t$e aest$eti* side: as deter/ining t$eir enFo+/ent of life. -$erefore in t$e design of e4er+t$ing ,$i*$ enters into t$e *it+: bot$ of t$ese aspe*ts /ust be gi4en ,eig$t

0L.2290 09-IS ,um:le cit Q u#*a5e! la#es lacki#( !rai#a(e a#! sa#itati$#. 9(Q acr$*$lis, &the#s, ,elle#ic cit tem*le !$mi#ate!, meeti#( *laces Aere calle! O*# CP ,i**$!amusH (=reek)Q he $ri(i#ate! the (ri! rati$#al arra#(eme#t Dir$# street s stem. 9( 2l #thus (cit ) :$uleuteria# (assem:l ) *r ta#um (c$u#cil cham:er) 4he hearth Aas situate! calle! OatriumP. ,imm$!amus. %iraeus, the *art cit $f &the#s, as Aell as thurii a#! 3h$!es, *ri#ce, -iletus. <3LL3N92-90 09-IQ %3)9;19Q re:uilt !uri#( the 4th ce#tur 81. 4he *h sical im*r$5eme#t i# =reek cities reflecte! the !ee* r$$ts $f ,elle#ic culture. 4he $*e# air meeti#( *lace.the *ra s.$f the a($ra a#! assem:l hall re*lace! the earl =reek t$urs. %@G%399S 4he f$rum lies i# the ce#ter $f a# irre(ular street s stem su((esti$#s the *r$:lem that the m$re re(ular *atter# Aas esta:lishe! as the t$A# (reA i# *$*ulati$# a# eCte#!e! its area. 4he earl r$ma# !Aelli#( a!$*te! the atrium fr$m =reece h$uses $f the m$re afflue#t a!!e#! the feature k#$A# as the N*erist le6. 1harc$al :raBiers fr$m r$$m t$ r$$m D calle! Oh *$caustP, *r$5i!e! heati#( (e#erall <hile the *u:lic :aths (thermae) $ccu*ie! a# im*$rta#t *lace i# the s$cial life $f 3$ma#s #o/eH :a#ks $f the 4i:er. @stiaS 2stia, the sea*$rt f$r 3$me, Aas likeAise cr$A!e! a#! c$#tai#e! ma# a*artme#ts. 4he h$use $f 0ia#a is a# eCam*le. -9G8.7H the *atter# $f a r$ma# cit .

4he f$rum r$ma# Aas the $ri(i#al ce#ter $f :usi#ess a#! *$litical life i# the earl re*u:lic. -$e Gedie4al to,n( )rre(ular street *atter#s a#! hea5 Aalls. -2;4%&E)93H 4he church $f m$#aster a#! the castle $f the l$r! !$mi#ate! the earl me!ie5al t$A#. 4he church *laBa :ecame the market *lace a#! Aith citiBe#shi* :est$Ae! u*$# the *e$*le a#! mercha#t (uil!s esta:lishe!. 4he e#tire t$A# Aas treate! Aith structural l$(ic that characteriBe! the architectural treatme#t $f the 3$ma#esque a#! earl ($thic :uil!i#(s. ;&&309;.church !$mi#ate!. <istori*al de4elop/ent of *ities( 4here are tA$ :asic f$rms $f the cit H
1. <alle! cit 2. 2*e# cit

4he cit mea#s the Ah$le *e$*le Ah$ i#ha:it it, the e#tire c$llecti$# $f the h$uses the *e$*le li5e i#, the sh$*s i# Ahich the A$rk the streets the tra5erse, a#! the *laces i# Ahich the tra!e. 9arl ci5iliBati$#s s*rea! al$#( the fertile 5alle s $f the ;ile, 4i(ris.9u*hrates, a#! )#!us 3i5ers Ahere f$$!, Aater, a#! tra#s*$rtati$# Aere at ha#!. )# 9( *t the li5es $f the *e$*le Aere !e!icate! t$ the *hara$h. 4he t$A#s the :uilt i# the thir! mille##ium 8.1 Aere reacte! u*$# his $r!er. ;arr$A la#es ser5e! as $*e# !rai#a(e seAers as Aell as *assa(eAa s t$ the !Aelli#(s. <alls surr$u#!e! the t$A#s.

1it $f kahu#, 9( *t, !ati#( fr$m a:$ut 300081

-$he#@$.0ar$, )#!us 5alle . 8a: l$# Aas a lar(e cit s*a##i#( the 9u*hrates 3i5er. Surr$u#!e! : the (reat Aalls a#! a m$at, it Aas a m$#ume#tal cit $f ki#(s. 4he Aalls !i!, #$t surr$u#! a#cie#t cities like L#$ss$s. 8ut f$rtifie! cities are 4ir #s a#! - ce#ae. 4he hum:le cit H =reeceH f$r the =reek citiBe# the tem*le Aas the s m:$l $f his !em$cratic Aa $f life. &#cie#t cit &e(ea# small r$$ms calle! NGegaronT. 2o/e e'a/ples( N.<?N( 3g+pt A3 B0C.

& 5e#tilati#( !e5ice k#$A# as Nmul(uf6 is *r$5i!e! $# r$$f f$r c$$li#( f$r i#teri$r r$$ms. G@<.NO.7.#@( 9ndus 4alle+ A3 B0C.

4he *ri#ci*al :uil!i#(s eCca5ate! are a *u:lic :ath a#! a m$#aster . B.BIL@N( 6-< 03N-?#I B0. )t Aas a lar(e cit s*rea!er 9u*hrates 3i5er. Surr$u#!e! : (reat Aalls, it Aas a m$#ume#tal cit . 9st$tar gate: ste/p$al: <anging 8ardens of nebu*$adne;;arKs pala*e. ,er$!$tus (eC*lai#s the r$a! s stem). 1irst regional planning( Oerusale/ Asurrounded b+ /editerian sea: 7ead 2eaC <ippoda/us. )t Aas #atural that a# atm$s*here $f *hil$s$*h sh$ul! im*el a search f$r $r!er i# the cit . )# the latter *art $f the f$rth ce#tur a# architect fr$m -iletus, : the #ame $f ,i**$!amus, a!5a#ce! *$siti5e ther$es a:$ut the art a#! scie#ce $f cit *la##i#(. ,e has :ee# cre!ite! Aith the $ri(i#ati$# $f the O(ri! ir$#P street s stem, alth$u(h this is #$t e#tirel accurate.

4he cit *la# Aas c$#cei5e! as a !esi(# t$ ser5e all the *e$*le. 4he i#!i5i!ual !Aelli#( Aas the c$mm$# !e#$mi#at$r. 8l$cks Aere sha*e! t$ *r$5i!e a**r$*riate $rie#tati$# f$r the !Aelli#(s Aithi# them. Su*erim*$si#( the ri(i! (e$metrical f$rm $f the ,i**$!amia# street s stem u*$# the ru((e! t$*$(ra*h $f the sites $ccu*ie! : m$st =reek cities create! #umer$us streets s$ stee* the c$ul! #e($tiate! $#l Aith ste*s.

(nfluence of modern art on architecture

2e4en ,onders of t$e an*ient ,orld
1. 4he * rami! $f 9( *t. 2. ,a#(i#( (ar!e#s $f 8a: l$#. 3. 4he tem*le $f artemis at 9*hesus. 4. 4he t$m: $f ma#s$lus at halicar#assus. 5. 4he 1$l$ssus $f 3h$!es. 6. 4he statue $f Eeus at 2l m*ia. 7. 4he *har$s at &leCa#!ria.

Building 2er4i*es( <ater su**l , seAera(e a#! !rai#a(e s stemsQ sa#itar fitti#(s a#! fiCturesQ *lum:i#( s stems, *ri#ci*les $f i#ter#al 7 eCter#al !rai#a(e s stems, *ri#ci*les $f electrificati$# $f :uil!i#(s, i#telli(e#t :uil!i#(sQ ele5at$rs 7 escalat$rs, their sta#!ar!s a#! usesQ air c$#!iti$#i#( s stemsQ fire fi(hti#( s stems, :uil!i#( safet a#! securit s stems.

Principles and Design of ;ater supply systems

1. first m$!er# Aater su**l a#! sa#itar schemes Aere starte! i# 1800.(/L,/S) 2. +irst Aater su**l s stem, i# )#!ia Aas f$r 1alcutta i# 1870.

3. <ater su**l la $ut. c$llecti$# fr$m s$urces. . . . . .

4reatme#t *la#ts Se!ime#tati$#. sus*e#!e! s$li!s are rem$5e!. +iltrati$#. c$ll$i!al mater, :acteria are rem$5e!. 0isi#fecti$#. rem$5i#( :acteria, a!!i#( chl$ri#e 0istri:uti$#s. 0esi(# *eri$!. %$*ulati$# t$ :e ser5e!.

4. 4he qualit $f Aater require! !e*e#!s $#. rate $f !ema#! . .

5. %erca*ita !ema#!=I?%G365, lit bI=qualit Q %=*$*ulati$#c 6. <ater su**l schemes are f$r 30 rs *eri$!. 7. +act$rs effecti#( rate $f !ema#!. . . . . . . . . .

1limate 1$st $f Aater ,a:its $f *e$*le 9fficie#c $f Aater s stem -eteri#( $f ser5ices %rese#ce $r a:se#ce $f i#!ustries Iualit $f Aater %rese#ce $f a:se#ce $f seAa(e s stem S stem (200li). 0$mestic #ee!s. !ri#ki#(, Aashi#(, c$$ki#(, :athi#(, flushi#( $f t$ilets, 1$mmercial, i#stituti$#. Sh$*s, h$tel, ci#ema h$uses, sch$$ls, $ffices, h$stels. )#!ustrial. small, lar(e scale. %u:lic use. Aashi#( streets, flushi#( $f seAers, *arks(25li) +ire !ema#!. 10li?!a '$ss.20.30T

8. <ater requireme#ts .

(ar!e#i#(, air c$#!iti$#i#(.

. . . . .

9. Iualit $f Aater f$r a t$A#

0$mestic. )#!ustrial. %u:lic use.

135 '%10 40 25

+ire !ema#!. 15 '$sses. -@-.L 2B

10. S$urces $f Aater. surface, (r$u#! Aater. 11. ch$ice $f the s$urce !e*e#!s $#, l$cati$# $f s$urce, qualit $f Aater a5aila:le, qualit $f

55

Aater, c$st $f e#tire scheme.(surface Aater)

12. 0etermi#ati$# $f iel! !e*e#!s $# 13.

)#te#sit $f rai#fall 3u# $ff fr$m the (i5e# catchme#ts. &ctual (i5i#( $f fl$A i# streams.

I=1- *$A(3?4). 0icke#s6s f$rmula I=1- *$A (2?3) . r e6s f$rmula I=124-? (- sq (2) F10.4) *$A (1?2) I=maC, fl$$! !ischar(e -=catchme#t area 1=c$efficie#t $f #ature $f catchme#t

14.

"iel! fr$m Aell !e*e#!s $#

i. Iualit $f Aater a5aila:le i# the qualifier. ii. 0e*th $f the Aell. iii. %$r$sit $f a qualifier. i!. '$cati$# $f #ear: Aells. !. 3ate $f *um*i#( Aater. !i. Sl$*e $f Aater ta:le.

15.

+$rmula. fl$A i#t$ a (ra5it Aell I= %ibkc (, sq.h sq)?'$( :ase ; (3?r)
. . . . . . . . 16. . . . 17. . .

fl$A i#t$ *ressure Aell I=2%ibkc (, sq.h sq)?'$( :ase ; (3?r) I=rate $f fl$A i#t$ Aell i# m cu:e?!a L=*ermea:ilit c$#sta#t i# m?!a m=!e*th $f the c$#fi#e! a qualifier i# m ,=!e*th $f Aater i# Aell :ef$re *um*i#( ,=!e*th $f Aater i# Aell after *um*i#( 3=ra!ius $f i#flue#ce i# m 3=ra!ius $f Aell i# m -eth$!s $f !istri:uti$# fr$m reser5$ir =ra5it s stem. ec$#$mical %um*i#( s stem 0ual s stem S stem $f su**l 1$#ti#u$us s stem. a!5a#ta(e$us )#termitte#t s stem. !isa!5a#ta(e$us

18.

<ater #etA$rk s stem

i. 0ea! e#! $r tree s stem a6 &!5a#ta(es. !ischar(e ca# :e easil calculate! . . a6 -

0iameter $f the *i*es is smaller +eAer 5alue are requires. 0isa!5a#ta(es. re*airs make i#c$#5e#ie#t t$ *e$*le &!equate Aater f$r firefi(hti#( ma #$t :e a5aila:le 1$#tami#ati$# ma $ccur

ii. =ri!. )r$# s stem a6

&!5a#ta(es. !uri#( re*airs, Aater ca# :e su**lie! fr$m $ther *i*eli#es . )# case $f fire, Aater is a5aila:le . &s there are #$ !ea! e#!s, Aater circulates freel . '$ss is mi#imum
"6

0isa!5a#ta(es.9Cact calculati$# is !ifficult

. .

l$#(er *e$*les are require! -$re 5alues are require!

iii. 1ircular $r ri#( s stem a6

&!5a#ta(e. e5er *$i#t recei5es fr$m 2 !irecti$#s

. . . .

!uri#( :reak !$A# Aater ca# :e su**lie! fr$m $ther *i*es f$r firefi(hti#( Aater is a5aila:le 0esi(# $f *i*es is re(ar!e!. 'ar(er #um:er $f *i*es re(ar! is !isa!5a#ta(e

i!. 3a!ial s stem

1alculati$# $f *i*e siBes eas Iuick ser5ice are a!5a#ta(es

19. %ressure require! !e*e#!s $#. hei(ht $f the hi(hest :uil!i#( . 0ista#ce $f the *$i#t fr$m reser5$ir . 4he *ressure require! f$r fire h !ra#ts 20. 4he resi!ual *ressure at ferrule *$i#ts a6 "6 c6 d6 21.

Si#(le st$re .7m $f Aater 0$u:le.12m 4hree.17m SiC.22m 4he mai#tai# ($$! *ressure i# !istri:uti$#

Ser5ice reser5$ir sh$ul! :e l$cate! i# a ce#tral *lace Sh$ul! :e :ala#ce! 8$$ster *um*s Ahich ma :e *r$5i!e! f$r !ista#t l$calities. 4he 5alue that re(ulates 4he 5alue that relie5es 4he 5alue that *r$5i!e! at

4he 5alue i# fl$A *i*e Ahich *re5e#ts Aater fr$m retur#i#( i#t$ *i*e is air 5alue.
22.

Aater i# a# $ut fl$A *i*e $f a# $5erhea! reser5$ir is (ate 5alue.

23.

hi(h *ressure i# *i*eli#es a#! *lum:i#( fiCtures i# a :uil!i#( safet 5alue

24.

e5er !e*ressi$# a#! !ea! e#!s $f Aater !istri:uti$#s $f s stem is calle! sc$re 5al5e.

25.

>al5e Ahich all$As a 0i5i!e! use! i# this case 0i5i!e! use! f$r

*i*e t$ fl$A i# $#e !irecti$# is refluC 5al5e.

26.

$f fire is h !ra#t.
27.

measuri#( am$u#t $f Aater thr$u(h *i*e is Aater mater.

Se;erage systems
1. 2e,age. c$m:i#ati$# $f !$mestic seAa(e, i#!ustrial Aaste, st$rm Aater 2. 2ullage. Aater fr$m kitche#s, :aths, si#ks fr$m :uil!i#(s, eCce*t huma# $r a#imal

eCcreta
3. #efuse. !r ru::ish fr$m street a#! h$use sAee*i#(. 4. 8arbage.&ll t *es $f semi.s$li! a#! s$li! Aaste f$$! a#! *r$!ucts such as 5e(eta:les,

Aaste meats.
5. 2e,er.%i*e carr i#( seAa(e 6. 2e,erage.S stem $f *i*es lai! f$r carr i#( seAa(e. 7. Get$ods of disposal of se,age. c$#ser5a#c s stem . . . .

1arrie! $ut : :uckets. Sulla(es le! i#t$ #ear: stream 2r(a#ic Aaste is :ur# $r :urie! <ater carria(e. : c$#5e e! u#!er(r$u#! !esi(#e! seAers
8. 2+ste/ of se,erage- 2eparate s+ste/-SeAa(e, st$rm Aater is se*arate. . . . . .

SeAa(e t$ treatme#t *la#t St$rm Aater t$ #ear: Aater c$urse 1$m:i#e! s stem.:$th f$r treatme#t Partially separate.:$th fr$m :uil!i#(s are c$m:i#e! St$rm Aater fr$m r$a!s is se*arate.

9. Iualit $f st$rm Aater !e*e#!s $# .

1atchme#t area

. .

)m*ermea:ilit fact$r(ru# $f c$efficie#t) )#te#sit $f rai#fall

10. 3u# $ff I i# mbcu:ec?s is I=1&3?360, 3ati$#al meth$!

1=ru#$ff c$efficie#t &=catchme#t area i# hac 3=i#te#sit $f rai#fall i# mm?hr

11. 9m*irical f$rmula.I=1i&?14.158b(S?&)*$A(1?4)c

1$#sta#t !e*e#!s $# (r$u#! surface (0.5.0.9)=1 -aC. 3ai#fall i# mm?hr. =i &rea i# hac=& S= sl$*e i# m?1000m,le#(th $f seAer
12. -emath6s f$rmula D I=1i&?14.835b(S?&)*$A(1?5)c 13. fa##i#(6s D I=3125 - *$A(5?8), -=area i# km sq 14. 4al:$t6s D I=87000 - *$A (1?4) 15. 0ickets I=14=14 cm *$A(3?4) 16. 3 5es I=15 cm *$A(2?3) 17. Self.clea#i#( 5el$cities

0iameter $f seAer 150 D 250 mm 300 D 600 &:$5e 600

Self.clea#i#( 5el$cit 1.00 m?sc 0.75 0.6

18. 0esi(# $f seAers D I=&G>, I=!ischar(e, > =5el$cit , &=area $f cr$ss secti$# 19. Iualit $f seAa(e !e*e#!s $# D area t$ :e ser5e! . .

arra#(eme#t $f seAa(e t *e $f s stem

20. *$*ulati$#

*eak fact$r 3.5 2.5 2.25 2.0

/* t$ 20000 20,000 D 50,000 50000 D 7, 50,000 &:$5e 7, 50,000

21. 5el$cit $f fl$A. cheB 6s f$rmula, >=1 mib*$A(1?2)c, m=h !raulic mea# !e*th i# m 22. 8aBi#6s f$rmula 1=157.6?b1.81Fk?m *$A(1?2)c, k=c$#sta#t 23. crim*s a#! :ur(ee6s f$rmula >=83.45 m *$A(2?3) ) *$A(1?2) 24. ma##i#(6s f$rmula >=1?# m *$A(2?3) i *$A(1?2), m=&?% 25. haBa# a#! <illiams f$rmula >=0.85 cm *$A(0.63) i *$A (10.54) 26. 4he qualit $f liqui! Aaste that fl$As thr$u(h a c$m:i#e! seAer i# !r Aeather i#clu!i#(

st$rm Aater i# the seAer is !r Aeather fl$A.

27. 4he mi#imum 5el$cit is require! t$ :e mai#tai#e! t$ a5$i! silli#( is calle! self.clea#i#(

5el$cit .
28. 4he Aeather that e#ters seAer thr$u(h *$$r @$i#ts, cracks is calle! i#filtrati$# 29. )# se*arate s stem, st$rm Aater a#! sulla(e are c$#5e e! i# surface !rai#. 30. 4he time require! f$r !e5el$*i#( maCimum rati$ $f ru# $ff is calle! time $f

c$#ce#trati$#
31. a a#! : are c$#sta#ts !e*e#!i#( $# freque#c , t the !urati$# $f st$rm i# mi#utes the

i#te#sit $f rai#fall i# mm h$ur is 25.4a?tF:

32. sha*es $f seAers . . . . .

recta#(ular circular D m$st ec$#$mical, $#l f$r se*arate s stem semi elli*tical h$rse sh$e D f$r lar(e !ischar(e e(( sha*e! D f$r c$m:i#e! s stem, m$re self.clea#i#( 5el$cit St$#e Aear D ".4 @u#cti$# f$rms f$r c$mm$# use, h$use !rai# a#! laterals

33. -aterials f$r seAers . .

. . . . . . .

ceme#t c$#crete D f$r st$rm Aater 3.1.1 D f$r st$rm Aater %recast D f$r Aater ti(ht @$i#ts 1ast i# situ D f$r maki#( semi D elli*tical, h$rse D sh$e seAers &1 *i*es D !$mestic sa#itar !rai#a(e 1ast.ir$# *i*e D l$#( life Stul *i*e

34. SeAer suita:le f$r carr i#( $5er *i*es acr$ss :ri!(e are cast ir$# 35. Suita:le material f$r a seAer t$ carr seAa(e u#!er *ressure D steel 36. K$i#t use! f$r @$i#i#( st$#e Aare *i*e is s*i($t D a#! D s$cket. 37. SeAer a**urte#a#ces .

-a#h$les D s*aci#( D *i*e !iameter (mm) /* t$ 300 301 D 500 501 D 900 8e $#! 900

s*aci#((m) 45 75 90 as a**r$5e! : auth$rit

38. <he# a seAer c$##ects Aith a#$ther seAer Ahich is at a materiall !iffere#t le5el, !r$*

ma#h$le is a!$*te!
39. &# $*e#i#( thr$u(h Ahich st$rm Aater fr$m a street is all$Ae! t$ e#ter a str$m seAer $r

a c$m:i#e! seAer is calle! a street i#let.

40. small cham:ers c$#structe! t$ *re5e#t the e#tr $f (rit, sa#!, !e:ris i#t$ the seAer li#es

are catch :asi# $r *its

41. <here it is #$t *ractica:le t$ $:tai# a (ra!ie#t i# the seAer t$ (i5e a self.clea#i#(

5el$cit $f 0.75 m?s, flushi#( ta#ks Aill :e *r$5i!e!

42. %$rti$# $f seAer c$#structe! l$Aer tha# the a!@ace#t stretch, t$ *ass :e#eath a 5alle ,

Aater c$urse $r $ther $:structi$# is i#5erte! si*h$#

43. ,i(h st$rm Aater fr$m hea5

rai# fall is !is*$se! $f fr$m the seAers : mea#s $f

re(ulat$rs.
44. %r$*er l$cati$# $f flushi#( ta#k is lea! $f seAer li#e.

45. &# $*e#i#( thr$u(h Ahich st$rm Aater is a!mitte! a#! c$#5e e! t$ the st$rm seAer

calle! i#terce*ti#( cham:er.

46. 1ha#(e i# !irecti$# $f seAers is (e#erall ma!e at ma#h$les. 47. &ut$matic flushi#( ta#ks A$rks $# the *ri#ci*les $f si*h$#. 48. 4he sl$*i#( c$#crete $# the si!es $f the cha##el i# a ma# h$le is calle! :u#chi#(. 49. 4he s*ace i# the l$Aer *$siti$# $f ma#h$le *r$5i!e! f$r i#s*ecti$# is A$rki#( cham:er. 50. +lushi#( ta#k is !i5i!e! t$ flush Aater i#t$ a seAer $#ce i# a !a . 51. 0e5ice use! i# a *um*i#( stati$# t$ measure the qualit $f fl$A $f seAer is calle! fl$A

rec$r!er.
52. SeAa(e Ahich is u#!er($i#( treatme#t is calle! se*tic seAa(e. 53. 4he fu#cti$# $f (rit cham:er is t$ rem$5e i#$r(a#ic su:sta#ces. 54. +i#e (rit i# the seAa(e is rem$5e! i# !etritus ta#k. 55. 4he fu#cti$# $f ski##i#( ta#k is t$ rem$5e $il a#! fatt su: sta#ces 56. Settle! *racticals $f seAa(e i# the se!ime#tati$# ta#k are slu!(e. 57. chemicals use! f$r !ec$m*$si#( $r(a#ic Aaste i# the *rese#ce $f air is fl$cculati$# 58. %r$cess $f !ec$m*$si#( $r(a#ic Aaste i# the *rese#ce $f air is $Ci!ati$#. 59. 8i$l$(ical treatme#t $f seAa(e takes *lace i# tricki#( fitter. 60. +u#cti$# $f se!ime#tati$# ta#k i# seAa(e A$rk is t$ rem$5e sus*e#!e! s$li!s. 61. %erce#ta(e( T) $f slu!(e miCe! Aith seAa(e i# *rimar setti#(s is 20 D 40T 62. 'ar(e siBe! fl$ati#( $:@ects ca# :e rem$5e! fr$m seAa(e : scree#i#(. 63. 'iqui! seAa(e c$mi#( $ut $f se!ime#tati$# ta#k is efflue#t. 64. 4he c$#5ersati$# $f Aaste Aater fr$m a# i#!ustr ca# :e !$#e : rec cli#(. 65. <he# seAa(e is !is*$se! $f i#t$ Aater :$!ies is calle! !iluti$#. 66. 8r$a! irri(ati$# is a# eCam*le $f treati#( seAa(e : la#! treatme#t. 67. 4he :ur#i#( $f slu!(e is i#ci#erati$#.

Sanitary fittings and fi+tures

1. 0rai# D &# *i*e Ahich c$#5e s !ischar(es fr$m sa#itar a**lia#ces

2. :uil!i#( !rai# D *art $f the l$Aest h$riB$#tal *i*i#( $f !rai#i#( s stem Ahich recei5es

the !ischar(e fr$m s$il, Aaste a#! $ther *i*es i#si!e the :uil!i#( a#! c$#5e s it t$ the :uil!i#( seAer Ahich :e(i#s )6m $utsi!e the :uil!i#( Aall.
3. 8uil!i#( seAer D *art $f h$riB$#tal *i*e $f a !rai#a(e s stem Ahich eCte#!s fr$m the e#!

$f the :uil!i#( !rai# recei5es !ischar(e fr$m it a#! c$#5e s it t$ *u:lic seAer.
4. S$il Aaste D !ischar(e Aater cl$sets, uri#als, sl$* si#ks, a#! similar a**lia#ces. 5. S$il *i*e D *i*e that c$#5e s the !ischar(e $f Aater cl$sets $f fiCtures ha5i#( similar

fu#cti$#s.
6. <aste Aater D !ischar(e fr$m Aash:asi#s si#ks. 7. <aste *i*e D recei5es the !ischar(e $f a# fiCtures eCce*t Aater cl$sets 8. stack D mai# 5ertical !ischar(e $r 5e#tilati#( *i*e 9. 4ra* D fitti#( !e5ice *r$5i!e a liqui! seal t$ *re5e#t the :ack *assa(e $f air Aith$ut

affecti#( the fl$A $f seAa(e $r Aaste Aater thr$u(h it.

10. =ull tra* D t$ c$llect Aaste Aater fr$m kitche#, si#k, Aash:asi#s, :aths, a#! rai#Aater

*i*es.
11. +l$$r tra* D Aaste Aater fr$m fl$$rs $f :aths a#! kitche#s i#t$ !rai#s. 12. )#terce*ti#( tra* D *lace! Ahere the h$use !rai# @$i#s the mai# seAer 13. )#s*ecti$# cham:er D recei5es the Aastes fr$m (ull tra*s a#! !is*$ses it $ff t$ ma# hi!e. 14. %i*e s stems

4A$ *i*e s stem D $#e c$#5e s s$il !irectl t$ the !rai# $ther c$#5e Aaste Aater t$ the !rai# fr$m !iff. fl$$r. 2#e *i*e s stem D Aaste c$##ecti$#s fr$m si#ks, :aths, Aash :asi#s a#! s$il *i*e :ra#ches are c$llecte! i#t$ mai# *i*e. Si#(le stack s stem D $#e *i*e s stem Aith$ut 5e#tilati$# *i*e A$rk.

15. sa#itar fitti#( use! t$ recei5e the huma# eCcreta !irectl fr$m user is calle! Aater cl$set 16. &**lia#ces use! t$ flush Aater cl$sets, uri#als are flushi#( cister#s. 17. 4he *i*e that c$#5e s the !ischar(e $f Aater cl$sets $r fiCture6s is calle! s$il *i*e. 18. 4he Aater seals i# the tra* are *re5e#te! fr$m :raki#( : mea#s $f the 5e#tilati#( *i*e.

19. &ll !rai#a(e *i*e sh$ul! :e c$5ere! Aith a =.) Aire !$me. 20. -i#imum self.clea#i#( 5el$cit f$r h$use !rai#s 0.75 m?sec.

A. E2ECT9ICIT: )aDor tas1s7 a. 9&ort and long term electrical load estimating ". -denti%ying local standards and con%orming and 2or1ing 2it&in t&e standards laid out "y local legislati!e acts li1e %actory act. to2n and country planning act and rules and ot&er regulations c. Laying out t&e electrical net2or1s %or t&e present and %uture. 6nits7 !oltage can "e considered as a pus&. 2&ic& causes electrons to %lo2 in a conductor.

#olt or Filo !olt is t&e unit o% !oltage *o2er 4>6 O !oltage ! 8 current i 1 F>O 1.34 H* 1H*O746 >

Po5e$: t5o types 1. 5pparent po2er 4Filo #olt 5mpere F#56 2. +rue po2er. 45pparent po2er 8 po2er %actor6

9#er( is the measure $f A$rk !$#e a#! it is the theref$re a *r$!uct $f *$Aer a#! time. Lil$Aatt ,$ur is the u#it c$mm$#l use!. (L<,). 4he rati$ :etAee# a5era(e !ema#! a#! maCimum !ema#! is calle! l$a! fact$r ('.+) '.+=a5era(e 0ema#!?-aCimum 0ema#! &#! -aCimum 0ema#!=&5era(e 0ema#!?l$a! fact$r '$a! estimati#(H 1. ear 415 5$lt $r 11L>& 2.3 ...33L> -eth$!s f$r f$recasti#(H i# small 5aca#t la#! u#!er($i#( !e5el$*me#t, a5era(e h$useh$l! $r i#stituti$#al !ema#! is use! t$ *r$@ect the l$a! !ema#!. ;atural (r$Ath $f l$a! ca# :e ta:ulate! a#! *l$tte! $# a l$a! 5ersus time (ra*h. )# a#$ther meth$! u#its a#! l$a! fact$rs $f u#its are ta:ulate! f$r *ast ears. &# u#!ersta#!i#( $f the electrical su**l s stem is the starti#( *$i#t f$r the !esi(# $f the la $ut $f the #etA$rk. 9lectricit is (e#erate! i# a *$Aer stati$#. &# 11L>?132L> tra#sf$rmer ste*.u* the 5$lta(e :ef$re it lea5es the *$Aer stati$# t$ the tra#smissi$# li#e. 4he# it is fe! i#t$ a *rimar (ri! su:stati$#, Ahich ste* !$A# the 5$lta(e fr$m 132k L> t$ 33 L>. +r$m there it is tra#s*$rte! t$ sec$#!ar su: stati$#s Ahere it is further ste**e! !$A# fr$m 33 L> t$ 11 L> a#! fe! i#t$ the sec$#!ar hi(h 5$lta(e !istri:uti$# s stem. )# the #eCt sta(e it is further ste**e! !$A# fr$m 11 L> t$ 415>?220> l$A 5$lta(e !istri:uti$# s stem. &s far as relati5e c$st is c$#si!ere! u#!er(r$u#! #etA$rk c$st m$re tha# the $5erhea!. Street *atter# $ffers the limitati$# f$r la i#( $ut the l$A 5$lt ele. ;etA$rks. 1a:les are als$ lai! u#!er f$$t*ath. 1a:les lai! i# %.>.1 !uct ca# facilitate re*laceme#t :ut this arra#(eme#t is eC*e#si5e.

'omestic;;;Lo2 !oltage Commercial. industrial;;;11F# )aDor industrial;;;;;;;33F#

.ir *onditioning( a s stem (i5i#( aut$matic c$#tr$l, Aithi# *re!etermi#e! limits $f the e#5ir$#me#tal c$#!iti$#s : heati#(, c$$li#(, humi!ificati$#, !ehumi!ificati$#, clea#i#( a#! m$5eme#t $f air i# :uil!i#(s. .d4antages(

<$rki#( efficie#c is i#crease!. 9#@$ (rater c$mf$rt 3e!ucti$# i# clami#( a#! !ec$rati#( 8etter *atr$#a(e Seale! Ai#!$As re!uce the e#tr $f #$ise fr$m aircraft a#! traffic. 'ess risk $f fire !ue t$ static electricit , cause! : !r air.

3elati5e humi!it H =c$mf$rt Ahe# 3, is :etAee# 30.70T. &ir c$#!iti$# mai#tai#sW40.50T. 3equireme#ts ma :e !i5i!e! tA$ t *esQ
1. 4h$se *articularl rele5a#t t$ liste#i#( t$ music $r f$rmal s*eech, as i#flue#ce! : the

*r$*erties $f the r$$m itself.

2. 4h$se c$#cer#e! Aith the effects $f #$ise, i#ter#all $r eCter#all (e#erate!, $#

*articular acti5ities. #oo/ a*ousti*s. 'iste#i#( c$#!iti$# are lar(el i#flue#ce! : re5er:erati$# time (34), Ahich is !efi#e! as the time take# f$r a s$u#! t$ !eca t$ 1 milli$#

5. 19#3 %#@-30-9@N(

)# *la##i#( f$r *r$tecti$# i# a cit , it is im*$rta#t t$ start Aith the !ata:ase $f all rec$r!s $f $ccurre#ce $f fires i# the last feA !eca!es :$th : #um:er a#! ma(#itu!e as measure! : its !urati$#. 1ausesH la#! use, structural c$#!iti$#, a#! ur:a# #etA$rks a#! ser5ices a5aila:le. )# a cit , it is im*$rta#t t$ i!e#tif a#! scale all B$#es? *arts : scale f$r 5ul#era:ilit f$r fire. '$cati$# *ri#ci*le f$r fire stati$#H fire stati$#s shall :e easil :usi#ess, Aare h$usi#(, i#stituti$#al a#! resi!e#tial areas.
<angeP1.5 1m

accessi:le t$ all i#!ustrial,

+$r !istrict requiri#( 9000(*m (567.1lit?s) $r m$re these !ista#ce shall :e 0.75 kms a#! f$r 4500 (*m (283.5 l?s) it sh$ul! :e 2.3kms. Later for fire de/andH the requireme#t $f Aater f$r firefi(hti#( i# OIP liters? !a ma :e calculate! : f$rmula f$r )#!ia# c$#!iti$#sH
BC100D000 + Ep >&ere A*= is population in t&ousands. 5ll maDor "uilding s&all "e certi%ied "y t&e ser!ice %or %ire%ig&ting capa"ility and potential !ulnera"ility %or %ire. +&is 2ill ta1e into account t&e structural condition o% t&e "uilding. a!aila"ility o% 2ater %or %ire%ig&ting. standard o% electrical 2iring and %ire e8tinguis&er systems.

?#B.N 7#.9N.83( SeAer ca# :e !i5i!e! i#t$ :uil!i#( seAers, lateral seAers, mai# seAers, i#terce*t$rs a#! $utfall seAers. 8uil!i#(...lateral li#e=mi#100m a#! sl$*e 2T siBe is 4i#ches 'ateral...a lateral has #$ $ther c$##ecti$#s seAer tri:utar eCce*t :uil!i#( c$##ecti$#sQ the mi#imum !iameter is 200mm (8 i#) )#terce*t$rs...lar(e seAer *i*eli#es. -a# h$lesH ma#h$les are i#stalle! at e5er cha#(e $f sl$*e, !irecti$# $f seAer li#es, cha#(e $f seAer siBe, a#! seAer c$##ecti$#.

-aCimum s*aci#( is 50.120 m (150.400ft)

0al*ulations( %er ca*ita s$li! Aaste *r$!ucti$#H !e*e#!s u*$# Sta#!ar! $f li5i#(, Aater use, climate fact$r )# ari! area 40T Aater use! reaches the seAer. )# i#te#si5el !e5el$*e! area 90.80T 4he ru# $ff reachi#( the seAer is (i5e# : the eC*ressi$#H I=10 1i& <here NI6 is ru# $ff i# cu. -? hec 1.c$efficie#t i...i#te#sit $f rai# fall i# mm?hec & is the area $f the !rai#a(e !istrict i# hectares. 0ata requireme#t f$r the la $ut $f ur:a# !rai#a(e s stem i#clu!e r$a! ma*, l$cati$# $f the 8uil!i#( a#! $ther utilities, fl$$r ele5ati$# $f the :uil!i#(, s$il, t$*$(ra*h , u#!e5el$*e! area a#! future eC*a#si$#. 1$mm$#l sl$*es are calculate! assumi#( a mi#imum 5el$cit f$r a !r Aeather fl$A $f 0.6m?s (2f*s) Ahe# seAers are fl$Ai#( half full. 1$m:i#e! s stem.....0.9m?s %i*e selecti$#W;$m$(ra*h (-a##i#( f$rmula).

"uilding Construction and %anagement

8uil!i#( c$#structi$# tech#iques, meth$!s a#! !etailsQ :uil!i#( s stems a#! %refa:ricati$# $f :uil!i#( eleme#tsQ *ri#ci*les $f m$!ular c$$r!i#ati$#Q estimati$#, s*ecificati$#, 5aluati$#, *r$fessi$#al *racticeQ *r$@ect ma#a(eme#t tech#iques e.(. %934, 1%- etc.

%aterials and Structural Systems

8eha5i$ural characteristics $f all t *es $f :uil!i#( materials e.(. /ud: tim:er, :am:$$, :rick, c$#crete, steel, (lass, 1#%: different pol+/ers: *o/positesQ prin*iples of strengt$ of /aterialsS !esi(# $f structural eleme#ts i# A$$!, steel a#! 311Q elastic a#! limit state !esi(#Q c$m*leC structural s stemsQ *ri#ci*les $f *re.stressi#(Q tall :uil!i#(sQ *ri#ci*les $f !isaster resista#t structures.

"eha!ioral characteristics of building materials

-i/ber
1. 4im:er is !eri5e! fr$m 4im:ria# mea#s N:uilt6. 2. 4im:er is $:tai#e! fr$m trees #$t less tha# 600 mm i# circumfere#ce. 3. 4hree t *es $f tim:er a. 1$#5erte! D is saA# a#! cut i#t$ suita:le siBes ". 3$u(h D after felli#( $f trees c. Sta#!i#( D li5i#( tree 4. %r$*erties $f ($$! tim:er

'$A heat c$#!ucti5it &me#a:ilit Small :ulk !e#sit 3elati5el hi(h stre#(th Susce*ti:ilit t$ !eca

5. 0raA:acks $f tim:er

)#flamma:ilit +luctuati$#s !ue t$ m$isture c$#te#t >ariati$#s i# stre#(th, le#(th

6. <$$! Aaste D saA !ust, sha5i#(s are use! Aith a!miCture $f $r(a#ic (lues t$ make fi:er.

sla:s, fi:er :$ar!s.

7. 2ther uses $f A$$! D $r(a#ic aci!s, r$si#, *a*er, car!:$ar!, cellul$se. 8. &(e $f the A$$! ca*a:le $f *r$!uci#( qualit tim:er Aith a!equate (irth is 50 rs. 9. 8a:ul, 9ucal *tus, *$*lar, sissi$$ (20 rs). 10. & si#(le tree ca# c$$l the summer heat f$r a# e#tire !a a#! #i(ht a#! is f$u#! :etter

tha# 20 &1s ru##i#( f$r 20 ,rs.

11. & hectare $f trees *r$!uce a:$ut 10 times $f 22 (f$r 45 *ers$#s f$r 1 ear)

9te/ &##ual ri#(s 1$l$r +ire resista#ce -$!ular ra s Stre#(th

2oft ,ood 0isti#ct 'i(ht %$$r )#!isti#ct Str$#( f$r !irect *ull a#! Aeak f$r resisti#( thrust $r shear

<ard ,ood 2**$site P P P P P P

Structure <ei(ht

3esi#$us a#! s*lit easil 'i(ht

12. 0efects i# tim:er a. 1$#5ersi$# ". +u#(i c. )#sects d. ;atural f$rces

e. Seas$#i#( 13. Iualities $f ($$! tim:er a. ,ar! a#! shi#i#( a**eara#ce ". 1$l$r is !ark c. +ree fr$m k#$ts, flaAs, shakes d. Sh$ul! :e !ura:le e. Sh$ul! :e elastic %.

Sh$ul! ha5e strai(ht fi:ers

g. +ire resista#ce &. ,ar!#ess i. D.

Sh$ul! #$t !eteri$rate easil !ue t$ mecha#ical Aear 1a*a:le $f retai#i#( its sha*e Ahile :ur#i#( 1lear ri#(i#( s$u#! Ahe# struck

1. SAeet smell l.

m. S$u#! i# A$$! is 2 t$ 17 times (reater tha# i# air. n. Str$#( f$r A$rki#( as structural mem:er such as @$i#t, :eam, rafters. o. 4$u(h#ess D ca*a:le $f resisti#( sh$cks p. '$A Aater *ermea:ilit ,. Sta#! f$r Aeatheri#( effect r.

,ea5 Aei(ht

Ba/boo
1. +leCi:le, 5er str$#( a#! !ura:le. 2. /se! f$r scaff$l!i#(, thatche! r$$fs, rafters, tem*$rar :ri!(es, fa#c ($$!s.

0on*rete
1. 1eme#t c$#crete D is a miCture $f ceme#t, Aater, fi#e a((re(ate, c$urse a((re(ate. 2. the *r$*$rti$# $f ceme#t, sa#! a#! a((re(ates is 1H2 $r 3H4 $r 6 3. 'ime c$#crete D miCture $f slake! lime, fi#e a((re(ate, a#! c$urse a((re(ate. (1H2H4),

Aater.
4. 3.1.1 D the c$#crete a#! rei#f$rci#( metal.

5. 4he te#sile a#! shear stre#(ths are a:$ut 8 t$ 12 T a#! 8 t$ 10 T $f their c$m*ressi5e

stre#(ths res*ecti5el .
6. 4he c$m*rehe#si5e stre#(th $f c$#crete is i#flue#ce! :

Iualit $f materials <ater <ater D ceme#t rati$ &(e $f c$#crete 1eme#t c$#te#t -eth$!s $f miCi#( *laci#(, curi#(

7. (e#erall the stre#(th !ecrease Aith i#crease i# !e(ree $f A$rka:ilit 8. <ith the a(e, the c$#crete ($es $# har!e#i#(, there: i#crease i# stre#(th 9. #$t trul elasticit m$!ulus is i#flue#ce! : stre#(th, a(e, m$isture c$#te#t 10. 1$#crete u#!er ($es eCtra strai# $# a**licati$# $f l$a! is calle! cree* $f c$#crete Ahich ,

#$t rec$5ere! $# rem$5al $f l$a!

11. 1$#crete is a ($$! i#sulat$r 12. <he# use! Aith steel i# 3.1.1, it ca# Aith sta#! :$th c$m*ressi5e a#! te#sile stresses 13. +ree fr$m c$rr$si$# 14. 1$#crete is *r$5e! t$ ec$#$mical tha# steel 15. 2ther t *es

>i:rate! c$#crete D f$r hi(h c$m*ressi5e stre#(th 'i(ht Aei(ht c$#crete D f$r fire resista#ce, *artiti$#s >accum c$#crete D f$r m$re stre#(th 'ime, surkhi c$#crete D f$r ec$#$m

%roportion 1H1H2

Ga'. si;e of aggregate 12 t$ 20 mm

Nature of *onstru*tion '$a!e! 3.1.1 c$lum#s a#! 3.1.1 arches

1H2H2

12 D 20

Small *recast mem:er like, fe#ci#(

*$les, Aater ti(ht c$#structi$#s 1H2H3?3H5H10 2H5H7 1H2H4 20 25 40 <ater ta#ks, :ri!(es, seAers +$$t *ath, c$#crete r$a!s 3.1.1 A$rk, stairs, :eams, c$lum#s, su#sha!es, sla:s, li#tels 1H3H5 50 -ass c$#crete A$rks i# cul5erts, retai#i#( Aalls. 1H4H8?1H5H10?1H6H12 60 ,ea5 Aalls, f$u#!ati$# f$$ti#(s

Bri*&s %re*are! : m$ul!i#( cla i# recta#(ular :l$cks $f u#if$rm siBe.

2.

8ricks are !ura:le a#! ha5i#( stre#(th, relia:ilit , l$A c$st, eas =reat <all $f 1hi#a (210 81) : :ur#t a#! su# !rie! :ricks. 9ndia $as produ*tion *apa*it+ to /anufa*ture o4er 1 1$m*$siti$#s $f ($$! :rick earth ?se 20.30T alumi#a 50.60T silica 5T lime 5.6T $Ci!e $f ir$# -a(#esia (*lasticit f$r m$ul!i#() (*re5e#ts cracks, shri#ks, Ara**i#() (*re5e#ts shri#ka(e) (as lime t$ fuse sa#! a#! *r$5i!es re! c$l$r ( ell$A ti#t, !ecrease shri#ka(e)

a5aila:ilit .
3. 4.

*rores.
5.

,armful i#(re!ie#ts 3ffe*t

9Ccess $f lime )r$# * rites &lkalies %e::les

(lum*s) (cr stalliBe! a#! !isi#te(rate!) (cause :ricks fuse, tAists, Ara*) (u#re(ulati$#s)

>e(etati$# 7 (*$r$us) 2r(a#ic matter 0lassifi*ation of bri*& eart$ 9ngredient Loa/+: /ild or Garls: *$al&+ or %lasti*: strong or *al*areous *la+ 10 35 48 3 4 pure *la+ 34 50 6 8 2 sand+ *la+ &lumi#a Silica 'ime 7 ma(#esia 2Ci!e $f ir$# 2r(a#ic matter Iualities $f ($$! :ricks
a.

27T 66 1 1 5

4a:le m$ul!e!, Aell :ur#t, c$**er c$l$re!, free fr$m cracks Aith shar* a#! square e!(es. /#if$rm i# sha*e a#! sta#!ar! siBe. Sh$ul! (i5e clear metallic ri#(i#( s$u#! <he# :r$ke sh$ul! sh$A a :ri(ht h$m$(e#e$us a#! u#if$rm c$m*act structure free fr$m 5$i!s. Sh$ul! #$t a:s$r: Aater S 20T : Aei(ht Ahe# s$ake! i# c$l! Aater f$r 24 ,rs. Sufficie#tl har!, #$ im*ressi$# sh$ul! :e left Ahe# scratche!. Sh$ul! #$t :reak i#t$ *ieces Ahe# !r$* fr$m 1 -t hei(ht. '$A thermal c$#!ucti5it a#! s$u#! *r$$f. Sh$ul! #$t sh$A !e*$sits $f Ahite salts Ahe# all$Ae! t$ !r i# sha!e after s$ake! i# Aater.

". c. d.

e. %. g. &. i.

D.

Sh$ul! #$t ha5e crushi#( stre#(th R 5.5 ;?mm2.

8lass
1.

)s a miCture $f #um:er $f metallic silicates, $#e $f Ahich is usuall that $f a# it is :asicall a har!, :rittle, tra#s *ar cut material ;$t effecte! : $r!i#ar chemical rea(e#ts, air $r Aater. %$ssi:le t$ Ael! *ieces $f (lass : fusi$# &ffecte! : alkalis :ut ca# take u* hi(h *$lish %r$5i!es eCcelle#t electric i#sulati$# !ue t$ u#certai# cr stalli#e structure &:s$r:s, refracts $r tra#smits li(ht &5aila:le i# c$l$rs, #$ shar* melti#( *$i#ts

alkali metals
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Design of structural elements in ;ood) steel) RCC

Lood

1. &rt $f cutti#(, frami#( a#! *laci#( $f raA tim:er i# a *$siti$# is calle! car*e#tr a#!

@$i#er
2. tim:er Ahich is thus !resse! a#! fi#all *lace! i# *$siti$# is calle! Ar$u(ht a#! *ut u* 3. 4he art $f cutti#( $f A$$! : mea#s $f saAs is calle! saAi#( 4. %r$cess $f *la##i#( $ff the flat e!(es $ff tim:er *iece t$ f$rm a# a#(le 45 !e( is calle!

chamferi#(
5. 4he *r$cess $f chamferi#(, if the a#(le f$rme! is $ther tha# 45 !e( is k#$A# as :e5el 6. 4aki#( the sha5i#( $f A$$! is calle! *la##i#( 7. %r$cess $f sha*i#( the 5ari$us u#its $f c$#structi$# :

ha#! $r machi#e t$ *r$!uce

m$l!e! secti$#s is calle! m$ul!i#(.

8. 4he *r$cess $f @$i#i#( tA$ :$ar!s $r *ieces $f tim:er at a# a#(le ) calle! mitri#(. 9. 4his is the *r$cess $f cutti#( aAa a recta#(ular *$rti$# fr$m the e!(e $f tim:er *iece f$r

sufficie#t !e*th is calle! re:ati#(

10. 0ressi#( the e!(es $f the :$ar!s s$ as t$ male them strai(ht a#! square Aith the face is

calle! sh$$ti#(
11. 4he si#ki#( $f the e!(e $f $#e *iece $f tim:er i# t$ a#$ther is calle! h$usi#( 12. 4he semicircular $:@ect f$rme! $# e!(es $r surfaces $f A$$! is calle! :ea! 13. 1$5eri#( the e#tire $r *art $f surface Aith 5e#eers is calle! 5e#eeri#( 14. -eth$! $f @$i#i#( tA$ :$ar!s at ri(ht a#(le is calle! 0$5etaili#(

2teel

1. %lats ma :e $f a# siBe $r thick#ess :utt (e#erall the are #$t r$lle! t$ thick#ess R5

mm a#!S 28 mm
2. -aCimum area $f r$lle! *lates is limite! t$ 30 sq.m 3. *lates R 4mm i# thick#ess are sheets

4. 1lats are r$lle! as i# the case $f *late :ut are much l$#(er i# le#(ths a#! ha5e sh$rter

Ai!ths
5. Lidt$s 5ar fr$m 18mm t$ 50 mm, thick#ess D 3 mm t$ 8 mm 6. .ngles

9qual le(s D 2 cm G 2 cm t$ 20 cm t$ 20 cm, 3 mm t$ 5 mm /#equal le(s D 2 cmG3 cm t$ 22 cm G10 cm, 4 mm D 20 mm

7. 4 secti$# D 4 cmG4 cm t$ 15G15 cm, 6 mm t$ 8 mm 8. 1ha##els D 5G7 *$A(1?2)G3 k( t$ 42G10G30 k( 9. K$ists D 7G4 t$ 60G17 cm 10. /ses

%lats D as Ae:s a#! fla#(es $f !ee* :eams, c$lum# fla#(es, c$lum# :ases +lats D c$#si!era:le use &#(le D use! i# !iff. c$m*$#e#ts 4 secti$# D f$r r$$f trusses a#! f$r certai# :uilt u* c$lum#s 1ha##els D :eams, c$lum#s K$ists?) D secti$# D :eams c$lum#s

11. 3i5eti#( D the c$mm$# *ractice t$ c$##ect the mem:ers : ri5ets. 12. 3i5ets use! i# :uil!i#( c$#structi$# are ma!e $f s$ft steel Aith a te#sile stre#(th $f 3500

t$ 4000 k(?cm sq
13. 'a* @$i#t c$##ecti$#s D c$##ecti#( *lates are la**e! $#e $5er the $ther a#! ri5ete! 14. 8utt @$i#t c$##ecti$# D c$##ecte! Aith the ai! $f a!!iti$#al *la#ts 15. <el!e! c$##ecte! D the !iameter $f the h$les is ke*t 1 mm lar(er tha# eCter#al !iameter

$f the :$lt threa!.

2tru*tural /e/bers
1. Steel :eams D i#clu!e (ir!ers, li#tels etc 2. Sim*lest :eam c$#sists $f a si#(le r$lle! steel @$i#t secti$# $r a# a#(le secti$# 3. 4$ take (reater l$a!s, c$m*$u#! secti$#s are use! 4. *late (ir!ers are use! Ahe# 5er lar(e l$a!s ha5e t$ :e carrie!

5. 8eams carr i#( li(ht l$a!s a#! Ahere the sheari#( f$rces are #$t eCcessi5e, $*e# Ae:

:eams are use!.

6. )f the :eam is acc$mm$!ate! :el$A the t$* fla#(e $f the (ir!er the c$##ecti$# is calle!

u#!er (ir!er fla#(e.

7. )f the t$* fla#(e $f the :eam a#! *$rti$# $f the Ae: is cut $ff s$ as t$ acc$mm$!ate the

t$* fla#(e $f the $r!er that is calle! t$* flush.

8. <he# a :eam at a l$Aer le5el is t$ :e c$##ecte! t$ a (ir!er at a hi(her le5el that is calle!

:l$cke! c$##ecti$#.
9. 8eams meeti#( at hi(her le5els Aith the (ir!er are calle! :l$cke! a#! ele5ate!

c$##ecti$#.
10. )f :eams a#! (ir!ers are c$##ecte! at !iffere#t le5els, is calle! ha#(er c$##ecti$#s.

"uilding materials in hot climate

4he eC*$sure c$#!iti$#s e#c$u#tere! i# h$t re(i$#s marke!l hi(h tem*erature, ele5ate! humi!it , a#! s$me $ther fact$rs.

!iffer fr$m th$se i#

tem*erature climate. )# this res*ect, *articular atte#ti$# sh$ul! :e (i5e# t$ s$lar ra!iati$#, S$lar ra!iati$# effectsH
1. 4hermal effects 2. 1hemical tra#sf$rmati$#s 3. )#ce#ti5e B$#i#(

%ol+/eri;ation ordination $f $r(a#ic materials, such as *ai#ts, as*halts, :itume#6s, *lastics a#! ru::er. 9ffects $# Aalls !ue t$ li(ht $# cracks 7 Aeake#e! c$##ecti$#s :etAee# structure! c$##ecti$#s. -i/ber, Ahich is a# i#here#tl Aater. :eari#( material, l$ses m$isture a#! he#ce Ara*s 7 cracks. %lain and reinfor*ed *on*rete Aith a hi(h alumi#a. ceme#t c$#te#t a#! s$me t *es $f g+psu/ plaster are (i5e# t$ re*r+stalli;ation Ahe# eC*$se! t$ ele5ate! tem*eratures.

)# h$t air area, the !ura:ilit $f :uil!i#( material a#! structures is affecte! : their fouling Aith !ust a#! sa#! *articles. 0ust a#! sa#! als$ f$ul equi*me#t, mecha#isms, Ai#!$A hi#(er 7 !$$r l$cks. 0ust a#! sand *articles (i5e rise t$ erosion Ahe# the c$me i# t$ c$#tact Aith u#*ai#te! metal surfaces. &ccumulati$# $f sa#! a#! !ust $# r$$ts ma cause the c$lla*se $f the :eari#( mem:ers, Ahich is Ah *eri$!ic i#s*ecti$# a#! clea#i#( $f r$$t structures is a must i# such re(i$#s. 0on*rete and stone fi#! the m$st eCte#si5e a**licati$# i# h$t re(i$#s, :ec$me $f their durabilit+. St$#es a#! ceme#t i# humi! areas is quite a challe#(i#( *r$:lem, si#ce the materials te#!s t$ take u* m$isture a#! 122 fr$m the air a#! har!e#s *erma#e#tl . -etals ha5e *r$5e! their A$rth i# h$t re(i$#s as :eari#( 7 filter eleme#ts. &lumi#um 7 c$**er all$ s $ffer good resistan*e t$ climatic fact$rs. &s far (lass, the usual f$rm $f Aear is the a:rasi$# : sa#! !ust. 4he mar(i#al *$rti$#s $f a (lass *a#e are sha!e! : the caseme#t, s$ the tem*erature !iffere#ce Aithi# the same *a#e ma ru# t$ 20Z1 s$metimes causi#( :reaka(e. .sbestos *e/ent is a *$$r ch$ice f$r eC*$se! structures i# h$t climate re(i$#s. )t freque#tl cracks i# c clic heati#( a#! c$$li#(. %aints and plasti*s are su:@ect t$ ra*i! !estructi$# : i#crease! s$lar ra!iati$# Ahich i#te#sities *h sical, *$e/i*al U p$oto*$e/i*al *r$cesses. %ai#ts resista#ce i#crease : a!!i#( as:est$s t$ *ai#ts a#! *$liticiBes t$ *lastics. 3le4ated $u/idit+ :ri#(s a:$ut sAelli#( a#! *$i#te! c$rr$si$# a#! ma !e5el$*me#t $f m$ul! a#! al(al. s*ur the

#ugged U reliable as the are i# tem*erature climate re(i$#s, :itumi#$us materials a#! seala#ts l$se much $f their !ura:ilit i# h$t areas.

Building /aterials in $ot *li/ate(

4e eC*$sure c$#!iti$#s e#c$u#tere! i# h$t re(i$#s marke!l hi(h tem*erature, ele5ate! humi!it , a#! s$me $ther fact$rs.

!iffer fr$m th$se i#

tem*erature climate. )# this res*ect, *articular atte#ti$# sh$ul! :e (i5e# t$ s$lar ra!iati$#,

S$lar ra!iati$# effectsH

1. 4hermal effects 2. 1hemical tra#sf$rmati$#s 3. )#ce#ti5e B$#i#(

%ol+/eri;ation ordination $f $r(a#ic materials, such as *ai#ts, as*halts, :itume#6s, *lastics a#! ru::er. 9ffects $# Aalls !ue t$ li(ht $# cracks 7 Aeake#e! c$##ecti$#s :etAee# structure! c$##ecti$#s. -i/ber, Ahich is a# i#here#tl Aater. :eari#( material, l$ses m$isture a#! he#ce Ara*s 7 cracks. %lain and reinfor*ed *on*rete Aith a hi(h alumi#a. ceme#t c$#te#t a#! s$me t *es $f g+psu/ plaster are (i5e# t$ re*r+stali;ation Ahe# eC*$se! t$ ele5ate! tem*eratures. )# h$t air area, the !ura:ilit $f :uil!i#( material a#! structures is affecte! : their fouling Aith !ust a#! sa#! *articles. 0ust a#! sa#! als$ f$ul equi*me#t, mecha#isms, Ai#!$A hi#(er 7 !$$r l$cks. 0ust a#! sand *articles (i5e rise t$ erosion Ahe# the c$me i# t$ c$#tact Aith u#*ai#te! metal surfaces. &ccumulati$# $f sa#! a#! !ust $# r$$ts ma cause the c$lla*se $f the :eari#( mem:ers, Ahich is Ah *eri$!ic i#s*ecti$# a#! clea#i#( $f r$$t structures is a must i# such re(i$#s. 0on*rete and stone fi#! the m$st eCte#si5e a**licati$# i# h$t re(i$#s, :ec$me $f their durabilit+. St$#es a#! ceme#t i# humi! areas is quite a challe#(i#( *r$:lem, si#ce the materials te#!s t$ take u* m$isture a#! 122 fr$m the air a#! har!e#s *erma#e#tl . -etals ha5e *r$5e! their A$rth i# h$t re(i$#s as :eari#( 7 filter eleme#ts. &lumi#um 7 c$**er all$ s $ffer good resistan*e t$ climatic fact$rs. &s far (lass, the usual f$rm $f Aear is the a:rasi$# : sa#! !ust. 4he mar(i#al *$rti$#s $f a (lass *a#e are sha!e! : the caseme#t, s$ the tem*erature !iffere#ce Aithi# the same *a#e ma ru# t$ 20Z1 s$metimes causi#( :reaka(e. .sbestos *e/ent is a *$$r ch$ice f$r eC*$se! structures i# h$t climate re(i$#s. )t freque#tl cracks i# c clic heati#( a#! c$$li#(.

%aints and plasti*s are su:@ect t$ ra*i! !estructi$# : i#crease! s$lar ra!iati$# Ahich i#te#sities *h sical, *$e/i*al U p$oto*$e/i*al *r$cesses. %ai#ts resista#ce i#crease : a!!i#( as:est$s t$ *ai#ts a#! *$liticiBes t$ *lastics. 3le4ated $u/idit+ :ri#(s a:$ut sAelli#( a#! *$i#te! c$rr$si$# a#! ma !e5el$*me#t $f m$ul! a#! al(al. s*ur the

#ugged U reliable as the are i# tem*erature climate re(i$#s, :itumi#$us materials a#! seala#ts l$se much $f their !ura:ilit i# h$t areas.

%lanning -$eor+( 3e(i$#al *la##i#(Q settleme#t s stem *la##i#(Q hist$r $f huma# settleme#tsQ (r$Ath $f cities 7 metr$*$lisesQ *ri#ci*les $f 9kisticsQ rural.ur:a# mi(rati$#Q ur:a# c$#ser5ati$#Q ur:a# re#eAalQ +i5e. ear *la#Q structural a#! sect$ral *la#.

0o/pre$ensi4e planning
1. 4he *r$cess $f c$m*rehe#si5e *la##i#( i#5$l5es c$#ce*tualiBi#( a cit fr$m the :r$a! t$

the *articular.
2. 4he !ecisi$# maker must see the cit i# its mai# *h sical $ut li#es a#! eleme#ts as much

as Ae ca# retai# i# $#e c$here#t, u#ifie! ima(e.

3. 4$ this c$re *icturiBati$# is tie! as much ! #amic ec$#$mic, s$cial, *$litical, qua#titati5e

a:stract i#f$rmati$# $f all t *es as much !etail as the mi#! ca# ha#!le a#! recall.
4. &lth$u(h time a#! c$#ti#u$us a**licati$# *ermit e#lar(eme#t a#! i#te#sificati$# $f the

c$m*lete me#tal ima(e, there is limit t$ the t$tal :rea!th a#! !e*th Ahich is a5aila:le $r recall.
5. <he# this c$#sci$us ca*acit is reache!, further !e5el$*me#t sh$ul! take *lace i# the

qualit $f me#tal a**r$ach, attitu!es, a#al tical s #thesis a#! c$#clusi$#s.

6. 1$m*rehe#si5e *la# is a# $fficial *u:lic !$cume#t a!$*te! : a l$cal ($5t as a *$lic

(ui!e t$ !ecisi$#s a:$ut the *h sical !e5el$*me#t $f the c$mmu#it .

7. ;ature. c$m*rehe#si5e.e#c$m*asses all (e$(ra*hical *arts $f the c$mmu#it

7 all

fu#cti$#al eleme#ts Ahich ha5e a :eari#( $# *h sical !e5el$*me#t.

=e#eral.summariBes *$licies a#! *r$*$sals !$es#6t i#!icate s*ecific l$cati$# $r !etaile! re(ulati$#s. '$#( ra#(e.20.30 r +$cus $# *h sical !e5el$*me#t. +irst a *$lic i#strume#t a#! $#l sec$#! a tech#ical !$cume#t

. . .

8. +u#cti$#s.%$lic !etermi#ati$#

. 9ffectuati$# .1$mmu#icati$# a#! e!ucati$#

9. 9leme#ts. la#! use . . . .

c$mmu#it facilities circulati$# utilities ur:a# !esi(#

2-#?0-?#3 %L.N

& *la# f$r a c$u#tr

$r lar(e $r im*$rta#t ur:a# area, f$rmulati#( *$lic

a#! (e#eral

*r$*$sals.
& structure *la# relates t$ the s$cial, ec$#$mic, a#! *h sical s stem $f a# area s$ far as the

are su:@ect t$ *la##i#( c$#tr$l $r i#flue#ce.

)t is the *la##i#( frameA$rk f$r a# area, i#clu!i#( the !istri:uti$# *$*ulati$#s, the acti5ities

a#! relati$#shi*s :etAee# them, the *atter#s $f la#! use, a#! the !e5el$*me#ts the acti5ities create, t$(ether Aith the #etA$rk $f c$mmu#icati$#s a#! the s stem $f utilit ser5ices.
)t is *re*are! : the l$cal *la##i#( auth$rit i# c$$*erati$# Aith #ei(h:$uri#( auth$rities

a#! *erf$rms the f$ll$Ai#( fu#cti$#sH

)#ter*reti#( #ati$#al a#! re(i$#al *$licies. 9sta:lishi#( aims, *$licies, a#! (e#eral *r$*$sals. %r$5i!i#( a frameA$rk f$r l$cal *la#s. )#!icati#( acti$# *la#s.

 %r$5i!i#( (ui!a#ce f$r !e5el$*me#t c$#tr$l. %r$5i!i#( a :asis f$r c$$r!i#ati#( !ecisi$#s :etAee# !iffere#t le5els $f *u:lic auth$rit . 8ri#(i#( the mai# *la##i#( issues :ef$re ce#tral ($5er#me#t a#! the *u:lic. 4he structure *la# c$m*rises a Aritte# stateme#t, su**$rte! : fuller ar(ume#ts i# the re*$rt

$f sur5e , (i5i#( curre#t *$licies a#! *r$*$sals t$(ether Aith a# eCami#ati$# $f res$urces likel t$ :e a5aila:le f$r carr i#( $ut the *la#.
)t must c$#tai# $r :e acc$m*a#ie! : such !ia(rams, illustrati$#s, a#! !escri*ti5e matter as

the l$cal *la##i#( auth$rit thi#ks a**r$*riate.

)t is t$ :e su:mitte! t$ ce#tral ($5er#me#t after a**r$*riate *u:licit , a#! it ma

:e

a**r$5e!, m$!ifie!, $r re@ecte! after a *u:lic i#quir .

4he *la# ma :e altere! at a# time after a**r$5al, :ut a similar *r$ce!ure as *re5i$usl

!escri:e! must :e f$ll$Ae!. Gultile4el planning

1. -ultile5el *la##i#( *r$ce!ure is !etermi#e! lar(el : the c$u#tries situati$#, its s$ci$.

*$litical climate a#! its !e5el$*me#t salti#(.

2. -ultile5el *la##i#( im*lies that *la##i#( A$ul! :e u#!er take# at each le5el

i#!e*e#!e#tl .
3. -.'.% is tA$ Aa a**r$aches, requiri#( a l$t $f *re*arat$r eff$rts fr$m :$th e#!s. 4. %r$cess. i. 0etermi#ati$# $f a**r$ach le5els $f !ecisi$# maki#( Aith refere#ce t$ 5ari$us

acti5ities.
ii. 2r(a#iBi#( i#teracti$# :etAee# !iffere#t le5els i# terms $f eCcha#(e $f i#f$rmati$#

a#! i#teracti5e c$#sultati$# sta(es $f *la# f$rmulati$# a#! *la# a**raisal.

iii. 4he #esti#( $f *la#s at !iffere#t le5els a#! i#te(rati#( them i#t$ a# u#ifie! frame.

(sect$ral, s*atial, $*erati$#al)

&echni'ues of Planning
%la##i#( sur5e tech#iquesQ *re*arati$# $f ur:a# a#! re(i$#al structure *la#s, !e5el$*me#t *la#s, acti$# *la#sQ site *la##i#( *ri#ci*les a#! !esi(#Q statistical meth$!s $f !ata a#al sisQ a**licati$# $f =.).S a#! rem$te se#si#( tech#iques i# ur:a# a#! re(i$#al *la##i#(Q !ecisi$# maki#( m$!els.

Planning sur!eys
1. =ui!e $# O*rimar sur5e s f$r small a#! me!ium siBe t$A#sP, 41% $r(a#iBati$#, =2>4

$f )#!ia, 1972.
2. =ui!e $# Ola#! use classificati$# f$r *la##i#( *ur*$sesP, 41% $r(a#iBati$#, =2>4 $f

)#!ia, 1973.
3. 4he *r$cess $f c$llecti$# $f !ata a. *h sical ". s$ci$ D ec$#$mic i. h$usi#(, ii. iii.

tra#s*$rt, i#!ustries, em*l$ me#t

i!. s$cial ser5ices

)s calle! *la##i#( sur5e .

4. 1e#sus re*$rt c$#tai#s a. h$use list ". h$useh$l! sche!ule c. i#!i5i!ual shi* G !em$(ra*h 5. %relimi#ar *la##i#( sur5e a. preparation of base /ap i. all *h sical features ". e'isting land use sur4e+ i. (r$u*i#( $f la#! uses ii. classificati$# iii. i!e#tificati$# i!. *artl :uilt *l$ts

!. cate($riBati$# $f i#!ustr !i. 5ar i#( uses i# the same :uil!i#(s !ii. *erma#e#t la#! use sur5e rec$r! c. ?tilities and ser4i*es sur4e+ i. Aater su**l , electricit , !rai#a(e, (as d. 0o//unit+ fa*ilities li&e s*$ools: *lini*s: $ospitals: par&s et* i. l$cati$# $f 5ari$us facilities ii. i#terrelati$#shi*s e. %roble/ identifi*ation and re*onnaissan*e sur4e+ i. *r$:lems $f c$#(esti$# ii. slum areas iii. u#*la##e! (r$Ath %.

<ouse$old and transport sur4e+

i. h$usi#( ii. tra#s*$rt iii. e!ucati$# i!. recreati$# !. sh$**i#(

6. land uses E *olors

>aca#t 3esi!e#tial 1$mmercial )#!ustrial 4ra#s*$rt, c$mmu#icati$# %u:lic utilities %u:lic a#! semi*u:lic 2*e# s*aces

Ahite ell$A :lue 5i$let (re :r$A# re! (ree#

&(riculture
7. 1$llecti$# $f !ata 1. %rimar 2. Sec$#!ar

:luish (ree#

8. %rimar !ata. +irst.ha#! i#f$rmati$#, (athere! fr$m $ri(i#al s$urces, i#ter5ieAs, !irect

$:ser5ati$#s.
9. Sec$#!ar !ata. Sec$#! ha#! !ata, ce#sus, a#! li:rar . 10. 8ias. )s Ahat Ae alAa s tr i#( t$ mi#imiBe a#! a5$i!. 11. Self sur5e s. Iuesti$##aires thr$u(h mails, sur5e f$rms t$ m$t$rists, sh$**ers, i#serter

i# the #eAs*a*ers.
12. )#ter5ieAs. +ace t$ face, tele*h$#e. 13. 0irect i#s*ecti$#. 4raffic c$u#ts, recreati$# area use sur5e s, h$usi#( qualit stu!ies. 14. %artici*a#t $:ser5ati$#. Sur5e $r :ec$mes a resi!e#t $f the c$mmu#it t$ lear#. 15. Iuesti$#s $f a sur5e are als$ calle! the 5aria:les. 16. ;$mi#al scale. ( es?#$) D sets $f #ames

9(H SeC, *r$fessi$#, i#!ustr .

17. 2r!i#al scale. 3a#ki#( $r!er. 9(H %ri$rities, s$cial class, h$usi#( c$#!iti$# climate. 18. )#ter5al scale. )#ter5als :etAee# $r!ere! res*$#ses. 9(H

0ista#ce,

a(e,

Aei(ht,

tem*erature.
19. Sam*le. S$me fracti$# $f the Ah$le is usuall

a!equate t$ estimate the i#f$rmati$#

accuratel f$r the Ah$le *$*ulati$#.

20. & sam*le that is #$t res*ecti5e is calle! :iase! sam*le. 21. Sim*le ra#!$m sam*li#(. 95er *ers$# must ha5e a# equal cha#ce $f :ei#( *icke! f$r

the sam*le.
22. )#ter5ieA tech#ique calle! s#$A :alli#(. 23. S stematic sam*li#(. %icki#( s stematicall . (95er 5th). 24. Stratifie! sam*li#(. 4$ e#sure the re*rese#tati5e #ess $f a sam*le. 25. 1luster sam*li#(. &lter#ati#( mea#s f$r kee*i#( the siBe small, thus kee*i#( the c$sts

!$A# Ahile i#suri#( re*rese#tati5e #ess i# the sam*le.

26. the *i$#eeri#( Aith res*ecti5e the ci5il sur5e Aas carrie! $ut : %atrick (e!!es(1854 D

1932)
27. sur5e s carrie! $ut t$ c$llect !ata

fu#cti$#al sur5e D mea#s $f c$mmu#icati$#

. . .

c$#!iti$#s $f i#!ustries im*leme#tati$# $f *la# fi#a#cial as*ects hist$r architecture health c$#!iti$# h$usi#( ser5ices a(ricultural s$il f$rest climate, s$il future *$*ulati$# (r$Ath $f t$A# !e#sit $ccu*ati$#

S$cial sur5e D c$mmu#it structures

. . . . .

territ$rial sur5e D *h sical feature

. . .

5ital sur5e D actual *$*ulati$#

. . . .

28. t+pes of sur4e+s E a. *relimi#ar sur5e D la#! use, i#!ustries, railAa s, ser5ices, ame#ities, hi(h Aa s ". #ati$#al

sur5e

D a!mi#istrati$#, a(riculture, c$mmu#icati$#, ec$#$m ,

(e$(ra*h , ur:a# settleme#ts, #atural res$urces

c. re(i$#al sur5e s D ec$#$mic, *h sical, s$cial ame#ities $f re(i$#s d. ci5ic sur5e s D at t$A# le5el, ame#ities, c$#t$urs, h$usi#(, i#!ustries 29. :asic 5illa(e D 400.500 *$*, a(riculture 30. rural t$A# D 2000.3000 *$*, cultural, c$mmercial, a!mi#istrati5e ce#ter

31. Ser5ice t$A# D 5000.7000 *$*, small scale i#!ustries.

%L.NN9N8 2?#H3I2( %la##i#( must :e :ase! u*$# k#$Ale!(e, k#$Ale!(e !e*e#!s u*$# i#f$rmati$# a#! i#f$rmati$# !e*e#!s u*$# sur5e .

%$+si*al *$ara*teristi*s( the #ature, scale a#! f$rm $f the e#5ir$#me#t are the ca#5as u*$# Ahich the *la# is *ai#te!. & k#$Ale!(e a#! rec$r! $f the t$*$(ra*h , (e$l$( , climate, mi#erals, areas $f s*ecial i#terest, l$cati$# $f rich a(ricultural la#! a#! the s$urces $f *$lluti$# are *rime requireme#ts $f the la#! use *la##er.

/tilitiesH one aspe*t t$at is often negle*ted and /u*$ /aligned: la*&ing as it does t$e *$aris/ati* appeal of so /an+ ot$er /ore topi*al ele/ents of to,n planning: is t$e Jdigesti4e pro*esses of urban areas.

%$*ulati$#H an appre*iation of t$e si;e: densit+: *$ara*teristi*s and distribution of t$e population is nearl+ al,a+s t$e starting point in t$e preparation of all plans and poli*ies. 9m*l$ me#tH t$e stud+ of population leads naturall+ on to t$e need for Fobs: de/and for labour: and t$e *onse=uent le4el of une/plo+/ent in a lo*al: regional and national *onte't. ,$usi#(H 1ro/ t$e lo*ation of e/plo+/ent springs t$e need for a**o//odation. -$e planner is o**upied ,it$ t$e tas& of as*ertaing t$e si;e: *ondition: age: tenure: distribution: densit+: rate of gro,t$ and o**upan*+ rates of t$e e'isting sto*& of $ousing. Sh$**i#(H to ensure t$e /ost appropriate lo*ation for retail fa*ilities t$e planner is obliged to assess t$e needs and potential of $is lo*al aut$orit+ area.

9!ucati$#H alt$oug$ often separatel+ dealt ,it$ in lo*al aut$orit+ /anage/ent: t$e pro4ision and lo*ation of edu*ational fa*ilities is largel+ dependent upon population sur4e+: and an anal+sis of t$e trends: *$anges: and i/pli*ations in t$eir so*ial *onte't. 'eisure a#! recreati$#H ,it$ t$e gro,t$ in a4ailable leisure $ours and t$e upsurge in de/and for re*reation: t$is area $as rapidl+ be*o/e a**epted as a /aFor part of t$e planning pro*ess. -$5eme#tH one of t$e prin*ipal fa*tors *ontributing to t$e si;e and nature of urban de4elop/ent is a**essibilit+: ,$i*$ in turn depends upon t$e degree of: and propensit+ for: /o4e/ent. -$is in*ludes t$e /o4e/ent of bot$ people and goods: and $as gi4en rise to an entirel+ ne, dis*ipline: ,it$ its o,n language: ,$i*$ *on*erns itself ,it$ su*$ tas&s as origin and destination: pedestrian and desire line sur4e+s. -a#a(eme#tH Aith t$e gro,ing a,areness of t$e need for better organisation and ad/inistration: bot$ in planning and in lo*al go4ern/ent: t$ere $as re*entl+ been e'plosion in t$e de4elop/ent and appli*ation of /anage/ent te*$ni=ues. 95aluati$#H alt$oug$ it is rat$er unusual to single out one stage of t$e planning pro*ess and afford it separate attention: it is fro/ t$is *riti*al area of sele*tion. 9n t$e preparation of an+ sur4e+ or t$e *onstru*tion of an+ te*$ni=ue it is essential to re*ogni;e t$at t$e+ t$e/sel4es re=uire planning. -$e *ost /ust be esti/ated.

Sur!ey Research
2e*ondar+ data( the c$llecti$# $f sec$#!ar , $r *u:lishe!, !ata is critical i# alm$st all ec$#$mic a#! *la##i#( stu!ies.

4he t *es $f sec$#!ar !ata m$st $fte# use! i# ur:a# a#! re(i$#al *la##i#( areH
%$*ulati$# tre#!s a#! *r$@ecti$#s %$*ulati$# characteristics, such as a(e, i#c$me, $ccu*ati$#, a#! race 9m*l$ me#t tre#!s a#! *r$@ecti$#s, es*eciall i# !iffere#t t *es $f em*l$ me#t 'a#!.use i#5e#t$r !ata, sh$Ai#( square f$$ta(es !e5$te! t$ !iffere#t s*ecific t *es $f uses %r$*ert 5alue !ata 3etail sales !ata

4hese items $f i#f$rmati$# re5eal Ahat the *la##er has t$ A$rk Aith, Ahat he ma ha5e t$ A$rk Aith i# the future, a#! Ahat is #ee!e! t$ achie5e a A$rka:le, li5a:le *la# f$r the t$A# $r area u#!er c$#si!erati$#.

%ri/ar+ data(
%rimar , $r $ri(i#al, research is esse#tial t$ alm$st e5er *la##i#( stu! . %rimar !ata are m$re eC*e#si5e t$ (et tha# sec$#!ar !ata. 4he meth$!s $f c$llecti$# affect

the accurac $f the resultsQ *$$rl structure! sam*les $r questi$##aires ma result i# facult i#f$rmati$#. -$re$5er, it is alAa s tem*ti#( t$ eCtract mare fr$m a sur5e statisticall 5ali!. -$ere are four *$ief /et$ods of *olle*ting pri/ar+ data.
1ield inter4ie,s Aith :usi#essme#, ($5er#me#t $fficials, real estate !e5el$*ers a#! :r$kers,

tha# is

taC assess$rs, fi#a#cial i#stituti$#s, etc. these are $fte# the $#l s$urces $f curre#t, !irectl *erti#e#t i#f$rmati$#Q :ut the must :e Aatche! carefull f$r :ias.
@t$er inter4ie,s( %ers$#al i#ter5ieAs are the :est meth$!, es*eciall f$r (etti#( i#.!e*th

i#f$rmati$#Q :ut the are als$ the m$st eC*e#si5e t *es $f i#ter5ieA. 4ele*h$#e i#ter5ieAs are less eC*e#si5e tha# *ers$#al i#ter5ieAs, :ut the i#!irect#ess l$Aers the certai#t $f the res*$#se a#! e5e# !eters c$mmu#icati$#s. -ail questi$##aires are l$A i# *rice :ut su:@ect t$ :ias a#! *la(ue! : l$A res*$#se.
%anel dis*ussions( <hile *a#els $f i#tereste! !iscussa#ts !$ #$t *r$!uce statisticall relia:le

!ata. 4he are eCcelle#t reflect$rs $f c$mmu#it attitu!es a#! i#teracti$#s $# su:@ects $f c$#cer#.
4here are als$ spe*iali;ed te*$ni=ues use! i# certai# ki#!s $f stu! . 'ice#se.*late sur5e s

are useful f$r retail tra!e a#al sis. )# a**raisals, real estate tra#sacti$#s ma :e a#al Be!. -$e #esear*$ %ro*ess(
-$st research assi(#me#ts ha5e three r$u(hl seque#tial *hasesH

1) 0ata c$llecti$# 2) &#al sis a#! i#ter*retati$#, a#! 3) 0e5el$*me#t $f c$#clusi$#s f$r *rese#tati$#. )#ter*retati$# a#! c$#clusi$#s A$ul! require far t$$ :r$a! a !iscussi$# t$ fit the sc$*e $f this article, si#ce the i#5$l5e ma# i#ta#(i:les such as @u!(me#t, eC*erie#ce, a#! i#stituti$#.

 4he fi#al *ur*$se $f the stu! sh$ul! alAa s :e ke*t i# mi#!. 3esearch sh$ul! alAa s ser5e

the $:@ect $f the stu! .

=$$! A$rk sh$ul! #$t :e !u*licate!. & stu! sh$ul! :e structure! as earl as *$ssi:le. )#si(hts a#! i!eas sh$ul! :e share!.

Sur!ey research process: it composed of the follo;ing set of tas<s ((&P():

.: Defining information needs and obtaining resources: 2. 1$llecti$# $f !ata.

1h$$si#( the tech#ique $f $:ser5ati$#. 0efi#i#( the questi$#s. 0etermi#i#( the sam*le %retesti#( a#! c$#!ucti#( the sur5e .

3. &#al Bi#( the !ata.

1$m*ili#( a#! e!iti#( the raA !ata. &#al Be $f the !istri:uti$# $f res*$#se t$ a si#(le questi$#. &#al Be $f the i#ter.relati$# am$#( 5aria:les. )#ter*reti#( the a#al sis.

8ias is Ahat Ae are alAa s tr i#( t$ mi#imiBe a#! a5$i! :ias mea#s that s$me h$A the !ata c$#tai# a s stematic err$r a#! thus !$ #$t re*rese#t Ahat Ae i#te#!e! theme t$ re*rese#t. 4ech#iques $f $:ser5ati$#H
1. Self.sur5e s. 2. )#ter5ieAs. 3. 0irect i#s*ecti$#. 4. %artici*a#t.$:ser5ati$#= the sur5e $r :ec$mes a resi!e#t $f the c$mmu#it .

7efining t$e =uestionsH . the questi$#s $f a sur5e area als$ calle! the 5aria:les $f the sur5e . No/inal s*ales( . these are set $f #ames. ;$mi#all scale! 5aria:les are th$se Ah$se 5ari$us *$ssi:le a#sAers are cate($ries $f !iffere#t #ames. & questi$# t$ Ahich the a#sAer i# either N"es6 $r N;$6 is a #$mi#all scale! questi$#.
o

SeC D male, female.

@rdinal s*ales( . the *ut thi#(s i# a ra#ke! $r!er. )# the ra#ki#( $f ($als !iscusse!. <e em*l$ e! $r!i#al measureme#t. S$me eCam*les $f a# $r!i#al scale.
o o

%ri$ritiesH 1st, 2#!, a#! 3r!. S$cial classH u**er, mi!!le, l$Aer.

9nter4al s*ales( - the *r$5i!e a ar!stick like set $f #um:ers f$r measuri#( the i#ter5als :etAee# $r!ere! res*$#ses. 0$llars, !ista#ce, a(e, tem*, ears $f e!ucati$#.

3'a/ple( no/inal( is the famil *$$r dddddd esddddd#$. @rdinal( <hich a##ual i#c$me cate($r is the famil i# 8el$A 4000ddddd. 4000W10,000 &:$5e 10,000. 9nter4al( Ahat is the famil 6s a##ual i#c$meddddddd -+pes of sa/pling( . 2i/ple rando/ sa/pling is the fu#!ame#tal tech#ique $f sam*li#(. )t is the ki#! $f sam*li#( Ae !$. )f Ae *ick a car! fr$m a Aell shuffle! !eck $f car!s. 4$ :e fair a#! accuratel re*rese#ti5e, e5er *ers$# $r item fr$m am$#( th$se t$ :e sam*le! must ha5e a# equal cha#ce $f :ei#( *icke! f$r the sam*le, a#! all c$m:i#ati$# $f i#!i5i!ual must ha5e a# equal cha#ce $f a**eari#(. 2+ste/ati* sa/pling( t$ take a s stematic sam*le is t$ take e5er 6 th eleme#t fr$m a list, sa e5er te#th stu!e#t $r s stematic sam*li#( satisfie! the requireme#ts $f a trul ra#!$m sam*le as

l$#( as there is #$ :ias i# the $r!eri#( $f the $ri(i#al list. )ts (reat a!5a#ta(e is that it sa5es times a#! c$sts $5er sim*le ra#!$m sam*li#(. 2tratified sa/pling( the tech#iques $f stratificati$# are use! t$ i#sure the re*rese#ti5e #ess $f a sam*le, Ahere it mi(ht $therAise :e u#likel . Stratificati$# A$ul! !eal Aith this *r$:lem : !efi#i#( se*arate (r$u*s $r lists, Ahich are h$m$(e#$us, a#! the#, A$ul! take sim*le ra#!$m sam*le $r s stematic sam*les fr$m each (r$u*. 4he siBe $f the sam*le take# fr$m each (r$u* ma :e *r$*$rti$#al t$ (r$u* siBe $r

!is*r$*$rti$#al !e*e#!i#( $# the i#f$rmati$# #ee!s t$ the *r$:lem :ei#( stu!ie!. 0luster sa/pling( cluster sam*li#( is 5er similar t$ stratifie! sam*li#(, :ut the (r$u*s that are !efi#e! are heter$(e#e$us. )t is a# alter#ati5e mea#s f$r kee*i#( the sam*le siBe small. 4hus kee*i#( the c$sts !$A# Ahile i#suri#( re*rese#ti5e #ess i# the sam*le. Su**$se that Ae are a(ai# i# #ee! $f e5aluati$#s $f a c$mmu#it ser5ice i# a #ei(h:$rh$$!, a#! Ae Aish t$ i#sure a :ala#ce! 5ieA Aith res*ect t$ racial a#! eth#ic (r$u*s. )f these clusters ca# :e i!e#tifie!, tha# either s stematic $r sim*le ra#!$m sam*li#( ca# :e c$#!ucte! Aithi# each $f a feA clusters. %reparation of urban and regional stru*ture plans
1. Structure. S$cial ec$#$mic a#! *h sical s stems $f a# area, s$ far as the are su:@ect t$

*la##i#( c$#tr$l $r i#flue#ce.

2. Structure *la# Aill hee! t$ acc$u#t re(i$#al a#! #ati$#al *$licies. 3. Structures ha5e t$ relate t$ the Ai!er strate(ic frame A$rk at #ati$#al a#! re(i$#al le5el. 4. Su:@ects $f structure *la#

%$*ulati$# D

9!ucati$#

9m*l$ me#t a#! i#c$me s$urces D$ther s$cial a#! c$mmu#it ser5ices )#!ustr a#! c$mmerce. 4ra#s*$rtati$# D Sh$**i#( . utilities $ther su:@ects c$#5ersati$#, t$A# sc$*e la#!sca*e

5. *r$cess. )s a Aritte# !$cume#t illustrate! !ia(rammaticall

the l$cal *la##i#(

auth$rities *$licies a#! mai# *r$*$sals f$r cha#(e $# a lar(e scale.(#$t site s*ecific) i#5$l5es *re*arati$# $f a !raft *la# : the c$u#tr auth$rit a#! its a**r$5al after c$#si!erati$# a#! m$!ificati$# : ce#tral ($5t.
6. +u#cti$#s. 4$ state a#! @ustif t$ *u:lic a#! ($5t. 1. 4$ i#ter*ret #ati$#al a#! re(i$#al *$licies. 2. 4$ *r$5i!e frameA$rk a#! statut$r :asis f$r l$cal *la# 7. )m*leme#tati$# 1. 4hr$u(h l$cal *la#s 7 acti$# *la#s.

Remote Sensing

3em$te se#si#( mea#s acquiri#( i#f$rmati$# a:$ut a# $:@ect $r *he#$me#$# fr$m a !ista#ce, i.e. Aith$ut actuall c$mi#( i# c$#tact Aith the $:@ect. Iua#tit measure! i# 3S.electr$ma(#etic e#er( . 4he huma# e e ca# res*$#! t$ li(ht i# the mi#ute *$rti$# $f electr$ma(#etic s*ectrum D0.4 D 0.7.micr$meter Aa5ele#(th. 4his tech#ique ra#(es thr$u(h the s*ectrum fr$m the 5er &erial *h$t$(ra*h is limite! t$ 5isi:le :a#! $f the s*ectrum. 4he $l!est a**licati$# $f 3S is militar $*erati$#. )#frare! se#si#(. )#frare! rem$te se#si#( is *articularl useful i# *r$5i!i#( !ata that ca# :e use! t$ l$cate a# e#em 6s *$siti$#. )t is useful t$ !etecti#( a#! ma**i#( f$rest fires. ?sing sh$rt Aa5ele#(ths at Ahich

(amma ra s are emitte! t$ the c$m*arati5el l$#( Aa5ele#(ths at Ahich ra!ar $*erates.

=e$l$(ists...mi#erals a#! !e*$sits. S$il scie#tists...(e$l$(ical a#! (e$m$r*h$l$(ic features a#! 5e(etati$#. , !r$l$(istsWaquifers, surface fl$A $f Aater.

=e$(ra*hers ca# a#al Be la#! use *atter#s $5er lar(e area a#! ca# stu! the effect $f climate, t$*$(ra*h , *la#t life, a#imal life a#! huma# acti5it i# a *articular area. 1i5il e#(i#eers D*la##i#( lar(e c$#structi$# *r$@ects such as hi(hAa s, air*$rts, railAa s $r !ams ca# $:tai# !ata fr$m $# la#!f$rms, r$ck materials, s$ils, a#! t *e $f 5e(etati$# a#! !rai#a(e c$#!iti$# i# the *r$@ect area.

+$r effecti#( ma#a(eme#t $f !imi#ishi#( s$urces $f #atural res$urces a#! m$#it$ri#( the qualit $f $ur e#5ir$#me#t, the rem$te se#si#( tech#ique ha5e e!(e $5er c$#5e#ti$#al meth$!s.

%ri#ci*leWall $:@ects $# the surface $f earth ha5e characteristic s*ectral si(#atures. 4he k#$Ale!(e $f s*ectral si(#atures is esse#tial f$r eC*l$ri#( the *$te#tial $f rem$te se#si#( tech#ique. 3em$te se#si#( tech#iques thr$u(h 5isual i#ter*retati$# $f aerial *h$t$(ra*hs, satellite ima(i#ar a#! !i(ital a#al sis $f c$m*uter c$m*ati:le ta*es (114s). )# c$#@u#cti$# Aith (r$u#! truth ha5e :ee# *r$5e! faster a#! ec$#$mic f$r the a**raisal a#! i#te(rati$# $f #atural res$urces.

)3S satellite res$luti$#W5.8.72.5m &erial *h$t$(ra*hs

1H25,000 1H30,000 scale

'&;0S&4 :a#! 5 (8?<) ima(e sh$Ai#( t$#al a#! s*atial characteristics $f hills, flat :urie! *e!ime#ts, *lai#s, ri5er:e!s a#! ass$ciate #atural res$urces. '&;0S&4 :a#! 7 f$rms *atter# t$#al a#! s*atial characteristics $f sa#! !u#es. Small.scale multi s*ectral la#!satWc$astal (e$m$r*h$l$( .

Application of remote sensing techni'ues

1. 3em$te se#se! !ata f$rms. &erial *h$t$ (ra*hs, satellite ima(eries. 2. 4$ stu!

a#! m$#it$r ) a#! feature, #atural res$urces a#! ! #amic effects $f huma#

acti5ities.

3. /tilit

$f 3.S.4ech#iques are i# a(riculture, la#! use, s$il res$urces, f$restr , $il a#! :e u*!ate! i#!icati#( *h sical a#! cultural features i#clu!i#(

mi#eral, eC*l$rati$#, (el$r a#! h !r$(e$l$( , Aater ma#a(eme#t, ma* maki#(.

4. 9Cisti#( :ase ma* ma

r$a! #etA$rk Aith the hel* $f latest small scale aerial *h$t$(ra*h .
5. Sur5e $f )#!ia is maki#( t *e $f aerial *h$t$(ra*hs f$r u*!ati#( t$*$ sheets. 6. 0rai#a(e ma*s Aill :e *re*are! : t$*$ sheets a#! satellite ima(i#ar . 7. ;3S& *re*ares surface Aater :$!

ma* $f (e$l$(ical, (e$m$r*h$l$(ical ma*.))3S

Aater *$te#tial areas (r$u#! Aater *$te#tial areas s$il ma*s, la#!use ma*, a#! f$rest a#! 5e(ifatial ma*s.
8. <ith the a!5e#t $f c$m*uter !i(ital ima(e a#al sis much m$re !etails fr$m the ima(eries

c$ul! :e eCtracte!.
9. S$ci$.ec$#$mic !ata c$ul! :e c$m:i#e! a#! a#al se! usi#( =)S. 10. 0i(ital ima(e a#al sis a#! c$m*uter facilities a#! trai#e! i#ter!isci*li#ar

term $f

s*ecialists are a5aila:le at ;3S&., !, )S32.8a#(al$re.

11. /r:a# area ma**i#( a#! huma# settleme#t a#al sis usi#( 5isual a#! ma#ual

i#ter*retati$# facilities are there i# state 41% !e*ts.

12. 8ase! $# the scale $f aerial *h$t$(ra*h a#! ima(i#ar , the !ata :ase ma :e a((re(ate!

$r !isa((re(ate! at a# le5el.
13. 0ata :ase f$r tA$ !iffere#t !ates ma :e c$m*are! t$ !etect cha#(es usi#( res*ecti5e

c$#5er(e.
14. &erial *h$t$(ra*hs. ur:a# areas, ima(eries.re(i$#al le5el. 15. &erial *h$t$(ra*hs(23cmG23cm) are take# Aith the s*eciall

!esi(#e!, s$*histicate!

cameras Aith !ist$rti$# free le#ses.

16. 1H50000.*r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 10m

1H25000.5cm 1H10000.2cm
17. /seful scales $f ma*s em*l$ e! f$r re(i$#al *la##i#( are 1H250000, 1H50000. 18. 2ther uses.

)#5e#t$r $f 5aca#t la#!s ,$use c$u#t a#! !Aelli#( !e#sit 9stimati$# $f *$*

/r:a# cha#(e !etecti$# %arki#( stu!ies Stu! $f slums /r:a# re#eAal a#! i!e#tificati$# $f c$#ser5ati$# are Site a#al sis a#! *la##i#( 4raffic stu!ies 9#5ir$#me#tal stu!ies

Aerial Photogrammetry
?seful for planners

4rue (e$metr $f the (r$u#!. ()# the f$rm $f :ase ma*). )#f$rmati$# a:$ut 5e(etati$# c$5er s$ils (e$l$(ical a#! (e$m$r*h$l$(ic features a#! !rai#a(e *atter#. &erial *h$t$(ra*hsW23cmsM23cms. 4here are three a(e#cies f$r carr i#( $ut aerial *h$t$(ra*h .

;ati$#al 3em$te Se#si#( &(e#c (;3S&)W, !era:a!. &ir Sur5e 1$m*a# (*ri5ate).1alcutta, )#!ia# &ir +$rce.

25erla* Aith 60T $f a!@ace#t *h$t$(ra*h. 4his is !$#e t$ take a!5a#ta(e $f 3.!ime#si$#al $*tical m$!el $f the terrai# f$r measureme#t a#! i#ter*retati$#. *arallaC :ar

7isad4antages(

4ilt !ist$rti$#. their camera aCis is #$t eCactl 5ertical at the time $f maki#( a# eC*$sure.

3elief !ist$rti$#. the u#!ulati$#s $f the (r$u#! cause shift $f ima(e *$i#t fr$m their true $rth$($#al *$i#ts. S1&'9 2+ aerial *h$t$(ra*hs !e*e#!s u*$#H

,ei(ht $f aircraft (camera *latf$rm) +$cal le#(th $f the camera. Scale=f$cal le#(th?hei(ht (same u#its). is the sim*le tech#iqueQ the title! *h$t$(ra*h ca# :e

3ectificati$# $f *h$t$(ra*h

tra#sf$rme! as if the camera aCis ha! :ee# 5ertical. 3ectifie! *h$t$(ra*hs are *h$t$(ra*hs $# a (i5e# scale fr$m Ahich tilt !ist$rti$# has :ee# take# $ut.

1reati$# $f the same c$#!iti$# as eCiste! at the time $f *h$t$(ra*h :etAee# tA$ a!@ace#t eC*$sures is *$ssi:le : the *ri#ci*le $f N$rie#tati$#6. 0eli#eati$# $f c$#t$urs is als$ *$ssi:le Aith these i#strume#ts. S$me $f the stere$*l$ti#( i#strume#ts calle! *h$t$(rammetric i#strume#ts, areH 4he $ut*uts fr$m a#al tical *l$tters ca# :e i# the f$rm $f (ra*hical $r !i(ital i# the f$rm $f a ta*e. )t is quite *$ssi:le t$ !raA c$#t$urs $# a *l$tter. 4he c$#t$ur i#ter5al Aill !e*e#! $# the scale $f the aerial *h$t$(ra*h . 1H50,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*h ma *r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 10 mts. 1H25,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*h ma :e *r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 5 mts. 1H10,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*h ma :e *r$5i!e c$#t$urs $f 2 mts. & ha#!.hel! c$5er 35 mm. 1$mmercial camera take# i# a li(ht aircraft is ($$! e#$u(h f$r *icki#( the i#f$rmati$# #ee!e! : a *la##er. 4he c$st $f fl i#( S+& is 1?10 the c$st if c$#5e#ti$#al *h$t$(ra*h .

Regional Planning and Satellite Remote Sensing

/seful scales $f ma*s em*l$ e! f$r re(i$#al *la##i#( areH

1H250,000ma* $f sur5e $f )#!ia (t$*$.sheets) 1H50,000 ma* $f sur5e $f )#!ia (t$*$.sheets). )#!ia rem$te se#si#( satellite )3S.)& :is i# s*ace #$A, ha5i#( s*atial res$luti$# $f 73 metres a#! 37 metres. 4ra#s*are#t *$siti5e *ri#ts (calle! !ia*$siti5es) $f aerial *h$t$(ra*hs are als$ *$ssi:le t$ (et. %h$t$ -$saicsH m$saics are $f three t *es. /#c$#tr$lle!W*h$t$(ra*hs are @$i#e! t$(ether i# s$me !esi(#e! Aa . ;$ use $f eCisti#( ma* $r fiel! c$#tr$l is ma!e. Semi.c$#tr$lle!.use $f ma* $r c$#tr$l *$i#ts is ma!e 1$#tr$lle!Wthe *h$t$(ra*hs are rectifie! a#! @$i#e! t$(ether $# a *r$@ects sheet.

4he N*l$tte! secti$#6 $ut $f a *h$t$(rammetric machi#e is m$st accurate *iece $f sur5e A$rk. )t is rec$mme#!e! f$r 1e#tral 8usi#ess 0istrict Ahere m$re accurac (1H1000. 1H2000) are require! f$r *la##i#(. a#! lar(e scales

%r$!ucts s*eciall suite! f$r i#ter*retati$#. i# a!!iti$# t$ :lack #a! Ahite aerial *h$t$(ra*h , multis*ecial *h$t$(ra*h is als$ *$ssi:le. 4his ca# :e !eci!e!? !esi(#e! !e*e#!i#( $# the requireme#ts.

& ma@$r !ema#!, all $5er i# )#!ia, is t$ ha5e :ase.ma*s $f t$A#s, Ahich require *h sical *la##i#( i#*uts.

L.N7 ?23 A?#B.N .N7 #389@N.LC

'a#! use ($r s*ace use) is a ke c$#ce*t i# the t$A# *la##i#( *r$fessi$#.

6oning

3ectifie! *ri#ts $# 1H4,000 $r 1H50,000 $:tai#e! fr$m 1H10,000 aerial *h$t$(ra*hs are a!equate f$r the *ur*$se.

Small f$rmat *h$t$(ra*h is immi#e#tl suita:le as $# a!mi#istrati5e t$$l f$r rec$r!i#( a situati$#? sce#ari$ $f /r:a# !esi(# /#auth$riBe! c$l$#ies 9#cr$achme#ts >i$lati$# :ef$re !em$liti$# $f structure 1e#sus $f slum !Aelli#(s &rchitectural c$#ser5ati$#.

&raffic and &ransportation Planning

%ri#ci*les $f traffic e#(i#eeri#( a#! tra#s*$rtati$# *la##i#(Q traffic sur5e meth$!sQ !esi(# $f r$a!s, i#tersecti$#s, (ra!e se*arat$rs a#! *arki#( areasQ hierarch $f r$a!s a#! le5els $f ser5icesQ traffic a#! tra#s*$rt ma#a(eme#t i# ur:a# areas, i#telli(e#t tra#s*$rtati$# s stemQ mass tra#s*$rtati$# *la##i#(Q *ara.tra#sits a#! $ther m$!es $f tra#s*$rtati$#, *e!estria# 7 sl$A m$5i#( traffic *la##i#(

%odes of transportation
1. transport /odes a. railAa s surface u#!er(r$u#! ele5ate! ". r$a! tra#s*$rt c. air tra#s*$rt d. Aater tra#s*$rt c$astal shi**i#( i#ter#ati$#al shi**i#( i#la#! Aater tra#s*$rt e. *i*e li#es %.

r$*e Aa s

2. speed

2 no 1

/ode railAa

Nor/al speed 9ndia &//$r 50.80

re/ar&s 0e*e#!s $# (ua(e a#! #um:er $f tracks

3$a! tra#s*$rt 1ara 8uses a#! trucks 2 Aheelers c cles aut$ rickshaA :ull$ck cart 50.80 30.60 25.50 8.15 15.30 3.5

0e*e#!s $# *a5eme#t Ai!th, terrai#

&ir tra#s*$rt 8$ei#( 747 8$ei#( 707 +ee!er aircraft 1000 950 300.400

<ater tra#s*$rt 2cea# li#ers 1$astal shi*s )#la#! Aater :ar(es 35.55 15.35 10.25 5.10 5.10

6 7

%i*e li#es 3$*e Aa s

3. 2afet+

#ail transport

)f a!equate measures are take# at si(#als, it s safe. )f acci!e#ts take *lace l$ss is hea5

#oad transport .ir transport

/#safe, Ahe# cr$ssi#(, $5ertaki#( Safet , :ecause $ hi(h sta#!ar!s. &cci!e#ts :ecause $f f$(, :ir!s, st$rms, etc

Later transport

Safe, :ecause $f strict sta#!ar!s a#! c$#structi$# a#! mai#te#a#ce

%ipelines : rope ,a+s

Safe

4. .de=ua*+

#ail transport #oad transport .ir transport

1a# meet seas$#al fluctuati$#s i# traffic, /#safe, Ahe# cr$ssi#(, $5ertaki#( Safet , :ecause $ hi(h sta#!ar!s. &cci!e#ts :ecause $f f$(, :ir!s, st$rms, etc

Later transport

Safe, :ecause $f strict sta#!ar!s a#! c$#structi$# a#! mai#te#a#ce

%ipelines : rope ,a+s

Safe

Hierarchy of roads and le!els of ser!ices

1. *lassifi*ation of urban roads a. e'press ,a+s i. f$r m$t$r traffic Aith full $r *artial c$#tr$l $f access ii. *r$5i!e! Aith (ra!e se*arati$# at i#tersecti$#s iii. t$ *r$5i!e f$r m$5eme#t $f hea5 5$lumes at hi(h s*ee!s i!. free fl$A c$#!iti$#s !. c$##ect ma@$r *$i#ts $f traffic (e#erati$# !i. t$ ser5e tri*s $f me!ium a#! l$#( le#(ths :etAee# res, i#!, c$mm., 180

areas
!ii. %arki#(, l$a!i#(, u#l$a!i#( *e!estria#s are *r$hi:ite!. ". arterial streets i. th$r$u(h traffic usuall $# c$#ti#u$us r$ute ii. :etAee# 180 t$ resi!e#tial, su: ur:a# iii. (e#erall s*ace! at less tha#1.5 kms i# 180s 8 kms i# !e5el$*e! ur:a#

fri#(es
i!. *arki#(, l$a!i#( etc. are re(ulate!

!. *e!estria#s $#l at i#tersecti$#s c. sub-arterial streets i. access t$ a!@$i#i#( areas ii. *arki#(, l$a!i#( etc. are re(ulate! iii. (e#erall s*ace! at less tha#05 kms i# 180s, 3.5 kms i# !e5el$*e! ur:a#

fri#(es
d. *olle*tor streets i. c$llecti$# a#! !istri:uti$# $f traffic ii. i# resi!e#tial, #ei(h:$rh$$!s iii. feA *arki#( restricti$#s eCce*t !uri#( *eak h$urs e. lo*al streets i. access t$ resi!e#tial, :usi#ess, etc. ii. &ll$As l$a!i#(, *e!estria#s, *arki#( etc.

2. *lassifi*ation of rural roads a. national $ig$,a+s i. c$##ects *$rts, f$rei(# hi(hAa s, ca*ital $f states ". state $ig$,a+s i. c$##ects #ati$#al hea!quarters a#! im*$rta#t cities ii. same sta#!ar! as #ati$#al hi(hAa s c. distri*t roads i. ser5es areas $f *r$!ucti$# a#! marketi#( ii. 1a*a:le $f taki#( traffic i#t$ the heart $f rural areas. d. 4illage roads i. c$##ects 5illa(es Aith #earest #ati$#al , state $r railAa s

(ntersection and par<ing areas

1. interse*tion E the (e#eral area Ahere 2 $r m$re Aa s @$i# $r acr$ss 2. ,alf $f the fatal a#! seri$us r$a! acci!e#ts i# :uilt u* areas $ccur at @u#cti$#s. 3. *ri#ci*les i# a ($$! !esi(#

a. 4he #um:er $f i#tersecti$#s sh$ul! :e ke*t a mi#imum. )f #ecessar s$me mi#$r

r$a!s ma :e c$##ecte! Aith each $ther :ef$re @$i#i#( the ma@$r r$a!.
". ,aBar!$us m$5eme#ts : !ri5ers are elimi#ate! : 5ari$us tech#iques such as

cha##eliBi#( a#! sta((eri#(.

c. 4he !esi(# sh$ul! *ermit the !ri5er t$ !iscer# quickl either fr$m the la $ut $r

traffic si(#s
d. 'a $ut sh$ul! f$ll$A #atural 5ehicle *aths e. ;um:er $f c$#flict *$i#ts sh$ul! :e mi#imiBe!. %.

>ehicles that are f$rce! t$ Aait i# $r!er t$ cr$ss a traffic stream sh$ul! :e *r$5i!e! Aith a!equate s*ace at the @u#cti$#s.

4. &t (ra!e @u#cti$# D Ahere all r$a!s @$i# $r cr$ss at the same le5el. 5. =ra!e se*arate! @u#cti$#s D cr$ssi#( ma# $eu5res at !iffere#t le5els 6. )t is !esira:le that the i#tersecti$# r$a!s meet at $r #earl at ri(ht a#(les. 7. >isi:ilit at i#tersecti$#s D a# $:structi$#s sh$ul! :e clear $f the mi#imum 5isi:ilit

tria#(le f$r a hei(ht $f 1.2 -ts a:$5e the r$a! Aa .

8. f$r rural r$a!s

7esign speed of /aFor road )# L.%., 100 80 65 50

9. f$r ur:a# r$a!s

/in. 4isibilit+ distan*e along a /aFor road

220 180 145 110

-+pe of road &ll.*ur*$se *rimar !istri:ut$r 0istrict $r l$cal !istri:ut$r &ccess r$a!

4isibilit+ distan*e along a /aFor road 120 D 150 90 60

%ar&ing %ar&ing spa*e re=uire/ent standards 2.N@. 1. Land use 3esi!e#tial

1. 0etache!, semi.!etache! r$A

h$usesH %l$t area u* t$ 100 sq.m %l$t area fr$m 101 t$ 200 sq.m %l$t area fr$m 201 t$ 300 sq.m %l$t area fr$m 301 t$ 500 sq.m %l$t area fr$m 501 t$ 1000 sq.m %l$t area 1001 sq.m a#! a:$5e
2. +lats 3. S*ecial, c$stl !e5el$*e! area. 4. -ulti.st$rie! (r$u* h$usi#(

schemes. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 2ffices )#!ustrial *remises Sh$*s a#! markets 3estaura#ts 4heatres a#! ci#emas ,$tels a#! m$tels 1.+i5e a#! f$ur.star h$tels 2. 4hree.star h$tels 3. 4A$.star h$tels 4. -$tels 8. ,$s*itals

1. maC *arki#( area require! f$r a car 3m C 6m (i#!i5i!ual)

2.5m C 5m (c$mmu#it )
2. S*ace requireme#t f$r c$mmercial 5ehicle 3.75m C 7.5m 3. f$r :ic cle 1.4m D 1.8m

@n street par&ing /et$ods %arallel par&ing N=L/5." L X

3 angle N=L-1.25/5

1.25 5 45 angle N=L-1.25/3.54

N= number of parking spaces

6 angle N=L-2.16/2.!" #ig$t angle N=L/2.5
4. off street par&ing a. surface car *arks ". multi st$r car *arks c. r$$f *arks d. mecha#ical car *arks e. u#!er(r$u#! car *arks

&raffic safety and traffic la;s

1. 4raffic re(ulati$#s !eals Aith c$#tr$l $f 5ehicles, !ri5ers a#! r$a! users. 2. 1$#tr$l $f 5ehicles !eals Aith re(istrati$#, Aei(ht, siBe, !esi(#, c$#structi$#, a#!

mai#te#a#ce.
3. 0ri5er re(ulati$#s !eal Aith lice#si#(, $*erati$# $f 5ehicles. 4. 3$a! user re(ulati$#s !eal Aith rules $f *e!estria#s, c clists, m$t$r c clists. 5. S*ee! limits i# ur:a# areas D )#!ia# c$#!iti$#s

7ifferent *ategories of road and 2peed li/its in N%< streets 8roup 9 Lig$t and /ed. He$i*les -a@$r r$a!s $f arterial?su: arterial m$stl i# $*e# a#! thi#l :uilt u* areas 3$a!s Aith m$!erate traffic suite! i# semi :uilt u* areas 1$#(este! r$a!s i# :uilt u* areas
6. ?nifor/ 4e$i*le *ode ?.N

8roup 99 <ea4+ 4e$i*les 40

50

40

30

30

20

.*t 9 D u#if$rm m$t$r 5ehicle a!mi#istrati$#, re(istrati$# certificate $f title a#! a#ti D theft act. .*t 99 E u#if$rm m$t$r 5ehicle $*erat$rs a#! chauffeurs lice#se act. .*t 999 E u#if$rm m$t$r 5ehicle ci5il lia:ilit act. .*t 9H E u#if$rm m$t$r 5ehicle safet res*$#si:ilit act. .*t H E u#if$rm act re(ulati#( traffic $# hi(h Aa s.

7.

?.N t$e road traffi* a*t 1"B2

%art ) D *ri#ci*le r$a! safet *r$5isi$#s %art )) D c$#structi$# a#! use $f 5ehicles a#! equi*me#t %art ))) D lice#si#( $f !ri5ers $f 5ehicles %art )> D lice#si#( $f !ri5ers $f hea5 ($$!s 5ehicles %art > D !ri5i#( i#structi$#s %art >) D thir! *art lia:ilities %art >)) D miscella#e$us a#! (e#eral.
8. 9ndia: /otor 4e$i*les a*t 1"3".

1ha*ter ) D *relimi#ar 1ha*ter )) D lice#si#( $f !ri5ers $f m$t$r 5ehicles 1ha*ter ))) D lice#si#( $f c$#!uct$rs $f sta(e carria(es 1ha*ter )> D c$#tr$l $f tra#s*$rt 5ehicles 1ha*ter > D c$#structi$#, equi*me#t a#! mai#te#a#ce $f m$t$r 5ehicles. 1ha*ter >) D c$#tr$l $f traffic 1ha*ter >)) D m$t$r 5ehicles tem*$rar lea5i#( $r 5isiti#( )#!ia 1ha*ter >))) D i#sura#ce f m$t$r 5ehicles a(ai#st thir! *art riska 1ha*ter )M D $ffe#ces, *e#alties a#! *r$ce!ures. 1ha*ter M D miscella#e$us
a6 i.

,$me i#ter5ieA sur5e +ull i#ter5ieA tech#ique

ii. "6 c6 d6 e6

,$me questi$##aire tech#ique 3$a! si!e i#ter5ieA sur5e %$st car! questi$##aire sur5e 3e(istrati$# #um:er *late sur5e 4a(s $# 5ehicles.

%ar&ing sur4e+s %arki#( is $#e $f the seri$us *r$:lems that c$#fr$#t the ur:a# *la##er a#! the traffic e#(i#eer. 8ef$re a# measure f$r the :etterme#t $f the c$#!iti$#s ca# :e f$rmulate!, :asic !ata *ertai#i#( t$ the a5aila:ilit $f *arki#( s*ace, eCte#t $f its usa(e a#! *arki#( !ema#! are esse#tial. %ar&ing a**u/ulation( the t$tal #um:er $f 5ehicles *arke! i# a# area at s*ecifie! m$me#t. %ar&ing 4olu/e( the #um:er $f 5ehicles *arke! i# a *articular area $5er a (i5e# *eri$! $f time. %ar&ing load( the area u#!er the *arki#( accumulati$# cur5e !uri#( a s*ecifie! *eri$!. %ar&ing duration( the le#(th $f time s*e#t i# a *arki#( s*ace. %ar&ing inde'( *erce#ta(e $f the the$reticall $ccu*ie! : *arke! 5ehicles. %arki#( i#!eC = #$ $f :a s $ccu*ie! C 100 a5aila:le #um:er $f *arki#( :a s actuall

4he$retical #um:er $f :a s a5aila:le

%ar&ing turno4er( rate $f the usa(e $f the a5aila:le *arki#( s*ace. -+pes of par&ing sur4e+s
i. %arki#( s*ace i#5e#t$r ii. %arki#( usa(e sur5e : *etr$l iii. Iuesti$##aire t *e *arki#( usa(e sur5e i!. 1$r!$# sur5e

!. %h$t$(ra*hic meth$!

(nfrastructure) Ser!ices and Amenities

%ri#ci*les $f Aater su**l a#! sa#itati$# s stemsQ Aater treatme#tQ s$li! Aaste !is*$sal s stemsQ Aaste treatme#t, rec cle 7 reuseQ ur:a# rai#Aater har5esti#(Q *$Aer su**l a#! c$mmu#icati$# s stems . #etA$rk, !esi(# 7 (ui!eli#esQ !em$(ra*h relate! sta#!ar!s at 5ari$us le5els $f the settleme#ts f$r health, e!ucati$#, recreati$#, reli(i$us 7 *u:lic.semi.*u:lic facilities.

Solid ;aste management

16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96

3efuse D &ll the *utresci:le a#! *utresci:le s$li! Aaste eCce*t :$! Aaste. 3u::ish D #$# *utresci:le Aaste i#clu!es *a*er, *i#s, (lass, a#! A$$!. =ar:a(e D re@ecti#( f$$! c$#stitue#ts. )# la#! filli#( Aaste is !e*$site! i# 0.9 D 4.5 m thick la ers. 8i$l$(ical c$m*$siti$# $f a(aric su:sta#ces is c$m*$si#(. 8ur#i#( $f refuse u#!er c$#tr$lle! ma##er is i#ci#erati$#. )#ci#erati$# is (e#erall f$r refuse. 4he *r$cess $f stacki#( refuse i# *iles, freque#tl tur#i#( a#! !erati#(. Suita:l (i5es a *r$!uct k#$A# as c$m*$sti#(.

-et;or<s and Ser!ices

4here are fi5e im* r$les f$r t$A# *la##erH
1. Strate( f$rmulati$# 2. )#te(rate! #etA$rks a#! ser5ices !e5el$*me#t 3. -$#it$ri#( #etA$rks a#! ser5ices !e5el$*me#t 4. 3eser5ati$# $f la#! f$r #etA$rks a#! ser5ices 5. 3e!uci#( the !e5el$*me#t c$st $f la#!

1. L.-3# 2?%%LI

Pualit+( 0ri#ki#( Aater must free fr$m *ath$(e#s. -e/p( Sh$ul! :e c$$l (!esira:le 50 !e(rees + a#! (e#erall less tha# 80). -urbidit+( is shall :e :etAee# 2.5 a#! less tha# 10 *arts *er milli$# (*. *.m) 4ur:i!it is a# acc$u#t $f sus*e#!e! a#! c$ll$i!al i#$r(a#ic matter such as salt, cla a#! mu! *article. &t 20.*.*.m, Aater is cl$u! . &t 100 *.*.m it is !isti#ctl tur:i!. 0olourH f$r !ri#ki#( *ur*$se Aater sh$ul! :e less tha# 10 *.*.m. 1$l$ur is !ue t$ $r(a#ic a#! i#$r(a#ic c$m*$u#!. 4he maC. %ermissi:le am$u#t $f ma#(a#ese a#! ir$# c$m*$u#! f$r Aater !istri:uti$# is :etAee# 0.3 t$ 0.6 *.*.m. @dour and taste( is !ue t$ the *rese#ce $f micr$sc$*ic $r(a#ic matter like s$!ium, chl$ri!e, a#! car:$#ates. 1a# :e rem$5e! : aerati$# a#! filtrati$#. @rgani* pollution( c$#tami#ati$# $f Aater Aith $r(a#ic matter is i#!icate! : the *rese#ce $f #itr$(e# i# Aater. /ri#e c$#tai#s :$th amm$#ia a#! chl$ri!e. @'+gen( $r(a#ic life i# #atural Aater #ee!s $C (e# f$r life. 4he am$u#t thus c$#sume! is k#$A# as :i$chemical $C (e# !ema#! (8.2.0) 2altH s$!ium chl$ri!e m$re tha# 250 *.*.m makes the Aater u#*alata:le. .l&anit+( is !ue t$ *rese#ce $f mi#eral salts !iss$l5e! i# Aater. <ardness( is !ue t$ the *rese#ce $f :icar:$#ates, sul*hates a#! chl$ri!es $f calcium a#! ma(#esium. Geasure( $#e (rai# $f calcium car:$#ate i# $#e.(all$# Aater is $#e !e(ree $f har!#ess, Ahich is equi5ale#t t$ 14 *.*.m %< 4alue( h !r$(e# i$# c$#ce#trati$#. %, F *2, =14 dR7 aci! a#! dS7 is alkali#e. Se!ime#tati$#, filtrati$# a#! steriliBati$#H 4he *r$cess $f rem$5i#( sus*e#!e! im*urities is calle! se!ime#tati$# 3em$5i#( $f Smaller *article a#! :acteria : +iltrati$#. SteriliBati$# mea#s killi#( $f :acteria : a!!i#( chl$ri#e, amm$#ia, a#! $B$#e $r /> treatme#t.

P?.N-9-I @1 ?#B.N L.-3# 2?%%LI( 0e*e#!s u*$# .*$*, climate, t *e $f seAera(e. %$*ulati$#H ec$#$mic status (hi(her status use m$re Aater) 0esi(# *eri$!H 30 ears. %ubli* ,ater suppl+( in 9ndia. /* t$ 10,000......70.100 liters *er !a . 10.50,000.........100.125 &:$5e 50,000.....125.200 3ate $f su**l H maC. Seas$#al !ema#! is ma :e 1.3 times a5era(e a##ual !ema#!. %ea& fa*tor( /* t$ 50,000.....3 times the a5( rate $f Aater su**l . 50,000.2,00,000.....2.5 &:$5e 2,00,000......2 times %ressure( 7m f$r si#(le st$re, 12m !$u:le, 17m f$r three a#! 22 f$r f$ur st$re :uil!i#(s. 4he (r$u#! Aater is u#!er c$#sta#t m$5eme#t. )ts 5el$cit , Ahich is a fu#cti$# $f s*ee!, a#! !irecti$#, ca# :e stu!ie! Aith the use $f d+es. &##ual rai#fall is measure! f$r 35 ears. 4he am$u#t $f Aater a5aila:le at the reser5$ir site ma :e c$m*ute! as f$ll$AsH <=, M A M # <= the am$u#t $f Aater a5aila:le i# cu:ic meters. 3= a##ual rai#fall i# m &= catchme#t area i# sq.m %= the likel *erce#t $f ru#.$ff f$r that ear. >$lume $f the reser5$ir= >=(,?6)G(&1F&3F4&2) , is the c$#t$ur i#ter5als. &1, &2, &3 are the three successi5e c$#t$ur i#ter5als.

0istri:uti$# s stem characteristicsH !e*e#! $# Street *atter#s, t$*$(ra*h , !e(ree a#! t *e $f !e5el$*me#t $f the area, l$cati$# $f treatme#t a#! st$ra(e ta#k. %i*e s*ecificati$#sH !istri:uti$# *i*es shall #$t :e less tha# 150mm i# !iameter i# the )#!ia# metr$*$lita# cities t$ meet firefi(hti#(. 2ther ur:a# areas ....100mm %urifie! Aater is a5aila:le fr$m Aater at c$#sta#t rate, :ut the !ema#! $f Aater cha#(es Aith h$ur a#! at *eak h$ur the rate $f !ema#! is 5er hi(h. 4he $*erati#( st$ra(e ca# :e !etermi#e! fr$m mass !ia(ram $r h !r$ (ra*h (time. !ischar(e (ra*h.) mass !ia(ram is a *l$t :etAee# cumulati5e !ema#! $f Aater a#! time. ;$m$(ra*h ca# :e use! i# a!5a#ta(e t$ !esi(# the *i*e !iameter. /si#( ,aBe# <illiams equati$# is as (i5e# :el$AH >=1.318 c, 3, S <here 5= 5el$cit if ft?sec, S= h !raulic sc$*e, 3= h !raulic ra!ius 3=&?% +r$m this i#f$rmati$# c$#struct a ma* $f *ressure c$#t$urs a#! $r h !raulic (ra!ie#t li#e (,=') 2. 2.N9-.-9@N 2I2-3G -ai# reas$# i# )#!ia is ur:a#iBati$# 4he c$#5e#ti$#al seAera(e Aas c$#si!ere! a A$#!er tech#$l$( i# Ahich all eCcreta a#! all *ath$(e#s Aere tra#s*$rte! aAa fr$m h$useh$l! t$ the treatme#t *la#t. 1$#5e#ti$#al seAera(e requires c$#ti#u$us Aater su**l .<he# a!$*ti#( c$#5e#ti$#al seAera(e fr$m tem*erate t$ tr$*ical c$u#tr , se*tic a#! i#crease! :l$cka(e $f eCcreta i# *i*es makes this tech#$l$( less satisfact$r . ,i(h tem*erature accelerates :i$l$(ical !e(ra!ati$# i# the *i*es a#! s$ !e*letes the !iss$l5e! $C (e# a#! :ec$me a#aer$:ic i# tr$*ical tem*erature. 1.0-@#2 9N1L?3N09N8 2.N9-.-9@N -30<N@L@8I @%-9@N2(

1. <ater su**l le5els 2. '$A c$st sa#itati$# $*ti$#s 3. <aste treatme#t -eth$!s 4. 3es$urce rec$5er 5. ,ealth a#! s$ci$ ec$#$mic criteria 6. &**r$*riate sa#itati$# tech#$l$( f$r ur:a# !istricts a. 1$#5e#ti$#al.....c$mmercial, i#!ustrial, hi(h.class resi!e#tial ". &qua *ri5 $r seAera(e usi#( Aaste sta:iliBati$#......#eA me!ium class areas c. %it latri#es .....tem*$rar $ccu*ati$# d. Sula:h .....c$#(este! resi, areas, slums, squatter settleme#ts, #e(lecte! ur:a#

5illa(es

4. ?#B.N 2@L97 L.2-3( -/;1)%&' 1$r*$rati$#, mu#ici*alit a#! #$tifie! area c$mmittees are e#truste! Aith the task $f s$li! Aaste !is*$sal (sA!). )t c$m*rises $f h$useh$l! Aaste, Ahich i#clu!es *utresce#t a#! #$# *utresce#t Aastes, ru::ish, a#! $fte# :ulk Aaste *r$!uce! : !iscar!e! $l! fur#iture, :uil!i#( materials, (lasses etc. %a*ers, (lasses, *lastics a#! ir$# materials are s$rte! $ut fr$m resi!e#tial c$l$#ies a#! s$l! $ut : the class $f ra( *ickers. ,e#ce all (e#erate! !$es #$t reach the !is*$sal sites. 4he qua#tit $f s$li! Aaste *er *ers$# *er !a i# )#!ia# ur:a# area has :ee# re*$rte! ra((i#( :etAee# 300 t$ 600 (. 4he *er ca*ita !ail (e#erati$# $f s$li! Aaste : )#!ia# h$useh$l! ca# :e as hi(h as 0.75 k(. ;$t m$re tha# 0.4 k(? ca*ita?!a f$r a hi(her ur:a# !e#sit $f *$*ulati$# less tha# 20,000 *er sq.km. 4he cal$rific 5alue $f s$li! Aaste is 1500 kcal?k( i# m$st cities. ,$use...,a#!cart.......mu#ici*al 5ehicle

'a#! filli#(, c$m*$si#(, rec cli#(, * r$l sis, !r tech#$l$( a5aila:le f$r s$li! Aaste !is*$sal.

fuel maki#( a#! i#ci#erati$# are the

)#!ia# s$li! Aaste is characteriBe! : l$A cal$rific 5alue, hi(h m$isture c$#te#t a#! hi(h qua#tit $f #$#. c$m:usti:le materials. L.N7 19LL9N8(
1. Sa#itar la#! filli#( 2. 1$#tr$lle! ti**i#( i# l$A.l i#( areas, a!@ace#t t$ the sea f$r la#! reclamati$#. 3. /#c$#tr$lle! ti**i#( $# mu#ici*al la#!. 4. /#c$#tr$lle! ti**i#( $# *ri5ate la#!. 5. /#c$#tr$lle! ti**i#( i#t$ Aater.

4he ma@$r *r$:lem ....air a#! Aater *$lluti$# ca# :e ass$ciate! Aith la#! filli#(. 0@G%@2-9N8H the *h sical a#! chemical $f )#!ia# cit refuse sh$Ae! that 40.60T $f it is c$m*$sta:le a#! that it has a!equate #utrie#ts (;%L), m$isture c$#te#t $f 40.50T a#! car:$# t$ #itr$(e# rati$ 25H1 t$ 40H1. 4A$ meth$!s $f c$m*$sti#( $f ur:a# s$li! Aaste is *ractice! : !iffere#t, ddddd
a6 %re.treatme#t a#! *$st treatme#t Ai#!r$Ai#( "6 4he )#!$re $r 8a#(al$re meth$!.

)#ci#erat$rs :ur# refuses i# a# eCcess $f $C (e# atm$s*here t$ achie5e 80.85 5$lumes a#! 60 t$ 65.Aei(ht re!ucti$#. )# 3efuse?+uel 3ec$5er s stem, s$li! Aaste is first shre!!e! a#! se*arate! i#t$ li(ht

c$m:usti:le a#! hea5 #$#.c$m:usti:le fracti$#s. % r$l sis is the *h sical a#! chemical !ec$m*$siti$# $f $r(a#ic matter : the a**licati$# $f 1 t$ 3000 !e(ree + i# the t$tal $r *artial a:se#ce $f $C (e#. 4his *r$!uces heat, car:$# !i$Ci!e a#! re!uce the 5$lume $f refuse.
7. COMM6NICATIONS:

)t has a# i#te(ral *art $f all ec$#$mic acti5it . %S4;.*acket sAitche! !ata #etA$rks *r$5i!es 3 t *es $f facilities -essa(e tra#sfer )#teracti5e c$m*uter access 1$m*uter.c$m*uter access '&; Dl$cal area #etA$rks are the s stems that are use! t$ li#k the termi#als, c$m*uters, A$r! *r$cess$rs a#! $ther !e5ices l$cate! Aithi# a c$m*act area. 7e4elop/ent .d/inistration and Ganage/ent( %la##i#( laAsQ !e5el$*me#t c$#tr$l a#! B$#i#( re(ulati$#sQ laAs relati#( t$ la#! acquisiti$#Q !e5el$*me#t e#f$rceme#ts, ur:a# la#! ceili#(Q la#! ma#a(eme#t tech#iquesQ *la##i#( a#! mu#ici*al a!mi#istrati$#Q !isaster miti(ati$# ma#a(eme#tQ 73r! 7 74th 1$#stituti$#al ame#!me#tsQ 5aluati$# 7 taCati$#Q re5e#ue res$urces a#! fiscal ma#a(eme#tQ *u:lic *artici*ati$# a#! r$le $f ;=2 7 182Q )#stituti$#al #etA$rki#( 7 ca*acit :uil!i#(. Ne+ Lords %ropert+ ta'( %r$*ert taC is im*$se! : all l$cal :$!ies. 4he :asis is the (r$ss 5alue $f the *r$*ert i# terms $f re#tal 5alue $r the re#t the *r$*ert A$ul! #$rmall fetch if let $ut ?ser *$arges( /ser char(es are the char(es $# ser5ices like Aater su**l , tra#s*$rtati$#, a#! electricit . @*trio(2ctri$ is the m$st im*$rta#t a#! elastic s$urce $f re5e#ue. 4hese are check *$st :ase! taCes. Bonds( 8$#!s are the l$a#s that ca# make t$ the =$5er#me#t $r state $r ce#tral a#! als$ ca# make t$ the mu#ici*alit . 8rants in aid( 4he l$cal :$!ies recei5e (ra#ts i# ai! fr$m the state ($5er#me#t $# the :asis $f s$me *re.!etermi#e! criteria. 4hese 5ar fr$m state t$ state.

(ntroduction of ",-DS
& :$#! is a l$a# that ca# make t$ a# i#stituti$# that ca# make the l$a# t$ the ($5er#me#t, a state, a#! a l$cal mu#ici*alit $r t$ a c$m*a# . 1$m*a#ies a#! ($5er#me#t #ee! this m$#e t$ fi#a#ce *r$@ects like #eA :uil!i#( a#! r$a!s. <he# $u la#! m$#e t$ a# i#stituti$#, the )2/ () $Ae $u) the (i5e $u is calle! :$#!. 4his )2/ is their *r$mise t$ re*a :$th $ur *ri#ci*al (the am$u#t $u la#!) a#! a fiCe! am$u#t $f i#terest f$r all$cati#( them t$ :$rr$A $ur m$#e . &s a :$#! i#5est$r Ae ha5e ma# ch$ices. 4he are %/8')1 S91423 82;0S :$th state a#! ce#tral)8harat *etr$leum, ,i#!usta#

*etr$leum,&#!hra %ra!esh *$Aer fi#a#ce c$r*$rati$# etc.. %3)>&49 S91423 82;0SH 3elia#ce, 1it :a#k. -/;)1)%&' 82;0SH &-1 (&hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# 8$#!s) +);&;1)&' );S4)4/4)2; 82;0SH ,0+1, )1)1), )08) etc. 38)8T relief :$#!s u#it at a leisure $f 5 ears. );12-9 82;0SH 4he i#5est $#l i# =5t securit is that has #$ securit risk. 4he are suita:le f$r 1. ear time h$riB$#. =)'4 +/;0SH 4he i#5est $#l i# ($5er#me#t securities that ha5e #$ cre!it risk. the are suita:le f$r $#e ear h$riB$#. S,234 493- +/;0SH 4he i#5est Aith miC $f =$5t 7 c$r*$rate securities. Sh$rt term maturities much as $#e t$ three ears. 4he are suita:le f$r *eri$! $f 6 m$#ths. +)M90 -&4/3)4" +/;0SQ ')I/)0 +/;0SH 4he i#5est i# 5er sh$rt term :$#!s such as =$5t trea!i#(, :ills B@N72 - .#3 N3I -@ 2.13-I

4he <ell acce*te! a#! ack#$Ale!(e! :elief am$#(st )#!ia# )#5est$rs Aas that X 4he r$ute t$ *r$s*erit is $#l thr$u(h equit X, :ut 8$#!s has sl$Al (i5e# Aa t$ the *erce*ti$# that 2#e sh$ul! (r$A his Aealth Aith mi#imum risk a#! at a (ra!ual *ace Ahich is *$ssi:le $#l thr$u(h secure! i#5estme#ts i# :$#!s a#! !e:e#turesX. 8$#!s $ccu* the *re!$mi#a#t share $f the ca*ital markets i# !e5el$*e! ec$#$mies like /S& a#! 9ur$*ea# c$u#tries. )# these ec$#$mies the ma@$r *r$*$rti$# $f the fi#a#cial fl$As are thr$u(h the me!ium $f :$#! markets. ,$Ae5er, i# )#!ia, 8$#! markets Aere lar(el rele(ate! t$ the :ack seat i# the earl 706s Ahe# the equit cult Aas !e5el$*i#( i# )#!ia. )t t$$k the ce#ter sta(e $#l !uri#( the 806s. 4he i#itiati5e Aas take# !uri#( the earl 806s : the *u:lic sect$r utilities like ;,%1, %+1. -4;' etc. : issui#( the :$#!s t$ meet their fi#a#cial requireme#ts. &s a chea*er s$urce $f fu#!i#( c$m*are! t$ equit , these :$#!s tur#e! $ut t$ :e a# eCcelle#t me!ium $f fi#a#ci#( !uri#( this *eri$!. ,$Ae5er, fr$m 1987 $#Aar!s there Aas a lull i# the :$#! markets f$r a:$ut 5 t$ 6 ears. 8$#! markets i# )#!ia recei5e! a sh$t i# its arm i# 1992 Ahe# )08) :r$u(ht a #eA c$#ce*t $f 0ee* !isc$u#t (00) :$#!s. 4he 00 :$#! issue $f )08) Aas a (reat re5$luti$#ar ste* a#! ($t a thum*i#( success. )t ha! $ffere! a retur# $f 3S. 1 lack $# a# i#5estme#t $f 3est. 3600?. after a *eri$! $f 25 ears. 4he res$u#!i#( success $f this :$#! A$rke! as a s*ri#(:$ar! f$r the 8$#! markets i# )#!ia. 4he $ther i#stituti$#s, Ahich Aere cl$sel Aatchi#( the success $f this 8$#! )ssue $f )08), Aere )+1), )1)1), a#! S1)1). 8$$ste! : the success $f this )08), )+1) a#! )1)1) als$ c$me $ut Aith similar 8$#! issues, Ahich als$ ($t similar res*$#ses fr$m the i#5est$r c$mmu#it . 4here Aas rall $f 8$#! issues : these fi#a#cial )#stituti$#s after )ceca*6s 0ecem:er 95 *u:lic issue. 95e# the c$r*$rate like ' 7 4, 4)S12, &r5i# -ills a#! Sh$$k 'e la#! @$i#e! the :a#!Aa($# a#! c$me $ut Aith their 8$#! $ffers, e5i#ci#( e#thusiastic res*$#ses fr$m the i#5esti#( c$mmu#it . 9quit Aith a feA #$ta:le eCce*ti$#s, has :ee# she!!i#( their 5alue c$#ti#u$usl f$r the last f$ur ears. Si#ce &*ril 1998, equit markets ha5e l$st a:$ut $#e fifth $f their ca*italiBati$#, i#flicti#( massi5e l$sses t$ the i#5est$rs. )# these tur:ule#t st$ck market times, it makes se#se t$ *ark the fu#!s i# the safer hea5e#s al$#( Aith *r$s*ects $f ($$! retur#s.

<ith c$mmercial :a#ks $fferi#( measl i#terest $# sa5i#( acc$u#ts, the *r$fita:le i#5estme#t $*ti$# a5aila:le t$ i#5est$r is the fiCe! i#c$me securities i# the f$rm $f c$m*a# fiCe! !e*$sits, the !e:e#tures $f the c$r*$rate e#tities a#! :$#!s $f fi#a#cial )#stituti$#s. 4he *he#$me#$# $f fi#!i#( succ$r i# :$#!s !uri#( the tur:ule#t st$ck market is #$t u#ique t$ )#!ia. &ll $5er the (l$:e the crash $f st$ck markets are f$rci#( ma@$rit $f the i#5est$rs t$ fi#! s$lace a#! *r$tecti$# i# :$#! markets, es*eciall the :$#! markets $f /#ite! States. 4heref$re, there has :ee# a su!!e# u*sur(e i# the !ema#! f$r /S 8$#!s. &s a result, a lar(e *r$*$rti$# $f &sia# +u#!s are m$5i#( t$ /S 8$#! -arkets a#! *ushi#( u* the :$#! *rices.

!olution %unicipal "onds

1. 0it+ finan*ing approa*$ and anal+sis 4he ur:a# *$*ulati$# $f )#!ia is *r$@ecte! t$ (r$A fr$m 217 milli$# i# 991 t$ ar$u#! 350 milli$# i# 2001, a#! further t$ 658 milli$# : the ear 2025. 4he #um:er $f ur:a# a((l$merati$#s a#! t$A#s are als$ eC*ecte! t$ (r$A fr$m 3609 i# 1991 t$ Aell $5er 4000 : the ear 2001 a#! m$re :e $#!. 4he res$urces requireme#ts f$r 70$!! cities f$r Ahich :$th l$cal :$!ies a#! !e5el$*me#t auth$rities eCist a#! f$r the 30 milli$# *lus cities : the ear 2001 ha5e :ee# A$rke! $ut a#! *rese#te! i# a# earlier cha*ter. +r$m the siBe $f res$urces require! $#e ca# ima(i#e the ma(#itu!e $f the eff$rts #ee!e! f$r m$:iliBi#(, the res$urces. /#less the ec$#$mic :ase $f these cities is stre#(the#e! a#! the ur:a# i#frastructures, mu#ici*al ser5ices a#! ame#ities are *r$5i!e! at le5els that match their status, these cities Aill #$t :e i# a *$siti$# t$ efficie#tl fu#cti$# 'ie! *la the r$le i# c$#tri:uti#( t$ the ec$#$mic !e5el$*me#t a#! au(me#tati$# $f the l$cal fi#a#cial res$urces. )t is im*$rta#t t$ #$te that the c$#tri:uti$# $f ur:a# sect$r t$ =0% is curre#tl eC*ecte! t$ :e i# the ra#(e $f 50.60 *erce#t. ;ati$#al ec$#$mic (r$Ath a#! *$5ert re!ucti$# eff$rts Aill :e i#creasi#(l !etermi#e! : the *r$!ucti5it $f these cities a#! t$A#s. +$r )#!ia# cities t$ :ec$me (r$Ath $rie#te! a#! *r$!ucti5e, it is esse#tial t$ achie5e a A$rl!.class ur:a# s stem. 4his i# tur# !e*e#!s $# attai#i#( efficie#c a#! equit i# the !eli5er a#! fi#a#ci#( $f ur:a# i#frastructure. 2. 3*ono/i*s of 0it+ 1inan*ing 2+ste/(

4he cit fi#a#ci#( s stem f$rms the :asic structure $# Ahich the *h sical !e5el$*me#t $f a cit c$#si!era:l !e*e#!s. &s such, the !e5el$*me#t $f cities a#! $ther ur:a# ce#ters it i#5$l5es i#5estme#t $f ca*ital res$urces i# the creati$# $fU ur:a#?mu#ici*al a#! $ther i#frastructure. 4$!a , there !$es #$t eCist a *r$cess atKi5e #ati$#al le5el, Ahich ca# *recisel $r i#!icate the *r$*$rti$# $f )#!iaUs #ati$#al $ut*utt$:eutiliBe! f$r ur:a# !e5el$*me#t 3. Geasures to @pti/i;e #e4enue 4he cit ($5er#me#ts a#! 5ari$us l$cal auth$rities res$rt t$ the a**licati$# $f se5eral measures f$r $*timiBi#( re5e#ue, the ha5e #$t full !e5el$*e! the *$te#tial $f the re5e#ue s$urces s$ as t$ :e selfsufficie#t. 1$#seque#tl , the face acute sh$rta(e $f fi#a#cial res$urces i# :$th mai#tai#i#( the eCisti#( le5els a#! sta#!ar!s $f ur:a# ec$#$mic a#! ci5ic ser5ices a#! t$ meet requireme#ts $f future a!!iti$#s t$ the *$*ulati$# $f the cit . 4he res$urces are ca*a:le $f :ei#( use! f$r alter#ati5e *ur*$ses. 4. %ooled 1inan*ing for Guni*ipal 9nfrastru*ture 4ra!iti$#all , mu#ici*al c$r*$rati$#s a#! ur:a# l$cal :$!ies ha5e relie! $# su:si!iBe! fu#!s f$r *r$5i!i#( ur:a# ser5ices Ahich c$#strai#ts the c$#strai#ts the i#tr$!ucti$# $f user char(es a#! efficie#t *r$@ect $*erati$# a#! mai#te#a#ce. )# 5ieA $f the hu(e res$urce (a*, !irect access t$ ca*ital market A$ul! #$A :e a# acce*te! 5ia:le $*ti$#. ,$Ae5er, access t$ ca*ital market requires fi#a#cial !isci*li#e a#! e#ha#ce! cre!it rati#(. )t has :ee# the eC*erie#ce that $#l :i((er mu#ici*al c$r*$rati$#s are i# a *$siti$# t$ take the a!5a#ta(e $f the res$urces a5aila:le i# ca*ital market. -e!ium a#! smaller mu#ici*alities are u#a:le t$ !$ s$ !ue t$ Aeak fi#a#cial *$siti$# a#! lack $f ca*acit t$ *re*are 5ia:le *r$@ect *r$*$sals. & State le5el *$$le! fi#a#ci#( mecha#ism is :ei#( *r$*$se! f$r smaller a#! me!ium mu#ici*alities. 4he $:@ecti5e $f a State le5el *$$le! fi#a#ce mecha#ism is t$ *r$5i!e a c$st effecti5e a#! efficie#t a**r$ach f$r smaller a#! me!ium siBe! /'8s t$ access the !$mestic ca*ital markets f$r ur:a# i#frastructure a#! t$ i#tr$!uce #eA i#stituti$#al arra#(eme#ts f$r m$:iliBi#( /r:a# )#frastructure +i#a#ce. 5. 0it+ #estru*turing =$5er#me#t $f )#!ia is als$ e#c$ura(i#( cit Ai!e ref$rms a#! restructuri#( s$ as t$ e#sure that cities are ma#a(e! efficie#tl a#! :ec$me cre!itA$rth (t$ attract *ri5ate fi#a#ce ) Ahich Aill e#a:le them t$ *re*are l$#( term *la#s f$r i#frastructure i#5estme#ts a#! im*leme#t *$5ert alle5iati$# *r$(rams. 1it Ai!e ref$rms a#! restructuri#( Aill, h$Ae5er, result i# si(#ifica#t

tra#sacti$# c$sts !uri#( the *eri$! $f tra#siti$#. 'ea5i#( cities t$ fi#a#ce these c$sts : themsel5es Aill !ela a#! make it !ifficult t$ im*leme#t these ref$rms. )t is t$ *artl $ffset this !isa!5a#ta(e that the -i#istr $f /r:a# 0e5el$*me#t is *r$*$si#( t$ set u* a *erf$rma#ce :ase! 1it 1halle#(e +u#! f$r catal Bi#( cit le5el ec$#$mic ref$rm *r$(rammers. 4he res$urces fr$m the +u#! A$ul! :e (i5e# as (ra#ts :ut sh$ul! i!eall :e matche! : equal all$cati$#s either fr$m the cities themsel5es $r fr$m the res*ecti5e State ($5er#me#ts. &ccess t$ the fu#! A$ul! :e $# a c$m*etiti5e :asis.

6. Bond Gar&et in 9ndia. 4he :$#! markets i# )#!ia ha5e (r$A# t$ a fairl :i( siBe !uri#( the last feA ears. & ma@$r thrust t$ the :$#! markets has take# *lace !uri#( the last !eca!e, m$re s*ecificall !uri#( the last f$ur ears. <hile #$ m$#e ha! :ee# raise! thr$u(h the *u:lic !e:t issues i# 94.95, a# am$u#t $f 3s2,940 cr$res Aas m$:iliBe! i# 95.96 Ahich (reA the a hi(h $f 3s. 6977 cr$res i# 96.97. 4he share $f the !e:t i# the t$tal am$u#t $ffere! t$ *u:lic i#crease! fr$m 25T t$ 60T $5er this *eri$!. 0uri#( the ear 1997.98, 63T $f the t$tal fu#! m$:iliBati$# Aas fr$m !e:t issues $#l , clearl si(#if i#( a shift fr$m equit t$ :$#! markets &l$#( Aith the 5$lume (r$Ath $f the :$#! markets, there ha5e :ee# qualitati5e cha#(es t$$ !uri#( this *eri$!. %ri5ate *laceme#ts $f :$#!s ha5e :ec$me a# im*$rta#t area $f :$#! markets #$A. +$r eCam*le, !uri#( the last tA$ ears e5e# the *u:lic issues $f !e:ts ha5e :ee# $utshi#e! : the %ri5ate *laceme#t $f 8$#!s. 0uri#( 1997.98, there Aere as ma# as 251 *ri5ate *laceme#ts a massi5e am$u#t $f 3s. 30, 944 cr$res, $f Ahich the lar(est siBe $f the issue Aas fr$m )08) m$:iliBi#( 1200 cr$res. 4he ma@$r *ri5ate *laceme#ts $f :$#!s Aere fr$m )08), )1)1), )+1), )3+1, a#! S&)' etc. & *he#$me#$# t$ :e #$tice! is that the re(ular retur# :$#!s Aith fiCe! retur# are the & *he#$me#$# t$ :e #$tice! is that the re(ular retur# :$#!s Aith fiCe! retur# are the m$st *referre! :$#!s am$#(st i#5est$rs. 2f the 351 i#strume#ts *ut $# market !uri#( the *eri$!, 156 i#strume#ts $ffere! re(ular retur#. 4he first :$#! is i#tr$!uce! i# 1998 i# &-1 (&hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$#) 99.N337 @1 B@N72( 1. #32@?#038.% 4he )#!ia )#frastructure, 3e*$rt, 1996, assesse! the t$tal a##ual i#5estme#t #ee!s $f Aater su**l , sa#itati$# a#! r$a!s sect$rs at 3s. 28,036 cr$res *er ear $# a# a5era(e !uri#( 1996. 2006. <hereas fu#!s t$ that eCte#t are #$t a5aila:le. 4$ $5erc$me these c$#strai#ts a#! challe#(es, the -i#istr $f /r:a# 0e5el$*me#t 7 %$5ert &lle5iati$# has i#itiate! i#stituti$#al, fiscal a#! fi#a#cial ref$rms. +irst (e#erati$# ur:a# sect$r ref$rm . k#$A# as the 74th 1$#stituti$#al &me#!me#t &ct $f 1992, rec$(#iBes the *ri#ci*les $f l$cal self.($5er#me#ts a#! em*$Aers ur:a# l$cal :$!ies Aith fi#a#cial res$urces thr$u(h 1e#tral +i#a#ce 1$mmissi$# a#! State +i#a#ce 1$mmissi$#s. Su:seque#tl , i# $r!er t$

stre#(the# these l$cal :$!ies, sec$#!.(e#erati$# ref$rm ha5e als$ :ee# starte!. )# the last !eca!e, e#$rm$us *r$(ress has :ee# ma!e i# rem$5i#( im*e!ime#ts t$ efficie#t i#5estme#t. 2. #esour*e Gobili;ation 3ffort )# &u(ust 1996, the 1e#tral =$5er#me#t (ui!eli#es e#title! U/r:a# 0e5el$*me#t %la#s +$rmulati$# a#! )m*leme#tati$#U Aere circulate! t$ all State =$5er#me#ts f$r a!$*ti$#. 4hese (ui!eli#es, a*art fr$m $ther issues, su((est i##$5ati5e a**r$aches f$r fiscal res$urce m$:iliBati$#. )# the :ack!r$* $f the ;eA 9c$#$mic %$lic , it Aas su((este! that the tra!iti$#al s stem $f fu#!i#( :ase! $# %la# a#! :u!(etar all$cati$#s :e re!uce! a#! ultimatel Aith!raA# !ue t$ fiscal !eficit. Su:si!ies #ee! t$ :e rati$#aliBe! a#! ur:a# !e5el$*me#t *la#s a#! *r$@ects #ee! t$ :e *lace! $# a c$mmercial f$rmat : !esi(#i#( c$mmerciall 5ia:le ur:a# i#frastructure ser5ices a#! area !e5el$*me#t *r$@ects. 4his ca# :e achie5e! : rest$ri#( a *r$*er match :etAee# fu#cti$#s a#! s$urce $f re5e#ue : (i5i#( a!!iti$#al taC measures. 2ther i##$5ati5e res$urce m$:iliBati$# measures i#clu!e usi#( la#! as res$urce, i#crease i# the #$#.*r$*ert taCes a#! usi#( %u:lic.%ri5ate %art#ershi* i# ser5ice !eli5er . 3. 34ident of ne, e*ono/i* poli*+ )# c$#clusi$#, it is e5i!e#t that the ;eA 9c$#$mic %$lic lau#che! i# )#!ia i# 1991.92, !i! see se5eral im*$rta#t i#itiati5es i# the ur:a# sect$r !esi(#e! t$ e#c$ura(e *ri5ate sect$r *artici*ati$# i# ur:a# i#frastructure *r$@ects. 4hese i#itiati5es, A$ul! #ee! t$ :e take# t$ their l$(ical c$#clusi$#. & series $f #eA 3ef$rm -easures are :ei#( *ut t$(ether f$r im*leme#tati$# !uri#( 10th %la# %eri$!. 4hr$u(h these, Ae h$*e t$ re5erse the !ecli#i#( sta#!ar!s $f ur:a# i#frastructure i# the c$u#tr . 4. Guni*ipal Bonds Se5eral -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$#s like successfull issue! -u#ici*al 8$#!s, 8a#(al$re, &hme!a:a!, '$thia#, ;a(*ur, ;asik, a#! -a!urai f$r raisi#( res$urces f$r ur:a# i#frastructure. 4he 1e#tral =$5er#me#t ha! a##$u#ce! taC eCem*ti$# i# case $f :$#!s issue! : -u#ici*al ? '$cal =$5er#me#ts. =ui!eli#es Aere issue! : this -i#istr $# 8.2.2001 f$r re(ulati#( issue $f taC.free mu#ici*al :$#!s. /#!er the (ui!eli#es, such :$#!s Aill :e issue! f$r raisi#( res$urces f$r ca*ital i#5estme#t i# creati$# $f #eA i#frastructure as Aell as au(me#tati$# $f eCisti#( s stems. 4aC free :$#!s A$rth 3s. 100 cr$re : &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# ha5e :ee# *ermitte! f$r im*r$5i#( i#frastructure. , !era:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# has als$ :ee# *ermitte! t$ issue taC free mu#ici*al :$#! f$r 3s. 82.50 cr$re.

999.-I%32 @1 B@N72 & #eA era has rece#tl $*e#e! f$r the small i#5est$r. 4his se(me#t is ($5er#me#t :$#!s $r (ilt e!(e securities. 4he are #$A a5aila:le f$r *u:lic su:scri*ti$#. )# the first seri$us thrust t$ create a retail :ase f$r (ilts siC *rimar !ealers ha5e starte! selli#( these ($5er#me#t :$#!s. =ilts $ffer the hi(hest safet a#! ($$! liqui!it . ;eAer 5arieties $f :$#!s ha5e c$me u* likeH

)#flati$# )#!eC 8$#!s )#.1ash 8$#!s Ste**e!./* 8$#!s 0ee*.0isc$u#t 8$#!s 4aC.sa5i#( 8$#!s 1all.li#ke! 8$#!s.

&# i#5est$r has the $*ti$# $f i#5esti#( i# the :$#!s either !irectl : su:scri:i#( t$ these :$#!s $r : ch$$si#( a# i#!irect r$ute $f :u i#( the u#its thr$u(h -utual +u#!s Ahich i#5est i# these :$#!s. Si#ce -utual +u#!s i#5est $#l i# rate! !e:t i#strume#t, the risk is als$ mi#imiBe!. 4he i#c$me fr$m !e:t fu#!s are theref$re c$#si!ere! t$ :e m$re sta:le 'iqui!it is $#e $f the m$st im*$rta#t requireme#t $f a# i#5est$r a#! )#!ia# st$ck markets are #$t satisf i#( this !ema#! :ecause $f its s*$ra!ic tra!i#(, )#stituti$#s ha5e i##$5ate! #eA alter#ati5es t$ create liqui!it i# the :$#! markets, )1)1) has i#itiate! i# this !irecti$# a#! came $ut Aith the market maki#( eCercise i# the !e:t se(me#t take# a# i#itiati5e st$ck markets. 0uri#( the earl 906s i#terest rates $# :$#!s Aere ar$u#! 13 t$ 14T. )t @um*e! t$ 16.5T i# 1996 t$ ra**er $ff a(ai# t$ a:$ut 12.5T i# 1997. 4he stre#(the#i#( $f the i#terest rate are clearl 5isi:le Aith )1)1) $fferi#( 13.75T i# the its latest issue $f safet :$#!s. )08) is als$ *la##i#( t$ c$me $ut Aith the :$#! issue $fferi#( a# i#terest rate $f ar$u#! 14 *erce#t, Ahich is t$ :e f$ll$Ae! : %$Aer +i#a#ce 1$r*$rati$#. 4hese fluctuati$#s i# the i#terest rates !$ create $**$rtu#ities f$r the ca*ital (ai#s i# the sec$#!ar markets. +$r eCam*le, the earlier :$#! $ffers fr$m )08) a#! )1)1), Ahich $ffere! hi(h i#terest $f ar$u#! 16T, are #$A :ei#( s$l! at a *rice hi(her tha# their face 5alue i#

the sec$#!ar markets. 4hus, there eCists eCcelle#t ca*ital (ai#s $**$rtu#it t$$ f$r :$#!h$l!ers Ahe# i#terest rates ($ !$A# i# the (e#eral. 9H.-<3 9NN@H.-9@N2 9N -<3 B@N7 G.#N31. G?N909%.LB@N72 4he !e5el$*me#t $f the :$#! market has :r$u(ht a:$ut #eA i##$5ati$#s a#! features, Ahich are mea#t t$ meet the i#5est$r6s !ema#!. 2#e $f the #eA 5arieties $f :$#!s, Ahich ha5e c$me u* rece#tl , is the -u#ici*al $ffer i#itiate! : the &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$#. 4he similar :$#! $ffers fr$m 8a# (al$re -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$#, , !era:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# a#! %u#e -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# are eC*ecte! t$ hit the market i# the c$mi#( m$#ths. 2. 9N1#.2-#?0-?#3 B@N72 )#!ia requires hu(e i#5estme#t i# c$mi#( ears t$ :uil! much.require! i#frastructure. )#!ia# =$5er#me#t has acc$r!e! this sect$r hi(h *ri$rit status. <$rl! $5er i#frastructure sect$r is fu#!e! : :$#!s. +$ll$Ai#( the same tre#! )#!ia# +i#a#cial )#stituti$#s like ,/012, )1)1), )08) etc. ha5e issue! i#frastructure sect$r s*ecific :$#!s. )#5estme#t i# these :$#!s, :esi!es su**$rti#( !e5el$*me#t $f i#frastructure *r$@ects, is als$ eli(i:le f$r taC relief u#!er secti$#s 549&, 5498 a#! 88 $f )#c$me 4aC &ct. H.G?N909%.L B@N72(

Case Study: Amc

(ntroduction &hme!a:a!, the lar(est cit $f the state $f =u@arat, is the se5e#th lar(est cit i# )#!ia. L#$A# as the teCtile ca*ital $f )#!ia, ,ea!:a#! is the c$mmercial ca*ital $f the state a#! is als$ a ma@$r i#!ustrial a#! fi#a#cial cit . %#@19L3 .$/edabad /uni*ipal 0orporation A.G0C:9ndia %opulation(3,515,361(2001)

Land.rea(191km2 Guni*ipal Budget( /S]118 milli$# (2000)

%ri$r t$ 1993, the &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# (&-1) ha! accumulate! a cash l$ss $f $5er /S]9 milli$# a#! their fi#a#cial situati$# Aas !eteri$rati#(. )# 1994, the c$r*$rati$# lau#che! a ma@$r eff$rt t$ stre#(the# its ca*acit t$ !e5el$* c$mmerciall 5ia:le *r$@ects. &-1 i#tr$!uce! a series $f measures t$ im*r$5e *r$*ert taC c$llecti$#, Ahich acc$u#ts f$r a:$ut 30T $f taC re5e#ues. Ahile atte#ti$# Aas f$cuse! $# rec$5eri#( ma@$r $utsta#!i#( taC am$u#ts. &##ual *r$*ert taC c$llecti$# i#crease! : 55T. )# 1996, &-1 *re*are! a fi5e. ear ca*ital i#5estme#t *la# A$rth /S]150 milli$# f$r Aater su**l , seAera(e, r$a!s, :ri!(es a#! s$li! Aaste ma#a(eme#t *r$@ects. )t *r$*$se! t$ meet 30T $f the t$tal i#5estme#t requireme#t fr$m i#ter#al accruals, Ahile m$:iliBi#( the remai#i#( am$u#t thr$u(h mu#ici*al :$#!s a#! l$a#s fr$m fi#a#cial i#stituti$#s. &s a result, &-1 Aas a:le t$ tur# ar$u#! its fi#a#cial *$siti$# a#! achie5e a cl$si#( cash sur*lus $f /S]50 milli$# i# 1999.

)# the mi!st $f the $5erall *r$s*erit $f the cit , a lar(e *$$r *$*ulati$# has suffere! fr$m !e*ri5ati$# $f :asic ser5ices a#! ame#ities. )# 2000, 41T $f the *$*ulati$# li5e! i# slums a#! l$A.i#c$me h$usi#(, Aith the :ulk $f the slum resi!e#ts shari#( the Aater su**l a#! ma# li5i#( Aith$ut t$ilet facilities. 0$allenge 4$ *r$5i!e :asic ser5ices f$r a# eC*a#!e! ur:a# area a#! (r$Ai#( *$*ulati$#, a#! im*r$5e li5i#( c$#!iti$#s i# slum #ei(h:$rh$$!s i# the face $f cash l$sses a#! a !eteri$rati#( fi#a#cial situati$#. .*tion )#tr$!uce fiscal a#! ma#a(eme#t ref$rms t$ e#a:le the &-1 t$ im*r$5e a#! eC*a#! :asic ser5ices a#! i#itiate ur:a# !e5el$*me#t *r$@ects. .$/edabad :ecame the first cit i# )#!ia t$ request a#! recei5e a cre!it rati#( f$r a /uni*ipal :$#! issue. 4he /S &(e#c f$r )#ter#ati$#al 0e5el$*me#tUs +i#a#cial )#stituti$#s 3ef$rm a#!

9C*a#si$# (+)39) %r$@ect *la e! a multifacete! r$le i# assisti#( .$/edabad i# !e5el$*i#( the :$#! issue. 4he cit Aas ultimatel assi(#e! a# X&&X rati#(. %roFe*t 7es*ription and 0o/ponents( 4$ meet the #ee! f$r im*r$5e! ur:a# ser5ices, &-1 !esi(#e! a ma@$r i#5estme#t *r$(ramme! f$r Aater su**l a#! seAera(e ser5ices. 4he 1$r*$rati$# !e5el$*e! a *r$@ect that A$ul! e#sure a Aater su**l $f 180 liters *er ca*ita *er !a (l*c!) f$r the e#tire *$*ulati$# Aithi# the $l! &-1 limits. 4he *r$@ect A$ul! als$ e#ha#ce the su**l $f Aater i# the rece#tl eCte#!e! easter# areas $f the cit t$ 150 l*c!. 2ituation Before 8ef$re 1993.94, &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# Aas a l$ss.maki#( ur:a# l$cal :$! Aith accumulate! cash l$sses $f 3s. 350 milli$#. 4he &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# (&-1) im*r$5e! its fiscal *r$file fr$m 1993 t$ 1996 : i#tr$!uci#( si(#ifica#t fiscal a#! ma#a(eme#t ref$rms, Aith tech#ical assista#ce fr$m /#ite! States &(e#c f$r )#ter#ati$#al 0e5el$*me#t (/S&)0). 4hese ref$rms i#clu!e! im*r$5i#( taC c$llecti$# ($ctr$i a#! *r$*ert taC), i#tr$!uci#( a c$m*uteriBe! !$u:le e#tr acc$u#ti#( s stem, u*(ra!i#( its A$rkf$rce a#! fi#a#cial ma#a(eme#t, !e5el$*i#( a c$m*rehe#si5e ca*ital ma#a(eme#t *r$(ram, a#! $:tai#i#( a cre!it rati#( fr$m the 1re!it 3ati#( )#f$rmati$# Ser5ices $f )#!ia, 't!. (13)S)'). 4hese i##$5ati$#s lai! the (r$u#!A$rk f$r issui#( a mu#ici*al :$#!. 4he a:$5e measures :$u(ht a:$ut a tur#ar$u#! i# &-1Us fi#a#cial situati$#. 2trateg+ )# 1996, the cit t$$k a !ecisi$# t$ !e5el$* a ca*ital i#5estme#t *la# f$r fi5e ears (1996.97 t$ 2000.01) f$r i#5esti#( 3s. 5947 milli$# i# Aater su**l , seAera(e, r$a!s, :ri!(es, a#! s$li! Aaste ma#a(eme#t *r$@ects. &-1 all$cate! a ma@$r *art, 3s. 4890 milli$#, $f its ca*ital i#5estme#t *la# t$ a!!ress Aater su**l a#! seAera(e #ee!s. &-1 *r$*$se! t$ meet 30 *erce#t $f the t$tal i#5estme#t requireme#t fr$m i#ter#al accruals, Ahile m$:iliBi#( the remai#i#( am$u#t thr$u(h mu#ici*al :$#!s a#! l$a#s fr$m fi#a#cial i#stituti$#s. 7e4elop/ent %ro*ess -$e follo,ing steps ,ere ta&en in order to issue t$e bonds( 1. &-1 ($t the c$r*$rati$# cre!it rate! : a lea!i#( fi#a#cial i#stituti$#. )t recei5e! a cre!it

rati#( $f &&(S2) fr$m 13)S)'. 2. 2ctr$i c$llecti$# fr$m te# !esi(#ate! *$i#ts Aere earmarke! f$r ser5ici#( the :$#! a#! ke*t i# a# 9scr$A acc$u#t. 3. 4he cre!it rati#( Aas a:le t$ :uil! c$#fi!e#ce i# fa5$ur $f &-1. 4his c$u*le! Aith the ($$! A$rk !$#e : the c$r*$rati$# successi5el f$r three ears hel*e! &-1 i# marketi#( its fi#a#cial strate( t$ m$* u* *u:lic m$#e thr$u(h the :$#! issue f$r i#frastructure *r$@ects. 4he /S&)0 a#! ,/012 als$ *artici*ate! i# *re*ari#( !$cume#ts f$r raisi#( the :$#! issue. 4. 4he c$r*$rati$# 5er successfull hel! r$a! sh$As a#! create! a mecha#ism t$ e#sure the retur#s $# the m$#e i#5este!. 4his Aas !$#e thr$u(h a# U9scr$A acc$u#tU. 5. 4he &-1 Ae#t t$ S98) f$r the re(istrati$# $f the cit :$#!s. &-1 has the !isti#cti$# $f issui#( first *u:lic mu#ici*al :$#! i# )#!ia Aith$ut a state ($5er#me#t (uara#tee. &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# t$$k $ut the *u:lic issue $f 10, 00,000 secure! re!eema:le :$#!s i# 1998. 1it :$#!s, as it is *$*ularl k#$A#, Aere $f a face 5alue 3s. 1000 each (f$r cash at *ar) a((re(ati#( t$ a t$tal $f 3s. 100 cr$res. 4he issue $*e#e! $# 16th Ka#uar 1998 a#! cl$se! $# 27th Ka#uar 1998. 4he issue Aas $5ersu:scri:e! as a**licati$#s Aere recei5e! f$r 3s. 104.67 cr$res, the all$tme#t Aas ma!e : 24th Ka#uar 1998. 4he :$#!s Aere *ri5atel *lace!, all$tte! t$ a !$Be# )#!ia# fi#a#cial i#stituti$#s, i#clu!i#( the State 8a#k $f )#!ia, the /#it 4rust $f )#!ia, ,$usi#( 0e5el$*me#t +i#a#ce 1$r*$rati$#, c$mmercial :a#ks a#! mutual fu#!s. )# the first ear, the :$#! *r$cee!s Aere #$t use! si#ce *r$@ect !esi(#s a#! te#!ers Aere #$t rea! . 4he sec$#! ear saA the c$mme#ceme#t $f c$#structi$# a#! : -arch 31,2000 &-1 Aas a:le t$ s*e#! 3s. 915 milli$# $f t$tal :$#! *r$cee!s. 1inan*ing 4he &hme!a:a! Aater su**l a#! seAera(e *r$@ect is :ei#( fi#a#ce! fr$m #um:er $f s$urces, i#clu!i#( the i#ter#al accruals $f &-1, !e:t fr$m ca*ital markets, a l$a# fr$m /S&)0 /r:a# 9#5ir$#me#tal (/9) *r$(ram a#! l$a# fr$m fi#a#cial i#stituti$#s such as ,$usi#( a#! /r:a# 0e5el$*me#t 1$r*$rati$#s (,/012).

)# 1998, &-1 *u:licl issue! secure! re!eema:le :$#!s a((re(ati#( t$ a t$tal $f 1 :illi$# 3u*ees. 1it :$#!s, as the are *$*ularl k#$A#, ha! a face 5alue ]1,000 3u*ees (/S]25) each (f$r cash at *ar). &-1 s$l! 25T $f the :$#!s t$ the )#!ia# *u:lic a#! the remai#i#( 75T $f the issue t$ i#stituti$#al i#5est$rs /#!er *ressure $f a# im*e#!i#( Aater crisis, &-1 Aas a:le t$ ra*i!l eC*e#! :$#! *r$cee!s t$ successfull im*leme#t a# emer(e#c :ulk Aater su**l scheme k#$A# as the 3aska %r$@ect i# a rec$r! fi5e m$#ths. 0esi(#e! t$ su**l 65 milli$# (all$#s $f Aater a !a t$ the cit , the 3aska <ater %r$@ect c$#siste! $f c$#structi#( a *um* h$use a#! la i#( *i*eli#es t$ :ri#( Aater t$ 60T $f the cit Us *$*ulati$#. 4he estimate! t$tal c$st $f the emer(e#c scheme Aas 3s. 1,131 milli$#H 80 *erce#t Aas c$5ere! : the ,/012 l$a# $f 3s. 889 milli$# a#! 20 *erce#t : the :$#! *r$cee!s. &-1 full utiliBe! the :$#! *r$cee!s t$ c$m*lete this *r$@ect, as *la##e!, : -arch 2000.

)m*leme#te! the 3aska <ater Su**l *r$@ect thr$u(h ma# c$#tracts. )t A$rke! i# *art#ershi* Aith tA$ *ri5ate c$#tract$rs t$ c$$r!i#ate 32 su:c$#tract$rs fr$m all *arts $f )#!ia. 4he e#tire *r$@ect Aas c$m*lete! i# rec$r! time, 130 !a s, starti#( i# ;$5em:er 1999. 4he 3aska *r$@ect su**lies Aater t$ 60 *erce#t $f the cit 6s *$*ulati$#. 4he &-1 *r$5i!es treate! Aater t$ all resi!e#ts f$r tA$ h$urs i# the m$r#i#( a#! half a# h$ur i# the e5e#i#(. 4imel c$m*leti$# $f the *r$@ect sa5e! &hme!a:a! fr$m se5ere Aater sh$rta(e i# summer $f 2000 a#! *r$5i!e! a *erma#e#t a#! relia:le s$urce $f surface Aater f$r ears t$ c$me. &s Aell, the health state $f mu#ici*al fi#a#ces als$ e#a:le! &-1 t$ *art#er Aith the :usi#ess c$mmu#it , #$#.($5er#me#tal $r(a#iBati$#s (;=2) a#! $ther $r(a#iBati$#s t$ u#!ertake #eA i#itiati5es, i#clu!i#(H

a *art#ershi* Aith a teCtile c$m*a# t$ re!e5el$* a# im*$rta#t c$mmercial arter Q a Slum ;etA$rki#( %r$@ect i# Ahich the c$r*$rati$# *art#ere! Aith a teCtile c$m*a# , a# ;=2 a#! the slum c$mmu#it t$ im*r$5e :asic i#frastructure a#! *r$5i!e Aater a#! t$ilets t$ h$useh$l!s.

)# -arch 2002, &-1 Ae#t ahea! Aith a#$ther :$#! issue $f the same am$u#t t$ c$m*lete its $ri(i#al Aater a#! seAera(e i#frastructure scheme. 4he sec$#! :$#! is taC eCem*t. &hme!a:a!

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#esults &hme!a:a! e#@$ s a hi(h le5el $f aut$#$m i# re5e#ue use i# that it !e*e#!s $# the state ($5er#me#t f$r $#l 10T $f its t$tal re5e#ue i# the f$rm $f (ra#ts f$r *rimar e!ucati$#. )# a!!iti$#, ma#a(eme#t i##$5ati$#s i#tr$!uce! : the mu#ici*al c$mmissi$#er a#! su**$rte! : staff a#! electe! $fficials hel*e! &-1 cha#(e its ima(e am$#( the l$cal citiBe#r . 8ecause $f the fiscal a#! ma#a(eme#t ref$rms, .$/edabad :uilt a# eCte#si5e Aater *r$@ect, !e5el$*e! mutual *art#ershi*s t$ im*r$5e traffic c$#(esti$# a#! im*r$5e! c$#!iti$#s. Lessons learned .$/edabad !em$#strate! that /uni*ipal bonds ca# A$rk i# )#!ia f$r raisi#( fi#a#ces f$r i#frastructure *r$@ects. ,$Ae5er, :ef$re actual issua#ce $f bonds, l$cal ($5er#me#ts #ee! t$ i#stitute efficie#t *r$@ect ma#a(eme#t s stems a#! *r$ce!ures t$ re!uce time !ela s a#! c$st $5erru#s. 4he m$st critical fact$r f$r $:tai#i#( market fi#a#ce is a health /uni*ipal re5e#ue :ase. 0urrent 2tatus( <ith the success $f the first mu#ici*al :$#! issue, &-1 has ($#e ahea! Aith a#$ther :$#! issue $f the same am$u#t i.e. 3s. 1000 milli$#. ,$Ae5er, the sec$#! :$#! issue (issue! i# 2ct$:er 2001) is taC eCem*t. &-1 is a(ai# the first mu#ici*al c$r*$rati$# i# )#!ia t$ issue taC free mu#ici*al :$#!s. 4his :$#! Aill :e use! t$ c$m*lete its $ri(i#al Aater a#! seAera(e i#frastructure scheme. 2u//ar+ )# Ka#uar 1998, the &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# issue! mu#ici*al :$#!s f$r 3s. 1000 milli$#. 4he issue Aas !esi(#e! t$ *artiall fi#a#ce a 3s. 4890 milli$# Aater su**l a#! seAera(e *r$(ram. 4his Aas a remarka:le achie5eme#t as it Aas the first mu#ici*al :$#! issue i# )#!ia Aith$ut a state ($5er#me#t (uara#tee a#! it re*rese#te! the first ste* t$Aar!s full market. :ase! s stem $f l$cal ($5er#me#t fi#a#ce. & 75 *er ce#t *ri5ate a#! 25 *er ce#t *u:lic issue rate! &&(S2) : 1re!it 3ati#( )#f$rmati$# Ser5ices $f )#!ia 't!. (13)S)'), i#!icati#( a hi(h !e(ree $f certai#t a:$ut timel re*a me#t, (a5e m$me#tum t$ a (r$Ai#( #ati$#al c$#se#sus that mu#ici*al :$#!s *r$5i!e a *r$misi#( alter#ati5e f$r fi#a#ci#( ur:a# i#frastructure.

1. -u#ici*al :$#!s mecha#ism ca# A$rk i# )#!ia f$r raisi#( fi#a#ces f$r i#frastructure *r$@ects. 2. +$r m$**i#( u* fu#!s thr$u(h a :$#! issue, the c$r*$rati$# sh$ul! ha5e cre!it rati#( 3. 4he l$cal :$! must ha5e !etaile! *r$@ect *r$*$sals rea! f$r im*leme#tati$# t$ e#sure quick utiliBati$# $f fu#!s. &ll the ur:a# l$cal :$!ies, Ah$se fi#a#cial *$siti$# is ($$!, a#! Ah$ ha5e a ($$! cre!i:ilit a#! a s$u#! track rec$r!, ca# ($ f$r mu#ici*al :$#!s t$ raise m$#e f$r i#frastructure !e5el$*me#t.

G?N909%.L B@N72( & 8$#! has (ai#e! im*$rta#ce as s$urces $f fu#!s f$r ur:a# :$!ies. -u#ici*alities raise fu#!s !irectl fr$m the market : issue $f :$#!s $r thr$u(h a fi#a#cial i#ter.me !iar calle! s*ecial *ur*$se 5ehicle (S%>). 4he mai# !iffere#ce :etAee# !irect market :$rr$Ai#(s $r fi#a#cial i#terme!iar r$ute is that i# the case $f f$rmer, it is the mu#ici*al c$r*$rati$#, Ahich A$ul! :e rate!, a#! als$ the fu#cti$#i#( a#! a**raisal ca*a:ilities $f the i#ter.me !iar e5aluate!. Bonds *an broadl+ di4ide into t,o *ategories( 1C 8eneral obligation bonds( =2 :$#!s are secure! : the u#limite! taCi#( *$Aer $f the mu#ici*al c$r*$rati$# a#! are ser5ice! $ut $f taC re5e#ues a#! assets $f c$r*$rati$#. =2 :$#!s are (e#erall *r$5i!e facilit f$r taC eCem*ti$# t$ the i#5est$r a#! ha5e a l$Aer c$st $f :$rr$Ai#( 4here als$ referre! t$ as full faith a#! create $:li(ati$# !ue t$ !i5ersit $f securit *r$5i!e!. 4he :$#!s issue! : the &-1 &hme!a:a! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$# are =2 :$#!s $f cre!it rati#( Aas :ase! $# the t$tal re5e#ue c$llecti$# : the mu#ici*alit . 2C #e4enue bonds( 38 :$#!s are tie! t$ a *r$@ect is issue! f$r a s*ecifie! *r$@ect. &s a result feasi:ilit a#al sis $f *r$@ect is esse#tial :ef$re the issues $f 38.;et re5e#ue fr$m the *r$@ects after meeti#( *r$@ect.$*erati#( eC*e#ses are *le!(e! t$ :$#! h$l!ers. 4hus 38 creates l$cal re5e#ue aAare #ess re(ar!i#( the *r$@ect, its ser5ice a#! e#ha#ce the efficie#c $f the mu#ici*al c$r*$rati$#. 38s are #$t c$#si!ere! as *u:lic !e:t $f the ($5er#me#t, a#! are #$t c$#strai#e! as !eficit fi#a#ci#(. )# sh$rt, :$#!s ha5e a (reat *$te#tial c$#si!eri#( the ur(e#t #ee! $f ur:a# i#frastructure *r$@ects, thr$u(h it #ecessitates a !e5el$*e! :$#! market t$ *r$5i!e liqui!it t$ A$ul! :e

:$#!sH 'e(islati5e cha#(es em*$Aeri#( l$cal ($5er#me#ts t$ raise res$urcesH fi#a#cial *ru!e#ce am$#( ($5er#me#ts a#! certai# fiscal i#ce#ti5es f$r i#5estme#t i# :$#!s.

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B3#7 .G3N7G3N4he c$#stituti$# (73r! ame#!me#t) &ct 1992 has a!!e! a #eA *art )M c$#sisti#( $f 16 articles a#! 11 sche!ules t$ the c$#stituti$#. 4he 73r! &me#!me#t &ct e#5isa(es the (ram sa:ha as the f$u#!ati$# $f the *a#cha at ra@ s stem t$ *erf$rm fu#cti$#s a#! *$Aers e#truste! t$ the state le(islati$#. 4he &me#!me#t *r$5i!es a three tier *a#cha at ra@ s stem i# the 5illa(e a#! i#terme!iate !istrict le5el. &ct 243, 243 & t$ 243 2 A$ul! ha5e !escri:e! the features $f the &me#!me#t act 243 !efi#iti$# such as !istrict (ram sa:ha, i#terme!iate le5el *a#cha at area, *$*ulati$# 5illa(e etc. 243 & D the fu#cti$#s a#! *$Aers $f =ram Sa:ha. 243 8 D !eals Aith the c$#stituti$# $f the *a#cha at. 243 1 D relates t$ the c$m*$siti$# $f the *a#cha at. 243 0 D reser5ati$# f$r the sche!ule cast a#! sche!ule tri:es a#! A$me# $f sche!ule cast. 243 9 D it stress t$ the !urati$# $f the *a#cha at such as the *eri$! $f fi5e ears a#! electi$# as ma#!at$r i# this *eri$!. 243 + D !isqualificati$# $f the mem:ershi* $f the *a#cha at. 243 =. !eals Aith the *$Aers, auth$rities a#! res*$#si:ilities $f the *a#cha ats. 243 , D the le(islature $f a state ma : laA auth$riBe a *a#cha at t$ im*$se taCes a#! fu#!s $f the *a#cha at. 243 ) D it !eals Aith the c$#stituti$# $f fi#a#ce c$mmissi$# t$ fi#a#cial *$siti$#. 243 K D mai#te#a#ce $f the acc$u#ts : the *a#cha at a#! the au!iti#( $f such acc$u#ts. 243 L D !eals Aith *re*arati$# $f elect$ral rules f$r the c$#!uct $f all electi$# t$ the *a#cha ats. 243 ' D the *r$5isi$# $f the *art shall a**l t$ the u#i$# territ$r -e(hala a a#! -iB$ram a#! hill area $f -a#i*ur.

243 - D this *art #$t t$ a**l t$ certai# areas such as -e(hala a a#! -iB$ram hill area $f -a#i*ur, hill area $f 0ar@li#( i# Aest 8e#(al state etc. 243 2 D this *art refers t$ the i#fere#ce : the c$urt a#! the elect$ral matters.

B4-< .G3N7G3N%art )M & has :ee# a!!e! t$ the c$#stituti$# : the c$#stituti$# 74 th ame#!me#t act 1992. 4his ame#!me#t has a!!e! 18 #eA articles a#! a #eA tAelfth sche!ules relati#( t$ the ur:a# l$cal :$!ies i# the c$#stituti$# &ct 243 % t$ 243 E = $f *art )M & ha5e :ee# !eclare! :el$A. 243 % D this *art !eals Aith the !efi#iti$# such as c$mmittee, !istrict metr$*$lita# area, mu#ici*al area, mu#ici*alit , *a#cha at at *$*ulati$# etc. 243 I D c$#stituti$# $f mu#ici*alities such as #a(ar *a#cha at mu#ici*al c$u#cil a#! -u#ici*al 1$r*$rati$#. 243 3 D c$m*$siti$# $f mu#ici*alities. 243 S D !eals Aith the c$#stituti$# a#! c$m*$siti$# $f Aar! a#! c$mmittee etc. 243 4 D !eals Aith the reser5ati$# $f seats t$ the sche!ule cast?tri:es a#! A$ma# :el$#( t$ that cast. 243 / D !eals Aith the !urati$# $f mu#ici*alities. 243 > D !eals Aith the !isqualificati$# $f the mem:ershi*. 243 < D this *art !eals Aith the *$Aer a#! auth$rities $f the mu#ici*alities. 243 M D this *art refer t$ the *$Aer t$ im*$se taCes : a#! fu#!s $f the mu#ici*alities. 243 " D !eals Aith the fi#a#cial c$mmissi$# c$#stitutes t$ re5ieA the fi#a#cial *$siti$# $f the mu#ici*alities.

243 E D this *art !eals the au!it $f acc$u#ts $f mu#ici*alities. 243 E& D !eals Aith the electi$# $f the mu#ici*alities. 243 E8 D this *art $f act shall :e a**lie! $# the u#i$# territ$r . 243 E1 D this *art #$t t$ a**l t$ certai# sche!ule areas. 243 E0 D this *art !eals Aith the c$#stituti$# c$mmittee f$r !istrict *la##i#( t$ c$#s$li!ate! the *la#s *re*are! : the *a#cha at a#! the mu#ici*alities i# the !istrict a#! t$ *re*are a !raft !e5el$*me#t *la# f$r the !istrict as a Ah$le. 243 E9 D !eals Aith the c$#stituti$# $f metr$*$lita# *la##i#( c$mmittee. 243 E+ D !eals Aith the c$#ti#uati$# $f eCisti#( laAs mu#ici*alities i# f$rce. 243 E= D this *art !eals Aith the i#terfere#ce : c$urt i# elect$ral matter.

(ntroduction to the planning

4$A# %la##i#( is c$#cer#e!, i# *art, Aith harm$# , !eli(ht a#! efficie#c . .8ut : far its m$st im*$rta#t as*ectif #$t its 5er *ur*$seis the stu! $f the Aa s $f arra#(i#( :uil!i#( s*aces a#! acti5ities s$ that Ae all ca# m$re easil e#@$ A$rk a#! *la t$ the fullest *$ssi:le eCte#t. 4$!a *la##i#( is a task f$r ma# *e$*le Ah$ A$rk as a team c$m*risi#( eC*erts a#! $r!i#ar citiBe#s, a !a t$!a ci5ic res*$#si:ilit requiri#( a 5ariet $f s$cial a#! *r$fessi$#al skills :r$u(ht t$(ether t$ suit the #ee!s $f the *r$:lem at ha#!. )# $ur li5es Ae are all *la##ers i# that Ae attem*t t$ $r(a#iBe $ur acti5ities i# a mea#i#(ful a#! *ur*$seful Aa . Similarl , Ae tr t$ arra#(e $ur *ers$#al *$ssessi$#s als$. Godern urban planning issues -$!em ur:a# *la##i#( theref$re em:races all the i#tricate relati$#shi*s Ahich eCist :etAee# 5ari$us le5els $f ($5er#me#t. )t must c$m*rehe#! i# s$me $r!erl Aa the *h sical results $f

!ecisi$#s Ahich s$metimes ha5e :ee# ma!e Aith$ut re(ar! t$, the Ai!er s$cial a#! e#5ir$#me#tal *r$:lems. &ll such *la##i#( questi$#s ha5e $#e 5er si(#ifica#t fact$r i# c$mm$#. 4he s$luti$#s t$ the *r$:lems the raise !e*e#! $# a!mi#istrati5e c$$*erati$# a#! @$i#t acti$#. <e are $#l @ust :e(i##i#( t$ rec$(#iBe the truth $f this *r$*$siti$#. 4he ma@$r task l i#( ahea! $f t$!a Us ($5er#me#tal a#! a!mi#istrati5e lea!ers is t$ !e5ise #eA strate(ies a#! *r$ce!ures Ahich Aill e#sure c$lla:$rati$# #$t $#l :etAee# *u:lic a#! *ri5ate a(e#cies, :ut :etAee# the *u:lic a(e#cies themsel5es, at e5er le5el $f $*erati$#.

Challenge before planning

4he ur:a# *la##er Aill *la a ma@$r *art i# the A$rki#( $ut $f these #eA strate(ies, a#! i# hel*i#( t$ !efi#e the c$mmu#it $:@ecti5es $# Ahich the must :e :ase!. )# sh$rt, ur:a# *la##i#( is a# acti5it Ah$se fr$#tiers are :ei#( c$#sta#tl eCte#!e! t$ i#clu!e m$st $f the *h sical a#! s$cial !etermi#a#ts $f c$#tem*$rar ur:a# life. &t its heart, *la##i#( is c$#cer#e! Aith *e$*le Aith e#ha#ci#( their c$mf$rt, c$#5e#ie#ce, a#! s*iritual 5aluesa#! Aith !e5isi#( the m$st acce*ta:le *h sical frameA$rk f$r huma# acti5it i# $ur metr$*$lita# ci5iliBati$#. ?rban planning e/bra*es a 4ariet+ of a*ti4ities: ,$i*$ $a4e all originated in and are *on*erned ,it$ t$e p$+si*al and so*ial fabri* of urban life.C-$e pri/e fun*tions of planning are to i/pro4e t$e p$+si*al settings of our publi* and pri4ate li4es: and to enri*$ t$e relations$ip bet,een /an and $is natural en4iron/ent . N3I -@ 2?00322 4he *la##er t$!a must (i5e i#creasi#( atte#ti$# t$ the s$cial a#! ec$#$mic as*ects $f ur:a# (r$Ath .a small *la##i#( *r$:lem Aill usuall require m$re tha# $#e $*i#i$#, Ahilst a lar(e *r$@ect Aill alm$st certai#l require the eff$rts $f $#e $r m$re *la##i#( teams (r$u*s $f eC*erts each $f Ah$m c$#tri:utes his $A# s*ecialist k#$Ale!(e t$Aar!s a s$luti$# $f the c$mm$# *r$:lem.

)#creasi#(l *la##i#( is :ec$mi#( a task aime! at achie5i#( c$$r!i#ati$# $f eff$rt #$t $#l :etAee# *ri5ate a#! *u:lic !e5el$*ers :ut :etAee# the 5ari$us *u:lic a(e#cies themsel5es. )t is surel $#e $f the (reat challe#(es $f ur:a# ($5t t$ *r$!uce the mea#s Ahere: c$.c$$r!i#ate!.

Significance of public participation

4hus Ae reach t$ the c$#clusi$# that *la##i#( is #$ l$#(er a $#e ma# @$: .a small *r$:lem Aill usuall require m$re tha# $#e $*i#i$#, Ahilst a lar(e *r$@ect Aill alm$st certai#l require the eff$rts $f $#e $r m$re *la##i#( teams D(r$u*s $f eC*erts each $f Ah$m c$#tri:utes his $A# s*ecialist k#$Ale!(e t$Aar!s a s$luti$# $f the c$mm$# *r$:lem. 4$!a #$ *la##er *rete#!s t$ :e full c$#5ersa#t Aith all the !etails a#! c$m*leCities $f his @$:.s$ the *la##er Ahether he :e i# the ($5er#me#t $r *ri5ate *ractice calls $# eC*erts t$ @$i# the Ahat Ae call i#flue#ci#( *e$*le i# that re(i$# Ahat Ae call *e$*les *artici*ati$#. )#creasi#(l *la##i#( is :ec$mi#( a task aime! at the c$$r!i#ati$# $f eff$rt #$t $#l :etAee# *ri5ate a#! *u:lic !e5el$*ers :ut als$ :etAee# the 5ari$us *u:lic a(e#cies themsel5es. )t is surel $#e $f the (reatest challe#(es $f the ur:a# ($5er#me#t t$ *r$!uce the mea#s Ahere: c$$r!i#ate!.

Peoples Role in Public Participation

Ae shall :e l$$ki#( i# *articular at *e$*le a#! the !iffere#t r$les the ca# *la i# the *la##i#( *r$cess. )t Aill :e see# that a# i#!i5i!ual $r a (r$u* ca# *la m$re tha# $#e r$le, a#! that the r$le at a# $#e time Aill :e c$#!iti$#e! : the ki#! $f *r$:lem Ahich is faci#( them a#! : the res$urces Ahich the ma :e a:le t$ $ffer i# meeti#( that *r$:lem. 9ach *r$:lem Aill ha5e its $A# *articular c$m:i#ati$# $f *$litical, fi#a#cial, s$cial a#! (e$(ra*hical c$#!iti$#s Ahich make it i# s$me !e(ree !iffere#t fr$m $ther *r$:lems. 8ut if the *r$:lems are all u#ique, the *e$*le :ehi#! them ca# :e r$u(hl classifie! i#t$ $#e $r $ther $f se5eral *rimar cate($ries.

-<3 09-9R3N <e are all citiBe#s. <e li5e i# $ur *articular c$mmu#it , hel* elect $ur lea!ers a#! *a rates a#! taCes Ahich fi#a#ce the c$mmu#it %r$(ress. <eather Ae are als$ citiBe#s $f the state i# Ahich Ae ha**e# t$ li5e a#! the #ati$#. +urtherm$re, m$st $f us $Ae a l$ alt t$ a f$urth u#it$ur l$cal ($5er#me#t c$u#cil Ahich le5ies rates a#! *r$5i!es us Aith 5er real #ee!s such as l$cal r$a!s, *arks a#! li:raries 4hus $ur ci5ic l$ alties are s t $ur Aa s. 2ur i#terests a#! *artici*ati$# i# ci5ic affairs Aill !e*e#! a (reat !eal $# h$A Ae 5ieA $ur relati$#shi* Aith each le5el $f ($5er#me#t, a#! $# Ahat Ae sta#! t$ (ai# $r l$se fr$m such ($5t as a result $f *artici*ati$# $r their i#ter5e#ti$# i# their acti5ities. <hate5er its f$rm, citiBe#shi* im*lies res*$#si:ilities a#! $:li(ati$#s it $ffers t$ th$se s$ i#cli#e! the $**$rtu#it t$ *artici*ate i#ci5ic lea!ershi* a#! their : t$ *la a *art i# sha*i#( the affairs $f the c$mmu#it i#clu!i#( ur:a# *la##i#(. &t the state, re(i$#al a#! l$cal le5els there are a (r$Ai#( #um:er $f 2**$rtu#ities f$r citiBe#s t$ *la their *art i# the maki#( $f *la#s a#! i# the !e5el$*me#t $f :etter c$mmu#ities. 4his is es*eciall s$ at the l$cal le5el Ahere t$A# *la##i#( has f$r a l$#( time :ee# a matter $f *$*ular c$#cer# as Aell as a statut$r $*erati$# u#!er the c$#tr$l $f the l$cal shire $r mu#ici*al c$u#cil. 09-9R3N .2 0L93N4he citiBe# is the mai#sta $f $ur !em$cratic s$ciet , a#! res*ect f$r his ri(hts is ce#tral t$ $ur c$#stituti$#al $utl$$k a#! t$ a le(islati5e *r$ce!ures. &s a mem:er $f c$mmu#it , he is e#title! t$ a!! his 5$ice t$ the 5$ice $f the c$mmu#it . +urtherm$re, the c$mmu#it , is the Uultimate clie#tU $f all $ur *la##i#( e#!ea5$rs at l$cal $r #ati$#al le5els #$ matter Ah$ actuall !raAs the *la#s, $A#s the la#!, fi#!s the m$#e , $r rea*s the reAar!s, if a# the c$mmu#it is the ultimate :e#eficiar $f ($$! *la##i#( a# the 5ictim $f :a!& *$$rl *la##e! h$usi#( estate ma #$t lea! its :uil!er t$ :a#kru*tc :ut it Aill c$#stitute a lia:ilit Ahich the c$mmu#it as a Ah$le must carr f$r ma# !eca!es.

%la##i#( im*lies the th$u(htful use $f res$urces, a#! s$ Ae ca# sa that a Aellru# c$u#cil Aill as a matter $f c$urse see that *u:lic m$#e is Aisel s*e#t i# $:tai#i#( s$u#! *r$fessi$#al hel* a#! (i5i#( the c$mmu#it the :e#efits $f careful *la##i#( thr$u(h the a5$i!a#ce $f *$$r !e5el$*me#t, !istur:a#ce t$ ame#it , a#! s$ $#.

-<3 09-9R3N .2 B?9L73# 4he t$tal ur:a# e#5ir$#me#t at a *articular *$i#t $f time is 5er much the sum $f its *arts, a#! m$st $f these *arts c$#sist $f the c$u#tless mi#$r cha#(es a#! a!!iti$#s Ahich are :ei#( carrie! $ut : i#!i5i!uals acti#( i# their tem*$rar ca*acit $f :uil!er $r la#!sca*e (ar!e#er $r Ahat $u Ai# =e#erall s*eaki#(, #$ matter h$A small, there are 5er feA !e5el$*me#t *r$@ects Ahich are e#tirel a *ri5ate matter. -<3 09-9R3N .2 %L.NN3# 2ur thir! 5ieA $f the citiBe# sees him i# his r$le as a *la##er. +$r the ma@$rit $f *e$*le li5i#( a#! A$rki#( i# the t *ical ur:a# situati$#, this r$le is a *$te#tial rather tha# a# actual $#e :ecause a# effecti5e mecha#ism : Ahich citiBe#s ca# *la a reall fruitful a#! creati5e *art i# $ur 5ari$us $fficial *la##i#( s stems has #$t $:@ecti#( i# the le(al se#se $f the A$r!. 4his lea!s us t$ the $:ser5ati$# that $ur *la##i#( laAs te#! t$ reflect the questi$#a:le *hil$s$*h that *la##i#( is the s$le *rer$(ati5e $f the *r$fessi$#al, a#! that citiBe# *artici*ati$# is limite! t$ the cha#ce t$ $:@ect at certai# Aell!efi#e! sta(es i# the *r$cess. 4$!a , Ae ca# see a A$rl!Ai!e tre#! aAa fr$m this #e(ati5e a**r$ach t$ $#e, Ahich rec$(#iBe that ma# i#telli(e#t citiBe#s #$t $#l are ca*a:le $f maki#( useful c$#tri:uti$#s t$ a *la# :ut are actuall ea(er t$ !$ s$. <he# this e#li(hte#e! 5ieA is ack#$Ale!(e! i# $ur *la##i#( le(islati$# Ae Aill at last :e a:le t$ s*eak $f the citiBe# as *la##er a#! #$t merel as a statut$r $:@ect$r. -<3 09H90 8#@?% et :ee# !e5ise!. &# h$#est $ur a#! his i#5$l5eme#t i# *la##i#( A$ul! sh$A that i# the (reat ma@$rit $f cases he Aill :e f$u#!

S$ far Ae ha5e l$$ke! at the i#!i5i!ual citiBe# as clie#t $r :uil!er $r *la##er *artici*ati#( i# s$me Aa i# *la##i#( *r$cess. :ut citiBe#s als$ act i# (r$u*s Ahich *la a 5ariet $f r$les i# *la##i#( . <hat eCactl is a citiBe#s (r$u* Ahat ca# such a (r$u* achie5e i# the fiel!s $f ur:a# *la##i#(. 4 *icall , the citiBe#sU (r$u*, Ahich :ec$mes i#5$l5e! i# *la##i#(, usuall has Ua# aCe t$ (ri#!U. 4he $l! maCim u#it is stre#(thUis the m$tt$ $f hu#!re!s $f ci5ic c$mmittees, *r$(ress a#! *r$test ass$ciati$#s, ame#it s$cieties, acti$# c$mmittees, rate*a ersU ass$ciati$#s a#! the like, that are c$#stitute! either t$ $**$se $r $:@ect t$ a *articular !e5el$*me#t *r$@ect $r t$ act as a c$mmu#it Aatch!$( $5era *eri$! $f time. )t is *erha*s u#f$rtu#ate that alth$u(h these :$!ies are esse#tial t$ !em$cratic *r$cesses, their li5es are $fte# sh$rt a#! their acti5ities te#! t$ :e either !efe#si5e a#! #e(ati5e i# $utl$$k, $r else c$#cer#e! Aith mi#$r im*r$5eme#ts $f limite! if c$smetic 5alue. 4his is #$t t$ su((est that such citiBe#sU (r$u*s ha5e #$ *$siti5e r$le i# ur:a# affairs. )# fact, Ahe# the are Aell $r(a#iBe! Aith ($$! lea!ershi* the *r$5i!e a# effecti5e check t$ hast $r irres*$#si:le :ureaucratic !ecisi$#s. +$r this reas$# al$#e Ae shall alAa s #ee! such (r$u*s. ,$Ae5er, there is a m$re creati5e a#! c$#structi5e r$le aAaiti#( the ci5ic ass$ciati$# Ahich sets itself the aim #$t $#l $f eC*$si#( the Aeak#esses i# $fficial *$lic maki#( :ut $f acti5el c$#tri:uti#( t$Aar!s the f$rmulati$# $f :etter *$licies a#! *la#s. ,ere a(ai# Ae c$me face t$ face Aith the statut$r *la##i#( s stem. ;$t $#e $f $ur state *la##i#( s stems c$#tem*lates usi#( the res$urces $f ci5ic (r$u*s !uri#( the earl sta(es $f sur5e , ($al !efi#iti$# a#! *la# *re*arati$#. &s Aith the i#!i5i!ual citiBe#, *r$5isi$# is ma!e f$r #e(ati5e $:@ecti$#s rather tha# f$r *$siti5e c$#tri:uti$#s. 4hus Ae ca# see that f$r the, citiBe#, Ahether he acts as a# i#!i5i!ual $r as a mem:er $f a (r$u*, the $**$rtu#ities f$r acti5e *artici*ati$# i# *la##i#( are feA. &t *rese#t the are #$t $#l limite! i# sc$*e :ut are frustrati#( t$ th$se m$re i#tereste! i# *r$(ress tha# i# *r$tests. -<3 .7GG2-#.-@# .N7 -<3 %L.NN3# 4he a:$5e situati$# *$ses *r$:lems f$r the ur:a# *la##er. 2# the $#e ha#! he is i# a ($$! *$siti$# t$ esta:lish a fruitful relati$#shi* Aith the l$cal a!mi#istrat$r :ecause the are :$th c$#cer#e! Aith the :r$a! s*ectrum $f '$cal affairs. 2# the $ther, he is likel t$ :e accuse! $f

tres*assi#( Ahe# he c$#cer#s himself Aith the s*ecialist acti5ities $f a -ai# 3$a!s 8$ar! $r a ,$usi#( 1$mmissi$# $r a ,ar:$r 4rust. <e are :ack t$ the $ftre*eate! !ilemmaH h$A !$ Ae achie5e a c$$*erati5e relati$#shi* :etAee# the s*ecialist a(e#cies $f hi(her ($5er#me#t a#! the (e#eralist *la##ers at the l$cal le5elY &t this *$i#t it A$ul! :e eas t$ !es*air :ut i# se5eral states there are h$*eful si(#s as *$liticia#s a#! a!mi#istrat$rs :e(i# t$ take ur:a# *la##i#( seri$usl . 9ach state is e5$l5i#( its $A# s stem f$r :ri#(i#( a:$ut a m$re effecti5e c$$r!i#ati$# $f statut$r :$!ies, ($5er#me#t !e*artme#ts, a#! l$cal go4ern/ent u#its. 8ut Ae ha5e a l$#( Aa t$ ($. 7ebate on publi* pri4ate affairs -$e 7e4eloper%ri4ate and %ubli* )f a *la# is t$ :e :r$u(ht t$ realit la#! a#! m$#e are $:5i$us requireme#ts. )# fact, if the *la#.is a ($$! $#e it Aill ha5e :ee# :ase! $# a th$r$u(h k#$Ale!(e $f the la#! t$ Ahich refers, a#! it Aill ha5e i#c$r*$rate! i#t$ its *r$5isi$#s all the fi#a#cial i#f$rmati$# #ecessar t$ sh$A h$A the :e#efits $f im*leme#tati$# Aill $utAei(h the c$sts. 4$!a , Ae are :etter a:le t$ make *r$*er c$m*arati5e assessme#ts $f these :e#efits a#! c$sts. &s Ae c$#ti#ue $ur !iscussi$# $f *e$*le i# *la##i#( Ae Aill !escri:e the r$le $f the *ri5ate a#! *u:lic !e5el$*ers as the i#5estme#t *r$:lems. -uch $f Ahat Ae ha5e t$ sa a**lies equall t$ *u:lic a#! *ri5ate !e5el$*ers. 8$th ha5e t$ assem:le m$#e a#! la#!Q :$th ha5e t$ u#!ersta#! the 5ari$us le(al a#! fi#a#cial restricti$#s a#! limitati$#s $# their acti5itiesQ :$th ha5e t$ acc$u#t f$r their $*erati$#s i# s$me f$rmal Aa . 8ut there are als$ si(#ifica#t !iffere#ces :etAee# the aims a#! meth$!s $f *ri5ate a#! *u:lic !e5el$*ers. <e sh$ul! k#$A s$methi#( a:$ut these !iffere#ces, a#! a:$ut the Aa i#flue#ce the character $f $ur *la#s a#! $ur *la##i#( *$licies. the seek the :est ec$#$mic a#sAers t$ *articular !e5el$*me#t a#!

De!elopmentLand) %oney) People) Plans

4he actual c$#structi$# is $#l $#e as*ect $f the t$tal !e5el$*me#tal *r$cess. 0e5el$*me#t, like *la##i#(, ma :e(i# l$#( :ef$re A$rk $# the site c$mme#ces, a#! c$#ti#ue :e $#! the c$#structi$# *eri$! till the la#! a#! :uil!i#(s are full i# use acc$r!i#( t$ the i#te#ti$#s $f the *la#. 4$ :e(i# Aith la#! a#! m$#e ha5e t$ :e assem:le! at the ri(ht time a#! i# the ri(ht *laceQ i!eas eCami#e! a#! A$rke! $ut $# *a*erQ a#! le(al as*ects !ealt Aith. 4he 5ieAs, a#! *erha*s the a**r$5al, $f ma# !iffere#t ($5er#me#t :$!ies ma :e i#5$l5e! as Aell. &fter all this a c$#tract$r has t$ :e selecte! a#! his A$rk su*er5ise! !uri#( the term $f the c$#tract. '$a#s, fees a#! c$sts the# ha5e t$ :e *ai! a#! acc$u#te! f$r.i# A$rki#( $ut a *r$@ect se5eral !iffere#t *arties ma :e i#5$l5e!H the $A#ers $f the la#!Q the *la##i#( a(e#ciesQ the actual !e5el$*erQ the tech#ical a#! le(al a!5isersQ the *u:lic auth$ritiesQ the m$#e le#!i#( a(e#ciesQ a#! s$ $#. S$metimes Ae fi#! that tA$ $r m$re $f these *arties ma :e c$m:i#e! $r ass$ciate! i# s$me Aa . -a# m$!em !e5el$*ers ha5e the su**$rt $f !esi(#ers, *la##ers, fi#a#ciers a#! $ther eC*erts Aithi# their $A# $r(a#iBati$#. )# the case $f a l$cal *la##i#( *r$@ect s*$#s$re! : a c$u#cil, the !e5el$*me#t ma take the f$rm $f a *art#ershi* Ahere: the l$cal auth$rit :u s the la#! a#! *re*ares a# $utli#e *la# Ahilst the actual !e5el$*me#t a#! ma#a(eme#t $f the *r$@ect Aill :e carrie! $ut : a *ri5ate !e5el$*er Ah$ e#ters i#t$ a s*ecial fi#a#cial arra#(eme#t Aith the s*$#s$ri#( c$u#cil) %?BL90 .N7 %#9H.-3 8asicall !e5el$*ers ma :e classifie! i# tA$ (r$u*s*u:lic a#! *ri5ate. %u:lic !e5el$*me#t a(e#cies i#clu!e the !e*artme#ts $f state a#! fe!eral ($5er#me#t, l$cal c$u#cils, statut$r :$!ies, u#i5ersities a#! h$s*itals. %ri5ate !e5el$*ers i#clu!e *ri5ate i#!i5i!uals $r *ri5atel $A#e! !e5el$*me#t c$m*a#ies, i#sura#ce c$m*a#ies, a!mi#istrat$rs $f trust fu#!s, a#! the :i( *u:lic c$m*a#ies Ah$se shares are liste! $# the st$ck eCcha#(es $f $ur ca*ital cities. <ithi# these tA$ (r$u*s there are $ther i#teresti#( su:(r$u*s. +$r eCam*le the *ri5ate !e5el$*er usuall $*erates Aith $#e $f three i#te#ti$#s. ,e ma :e a s*eculat$r, i# Ahich case he :uil!s f$r sale a#! a quick *r$fit. ,e ma :e a# i#5est$r Ahere he :uil!s f$r letti#( $r leasi#(. ,e ma sim*l :e c$#cer#e! Aith :uil!i#( f$r his $A# use a#! $ccu*ati$#. 8 c$#trast, *u:lic !e5el$*ers ca# :e !isti#(uishe! : c$#si!eri#( Ahether $r #$t their $*erati$# is Uremu#erati5eU. <he# a c$u#cil !eci!es t$ re!e5el$* its la#! i# the t$A# 1e#tre it Aill certai#l :e c$#cer#e!

Aith $:tai#i#( a cash retur#Q if it is :uil!i#( r$a!s $r a #eA seAa(e *la#t there Aill :e #$ cash retur# :ut the :e#efits Aill accrue i# $ther Aa s. Towards a solution

Ne+ -er/ 4he ke term i# this res*ect is Xpubli* parti*ipationX. 4his c$#ce*t i#tr$!uces a 5ariet $f *r$:lems, es*eciall $f a le(al a#! c$#stituti$#al #ature. 4hese *r$:lems #$t $#l c$#cer# the ($5er#me#tQ i# ma# cases the *$*ulati$# als$ has ma# questi$#s a:$ut this r$le. ,$Ae5er, se5eral c$u#tries ha5e lear#e! : eC*erie#ce that the i#teracti$# :etAee# ($5er#me#t a#! citiBe#s ca# :e fruitful a#! that there is str$#( s$cial su**$rt f$r @$i#t res*$#si:ilit i# tackli#( a#! s$l5i#( the *r$:lems Aith res*ect t$ the e#5ir$#me#t. )# ma# cases this *artici*ati$# is c$#si!ere! a# im*$rta#t eleme#t i# !em$cratic !e5el$*me#t, :ase! $# mutual res*ect a#! c$#fi!e#ce. 4he last hu#!re! ears ha5e see# treme#!$us (r$Ath i# A$rl! *$*ulati$#, a#! i# the

c$#ce#trati$# $f *$*ulati$# i# hu(e cities. 4he m$!em cit is #$t $#l *h sicall :i(. <ith its i#tricate Ae: $f c$m*leC mecha#ical, h !raulic a#! electrical ser5ices, it is als$ a 5er s$*histicate! tech#$l$(ical *he#$me#$#. )t is hi(hl !e*e#!e#t $# these ser5icesQ if the are i#a!equate $r fault , !isaster ma result. +$r eCam*le, a :lack$ut a#! *$Aer failure i# a cit ca# :ri#( the e#tire cit t$ a halt a#! cause Ai!es*rea! c$#fusi$# a#! sufferi#(. )# lar(e cities, ma#Us eff$rts at successfull $r!eri#( his e#5ir$#me#t are :eset Aith !ifficulties. &s (r$Ath c$#ti#ues, it :ec$mes less eas t$ attai# $r!er, efficie#c , a#! c$#5e#ie#ce. <e c$me t$ acce*t as #$rmal the u#health characteristics $f the m$!er# cit the slums, sm$(, *$lluti$#, c$#(esti$#. &#! al$#(si!e these *h sical !is$r!ers are the (ra5e s$cial !is$r!ers $f l$#eli#ess, !istrust $f auth$rit , alie#ati$#, *$5ert , a#! the !a#(ers $f ci5il !istur:a#ce a#! a!mi#istrati5e :reak!$A#. %r$*erl !irecte! ur:a# (r$Ath ca# lea! t$ s$cial, *h sical a#! ec$#$mic im*r$5eme#t. 4his ki#! $f *r$(ress is im*licit i# the *hil$s$*h $f m$!er# situati$# $#l thr$u(h the health *e$*le6s *artici*ati$#.

09-9R3N2> %.#-909%.-9@N Aa detailed stud+C &# i#!i5i!ual citiBe# is m$re !irectl affecte! : l$cal ($5er#me#t a!mi#istrati$# tha# : the *$licies $f the /#i$# a#! State =$5er#me#ts. )t is at this le5el that ser5ices like r$a! mai#te#a#ce, street li(hti#(, traffic c$#tr$l, firefi(hti#(, Aater su**l , tra#s*$rt a#! :uil!i#( re(ulati$#s strike h$me t$ e5er $#e. 4he attitu!es t$Aar!s *u:lic a!mi#istrati$# are (e#eral i# #ature a#! the are usuall sha*e! : *ers$#al c$#tacts. Si#ce the citiBe#Us !eali#( Aith the l$cal ($5er#me#t is cl$ser a#! m$re freque#t, *u:lic a!mi#istrati$# at the l$cal le5el assumes a critical im*$rta#ce. ;$t $#l this, Ahile A$rki#( f$r the im*r$5eme#t $f cit ($5er#me#t, a l$cal auth$rit must e#!ea5$r als$ t$ secure (reater a#! :etter u#!ersta#!i#( fr$m the citiBe#s. )t is $#l fr$m such a# u#!ersta#!i#( that Ae ca# eC*ect (reater res*$#si5e#ess a#! e#thusiasm fr$m them. 4here is much that the citiBe# must lear# a#! :e t$l!. & citiBe# is (e#erall i(#$ra#t $f Ahat c$#stitutes a mu#ici*al $ffe#ce s$ far as sa#itati$# is c$#cer#e!. Similarl , he is i(#$ra#t $f $ther $ffe#ces me#ti$#e! i# the &ct. S$, there is (reat #ee! f$r e!ucati#( the citiBe# $f his ri(hts u#!er the mu#ici*al laA. 4he #ee! is reall (reat i# (r$Ai#( ur:a# ce#ters Ahere h$m$(e#eit a#! :ack(r$u#! are lacki#( a#! the task $f achie5i#( reasonable unifor/it+ $f c$#!iti$#s is re#!ere! m$re !ifficult. 4he u#!ersta#!i#( that Ae must tr t$ secure, sh$ul! c$5er the *rerequisites $f $r!erl c$mmu#it li5i#(. & citiBe#Us attitu!e must reflect aAare#ess a#! a**reciate $f $#eUs ri(hts a#! $:li(ati$#s as a mem:er t$ a lar(e c$mmu#it a#! must e5$ke a**r$*riate acti$#. 3i(hts relate t$ the :asic #ee!s $f !ece#t li5i#(.t$ the sum t$tal $f ci5ic fu#cti$#s. (2) X1itiBe#shi* is a# $:li(ati$#, #$t a *ri5ile(e.112 ,e is $:li(e! t$ im*$se a (1) 4he citiBe# is $:li(e! t$ acce*t that he is !ut :$u#! t$ c$#tri:ute c$!e $f c$#!uct that reflects the i#ter!e*e#!e#ce $f the citiBe#s i# -atters $f a ci5ic #ature. Such a c$!e $f c$#!uct is all the m$re esse#tial i# a thickl *$*ulate! a#! s$meAhat heter$(e#e$us ur:a# c$mmu#it . 2# $#e ha#!, the *h sical sce#e must :e im*r$5e! a#! $# the $ther, a# e!ucati$# cam*ai(# u#!ertake#, Aith the $:@ect that the l$cal c$mmu#it is e#thuse! a#! m$:iliBe! Aith re(ar! t$ the #e(ati5e a#! *$siti5e as*ects $f ci5ic :eha5i$ur. &m$#( the i#strume#ts t$ :e use!, the m$st im*$rta#t is l$cal lea!ershi* $f :$th i#!i5i!uals a#! i#stituti$#s. 4his must (i5e rise t$ the :irth $f a# ur:a# c$mmu#it !e5el$*me#t *r$(ramme a#! e5er cit a!mi#istrati$# must e#!ea5$ur t$ *r$5i!e

suita:le machi#er f$r u#!ertaki#( such a *r$(ramme. 4he *r$:lem is t$ !e5ise Aa s $f (i5i#(. the i#!i5i!ual a# $**$rtu#it e#5ir$#me#t. (3) )t has :ee# su((este! that citiBe#sU f$rums sh$ul! :e $r(a#iBe! f$r stimulati#( a#! e#suri#( maCimum *artici*ati$# $f the citiBe# i# ci5ic affairs. )# /#ite! States $f &merica, such (r$u*s ha5e c$#!ucte! stu!ies $f 5ari$us cit *r$:lems a#! A$rke! i# the !irecti$# $f *r$m$ti#( the !esire! cha#(e. )# )#!ia, a :e(i##i#( ha! :ee# ma!e Aith the citiBe#Us chest i!ea. 4he Aar! c$mmittee ca# :e $r(a#iBe!, re*rese#ti#( electe! c$u#cil$rs as Aell as $thers t$ make a 5alua:le c$#tri:uti$# f$r im*r$5i#( the sta#!ar! $f ci5ic ame#ities i# a t$A#. 4his Aill re!uce the !ista#ce :etAee# the rulers a#! the rule!. )t is $:ser5e! that a ($$! citiBe# is X$#e Ah$ is Ailli#( at all times t$ make s$me sacrifices, his time, mea#s &#! c$#5e#ie#ce t$ a!5a#ce the c$mm$# Aelfare a#! has such a# a:i!i#( i#terest i# this that he is alAa s Aatchful a#! #ee!s the ur(e#c t$ !$ his !ut X.3 it is realiBe! : all that Ahere a sense of inti/ate atta*$/ent to their /uni*ipal go4ern/ent is la*&ing: /uni*ipal go4ern/ent ,ill be a m$cker a#! a farce a#! if the relati$#s :etAee# the mu#ici*al ($5er#me#t a#! its citiBe#s are rem$te a#! im*ers$#al the 5er *ur*$se $f mu#ici*al ($5er#me#t Aill :e !efeate!. 4he re*$rt $f the 3ural/r:a# 3elati$#shi* 1$mmittee $:ser5e!, X4he efficie#c a#! effecti5e fu#cti$#i#( $f l$cal :$!ies a#! the sta#!ar! $f ser5ices *r$5i!e! : them !e*e#! #$t $#l $# the $r(a#iBati$#al *r$ce!ure, fi#a#cial ca*a:ilities, taC a!mi#istrati$# a#! tech#ical a#! a!mi#istrati5e c$m*ete#ce $f the mu#ici*al *ers$##el :ut als$ $# the i#terest, u#!ersta#!i#( a#! c$$*erati$# $f the citiBe#s. <elli#f$rme! citiBe#s c$#sci$us $f their res*$#si:ilit ca# res*$#! quickl t$ the ste*s take# f$r im*r$5i#( the ser5ices a#! *r$m$ti#( s$cial a#! ec$#$mic !e5el$*me#t a#! c$$*erate Aith the a!mi#istrati$# i# its tasks. =$$! lea!ershi* a#! e#li(hte#e! *artici*ati$# $f the *e$*le, ci5ic *ri!e a#! c$#sci$us#ess are the *rerequisites f$r :uil!i#( u* a s$u#! a#! res*$#si:le l$cal a!mi#istrati$#X. 4. & s$u#! a#! res*$#si:le a!mi#istrati$# must !e5ise $ut a mecha#ism f$r i#f$rmi#( itself a:$ut its acts $f $missi$# a#! c$mmissi$#. 8ruere remarke!, X,$Ae5er, much a c$mmu#it ma !esire ($$! ($5er#me#t a#!, h$Ae5er, se#siti5e it ma :e t$$ :a! ($5er#me#t, it ca##$t act Aisel !a i# a#! !a $ut $# ($5er#me#tal matters Aith$ut i#f$rmati$# $# ($5er#me#t acts a#! t$ *la a m$re mea#i#(ful r$le i# sha*i#( the *$licies a#! *r$(rammes Ahich affect his *h sical, aesthetic $ccu*ati$#al, recreati$#al a#! huma#

resultS.5 0ecisi$#s #$t fertiliBe! :

th$u(hts a#! i!eas $f $utsi!e eC*erts $r $f citiBe#s

themsel5es Aill remai# futile. 4he m$re the :ureaucrac $r the res*$#sit$ries $f *$Aer tur# their :acks $# life, the m$re Aill their creati$# suffer fr$m the :acklash $f lifeY )t is a fact that $#ce the *e$*le are i#5$l5e! i# their cit ($5er#me#t, the qualit $f the ser5ices re#!ere! : the l$cal :$! im*r$5e c$#si!era:l . 4he 1$mmittee $# 3ural/r:a# 3elati$#shi* re*$rte!, X)#5$l5eme#t $f citiBe#s i# the affairs $f the l$cal :$! makes $fficers a#! electe! c$u#cil$rs res*$#si:le t$ the #ee!s a#! as*irati$#s $f the *e$*le. )t makes them acti5e a#! e#c$ura(es them t$ (i5e their :est i# the ser5ice $f the *e$*le. 0ecisi$#s mea#t t$ :e#efit a ha#!ful $f *e$*le $r tA$ ser5e i#!i5i!ual i#terests are mi#imiBe!. /ltimatel , it e#sures *r$*er re#!eri#( $f mu#ici*al ser5ices a#! *re5e#ts mali#(eri#( $# the *art $f the staff. )t i!e#tifies *articular i#terests Aith th$se $f the. 1$mmu#it , thus, :ri#(i#( a:$ut a feeli#( $f #$ l$#(er :ei#( re(ar!e! as alie#s :ut as i#strume#ts f$r the ser5ice $f the c$mmu#it X. 4his sch$$l $f th$u(h c$#te#!s, Xthat citiBe# *artici*ati$# i# :ureaucratic acti5ities has :ee# ($r is *$te#tiall ) a# im*$rta#t stimulus f$r !e5el$*i#( m$re effecti5e ma#a(eme#t f$r e#ha#ci#( !em$cratic #$rms a#! e5e# f$r tra#sferri#( effecti5e *$Aer t$ the *$Aerless.] <he# Ae :elie5e that the *e$*le are the s$urce $f all ($5er#me#t *$Aer that the auth$rit $f the *e$*le is t$ :e eCte#!e!, #$t restricte!. 4his ca# :e !$#e $#l : *r$5i!i#( each citiBe# Aith e5er $**$rtu#it t$ *artici*ate i# the ma#a(eme#t $f the ($5er#me#t, a#! the must it. 1ertai# *e$*le are aller(ic t$ *e$*leUs *artici*ati$# :ut their #um:er is feA a#! this micr$sc$*ic mi#$rit c$m*rises $#l th$se Ah$ ha5e a #e(ati5e a**r$ach i# life. Ste5e# c$#clu!es that this stu! has !etermi#e! that certai# i#!i5i!ual attri:utes a#! attitu!i#al 5aria:les are si(#ifica#tl relate! t$ citiBe#6s *artici*ati$# #$rms. &s h *$thesiBe!, *r$fessi$#al, $r(a#iBati$#al a#! *ers$#al fact$rs are im*$rta#t !etermi#a#ts $f such 5alues. ,$Ae5er, $ther i#clu!i#( res*$#!e#ts, seC a#! le#(th $f ser5ice, !$ #$t affect these 5alues. ;e5ertheless, the less$# here f$r the *ractiti$#er a#! sch$lar is clear. Successful eff$rts t$ !e5el$* citiBe#6s *artici*ati$# acti5ities !e*e#!, i# *art $# u#!ersta#!i#( the huma# fact$r i# the A$rk *lace. %r$fessi$#al, $r(a#iBati$#al a#! *ers$#al #$rms a#! 5alues must :e take# i#t$ acc$u#t :ef$re i#itiati#( citiBe#6s i#5$l5eme#t strate(ies.

9NH@LH9N8 09-9R3N2 9N 09H90 .G3N9-932 8ef$re *r$cee!i#( t$ !esi(# the strate(ies f$r securi#( citiBe#sU i#5$l5eme#t i# 5ari$us ci5ic ame#ities, let us :e clear as t$ Ahat !$ Ae mea# : the A$r! citiBe# i#5$l5er#e#t. 1itiBe#s i#5$l5eme#t is #$t limite! t$ the sim*le act $f 5$ti#( i# the -u#ici*al.U e elect i$#s, Ahe#e5er these are hel!. )t is als$ #$t limite! t$ atte#!a#ce at *u:lic meeti#(s $r *artici*ati$# i# a!5is$r c$mmittees, s*ecial :$ar!s a#! c$mmissi$#s a#! *u:lic auth$rities, alth$u(h all $f these are *art $f effecti5e i#5$l5eme#t. 4he# refers t$ the *r$cess $f *r$5i!i#( all resi!e#ts $f. 7, '$cal ($5er#me#t a full a#! equal $**$rtu#it t$ i#flue#ce th$se ($5er#me#t !ecisi$#s that affect the qualit $f their li5es. 4he <$r! Uresi!e#tsY -ea#s, all th$se citiBe#7Ah$ are #$t (e#erall re*rese#te! : esta:lishe! i#terest (r$u*s $r *ri5ate i#stituti$#s. 4he A$r! U!ecisi$#U mea#s the fi#al *$licies a#! *r$(rammes a!$*te! : the l$cal auth$ritie.4he A$r!s Ufull a#! equal $**$rtu#it U are mea#t t$ c$#5e that all resi!e#ts sh$ul! ha5e the same $**$rtu#it t$ i#flue#ce ($5er#me#t !ecisi$#s re(ar!less $f their s$cial, ec$#$mic a#! *$litical status u#!er this !efi#iti$#H 1itiBe#s i!e#tif Ahat the Aa#t the l$cal ($5er#me#t t$ !$Q 4he ha5e a# $**$rtu#it t$ c$mmu#icate their 5ieAsQ 4he ca# *artici*ate i# the !ecisi$#maki#( *r$cessQ 4he ca# e5aluate the acti$# $f their re*rese#tati5es. X4he efficie#c a#! success $f a !em$cratic =$5er#me#t !e*e#!s 5er lar(el u*$# the *u:lic u#!ersta#!i#( $f its machi#er a#! the i#terest the *e$*le takes i# a#! the su**$rt it (i5es t$ its acti5itiesX. &s a result $f their i#5$l5eme#t, the f$ll$Ai#( (ai#s ma accrue t$ the l$cal :$! H 1itiBe#6s i#5$l5eme#t ma als$ affect the qualit $f *u:lic !ecisi$# : e#suri#( that such !ecisi$#s are :ase! $# c$m*lete a#! accurate i#f$rmati$#. 2:tai#i#( citiBe#sU 5ieAs :ef$re fi#al !ecisi$#s are arri5e! at Aill e#a:le the l$cal auth$rities t$ k#$A the *$te#tial alter#ati5es. 1itiBe#s m$ti5ate! : their $**$siti$# t$ the te#tati5e !ecisi$# $r *r$*$se! !ecisi$#s, ma i!e#tif m$re realistic alter#ati5es tha# th$se alrea! u#!er c$#si!erati$#.

1itiBe#6s i#5$l5eme#t Aill *r$5i!e t$ the l$cal auth$rities i#f$rmati$# Ahich Aill alert them t$ the *$te#tial *r$:lems a#! *itfalls that c$ul! i#hi:it the *r$(ress $f im*leme#tati$#. &#$ther a!5a#ta(e A$ul! :e that if the em*l$ ees k#$A that citiBe#s are m$#it$ri#( the qualit a#! qua#tit $f ser5ices, their m$ti5ati$# :etter ser5ice !eli5er Aill im*r$5e, 1itiBe#6s im*r$5eme#t Aill als$ hel* i# im*r$5i#( the 9#ha#ces $f the l$cal :$! , t$ the eCte#t that (reater i#5$l5eme#t i# the maki#( $f ($5er#me#t !ecisi$#s creates a *$siti5eU i#ce#ti5e f$r citiBe#s t$ A$rk, f$r 8etteri#( the ci5ic c$mmu#it Us fi#a#cial :ase. 4his Aill i#crease citiBe#sU Ailli#(#ess t$ *a f$r the *r$(ress a#! *r$@ects, Ahich the c$mmu#it . 4he i#crease! citiBe#sU i#5$l5eme#t i# the res$luti$# $f #ei(h:$rh$$! *r$:lems Aill m$ti5ate $thers t$ s$l5e their $A# *r$:lems. )f, f$r eCam*le, citiBe#s :ec$me i#5$l5e! i# the !e5el$*me#t a#! $*erati$# $f *r$(rams !esi(#e! t$ meet *e$*leUs #ee! f$r ur:a# shelter, the ma , i# the *r$cess, i!e#tif a!!iti$#al Aa s $f s$l5i#( h$usi#( *r$:lems Ahich !$ #$t require ($5er#me#t i#5$l5eme#t. )# the l$#( ru#, #ei(h:$rh$$! !e5el$*me#t !e*e#!s *rimaril $# the Ailli#(#ess a#! a:ilit $f citiBe#s t$ !e5el$* s$luti$# $f their *r$:lems. 3a$ ha! als$ c$me t$ the c$#clusi$#, Xit is i#e5ita:le f$r the effecti5e fu#cti$#i#( $f mu#ici*al ($5er#me#t t$ seek measures t$ f$ster ci5ic se#se a#! *$litical c$#sci$us#ess i# the ci5ic c$mmu#it X. 4here are the a!5a#ta(es Ahich citiBe#sU i#5$l5eme#t ma result i#, *r$5i!e! it is #$t stretche! t$$ far. 1itiBe#sU i#5$l5eme#t !$es #$t mea# that $# e5er issue a#! Aith e5er citiBe# the c$#sultati$# is t$ *rece!e e5er !ecisi$#. 4he i!ea is t$ (i5e a# $**$rtu#it t$ the affecte! citiBe#s $f eC*ressi#( their 5ieAs $# critical issues :ef$re such !ecisi$#s are Xl$$ke! i# c$#creteX. ,a5i#( !eci!e!, that citiBe#sU i#5$l5eme#t is t$ !e5ise Aa s $f (i5i#( the i#!i5i!uals the $**$rtu#it t$ *la a m$re mea#i#(ful *art i# sha*i#( the ($5er#me#tal *$licies a#! *r$(rams Ahich affect their *h sical, aesthetic, $ccu*ati$#al, recreati$#al a#! huma# e#5ir$#me#t. 4he easiest thi#(, Ahich a l$cal :$! ca# !$, is t$ make i#f$rmati$# a5aila:le t$ the citiBe#s a#! citiBe# (r$u*s. k#$A, are ($i#( t$ cater t$ the :asic #ee!s $f the

4he c$u#cil a(e#!a a#! the meeti#( times $f the c$u#cil a#! c$mmittees c$ul! :e *u:lishe! i# the #eAs*a*ers. 0etaile! mi#utes $f all c$u#cil meeti#(s sh$ul! :e maile! t$ a# citiBe# $r citiBe# (r$u* requesti#( f$r the same. 0etaile! a#al sis $r a# !ecisi$# 5itall affecti#( the c$mmu#it , sh$ul! :e ma!e a5aila:le, $# request, t$ a rec$(#iBe! (r$u* $f citiBe#s. 2 no 1. Basi* #ole %ubli* role %r$m$ti$# $f !e5el$*me#t a#! %r$tecti$# $f c$mmu#it i#terests %ri4ate role 0etaile! 7 s*ecialiBe! *la##i#(, a#! 0e5el$*me#t Aith a reas$#a:le 8ala#ce :etAee# the clie#tUs a#! c$mmu#it i#terests

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'a#! !e5el$*me#t re#eAal thr$u(h 8uil!i#( 7 !istri:uti$#, sale $f /r:a# re#eAal *r$(ramme :uilt u*

'a#! !istri:uti$# t$ user6s /r:a#

/r:a# c$$*erati5e acti$# /r:a# re#eAal *r$(ramme :uilt u* 0e5el$*me#t $f settleme#t le5el a#! 4. NonLegal #oles &!5ice t$ a#! *ersuasi$# $f *e$*le t$ f$ll$A !e5el$*me#t *la#s )#tr$!ucti$# $f aAare#ess a:$ut *la##i#( a#! !e5el$*me#t

eff$rts am$#( the *e$*le )#tra *u:lic sect$r c$$r!i#ati$#

)#tra *u:lic sect$r c$$r!i#ati$# %ersuasi$# $f *e$*le t$ su**$rt a#! c$$*erati$# *u:lic sect$r !e5el$*me#t?re#eAal *r$(rammes : s$cial (r$u*s 1304, )4%) /0%+) %u:lic a#! *ri5ate sect$rs c$$r!i#ati$# a#! c$$*erati$# %artici*ati$# i# settleme#t *la##i#( *r$cess Aith !e!icati$# Ahe# calle! f$r )#tr$!ucti$# $f i#ce#ti5es a#! i#!uceme#ts t$ i#culcate !e5el$*me#t : *ri5ate sect$r Aith c$mmu#it i#terest *r$cess Aith !e!icati$# Ahe# calle! *r$(rammes : s$cial (r$u*s eff$rts am$#( the *e$*le

5. Ganagerial #ole

2ffice a!mi#istrati$#?ma#a(eme#t 1a*ital im*r$5eme#t -a#a(eme#t a#! mai#te#a#ce $f Settleme#t le5el a#! $f $ff. site i#frastructure, ur:a# s*aces

0e5el$*me#t ma#a(eme#t 1a*ital m$5eme#t -a#a(eme#t a#! mai#te#a#ce 2#.site ur:a# s*aces &#! i#frastructure

5. Ganagerial #ole 5. -a#a(erial 3$le 5. Ganagerial #ole

a#! :uilt u* s*aces

6. 3du*ation: -raining U #esear*$

9!ucati$#, trai#i#( a#! research : i#stituti$#s )#ser5ice trai#i#( : $ther 2r(a#iBati$#s

-raining 2r(a#iBati$# $f *r$fessi$#al trai#i#( *r$(ramme )#*uts i# e!ucati$#, trai#i#(

3esearch : research i#stituti$#s

a#! research *r$(rammes

B. Legal #oles

E$#i#( re(ulati$#s Su: !i5isi$# re(ulati$#s

'e(al c$#tr$ls *ertai#i#( t$ *ri5ate sect$r *artici*ati$# i# *la##i#( a#! !e5el$*me#t *r$cess (i#clu!i#( i#f$rmal sect$r) %la# sa#cti$# a#! $ther relate! r$les

6oning regulations and building byela;s

E$#i#( is the !i5isi$# $f a c$mmu#it i#t$ B$#es $r !istricts acc$r!i#( t$ *rese#t a#! *$te#tial use $f *r$*erties f$r the c$#tr$lli#( a#! !irecti#( the use a#! !e5el$*me#t $f th$se *r$*erties.

)t is *rimaril c$#cer#e! Aith the use $f la#! a#! :uil!i#(s. E$#i#( $r!i#a#ces t *icall su:!i5i!e the cit $r t$A# i#t$ !istricts, i# each $f Ahich s*ecifie! uses are auth$riBes a#! :uil!i#( hei(ht, :ulk, a#! set:ack requireme#ts are im*$se!.

4he !i5isi$# $f the c$mmu#it i#t$ B$#es is #ecessar i# $r!er t$ *r$5i!e s*ecial re(ulati$#s f$r !iffere#t secti$#s $f the c$mmu#it i# acc$r!a#ce Aith the *la##e! !e5el$*me#t $f each *articular secti$#.

&lth$u(h B$#i#( re(ulati$#s 5ar acc$r!i#( t$ the uses esta:lishe! f$r each t *e $f B$#e, re(ulati$#s Aithi# a (i5e# B$#e $r the same ki#!s $f B$#e must :e u#if$rm. 4hus, B$#i#( c$#tem*lates !iffere#t re(ulati$#s t$ effectuate !iffere#t la#! uses i# !iffere#t B$#es. E$#i#( attem*ts t$ (r$u* t$(ether th$se uses, Ahich are m$st c$m*ati:le. )t has am$#( its *ur*$se

1$#ser5i#( the 5alue $f its *r$*ert . &ssuri#( $r!erl c$mmu#it (r$Ath. Safe(uar!i#( the (e#eral *u:lic Aelfare.

)t seeks t$ *reser5e the *la##e! character $f the #ei(h:$rh$$! : (ra!ual elimi#ati$# $f eCisti#( #$#c$#f$rmi#( uses.

eCclu!i#( uses a#!

structures, Ahich are *re@u!icial t$ the restricte! *ur*$ses $f the area a#! t$ achie5e, the

8 (il!i#( c$mmu#it (r$Ath al$#( $r!erl li#es, B$#i#( hel*s t$ mi#imiBe the !ema#!s f$r sch$$l facilities, utilities, streets, *$lici#(, fire *r$tecti$#, a#! $ther facilities a#! ser5ices, i# *articular :ef$re the cit is *re*are! t$ *r$5i!e these.

4he $:@ecti5e $f B$#i#( le(islati$# is t$ esta:lish re(ulati$#s, Ahich *r$5i!e l$cati$#s f$r all esse#tial uses $f la#! a#! :uil!i#(s, a#! t$ e#sure that each use is l$cate! i# the m$st a**r$*riate *lace.

'e(itimate :usi#ess $*erati$#s, Ahich ma :e u#!esira:le i# $#e l$cati$#, ma re*rese#t a**r$*riate la#! use i# s$me $ther area.

6oning and &he Land use Regulations:

E$#i#( Aas $ri(i#all create! i# $r!er t$ c$#tr$l the !e5el$*me#t $f la#!.uses. )ts *r$@ecte!

($al Aas the cit i# tAe#t

ears $r m$re, a#! it thus lai! $ut lar(e e#$u(h 1$mmercial,

resi!e#tial, i#!ustrial, *u:lic a#! semi.*u:lic areas, $fte# $# u#!e5el$*e! la#!, t$ acc$mm$!ate a#! cha##el this estimate! (r$Ath.

 Su*er s*eculati5e sk scra*er !e5el$*me#t a#! $5er :uil!i#(, $fte# la#!.use cha#(es : the

*ressure $f *$litics (i5es rise t$ the i#ce#ti5e B$#i#(.

4he B$#es are further su:.!i5i!e! i# t$ Aar!s a#! stu!ie! i#te#si5el

Aith res*ecti5e t$

*$*ulati$#, ec$#$mic, cultural milieu, the architectural character, a!mi#istrati5e limits, a#! ur:a# f$rm.

,e#ce Aar!?sect$r area *la#s a#! re(ulati$#s sh$ul! su**$rt the la#!.use re(ulati$#. 4he hist$rical area a#! 180 *reser5ati$# takes *rime r$le i# this c$#ce*t as the !a#(er $f Nm$#e 6 i#5a!i#( the Nculture6 *ersists.

4he B$#i#( re(ulati$#s are :r$a!l !i5i!e! asH

'a#! use *la# Aith E$#i#( %ermissi:le :uilt.$* area a#! +&3, :uilt f$rm re(ulati$#s. /se i#!eC $f *ermitte! a#! *ermissi:le 'a#!.uses. 2:ser5i#( the eCisti#( la#! use a#! *la##e! !irecti$# a#! tre#! $f (r$Ath $f the cit makes

the :r$a! la#!.use *la# $f the cit . /#!er each la#!.use B$#e the multi*le la#! use areas are (i5e#. 4he la#!.use *la# statesH
1. -aCimum *ermissi:le fl$$r area. 2. -aCimum *ermissi:le 1$5era(e. 3. -aCimum *ermissi:le ,ei(ht. 4. -i#imum (ree#er a#! set:acks. 5. -i#imum %arki#( s*aces.

4he *arki#( a#! (ree#er

Aithi# the *l$t area sh$ul! :e take# i#t$ $utm$st care as the

*ressure $f la#! 5alue sAall$As the care f$r li5i#( e#5ir$#me#t.

4here is s*ecial #ee! t$ l$$k after the hist$ric a#! c$#ser5ati$# areas, as the *ur*$se a#!

fu#cti$# cha#(es fr$m its $ri(i#al f$rm.

4he *r$*er im*leme#tati$# is $#l *$ssi:le if the user is Aell i#f$rme! $f Ahat he ca# !$.

,e#ce the a5aila:ilit $f Aell *u:lishe! re*$rts (;eAs*a*er.:est me!ium) a#! clear :r$a! sets $f *la# are #ecessar .

2ite planning: site *la##i#( is the art $f arra#(i#( a# eCter#al *h sical e#5ir$#me#t i# c$m*lete !etail. Site *la##ers are all th$se Ah$ !eal Aith structures a#! the la#!.

)t is a !esi(# *r$:lem that lies $# the :$u#!aries :etAee# architecture, e#(i#eeri#(, cit *la##i#(, a#! la#!sca*e architecture, a#! is *ractice! : *r$fessi$#als $f all these (r$u*s. Site has a# im*act that is :i$l$(ical, s$cial, a#! *s ch$l$(ical. Site *la##i#( l$cates structures a#! acti5ities i# three.!ime#si$#al s*ace, a#! the !iffere#ces that arise fr$m s*atial arra#(eme#t are the meat $f the matterH !iffere#ces i# *r$*$rti$#, 5$lume, !e#sit , sha*e, (rai#, *atter#, $r li#ka(e. 4he !esi(#er must a#! the (r$u* f$r Ah$m he is that Ahate5er he !$es Aill s$$# u#!er($ the first $f a series $f c$#ti#u$us m$!ificati$#s. )t is the $r(a#iBati$# $f the eCter#al *h sical e#5ir$#me#t u* t$ the lar(est scale at Ahich it ca# still :e su:@ect t$ u#ifie! a#! c$m*lete c$#tr$lQ it !eals Aith structures, la#!, a#! the e#tire c$m*leC $f *h sical f$rms a:$5e, :el$A, a#! $# the surfaceQ it has at its heart the !is*$siti$# $f $:@ects a#! acti5ities i# three.!ime#si$#al s*aceQ

&ypical goals
+u#cti$#al ,ierarch 2*timum c$mmu#icati$# 1h$ice 1$st ,ealth a#! 1$mf$rt &!a*ta:ilit )ma(e qualit

2ite anal+sis(

4he a#al sis $f a site !e*e#!s $# the use t$ Ahich it is t$ :e *ut. & quarr ma#, a f$rtificati$#s e#(i#eer, $r a :uil!i#( c$#tract$r Aill see the same *iece $f (r$u#! quite !iffere#tl , a#! each 5ieA Aill :e c$rrect f$r the (i5e# *ur*$se. 95er site, h$Ae5er !istur:e!, ha! s$me time t$ eC*erie#ce the mutual a!@ustme#t $f its eleme#ts. Surface fl$A has create! a !rai#a(e *atter#, *la#t a#! a#imal life has achie5e! a# ec$l$(ical :ala#ce, #ei(h:$ri#( structures lea# a(ai#st each $ther, sh$*s ha5e arra#(e! themsel5es i# relati$# t$ the resi!e#t *$*ulati$#, climate has Aeathere! all alike. &# site is c$m*$se! $f these fact$rs D a:$5e, :el$A, a#! at the (r$u#!. :ut all $f ma# fact$rs are i#terrelate!, a#! ha5e achie5e! s$me s$rt $f :ala#ce, Ahether it :e static $r $#e that is m$5i#( t$Aar! a#$ther equili:rium. Surface c$#!iti$#sH t$ :e(i# Aith, it is useful t$ ca#5as the site fact$rs, Ahich are t *icall m$st si(#ifica#t i# the !esi(# $f :uil!i#( (r$u*s. 4hese i#clu!e the su:surface fact$rs, the t$*$(ra*h , the c$5er, the climate, a#! the *atter# $f eCisti#( la#! use. 4he t$*$(ra*hic surface, the :$u#!ar :etAee# earth a#! air, has *articular im*licati$#s f$r site !e5el$*me#t. S$me times it !etermi#es the $r(a#iBati$# $f the *la#. 4he (ra!ie#t $f *aths, the fl$A $f utilities, the use $f areas, the !is*$siti$# $f :uil!i#(, the 5isual as*ect, are all affecte! : it. )# m$st cases the eCisti#( t$*$(ra*h alrea! has a# u#!erl i#( $r!er :r$u(ht a:$ut : the fl$A $f surface Aater. )f huma# :ei#(s are t$ :e c$mf$rta:le, there are certai# $*timum ra#(es $f !a li(ht, $f air m$5eme#t a#! *urit , a#! $f tem*erature a#! humi!it . 4he *la# m$!ifies the eCisti#( climate t$ a**r$Cimati$# this $*timum c$#!iti$#. +i#all , there are ma# ma# ma!e characteristics t$ :e stu!ie! i# a#al Bi#( a site. 4he esse#tial eleme#ts alm$st alAa s i#clu!e the accessi:ilit t$ eCter#al facilities $r *ers$#s Wsch$$ls $r *u*ils, sh$*s $r cust$mers, .*lus the relati$# $f the site t$ the (e#eral circulati$# s stem. 4he m$re accessi:le, ur:a#iBe!, a#! !e5el$*e! a site :ec$mes, the m$re these ma# ma!e features $f use, structure, circulati$#, a#! utilities :ec$me *re!$mi#a#t $5er the fact$rs $f s$il, t$*$(ra*h , a#! $5er.

-$st $fte# the sur5e i#clu!e the *re*arati$# $f a :ase ma* sh$Ai#( the le(al li#es such as :$u#!aries a#! asse#tsQ the l$cati$# $f utilities, r$a!s, *aths, :uil!i#(s, a#! AallsQ the l$cal acti5ities a#! circulati$#sQ the *rese#ce $f sAam*s, streams, a#! Aater :$!iesQ the (e#eral 5e(etati5e c$5er i#clu!i#( *recise l$cati$#s $f lar(e treesQ a #$tati$# $f r$ck $utcr$*s a#! $ther 5isi:le (e$l$(ic featuresQ c$#t$urs a#! the s*$t ele5ati$#s $f ke *$i#tsQ c$m*ass !irecti$#sQ a#! the character $f the site e#5ir$#s.

4he site *la# l$cates tA$ thi#(sH *h sical $:@ects a#! huma# acti5ities. 'a#! use refers t$ acti5it l$cati$#s, :ut it als$ im*lies the (e#eral *h sical f$rms that *ermit th$se acti5ities, such as a# $*e# *iece $f (r$u#! at a recreati$# l$cati$#, $r a !etache! h$use i# a l$A. !e#sit resi!e#tial area.

1a*tors 9nfluen*ing t$e 2ite %lanning( 9n4entor+ of site fa*tors( 4he !esi(#er ha! t$ :e(i# (atheri#( facts a:$ut the site, securi#( i#f$rmati$# fr$m ma*s a#! *ers$#al i#s*ecti$#s a:$ut the site, a#! securi#( i#f$rmati$# fr$m ma*s a#! *ers$#al i#s*ecti$#s $f the area. Such !ata c$ul! i#clu!e the l$cati$# $f a#! $ther i#f$rmati$# a:$ut eCisti#(H 1. 1$#structe! eleme#ts
a. 'e(al a#! *h sical :$u#!aries, *ri5ate h$l!i#(s, a#! *u:lic easeme#ts. ". 8uil!i#(s, :ri!(es, a#! $ther structures i#clu!i#( th$se $f hist$rical a#! arche$l$(ical

si(#ifica#ces.
c. 3$a!s, Aalks, a#! $ther tra#s*$rtati$# Aa s. d. 9lectric mi#es, (as mi#es, a#! $ther utilities. e. 'a#! uses a(riculture, i#!ustr , recreati$#, a#! $thers. %.

&**lica:le $r!i#a#ces such as B$#i#( re(ulati$#s a#! health c$!es.

2. ;atural res$urces
a. 4$*$(ra*h , i#clu!i#( hi(h a#! l$A *$i#ts, (ra!ie#ts, a#! !rai#a(e *atter#s. ". S$il t *es, : #ame if a5aila:le, f$r clues re(ar!i#( the surface *ermea:ilit , sta:ilit ,

a#! fertilit .
c. <ater :$!ies, i#clu!i#( *erma#e#ce, fluctuati$#s, a#! $ther ha:its. d. Su:surface matterH (e$l$( $f the u#!erl i#( r$ck i#clu!i#( eCiste#ce $f c$mmerciall

$r fu#cti$#all 5alua:le material such as sa#! a#! (ra5el, c$al, $r Aater.

e. >e(etati$#, t *es a#! i#!i5i!ual s*ecime#s $f c$#seque#ce. %.

<il!life, i#clu!i#( eCiste#ce $f !esira:le ha:itats such as l$A c$5er f$r *heasa#ts, ca5es f$r :ears, $r :erries f$r :ir!s.

3. ;atural f$rces i#clu!i#( :$th macr$climates as (e#erall f$u#! $5er the e#tire site a#! micr$climate characteristics $r cha#(es fr$m the #$rm eC*erie#ce! i# is$late! *atches).
a. 4em*erature es*eciall !a , #i(ht, a#! seas$#al #$rms, eCtremes, a#! their !urati$#s. ". Su# a#(les, at 5ari$us seas$#s a#! times $f the !a . c. Su# *$ckets such as mi(ht :e f$u#! i# f$rest cleari#(sQ fr$st *$ckets, Ahich ma :e

f$u#! i# l$A s*aces Ahere the Ai#! that sAee*s aAa the m$r#i#( !eA is :l$cke!.

d. <i#! !irecti$#s a#! i#te#sities, :$th !ail a#! seas$#al. e. %reci*itati$#H rai#, s#$A, a#! sleet seas$#s a#! accumulati$#sQ st$rm freque#cies a#!

i#te#sities 4. %erce*tual characteristics

a. >ieAs i#t$ a#! f$rm the siteQ si(#ifica#t features ". Smells a#! s$u#!s a#! their s$urces c. S*atial *atter#s d. 'i#es, f$rms, teCtures, c$l$rs, a#! siBe relati$#shi*s Ahich (i5e the site its *eculiar

character
e. =e#eral im*ressi$#s re(ar!i#( eC*erie#ce *$te#tial $f the site a#! its *arts.

9NH3N-@#I @1 @11-29-32 1.0-@#2( 4he !esi(#er must als$ accumulate i#f$rmati$# a:$ut the c$#structe!, #atural, a#! *erce*tual eleme#ts $# the *r$*erties, Ahich surr$u#! $r $therAise affect the site. 4hese mi(ht i#clu!e :$th eCisti#( a#! a#tici*ate!
1. 'a#!.use *atter#s 2. Stream a#! !rai#a(e s$urces 3. >isuals, smells, a#! s$u#!s. 4. &esthetic character 5. %u:lic utilit l$cati$#s a#! ca*acities 6. 4ra#s*$rtati$# Aa s a#! s stems

Land ac'uisition act

4he first *iece $f le(islati$# i# )#!ia i# res*ect t$ the acquisiti$# $f *r$*ert Aas i# 8e#(al re(ulati$# act $f 1824.

)# 1850, it Aas felt that le(islati$# Aas #ee!e!, f$r acquiri#( la#!s f$r them als$.

4he :uil!i#( &ct $f 1839 Aas the first *iece $f le(islati$# i# 8$m:a Ahere *r$5isi$#s f$r acquisiti$# $f la#!s f$r the *ur*$ses $f Ai!e#i#( $r alteri#( a# eCisti#( *u:lic r$a!, street $r $ther th$r$u(hfare Aithi# the isla#!s $f 8$m:a a#! c$la:a Aere *r$5i!e!. )t Aas a similar act t$ 8e#(al 3e(ulati$# &ct $f 1824. 'ater the act $f 1852 Aas *asse! i# -a!ras f$r the *ur*$se $f facilitati#( the acquisiti$# $f la#! i# the *resi!e#c $f St. +$rt =e$r(e. 4his act a!$*te! first se5e# secti$#s $f the 8e#(al 3e(ulati$#s &ct $f 1824 Aith certai# m$!ificati$#s. +$r the Ah$le $f 8ritish )#!ia, a# &ct $# this su:@ect Aas f$r the first time e#acte! i# 1857. /#!er this act. 4he c$llect$r Aas em*$Aere! t$ fiC the am$u#t $f c$m*e#sati$# t$ :e *ai! : a(reeme#t, if *$ssi:le, :ut if there Aas #$ such a(reeme#t *$ssi:le, the !is*ute ha! t$ :e referre! t$ ar:itrat$r. 4his act ame#!e! : the act $f 1861 a#! su:seque#tl : the &ct $f 1863. /ltimatel the le(islature ha! t$ i#ter5e#e a#! the act $f 1870 Aas *asse!. 4his act, f$r the first time, *r$5i!e! f$r a refere#ce t$ a ci5il c$urt f$r the !etermi#ati$# $f the am$u#t $f c$m*e#sati$# Ahe# the c$llect$r c$ul! #$t settle : a(reeme#t. But t$e a*t of 1!B ,as found to be e=uall+ unsatisfa*tor+: parti*ularl+ t$e /atters of referen*e to t$e *ourt and *onse=uentl+ anot$er a*t in t$e +ear 1!"4 ,as passed in pla*e of t$e said a*t of 1!B . 4he act $f 1870 ,as not f$u#! e#tirel effecti5e f$r the *r$tecti$# $f either the

($5er#me#ts $r the *ers$#s i#tereste! i# la#!s t$ :e acquire!.

8ef$re 1894 the 5aluati$# $f la#! Aas e#tirel i# the ha#!s $f ar:itrat$r f$r Ah$se !ecisi$# there Aas #$ a**eal. /#!er this 1894 act the c$llect$r6s aAar! Aas #$rmall fi#al, u#less !esire! : the c$#cer#e! *arties t$ :e referre! t$ the c$urt.

7efinition of land(

)# the c$#teCt $f la#! acquisiti$#, the term la#! !$es #$t refer merel t$ 5aca#t la#! :ut i#clu!es structures a#! trees, Ahich ma eCist $# it. ,e#ce secti$# 3 (a) $f the la#! acquisiti$# act, 1894 clearl !efi#es the eC*ressi$# $f la#! as i#clu!i#( :e#efits t$ arise $ut $f la#! a#! thi#(s attache! t$ the earth *erma#e#tl faste#e! t$ a# thi#( attache! t$ the earth.

.lternati4e /et$ods of possession of land(

-$ere are 3 /et$ods

o o o

-utual a(reeme#t $# scale *rice ($utri(ht scale) 4aki#( $5er la#! $# lease. 1$m*uls$r acquisiti$# $f *r$*ert u#!er the la#! acquisiti$# act.

4he *ur*$se $f the emi#e#t !$mai# $r the *$Aer $f state t$ acquire *ri5ate *r$*ert is (i5e# eC*ressi$# : article 31 $f the c$#stituti$#. & feA *ri#ci*les relati#( t$ acquisiti$# $f *r$*ert ca# :e !eri5e! fr$m &rticle 31 as eC*lai#e! :el$AH 1. & *ers$# ca##$t :e !e*ri5e! $f his *r$*ert : a mere eCecuti5e flat Aith$ut the :acki#( $f a laA. 4he im*licati$# is that the eCecuti5e must set acc$r!i#( t$ a#! Aithi# the frameA$rk $f a laA Ahich must *r$5i!e #ecessar *$Aers t$ the ($5er#me#t f$r c$m*uls$r acquisiti$# $f *r$*ert .
3. 4he la#! acquisiti$# laA has t$ c$#f$rm t$ tA$ c$#stituti$#al requireme#ts s$ as t$ :e

$*erati5e. +irstl , the acquisiti$# ca# $#l

:e *u:lic *ur*$se a#! sec$#!ar

the

acquisiti$# laA sh$ul! *r$5i!e f$r *a me#t $f c$m*e#sati$# f$r the *r$*ert acquire!. 0on*ept of publi* purposeH the *hrase, Ahate5er else it ma mea#, must i#clu!e a *ur*$se, the $:@ect $r aim i# Ahich the (e#eral i#terest $f the c$mmu#it , as $**$se! t$ the *articular i#terest $f i#!i5i!uals, is !irectl a#! 5italit c$#cer#e!. 4he act that s*ecific la#! is require! f$r *u:lic *ur*$se shall :e c$#clusi5e e5i!e#ce that the la#! is #ee!e! f$r *u:lic *ur*$se. &# im*$rta#t a!mi#istrati5e *ri#ci*le Aith re(ar! t$ the $*erati$# $f la#! &cquisiti$# &ct is that Ahe#e5er a# =$5er#me#t 0e*t. $r a *u:lic auth$rit Aa#t t$ acquire a# la#!, the Aill #$t themsel5es !irectl u#!ertake the 5ari$us sta(es $f acquisiti$# u#!er the &ct :ut the must se#! their requisiti$# *r$*$sal t$ the a**r$*riate $ffice $f the =$5er#me#t Ah$ Aill $# :ehalf $f the la#!, ($ thr$u(h the 5ari$us sta(es $f the la#! acquisiti$# *r$ce!ure u#til he takes *$ssessi$# $f

the la#! a#! ha#!s it $5er t$ the c$#cer#e! !e*artme#t $r the *u:lic auth$rit . ,e#ce, i# e5er !isti#ct a#! :i( cit $f $ur c$u#tr . 9/portant stages in land a*=uisition(
1. %u:licati$# $f *relimi#ar #$tificati$# u#!er secti$# $f the act : the =$5er#me#t that a

*articular la#! is #ee!e! $r likel t$ :e #ee!e! f$r a *u:lic *ur*$se.

2. ,eari#( $f $:@ecti$#s t$ the a:$5e.me#ti$#e! #$tificati$# fr$m i#tereste! *arties : the

c$llect$r.
3.

0eclarati$# u#!er secti$# 6 $f the act : the ($5er#me#t that the la#! is require! f$r *u:lic *ur*$se.

4. ;$tificati$# u#!er secti$# 9 $f the act : the c$llect$r !eclari#( ($5er#me#t6s i#te#ti$#. 5. 9#quir i#t$ the c$m*e#sati$# claims a#! *assi#( $f aAar! : the c$llect$r. 6. 4aki#( *$ssessi$# $f the la#! :

the c$llect$r after *a me#t $f c$m*e#sati$# a#!

ha#!i#( it $5er t$ the auth$rit requiri#( the same. )# fact, la#! acquisiti$#, 1894 has st$$! the test $f acquisiti$# *r$ce!ures f$r #earl a ce#tur a#! has ser5e! the *u:lic auth$rit usefull i# this re(ar!. & criticism has $fte# le5ie! that the la#! acquisiti$# *r$cee!i#(s take c$#si!era:le time a#! this criticism is @ustifie! t$ c$#si!era:le eCte#t. &#$ther as*ect $f the la#! &cquisiti$# &ct is that it is t$$ much eCecuti5e ri!!e# i# Ahich the =$5er#me#t a#! the la#! acquisiti$# c$llect$r e#@$ 5ast !iscreti$#ar *$Aers. 4he -ulla c$mmittee $# la#! acquisiti$# has rece#tl su:mitte! its re*$rt t$ the =$5t $f )#!ia su((esti#( s$me cha#(es i# the la#! &cquisiti$# laA. Land *eiling

4he 1971 electi$# -a#ifests $f 1$#(ress starte! Nlimitati$#s must :e *lace! $# ur:a# *r$*ert . -easures Aill :e take# t$ cur: a#tis$cial racketeeri#( i# the *urchase a#! sale $f la#!6. 4he 25th &me#!me#t t$ the 1$#stituti$# (1971) *a5e! the Aa f$r the ur:a# la#! (ceili#( a#! re(ulati$#) &ct that Aas i# *ursua#ce $f a:$5e *a(es.

4he state =$5er#me#ts Aere (e#erall i# fa5$ur $f the :ill. :ut the *r$:lem $f taki#( $5er, ma#a(i#( a#! !is*$si#( $f ur:a# *r$*erties, affecte! a!5ersel : the !raft :ill Aere c$#si!ere! c$l$ssal.

,e#ce, Ahile the $ri(i#al *le!(es $f the =$5er#me#t relate! t$ ur:a# *$5ert , the /'173 &ct im*$ses a ceili#( $#l $# *ri5ate h$l!i#(s $f 5aca#t la#!s. /r:a# la#! ref$rms mea#s :ri#(i#( a:$ut ra!ical cha#(es i# ur:a# ec$#$mic i#stituti$#s such as ur:a# la#! $A#ershi*s, h$l!i#(s a#! te#a#c , re(ulati$# $f la#! 5alues, *r$*ert taCati$#, a5aila:ilit $f *re.em*ti$# ri(ht a#! im*r$5eme#ts i# la#! acquisiti$# a#! !e5el$*me#t a#! !is*$sal *r$cess.

Such ref$rms are #ecessar f$r assuri#( the a5aila:ilit $f la#! i# a!equate qua#tit f$r reas$#a:le *rices at the ri(ht time t$ *u:lic auth$rities a#! i#!i5i!uals. )# )#!ia, it Aill :e clear that it Aas #$t the ur:a# crisis, Ahich eCists i# #either $ur c$u#tr #$r the #ee! f$r :ulk acquisiti$# $f ur:a# la#! s$ as t$ secure #either a# $r!erl (r$Ath $f $ur cities #$r the c$#ce*t $f ur:a# la#! ref$rms. <i!el *ractice! i# 'ati# &merica# c$u#tries. 4hat le! the ($5er#me#t t$ e#act /'173&14. 4he i#itial stimulus f$r the act came frame $**$#e#ts $f a(raria# ref$rms le(islati$#.

4hr$u(h la#! is me#ti$#e! i# the state list i# sche!ule >))th t$ the c$#stituti$#. 4he /'173 &ct Aas e#acte! : the *arliame#t after the a!$*ti$# $f res$luti$# : the le(islatures $f 11 states requesti#( the *arliame#t t$ e#act such a laA i# the ma##er s*ecifie! i# &rticle 525.

Broad obFe*ti4e of t$e a*t( o & :ill t$ *r$5i!e f$r the im*$siti$# $f a ceili#( $# 5aca#t la#! i# the ur:a# a((l$merati$#s. +$r the acquisiti$# $f such la#! i# eCcess $f the ceili#( limit, t$ re(ulate the c$#structi$# $f :uil!i#(s $# such la#! a#! f$r matters c$##ecte! thereAith Aith a 5ieA t$ *re5e#ti#( the c$#ce#trati$# $f ur:a# la#! i# the ha#!s $f a feA *ers$#s a#! s*eculati$# a#! *r$fiteeri#( there$# a#! Aith a 5ieA t$ :ri#(i#( a:$ut a# equita:le !istri:uti$# $f la#! i# ur:a# a((l$merati$# t$ su: ser5e the c$mm$# ($$!6.

4here is a *r$liferati$# $f #ati$#al c$#ce*ts like6 ur:a# a((l$merati$#6, 5aca#t la#!s, ur:a# la#! a#! ur:a#isa:le la#! i# the act. 'a#! a**urte#a#t6 mea#s such la#! as is require! t$ :e ke*t $*e# as *er re(ulati$#s. 1$m*e#sati$#Wmarket 5alue. 4he act als$ im*$ses a ceili#( $# the *li#th area $f all future !Aelli#( u#its 5ar i#( fr$m 300 sq. mts. )# cities $f cate($ries $f &, 8, t$ 500 sq. 1 a#! 0. 4here is als$ s$me eCem*ti$#s a#! #$#.a**lica:ilit $f act. 4he cities ha5e :ee# (r$u*e! u#!er cate($ries &, 8, 1, 0 o &.0elhi, -um:ai, 1alcutta, ma!ras o 8.eCcee!i#( 1 milli$# o 1. 3 lacks.1 milli$# o 0. 2.3 lacks.

De!elopment control and =oning regulations

0e5el$*me#t c$#tr$ls are a# i#te(ral *art $f !e5el$*me#t *la#s. 4he aim at re(ulati#( !e5el$*me#t i# acc$r!a#ce Aith la#! use, set:acks ma# $ther thi#(s $# a c$m*ati:le ma##er.
4hese are arise $ut $f S*$ra!ic (r$Ath $f *ri5ate *r$*erties S*raAl $f slums -a@$r tra#s*$rtati$# c$#(esti$# *$i#t 2ther c$#(este! resi!e#tial a#! i#!ustrial B$#es &5aila:ilit $f la#! f$r reclamati$# a#! thus $fferi#( #eA $**$rtu#ities f$r !e5el$*me#t

.i/ and obFe*ti4es

o

=ui!es !e5el$*me#t $r the use $f la#! a#! *reser5e $ther site a(ai#st the i#trusi$# $f u#!esira:le !e5el$*me#t. 1ur:s misuse.

3e(ulates the #$#.use $f misuse $f la#!.

)t sets certai# tre#!s i# the frameA$rk $f !e5el$*me#t *r$cess. )t *r$5i!es certai# !ema#! i# a cha#(i#( *atter# $f la#! use. 0e5el$*me#t c$#tr$l is a skille! *r$cess. 9leme#tsH o o o o o

,ealth Safet 1$#5e#ie#ce 9c$#$m a#! &me#it

-ools of de4elop/ent *ontrol(

'a#! use c$#tr$l Su:.!i5isi$# c$#tr$l ,ei(ht c$#tr$l %l$t c$5era(e c$#tr$l Set:ack c$#tr$l 0e#sit c$#tr$l 8uil!i#( li#e c$#tr$l &rchitectural c$#tr$l &!5ertiseme#t c$#tr$l 8uil!i#( : laAs $r re(ulati$#s E$#i#(

'a#! use c$#tr$l hel*s t$ re(ulate the all$cati$# $f !iffere#t uses such that the :asic requireme#ts $f each $#e $f the uses are fulfille!. 4he mai# aim $f the c$#tr$l sh$ul! :e t$ *r$m$te la#! !e5el$*me#t i# a *la##e! a#! $r!erl ma##er a#! t$ e#sure the reser5ati$# $f a!equate qua#tit $f la#! f$r future *la##e! (r$Ath. Su: !i5isi$# re(ulati$#s are als$ #ee! i# cases $f #eA i#!ustrial t$A#shi*s Ahere the mu#ici*al act #$t is i# $*erati$#.

,ei(ht c$#tr$ls are !esi(#ate! *rimaril t$ e#sure a# a!equate su**l $f li(ht a#! air. +&3 is the rati$ $f the (r$ss fl$$r area $f all st$ries $f a :uil!i#( t$ the t$tal area $f the *l$t. ,i(her +&3 is usuall f$r 180 si#ce the la#! 5alues are hi(her. R@N9N8 L.L2( the term B$#i#( is (e#erall !esi(#ati$# $f la#!s i# the cit f$r !iffere#t users. E$#i#( $r!i#a#ce su: !i5i!es the cit s*ecifie! f$r each !istrict. 4he $r!i#a#ce sh$ul! :e :ase! $# :asic *$*ulati$#, ec$#$mic a#! la#! use stu!ies a#! *la##i#( ($als. 2:@ecti5es $f E$#i#( are *r$tecti#( the *ri5ate use a#! e#@$ me#t $f *r$*ert a#! t$ *r$m$te the Aelfare $f the i#!i5i!ual *r$*ert $A#er.
1. 9a%eguarding t&e c&aracter and amenity !alue o% a residential or any ot&er type o% an area. 2. -mposing t&e restrictions on minimum open space around t&e "uildings in t&e interest o% lig&t and air and controlling t&e density o% de!elopment "y limiting t&e si:e o% t&e structures and t&us pre!enting congestion.

u#!erst$$! : the 'a ma# as referri#( t$

i#t$ !istricts i# each $f Ahich s*ecifie! uses are

*ermissi:le a#! restricti$#s re(ar!i#( the hei(htQ :ulk, !e#sit a#! set:acks f$r the structures are

4he $:@ecti5e $f the B$#i#( is #$rmall attai#e! i# )#!ia# cities thr$u(h the e#f$rceme#t $f la#! use *r$*$sals i# the -aster *la# a#! the !etaile! t$A# *la##i#( schemes. 4he e#f$rceme#t $f !e5el$*me#t c$#tr$l is a# im*$rta#t as*ect $f s*atial *la##i#( *articularl at the le5el $f l$cal area. %L.NN9N8 L.L2 @1 ?N9-37 N9N87@G(

4he 8ritish laAs lar(el (ui!e )#!ia# le(islati$#s. 4he ,$usi#( &#! 4$A#.%la##i#( &ct, 1909 Aas the first e#actme#t t$ !eal Aith t$A# *la##i#(.

4he h$use a#! t$A# *la##i#( &ct, 1919 auth$riBe! the issue $f i#terim !e5el$*me#t $r!ers t$ *r$tect the i#terests $f th$se Ah$ Aa#te! t$ !e5el$* their sits e5e# :ef$re the scheme came i#t$ $*erati$#.

;eCt came the t$A#.*la##i#( act, 1925, Ahich c$#s$li!ate! the *re5i$us &cts a#! Aas the first i#!e*e#!e#t act $# t$A# *la##i#(. 4he 4$A# &#! 1$u#tr i#tr$!uce!. %la##i#( &ct 1932Q the first time the A$r! c$u#tr has :ee#

B.#L@L 0@GG9229@N(

4he r$ al c$mmissi$# $# the !istri:uti$# $f the i#!ustrial *$*ulati$# Aas set u* i# 1937 u#!er the chairma#shi* $f Sir -$# 4a(ue 8arl$A t$ i#quire $# !istri:uti$# $f the i#!ustrial *$*ulati$# $f =reat 8ritai# a#! t$ c$#si!er Ahat s$cial ec$#$mic $r strate(ic !isa!5a#ta(e arise fr$m the c$#ce#trati$# $f i#!ustries i# #ati$#al i#terests.

+i#all the c$mmissi$# stresse! the #ee! f$r a 5i($r$us *$lic f$r !is*ersal $f *$*ulati$# c$m:i#e! Aith restricti$#s $# further (r$Ath $f the :i((est cities.

$&H3A&& Committee on Compensation and "etterment

&s rec$mme#!e! : the 8arl$A c$mmissi$#, a# 9C*ert 1$mmittee u#!er the 1hairma#shi* $f -r. Kustice /4,<&44 Aas set u* i# 1941 t$ make a# $:@ecti5e a#al sis $f the su:@ect $f *a me#t $f c$m*e#sati$# a#! rec$5er $f :etterme#t i# res*ect $f the *u:lic c$#tr$l $f the use $f la#! a#! t$ a!5ice as a matter $f ur(e#c Ahat ste*s sh$ul! :e take# #$A $r :ef$re.

4he c$mmittee state! i# its fi#!i#(s that the $A#ershi* $f la#! !$es #$t carr Aith it a# u#qualifie! ri(ht $f the user a#! theref$re restricti$#s :ase! $# the !uties $f #ei(h:$rli#ess ma :e im*$se! Aith$ut lia:ilit $f *a me#t $f c$m*e#sati$#.

4he c$mmittee6s rec$mme#!ati$#s f$rme! the :asis $f 4$A# a#! 1$u#tr acts 1944 a#! 1947.

Scott committee on land utili=ation in rural areas

4his c$mmittee u#!er the 1hairma#shi* $f -r. Kustice Sc$tt Aas a**$i#te! i# 1941 t$ c$#si!er the c$#!iti$#s Ahich sh$ul! ($5er# :uil!i#( a#! $ther c$#structi$#al !e5el$*me#t i# c$u#tr area c$#siste#tl Aith the mai#te#a#ce $f a(riculture a#! i# *articular the sect$rs affecti#( the l$cati$# $f the i#!ustr .

)# this re*$rt, the c$mmittee stresse! the !e*l$ra:le li5i#( c$#!iti$#s i# rural areas. 4$A# a#! c$u#tr *la##i#( act, 1947. o 4his act su*erse!e! all *re5i$us *la##i#( le(islati$# a#! it6s c$#si!ere! 5er c$m*rehe#si5e a#! !rastic re(ar!i#( its effects $# $A#ershi* $f la#!.

4$A# a#! c$u#tr *la##i#( act, 1968. o 4his is the act, Ahich re*eals all f$rmer e#actme#ts $# *la##i#(H
o

4he mi#ister f$r ,$usi#( a#! '$cal =$5er#me#t !eals Aith matters relati#( t$ 4$A# a#! c$u#tr *la##i#(.

4$A# a#! c$u#tr *la##i#( act, 1971. must i#stitute a sur5e $f their area

4his act su((ests that each l$cal *la##i#( auth$rit such matters u#!er re5ieA. %lanning la,s 9N 9N79.( %la##i#( le(islati$# i# )#!ia Aas esse#tiall

eCami#i#( the matters that ma :e eC*ecte! t$ affect the !e5el$*me#t $f that area $r kee* all

c$#firme! t$ :uil!i#( : laAs a#! :uil!i#(

re(ulati$#. 4he ur:a#iBati$# *r$!uce! a (reat shift $f *$*ulati$# fr$m the rural t$ the ur:a# areas. 4his sa! state $f affairs le! t$ a c$#ce*tualiBati$# $f sa#itar c$mmissi$# i# 1864 a#! the 1st 1)4" )-%32>9-9;4 &14 Aas e#acte! i# ma@$r cities. 4he AereH 4he 8$m:a )m*r$5eme#t &ct 1898. 4he - s$re )m*r$5eme#t &ct.1903 4he 1alcutta im*r$5eme#t &ct.1911. Sir %&43)1L =9009S su((este! the #ee! f$r 42<; *la##i#( le(islati$# i# );0)&. &cc$r!i#(l f$r the first time the t$A# *la##i#( acts Aere e#acte!.

4he AereH the 8$m:a t$A# *la##i#( act.1915. B<@#3 0@GG9--33-1"46. a c$mmittee Aas a**$i#te! t$ l$$k i#t$ the a!a*ta:ilit $f the t$A# *la##i#( acts i# 5ari$us states a#! the f$ll$Ai#( *$licies Aere $utli#e!H
1. 3e(ulati#( ur:a# !e5el$*me#t thr$u(h t$A# *la##i#(. 2. Se*arate mi#isters f$r 5ari$us !e*artme#t 3. )m*r$5eme#t $f lar(e areas. 4. +$rmulate the m$!el le(islati$#.

&fter i#!e*e#!e#ce $f )#!ia +)>9 ear *la#s (a5e (ui!a#ce f$r *la##i#(. 2#! fi5e ear *la# *r$5i!es the *re*arati$# $f *la#s $f lar(er cities., $r(a#iBi#( *la##i#(

acti5ities, re(i$#al *la#s 3r! fi5e ear *la# *r$5i!es e#actme#t $f t$A# *la##i#( le(islati$#. %r$5i!e! fu#! f$r ur:a# area *la##i#(, i#!ustrial t$A#s, ca*ital t$A#s. &t this tA$ :$!ies f$rme!. 1. 12%%.c$mmittee $f *la##i#( *r$@ects. 2. 82%9.:ureau $f *u:lic e#ter*rise. -aharashtra has :ee# a *i$#eer i# t$A# a#! c$u#tr *la##i#( i# $ur c$u#tr i# m$re tha# $#e Aa , i# e#acti#( the first t$A#.*la##i#( act Sec$#!l , i# effecti5e a**licati$# $f *l$t rec$#stituti$# tech#ique i# im*leme#ti#( its t$A# *la##i#( schemes. 4hir!l , the laA *r$5i!i#( is statut$r re(i$#al *la##i#(. 0970@--$e 0it+ and 9ndustrial 7e4elop/ent 0orporation. 3e(i$#al *la##i#( laAs i# )#!iaH 1.-aharashtra re(i$#al a#! t$A# *la##i#( act.1966 2.4amil#a!u t$A# a#! c$u#tr *la##i#(.1973.

3. -a! a*ra!esh.1973. 4.m$!el 471%&W1973. 4he !e5el$*me#t char(e c$#ce*t i#tr$!uce! : this act (4) i# the )#!ia# sce#e a**ears t$ ha5e :ee# successful (, !era:a!) 4he 0elhi -aster %la# *re*are! i# 1962 Aas i# fact the first c$m*rehe#si5e ur:a# !e5el$*me#t *la# Aith re(i$#al *ers*ecti5e, f$r a# cit i# the c$u#tr . 2o/e of t$e basi* *auses of t$e slo, i/ple/entation of de4elop/ent plan are(
1. %$$r fi#a#cial *$siti$# $f l$cal auth$rit . 2. 'ack $f skille! tech#ical ma#*$Aer. 3. 0ela i# la#! acquisiti$# *r$ce!ure. 4. ,i(h la#! 5alues. 5. )#!i5i!ual i#terest crati#( *r$:lem t$ !e5el$*me#t *la#. 6. /#realisticall *re*are! !e5el$*me#t *la#.

4he cities ha5e :ee# (r$u*e! u#!er cate($ries &, 8, 1, 0 o &.0elhi, -um:ai, 1alcutta, ma!ras o 8.eCcee!i#( 1 milli$# o 1. 3 lacks.1 milli$# o 0. 2.3 lacks.

7=$# an# 7Ft( Constit%tional A!en#!ents

8(at a$e t(e I!po$tance Points o* 7=$# an# 7Ft( Constit%tional A!en#!ents .In#ia/ G +&e state go!ernments e%%ecti!ely enDoyed po2er in t&e &olding o% elections to local "odies. +&e 73rd and 74t& amendments ta1e a2ay an option t&at t&e state go!ernment pre!iously &ad t&oug& it c&ose not to e8ercise it. 5nd in politics. as in %inance. options &a!e !alue e!en i% not ultimately e8ercised. 3ntil t&e passage o% t&e 73rd and 74t& constitutional amendments. t&e states 2ere t&e only su"; national units o%%icially recogni:ed "y t&e -ndian constitution. 5nd t&e constitution grants indi!idual states considera"le legislati!e autonomy. 9c&edule 9e!en o% t&e Constitution e8plicitly demarcates t&e respecti!e legislati!e domains o% t&e state legislatures and t&e national parliament. +&e %unctional areas o!er 2&ic& t&e national parliament &as e8clusi!e domain are speci%ied in List -. also called t&e [3nion List[. -tems on t&is list include among ot&er t&ings. de%ense. %oreign a%%airs. currency. income ta8es. inter;state commerce. and 1ey in%rastructure. ?n t&e ot&er &and. state legislatures &a!e e8clusi!e aut&ority to enact legislation dealing 2it& t&e items in List --. 1no2n as t&e [9tate List[. -ncluded in t&is list are items suc& as la2 and order. pu"lic &ealt&. agriculture. 2ealt& ta8es. land tenure and land re%orms. and most nota"ly in t&e current conte8t. %unctions o% local go!ernments. List ---. t&e [Concurrent List[ includes items suc& as electricity. ne2spapers. education. price controls. etc.. o!er 2&ic& t&e national parliament and t&e state legislatures s&are Durisdiction. +&e legislati!e origins o% t&e 73rd and 74t& constitutional amendments date "ac1 to t&e Constitution 464t& 5mendment6 (ill. 2&ic& 2as introduced in t&e parliament in Muly 1989. +&e introduction o% t&is "ill represented t&e %irst attempt to con%er constitutional status on rural local go!ernments. +&oug& t&e "illGs "roader aim o% re!itali:ing rural local go!ernment 2as greeted %a!ora"ly. some o% t&e details 2ere critici:ed and t&e "ill 2as ultimately de%eated in t&e <aDya 9a"&a. -t is 2ort& noting t&at t&e main criticism le!eled against t&e "ill 2as t&at it o%%ered t&e states little discretion in t&e design o% local go!ernment re%orms. +&e 73rd and 74t& constitutional amendments 2ere introduced in parliament in 9eptem"er. 1991 "y t&e go!ernment o% *rime )inister Barasim&a <ao o% t&e Congress4l6 *arty in t&e %orm o% t2o separate "ills7 t&e 72nd 5mendment (ill %or rural

local "odies 4also 1no2n as *anc&ayats6 and t&e 73rd 5mendment (ill %or municipalities. +&ey 2ere re%erred to a Moint 9elect Committee o% *arliament and 2ere ultimately passed as t&e 73rd and 74t& 5mendment (ills in 'ecem"er. 1992. 5%ter t&e "ills 2ere rati%ied "y t&e state assem"lies o% more t&an &al% t&e states. t&e *resident ga!e &is assent on 5pril 20. 1993. +&e amendments 2ere t&en o%%icially enacted t&roug& t&e issuance o% go!ernment noti%ications t&e Constitution 473rd 5mendment6 5ct. 1992 4commonly re%erred to as t&e *anc&ayati <aD 5ct6 2ent into e%%ect on 5pril 24. 1993. and t&e Constitution 474t& 5mendment6 5ct. 1992 4t&e Bagarpali1a 5ct6. on Mune 1. 1993. >it& local go!ernments "eing a state su"Dect in 9c&edule 9e!en o% t&e constitution. any legislation re%orming t&e structure o% local go!ernment &as toC ultimately. "e enacted at t&e state le!el. +&e %irst tas1 o% t&e states 2as t&ere%ore to pass con%ormity acts. 2&ic& eit&er introduced ne2 legislation or amended e8isting legislation. to "ring t&e state la2s into line 2it& t&e pro!isions o% t&e amendment. 3nder t&e amendments. states &ad a year. %rom t&e date t&e amendment 2ent into e%%ect. to do so. (ecause t&e amendments contain "ot& mandatory and discretionary pro!isions. t&e degree o% %le8i"ility a%%orded t&e states in t&is tas1 !aried 2it& t&e pro!ision in ,uestion. +&e distinction "et2een mandatory and discretionary pro!isions is em"odied in t&e speci%ic language adopted in t&e 5cts and carried o!er into t&e ne2ly inserted articles o% t&e Constitution. +&e mandatory pro!isions 2ere t&ose t&at contain t&e 2ord [s&all[ in re%erring to t&e steps t&at indi!idual states needed to ta1e. -n t&e discretionary pro!isions. on t&e ot&er &and. t&e 2ord [may[ %igures prominently. 5nd so. 2&ile many o% t&e discretionary pro!isions laid out a !ision and created a space %or indi!idual states to legislati!ely inno!ate in re%orming local go!ernment. ultimately. t&e design and scope o% particular re%orms 2as le%t to t&e discretion o% indi!idual state legislatures. ?% t&e mandatory pro!isions o% t&e *anc&ayati <aD 5ct. t&e most critical are t&ose t&at strengt&en t&e structure o% representati!e democracy and political representation at t&e local le!el. T(e ,ey !an#ato$y p$o"isions a$e: +&e esta"lis&ment in e!ery state 4e8cept t&ose 2it& populations "elo2 2 million6 o% rural local "odies 4panc&ayats6 at t&e !illage. intermediate and district le!els 45rticle 243(6 -. 'irect elections to all seats in t&e panc&ayats at all le!els 45rticle 243C6 --. Compulsory elections to panc&ayats e!ery %i!e years 2it& t&e elections "eing &eld "e%ore t&e end o% t&e term o% t&e incum"ent panc&ayat in t&e e!ent t&at a panc&ayat is

dissol!ed prematurely. elections must "e &eld 2it&in si8 mont&s. 2it& t&e ne2ly elected mem"ers ser!ing out t&e remainder o% t&e %i!e year term 45rticle 243 6 ---. )andatory reser!ation o% seats in all panc&ayats at all le!els %or 'a!its and 5d!ises in proportion to t&eir s&are o% t&e panc&ayat population 45rticle 243'6 -#. )andatory reser!ation o% one;t&ird o% all seats in all panc&ayats at all le!els %or 2omen. 2it& t&e reser!ation %or 2omen applying to t&e seats reser!ed %or 'a!its and 5d!ises as 2ell 45rticle 243'6 #. -ndirect elections to t&e position o% panc&ayat c&airperson at t&e intermediate and district le!els 45rticle 243C6 #-. )andatory reser!ation o% t&e position o% panc&ayat c&airperson at all le!els %or 'a!its and 5d!ises in proportion to t&eir s&are in t&e state population 45rticle 243'6 #--. )andatory reser!ation o% one;t&ird o% t&e positions o% panc&ayat c&airperson at all t&ree le!els %or 2omen 45rticle 243'6 #---. -n addition. t&e act mandates t&e constitution o% t2o state;le!el commissions7 an independent election commission to super!ise and manage elections to local "odies. muc& as t&e lection Commission o% -ndia manages state assem"ly and parliamentary elections 45rticle 243F6C and a state %inance commission. esta"lis&ed e!ery %i!e years. to re!ie2 t&e %inancial position o% local "odies and recommend t&e principles t&at s&ould go!ern t&e allocation o% %unds and ta8ation aut&ority to local "odies 45rticle 24316. +2o ot&er points need to "e mentioned. +&e %irst is t&at 2&ile. %or t&e most part. t&e 74t( 5mendment act deals 2it& ur"an local "odies. a 1ey article contained in t&at amendment applies to rural local "odies as 2ell. +&e article in ,uestion. 5rticle 243\'. mandates t&e constitution o% 'istrict *lanning Committees to consolidate t&e plans prepared "y "ot& rural and ur"an local "odies. -n order to %acilitate a 2ell;planned &us"anding o% a!aila"le resources. *anc&ayats and municipalities s&ould "e in%ormed as early as possi"le o% 2&at t&ey mig&t "e e8pected to recei!e "y 2ay o% tied and untied %unds under !arious "udgetary &eads %or implementing !arious sc&emes. +&is is an essential pre;re,uisite %or eac& tier o% t&e *anc&ayati <aD system to prepare plans %or its areas o% responsi"ility. as de%ined t&roug& 5cti!ity )apping. and t&en %or all t&ese plans. along 2it& plans o% municipalities. to "e [consolidated[ "y t&e 'istrict *lanning Committees 4'*C6 as mandated "y 5rticle 243 \' o% t&e Constitution. -t needs to "e underlined t&at t&e Constitution does not pro!ide %or '*Cs to prepare district plans on t&eir o2n. "ut to [consolidate[ local area plans dra2n up at lo2er tiers in "ot& rural and ur"an areas o% eac& district 45 di%%erent pro!ision o% t&e Constitution co!ers district planning %or )etropolitan areas6.