Inglés - Guía Gramatical - English Grammar Guide

ENGLISH
Mauricio Arango Bustamante
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante
This document is only a compilation of all Grammar Notes I take during my studies of the English Language. I decided to share this Notes to other students who need an easy and practical resource to let them remember or consult any Grammar reference. Please remember that this is not an English course, it-s just a grammar and linguistic resume designed to students with any knowledge of the language. You are able to use it and print it, but do not commercialized it. All information was extracted from my English lessons, books I used along my studies and some internet resources. Hope it would help all of you on your learning goals!
Index
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. BASIC VOCABULARY .............................................................................................................. 5 VERB TO BE: PRESENT TENSE ................................................................................................ 6 THE ARTICLE .......................................................................................................................... 8 GENDER AND NUMBER ......................................................................................................... 9 DEMOSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ............................................................................................... 11 THERE IS/ THERE ARE .......................................................................................................... 12 THE POSSESSIVE CASE ......................................................................................................... 13 USE OF ADJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 14 THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ..................................................................................... 15 SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE .................................................................................................. 18 PRESENT PROGRESIVE TENSE .......................................................................................... 20 VERBS CONJUGATION ..................................................................................................... 21 SIMPLE PAST TENSE......................................................................................................... 22 PAST PROGRESIVE TENSE ................................................................................................ 23 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE ................................................................................................ 24 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE ......................................................................... 25 PAST PERFECT TENSE....................................................................................................... 26 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE ............................................................................... 27 GOING TO FUTURE TENSE ............................................................................................ 28 FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE .................................................................................................... 29 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE ......................................................................................... 30 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE .................................................................................................. 31 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE .......................................................................... 32 CONDITIONAL SIMPLE TENSE .......................................................................................... 33 CONDITIONAL PROGRESSIVE TENSE............................................................................... 34 CONDITIONAL PERFECT TENSE ........................................................................................ 35 CONDITIONAL PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE................................................................. 36 COMANDS: IMPERATIVE TENSE ...................................................................................... 37 2
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. USE OF ADVERBS ............................................................................................................. 38 PERSONAL PRONOUNS.................................................................................................... 44 MODAL VERBS ................................................................................................................. 45 REQUESTS AND ADVICES ................................................................................................. 50 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES - IF ........................................................................................ 51 QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 52 QUANTIFIERS ................................................................................................................... 54 THE PASSIVE VOICE ......................................................................................................... 57 REPORTER SPEECH .......................................................................................................... 58 RELATIVE PRONOUNS...................................................................................................... 59 MULTI-WORDS VERBS ..................................................................................................... 60 USE OF PREPOSITIONS .................................................................................................... 62 USE OF CONJUCTIONS .................................................................................................... 65 USE OF BOTH, NEITHER AND EITHER ............................................................................. 69 USE OF SO AND SUCH..................................................................................................... 70 USE OF AS ....................................................................................................................... 71 USE OF CLAUSES ............................................................................................................. 72 USE OF GERUND, INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE............................................................... 75
ANEX............................................................................................................................................ 80 I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. THE TIME ............................................................................................................................. 80 THE NUMBERS ..................................................................................................................... 81 BRITISH AMERICAN SPELLING DIFFERENCES ................................................................ 82 ABREVIATIONS IN BUSINESS ENGLISH............................................................................. 82 PHRASAL VERBS................................................................................................................... 83 GRAMMAR TENSES TABLE............................................................................................... 84 ENGLISH PHONOLOGY..................................................................................................... 85 COOKIE CUTTER ESSAY .................................................................................................... 86 VERBS LIST ....................................................................................................................... 88 INTERNACIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (I.P.A) .................................................................... 92
INTERESTING SITES ............................................................................................................ 94
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante INTRODUCTION
English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the most widely used language in the world. It is spoken as a first language by the majority populations of several sovereign states, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and a number of Caribbean nations; and it is an official language of almost 60 sovereign states. It is also widely learned as a second language and is an official language of the European Union, many Commonwealth countries and the United Nations, as well as in many world organisations. Approximately 375 million people speak English as their first language. So today its probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world. English is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guam,Guernsey, Guyana, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Jamaica, Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom and the United States. In some countries where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include Botswana,Cameroon, the Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malta, theMarshall Islands, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines (Philippine English), Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a co-official language, e.g. Colombia's San Andrs y Providencia and Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast. This was a result of the influence of British colonisation in the area. English is one of the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (South African English). It is also the official language in current dependent territories of Australia (Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and Cocos Island) and of the United States (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico (in Puerto Rico, English is co-official with Spanish), and the US Virgin Islands), and the former British colony of Hong Kong.
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 1. BASIC VOCABULARY
1.1 Greeting
Hello hi Good morning Good afternoon Good evening Good night Goodbye bye
Hola Hola Buenos d as Buenas tardes Buenas tardes Buenas noches Adis chau
please Thanks Thank you Youre welcome Welcome See you later How are you? Nice to meet you
Por favor Gracias Gracias a ti De nada Bienvenido Hasta pronto Cmo ests? Un gusto conocerlo
How are you? Fine thanks. And you? Whats your name? My name is... How old are you? Im..... Years old. See you later. bye
1.2 Personal Pronouns:
1 Person 2 Person 3 Person
Singular I You He She it
Plural We You they
1.3 Days of the week: Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Domingo Lunes martes Mircoles Jueves Viernes sbado
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 2. VERB TO BE: PRESENT TENSE The Verb to be is used to express a description of a being, precedence, nationality, feelings, and characteristics of someone or something.
2.1 Forms of the Verb to Be: The Verb to be changes depending on the subject or personal pronoun: First Person singular ----- am Third Person singular ---- is Plural ----- are
2.2 Sentence Structure: Affirmative Form: Subject + Verb to Be + Complement
In the negative form the word not is added in the sentence after the verb to be. Negative Form: Subject + Verb to Be + not + Complement
And in the interrogate sentence the verb to be is located at the beginning of the sentence: Interrogative Form: Verb to Be + Subject + Complement ? Interrogative-Negative Form: Verb to Be + Subject + (not) + Complement ? Verb to Be-nt + Subject + Complement?
Affirmative I Am You We Are They He She is It Interrogative Am I You Are We They He is She It
From Peru. In the garden. Here Strong From Greece.
Negative I Am not You We Are not They (Arent) He She Is not It (isnt)
From Peru. In the garden. Here Strong From Greece.
From Peru? In the garden? Here? Strong? From Greece?
Interrogative - Negative Am I not From Peru? You Are We Not In the garden? Here? They Strong? He Is She not From Greece? It
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 2.3 Contractions: The verb to be could be added to the pronoun or the subject: I am You are We are They are He is She is It is Im youre were theyre hes shes its
You are from Peru. -----------youre from Peru. He is in the kitchen. -----------Hes in the kitchen. Maria is happy -----------Marias happy They are good friends. -----------Theyre good friends.
The verb to be and the word not can be contracted (are usually used in colloquial spoken). Am not Are not -- arent Is not --- isnt
I am not You are not We are not They are not He is not She is not It is not
Im not youre not / you arent were not/ we arent theyre not / they arent hes not/ he isnt shes not / she isnt its not/ it isnt
Youre not from Peru / you arent from Peru. He isnt in the kitchen. Mary isnt happy. Theyre not good friends.
2.4 Interrogation and short answers: Are you from Greece? Yes, I am / no, Im not. Is she a teacher? Yes, she is / no, she isnt. Are you drivers? Yes, we are / no, we arent.
*** When the interrogative-negative form is used, you can use the contracted form of the negative with the verb to be, the contracted word should go at the beginning of the question:
Are you not from Greece? ---- Arent you from Greece? Is he not in the kitchen? ---- isnt he in the kitchen?
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 3. THE ARTICLE
Indefinite a / an
Definite the
3.1 Indefinite Article: A and an are used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not mentioned before. They are also used when talking about your profession or when the nouns identify may be irrelevant or hypothetical. He is a dentist. I am a taxi driver. This is an apple. He isnt a doctor. My mother is a nurse. It is an onion. That is a book.
*** Note that when the substantive begins with a consonant a is used. But when the substantive begins in a vowel an is used.
This is a banana, but this is an apple.
3.2 Definite Article: The definitive article is used when: You know that the listener knows or can work out what particular person/thing you are talking about or when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about. You are the teacher he is the best doctor in this hospital The book is broken.
To talk about geographical points on the globe. talk about rivers, oceans and seas: The North pole, the Nile, the Pacific. Before certain nouns when we know there is only one of a particular thing: The sun, the moon, the river, the world. The world is amazing. I like to see the sun. The Nile is the most famous river in Egypt.
*** We dont use articles when we talk about things in general, sports, proper nouns, name of countries (except if contains the words: state(s), kingdom, republic, union).
Inflation is rising. My son plays football. Maria is with Jane now. Coffee is bad for you Italy, Mexico, and Hungary but: The UK, the USA, and the European Union.
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 4. GENDER AND NUMBER
4.1 Gender: unlike most other languages, all nouns in English are neuters; it means that a noun is the same for both masculine and feminine. Applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of persons and animal. WORDS WITH TWO GENDERS Masculine Feminine Man Woman Boy Girl Brother Sister Father Mother Actor Actress Duke Duchess King Queen God Goddess Emperor Empress Governor Governess Lion Lioness host Hostess
4.2 Number: Nouns can be divide in countable nouns and uncountable nouns:
4.2.1
Countable Nouns: is a common noun that can be modified by a numeral and that occurs in both singular and plural form. a) Singular: describes about one noun Lion, boy, chair, dress. House, the Nile, a river. b) Plural: two or more nouns. (see the numbers) Rules Singular + s Examples Car - cars hat - hats Lamp lamps cup - cups day - days pencil pencils boy - boys book books Box boxes bus - buses Sandwich sandwiches kiss- kisses City - cities Lady - ladies Thief thieves Wife wives Shelf- shelves Man men Person people Child - children
Words with x, -ch, - s ending. es is added. Words with consonant + y ending. y is dropped by an i, and then es is added. Words with f, -fe, ending, the last letter is dropped by -ves Irregular nouns
woman women foot feet tooth - teeth
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante Examples: My dog is hungry My dogs are hungry. I want an orange. I want some oranges. The bottle can break. Bottles can break. There is one person here. There are three people here. I get some dollars I like apples. I havent got any pen. I have four dogs. Where is my bottle A dog is an animal.
4.2.2
Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc. that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. They dont use indefinite article, and are used in singular. Music, art, love, happiness Advice, information, news Furniture, luggage Rice, sugar, butter, water Electricity, gas, power Money, currency
This new is very important. Your luggage looks heavy. A grain of rice. Ive got some money. Have you got any rice?
***For specify quantity, much and little can be used for uncountable nouns, while many and few are used for countable nouns: A few days ago - we has many friends We dont have much money we have little money. (See quantifiers)
10
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 5. DEMOSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things specifying its distances to the speaker:

near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those)
near singular plural this these
far that those
5.1 near demonstrative pronouns: This/ these
this is a student this is an onion These policemen are old. This university is big This tastes good. These are bad times.
5.2 Far demonstrative pronouns: That/ those
Thats an apple That house is white Those guys are Peruvians. That is beautiful. Look at that! Can you see those?
11
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 6. THERE IS/ THERE ARE We use There is / There are to say that something exists (or does not exist), when we talk about something for the first time. (Instead of It, that is used for a particular thing, fact, situation, etc.) The real subject usually comes after there is / there are.
6.1 Structure: its used like taking into account the structure of the verb to be (See verb to Be)
a) Use "There is" (theres) for singular nouns and things you cannot count. There is a swimming pool There is a ghost in the room. Theres oil in the pavement. Theres ice on the lake.
b) Use "There are" for plural nouns; that is to say, we use there are with a plural subject. There are two discos. There are two parks in my neighbourhood. There are six hundred students in this school. Therere four windows in my room.
c) To say the opposite, (the negative form of this structure), use isn't (is + not) or aren't (are + not) There isnt a telephone in the kitchen. There isnt a balcony. There arent chairs in my room. There arent two pictures on the wall.
d) To make questions, (to ask whether something exists or it doesn't) just change the order of there is and there are, like in the interrogative form of the verb to be. Is there a swimming pool here? Are there two parks in your neighbourhood? Isnt there a telephone in the kitchen? Arent there two pictures on the wall?
e)
It can be used with adverbs like some, any, much and many: (See quantifiers) Theres some water in the bottle. There isnt any apple. There is much money there. There are many people here.
12
7. THE POSSESSIVE CASE The possessive case is used to show ownership or possession. 7.1 Structure and Rules: POSSSESSSIVE + OF (THE) + POSSESSOR = POSSESSORS POSSESSIVE
The notebook of Mary - Marys notebook. The book of the student - students book. The mother of the bride brides mother.
a) The possessive pattern ('s) is generally used when indicate a relation of ownership or association with a person, rather than a thing: A mans opinion. Mr. Jones house. Carl and Roberts dog.
b) Plural nouns, and proper nouns that end in " s " take an apostrophe at the end ( ' ): The teachers handout (the handout of the teachers). The students handout. (the handout of the students) Charles job is online. (the job of Charles is online)
7.2 Possessive adjectives: They are used to describe possession of a personal pronoun. Personal P. I You He She It We You (p.) They Possessive My Your His Her Its Our Your Their
His garden is beautiful. My umbrella is not new. Her new book is in her briefcase. Your breakfast is on your table. My room is very big. Their new car is really cool.
***You should still use the genitive case when talking about things that belong to other things: The door of the car. The content of the website. The top of the page.
13
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 8. USE OF ADJECTIVES It is used to describe the person or the thing we are talking about. Adjectives are neuter, it means, they have no gender and are always singular. 8.1 Rules:
a) Adjectives are located before the verb to be in the sentence: The house is big. My room is small. All these houses are beautiful. station. Those boys were nice with me. - Its difficult to understand. - The water is safe to drink. - It was nice of you to take me to the - Its silly of Mary to give up her job.
b) Adjectives could go behind the substantive: A nice house. He is a good student.
c) When there are two or more adjectives, they should be located according to this order: size quality shape age colour origin material ing adjective) + NOUN A tall young man. Your friend seems very nice. A large round table. First two days. - A large wooden table. - An old white cotton shirt. - A long black dress. - Next few weeks.
d) Adjectives could be located after some verbs: be, become, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste. You look tired. Your friend seems very nice. The tea tastes a bit strange. - be careful, be quite. - The dinner smells good. - Im tired and Im getting hungry.
e) Some adjectives could end in ing, and ed: ( See the participle) -ING: when describes the topic that is talked about - ED: when describes what the person feels about a certain topic. My job is boring Julia thinks politics is very interesting. The news was shocking. The film was disappointing. My job is depressing. Work is tiring. My job is satisfying Im bored with my job. Julia is very interested in politics. We were very shocked when we heard the news. I was disappointed with the film. My job makes me feel depressed. Im tired with the work. Im not satisfied with my job.
14
9. THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
9.1 Degrees of comparison: POSSITIVE

(adjetivo normal)
COMPARATIVE
(mas/ menos... que)
SUPERLATIVE
(EL ms/ El menos... )
Small Big Pretty Easy Cheap Expensive Difficult
(adj-er / more + adj) Smaller Bigger Prettier Easier Cheaper More expensive More difficult
(the adj-est / the most + adj) The smallest The biggest The prettiest The easiest The cheapest The most expensive The most difficult
a) Use of Positive degree: Its the simple degree, and use the adjective in its original shape. This is a small house. The test was very difficult.
Can also Express equality between two nouns, using the structures: as .... as / so . as (tan como) not as . as / not so . as (no tan como) the same as.
Billy is as clever as that boy. My book is as interesting as yours. Your class is not as good as mine. Its not warm but it isnt as cold as yesterday. Their house is three times as big as ours. Tom is the same age as George. Ill have the same as you.
b) Use of Comparative degree: Its used to express differences (more or less than) between two nouns. And it used the pattern: Noun 1 + Comparative + than + Noun 2 o When the adjective is monosyllabic and in some cases two-syllable, (-er) its added at the end of the adjective: Tall- taller, quick quicker, old older If the one-syllable adjective ends with an e, just add r for the comparative: Large larger, wise wiser. 15
If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it, double the consonant and add er : Big bigger, thin thinner, fat fatter If the two-syllable adjectives ends with y, change the y to i and add er: Happy happier, busy busier, angry - angrier For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the comparative with more Generous more generous, intelligent more intelligent.
Examples: They arrived earlier than her. Can you walk a bit faster? Youre older than me. (than I am) Last night I went to bed earlier than usual. The exam was more difficult than we expected. Max is more careful than Mike. You are taller than me. He eats quicker than me. o For express less than, its used less (for uncountable nouns) and fewer (for countable nouns) and then the adjective in its original form. Candy is less tall than Hortencia. Arequipa has fewer tall buildings than New York.
c) Use of Superlative degree: Its used to express the maximum amount of an adjective: the most or the least + adjective + (noun). o When the adjective is monosyllabic and in some cases two-syllable, (-est) its added at the end of the adjective: Tall- tallest, quick quickest, old oldest If the one-syllable adjective ends with an e, just add st for the superlative: Large largest, wise wisest. If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it, double the consonant and add est: Big biggest, thin thinnest, fat fattest If the two-syllable adjectives ends with y, change the y to i and add est: Happy happiest, busy busiest, angry - angriest 16
For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the superlative with the most Generous the most generous, intelligent the most intelligent.
Examples: Yesterday was the hottest day of the year. She is one of the nicest people I know. This hotel is the cheapest in town. This is the longest river in the world. The book you lent me was the most interesting I ever read. Of the three students, Max is the oldest. May is the most thoughtful person Ive ever met. Of all the people I know, Max is the most intelligent. o For express less than, its used the least and then the adjective in its original form. Candy is the least tall student in the class. This book is the least interesting book of all the library.
d) Irregular adjectives: Positive Good Bad Much Little far Comparative Better Worse More Less Further / farther Superlative Best Worst Most Least furthest
He is a good teacher. He is better than me He is the best student in the classroom. He is a bad teacher. He is worse than me He is the worst student in the classroom. He has much money He has more money than me He has less money than me.
17
10. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do. The simple present tense shows the next structure: [Subject + Verb + Rest]
10.1
Structure form: a) Affirmative Form:
The Simple present tense shows the verb in the infinite form, but for the third singular person in an affirmative sentence, a letter s is added at the end of the verb: (See Verbs List) I make she makes You love he loves We run - it runs Verbs ending in a sibilant s,z, ch, or vowel -o preceded by a consonant, we add -es to the infinitive: I watch she watches I pass he passes I go he goes Verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel (a, e, i, o, u): Add s, but verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant: Change 'y' to 'i' and add 'es': I play he plays I carry he carries You pay he pays I hurry he hurries
b) Negative Form: Its used the auxiliary do not (dont) before the verb. And does not (doesnt) for the third singular person before the verb without s. [Pronoun + dont / do not + Verb + Rest] 3 Person Singular: [Pronoun + doesnt / does not + Verb + Rest] c) Interrogative Form: Its used the auxiliaries do and does respectively at the beginning of the sentence. [Do / does + Pronoun + Verb + Rest]
***When the auxiliary DOES appear in the sentence, the verb is used in the infinite form, without using the s, -es ending.
18
10.2
Grammar Table Affirmative I play You watch We eat They drink He Plays She watches It eats drinks Interrogative I Do You We They He does She It Negative I You do not / (dont) We They He She does not / (doesnt) It
Football. TV. Hamburgers. Coffee.
Live in London. Work in a factory. Play volleyball. Drink tea.
Collect stamps? Watch TV? Have lunch at school? Listen to music?
Interrogative - Negative I Dont You (Not) (Do) Read magazines? We Go to bed early? They Type five letters? He (not) Doesnt She (does) It
*** Simple Present tenses is usually used with some adverbs before the verbs: often, usually, sometimes, never, always, and occasionally. And with some adverbs that should be located at the end of the sentence: on Sundays, twice a month, every day, every weekend, etc.
I often play tennis. I never go to bed early. He always goes to school by car. My mother sometimes cooks lunch. They never come here on Mondays. I go to school every morning. The girls play volleyball on Sundays. She washes her hair every day. I dont like to play tennis. She doesnt understand my language. Do you live in Venezuela? Yes, I do No, I dont. Does she live in Argentina? Yes, she does. No, she doesnt.
19
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 11. PRESENT PROGRESIVE TENSE
The Present Progressive is used when we talk about something which is happening now; actions happening around the moment of speaking; temporary actions and repeated actions which are irritating to the speaker. 11.1 Structure form: The present progressive is formed by the verb to be followed by the main verb in its gerund form (-ING) (See The Rules of Gerund) [Subject + verb to be + Verb - ing + Rest]
*** the verb to be in a progressive tense should change according to the pronoun into: am, is, are. In the same way, it has the same rules for negation and contractions.
11.2
She is listening to the radio. Shes listening to the radio. He is not playing tennis. - He isnt playing tennis. / Hes not playing tennis. Is he not playing tennis? - Isnt he playing tennis?
Grammar Table Affirmative I Am You We Are They He She is It Interrogative Am I You Are We They He is She It Negative I Am not You We Are not (Arent) They He She Is not (isnt) It
Having a shower. Washing up. Waiting for the bus. Working at the office. Reading a book.
Cleaning the car. Having fun. Watching TV. Paying football. Working in Mexico.
Playing the guitar? Ironing the clothes? Crying? Working at the office? Reading a magazine?
Interrogative - Negative Am I not Working now? You (Not) Playing? Arent We (are) Writing a letter? They Singing in English? He Isnt She (not) Watching a movie? (is) It
*** Present Progressive s is usually used with words such: now, at the moment, look!, listen!. Right now.
She is listening to the radio right now. His father is working in Rome now. My friend is preparing his exam. Look! Hes reading the news. Im not having lunch at the moment. He isnt playing tennis. Is he doing his homework? No, he isnt Isnt he doing his homework? Yes, he is.
20
12. VERBS CONJUGATION Verbs in English have only 3 forms: Infinitive: It is the original form of the verb and is used for the simple present tense, future tense and simple conditional tense. Simple Past: It is used in the simple past tense. Past Participle: It is used in the perfect tenses, and is usually preceded by an auxiliary verb.
*** Conjugations of simple past and are only used in a positive sentence, when theres a negation or appears the auxiliary verb (in an interrogative sentence), the verb should go in the infinitive verb.
12.1 Regular Verbs: Those verbs that in simple past or past participle, its conjugation is formed adding ED at the end of the verb. Work worked talk talked Open opened walk - walked o When the verb ends in l or consonant after short, stressed vowel at the end of the word, its added a double consonant: Stop stopped swap swapped travel - travelled One e at the end of the verb, add only -d: Love loved save - saved verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel (a, e, i, o, u): Add ed Play - played verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant: Change 'y' to 'i' Then add hurry hurried carry carried
12.2
Irregular Verbs: when the form of the verb changes: (See Verbs List)
infinitive be do go have know leave make sit tell understand write simple past was/were did went had knew left made sat told understood wrote past participle Been Done Gone Had Known Left Made Sat Told Understood Written
21
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 13. SIMPLE PAST TENSE The Simple Past Tense is used to talk about actions or situations in the past. An action finished in the past or series of completed actions in the past.
13.1
Structure form: The simple Past Tense is formed using the verb in its past conjugation. In the case of a negative or interrogative sentence, its used the auxiliary verb did (past form of do/does) and the verb goes on its infinitive form. Affirmative: [Subject + verb (Past) + Rest] Negative: [Subject +did not/ didnt + verb + Rest] Interrogative: [Did / (didnt) + Subject + verb + Rest]
13.2
Grammar Table Affirmative I Watched You Played We Went They Did He had She It Interrogative I You We Did They He She It Negative I You Did not We (didnt) They He She It
TV Tennis yesterday. To the cinema. Some homework. A Lunch with Jane.
Watch TV Play tennis Go to the cinema Do some homework. Have a lunch with Jane.
Watch the film? Work yesterday? Go to the stadium? Have homework? Get married?
Interrogative - Negative I Watch the film? You Didnt We Work yesterday? (did) They (not) Go to the stadium? Have homework? He Get married? She It
*** The Past Simple tense s is usually used with words such: last.., yesterday, before, ago.
13.3
I played football yesterday. I didnt wash the dishes last night. Did you travel to Scotland two years ago?
Use of Verb to be in the Past tense: It uses the same rules than in the Present tense.
(See verb to be)
I / He/ She / It ---- was (s) / was not (wasnt) You/ We/ They ---- were (re) / were not (werent) I was at school I wasnt at school. You were at home - you werent at home. My grandfather was a teacher. Was he on holiday? Yes, he was. Were they at the disco? No they werent. Theyre at the cinema.
22
14. PAST PROGRESIVE TENSE The Past Progressive Tense is used when an action was in progress in a special time in the past, or when two actions were happening at the same time. 14.1 Structure form: The present progressive is formed by the verb to be in the past followed by the main verb in its gerund form (-ING) (See The Rules of Gerund) [Subject + verb to be in Past + Verb - ing + Rest]
*** the verb to be in a progressive tense should change according to the pronoun into: was, were. In the same way, it has the same rules for negation and contractions.
14.2
She was listening to the radio. Shes listening to the radio. He was not playing tennis. - He wasnt playing tennis. / Hes not playing tennis. were they not playing tennis? - werent they playing tennis?
Grammar Table Affirmative I Was You We were (re) They He She Was (s) It Interrogative Was I You were We They He was She It Negative I Was not/ Walking home. Studying at school. Enjoying on holidays. Going to London. Reading a book.
(wasnt)
You We They He She It
were not
(werent)
Taking a shower. Walking to school Doing homework. Watching TV. Working in Mexico.
Was not
(wasnt)
Going to the disco? Enjoying the weekend? Crying? Travelling to Europe? Reading a magazine?
Interrogative - Negative was I not You werent We (Not) (were) They He wasnt She (not) (was) It
Working now? Playing? Writing a letter? Singing in English? Watching a movie?
*** The Past Progressive Tense is usually used with words such: when, while
While we were watching TV, Ana was surfing the internet. The ladies were taking when the accident happened. She was listening to the radio His father was working in Rome now. My friends were preparing his exam. Was he doing his homework? No, he wasnt Werent they doing his homework? Yes, they were.
23
15. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE The Present Perfect tense is used for actions in the past that has something to do with the present, recently completed actions. Its also used to mention a result of an action in the past is important in the present, or a state beginning in the past and still continuing.
15.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb have or has (for the third singular person followed by the verb in past participle. (See verbs list) [Pronoun + have/ has + Verb past participle + Rest]
15.2
Contractions: HAVE / VE (3 P. Sing.) HAS / S ------ HAVE NOT / HAVENT / VE NOT ------ HAS NOT / HASNT / S NOT
I have cleaned my room / Ive cleaned my room (yo he limpiado mi cuarto) I have not cleaned my room / I havent cleaned my room /Ive not cleaned my room. He has cleaned my room / hes cleaned my room (l ha limpiado mi cuarto) He has not cleaned my room / he hasnt cleaned my room /hes not cleaned my room.
15.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You Have (ve) We They He She has (s) It Interrogative I You Have We They He Has She It Negative I You have not (havent) We They He She has not (hasnt) It
Found thirty records. Got two sisters. Bought a dog. Stopped the car. Studied Spanish.
Driven the car. Painted this wall. Gone to the concert. Seen her. Cleaned the house.
Gone to the club? Ever been there? Got a dog? Ever eaten fish? Stopped the car?
Interrogative - Negative I Havent You (have) We (Not) They He hasnt She (not) (has) It
Gone to the club? Ever been there? Got a dog? Ever eaten fish? Stopped the car?
*** The Present Perfect is usually used with words such: just, yet, never, ever, already, so far, up to now, since, for, recently.
Ive just cleaned my room. Youve recently been in Italy. She hasnt gone yet. Have you ever eaten this fruit? No, I havent Has Mary travelled to Italy? Yes, she has.
24
16. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE The Present Perfect Progressive tense is used for actions beginning in the past and still continuing (focus is the action), mostly with since (point of time) or for (period of time). 16.1 Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb have or has followed by the verb to be in past participle been and the verb in gerund. (See Gerund) [Pronoun + have/ has + been + Verb -ing + Rest] I have been looking. Ive been looking (yo he estado mirando) He has been studying - hes been studying. (l ha estado estudiando)
16.2
Grammar Table Negative I You have not (havent) We They He She has not (hasnt) It
Affirmative I You Have (ve) We They He She has (s) It Interrogative I You Have We They He Has She It
Been
Preparing a lesson. Working. Doing homework. Cleaning the house
Been
Studying hard. Climbing the hair. Watching TV. Washing clothes.
Been
Preparing a lesson? Working? Doing homework? Washing clothes?
Interrogative - Negative I Havent You (have) We (Not) They Been He (not) hasnt She (has) It
Playing tennis? Working? Watching TV? Washing clothes?
*** The Present Perfect Progressive is usually used with words such: all day. The whole day, since, for
I have been looking for him all day. He has been studying all night. Ive been waiting for you for three hours. She has been watching too many videos. I havent been doing an exercise. I have been visiting him in Canada. Have you been studying? No, I havent. Has Paul been studying? Yes, he has.
25
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 17. PAST PERFECT TENSE The Past Perfect tense is normally used with the simple past. When two past actions are combined - the first action, which was completed before the second one began, is put into Past Perfect. When Sarah arrived to the party, Paul had already gone home (Cuando Sarah lleg a la fiesta, Paul ya se hab a ido a casa.)
17.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb had followed by the verb in past participle. [Subject + had + Verb past participle + Rest]
17.2
Contractions: HAD / D ------ HAD NOT / HADNT / D NOT
He had learned / hed learned (l hab a aprendido) He had not learned / he hadnt learned/ hed not learned ( l no hab a aprendido)
17.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We They Had (d) He She It Interrogative I You We Had They He She It Negative I You We They had not (hadnt) He She It
Fixed the machine. Got two sisters. Bought a dog. Stopped the car. Studied Spanish.
Driven the car. Painted this wall. Gone to the concert. Seen her. Cleaned the house.
Gone to the club? Been In London? Got a dog? Cleaned it? Stopped the car?
Interrogative - Negative I You We Hadnt They (Not) (had) He She It
Gone to the club? Been In London? Got a dog? Cleaned it? Stopped the car?
*** The Past Perfect is usually used with words such: already, just, and never. And is usually used with a simple past sentence.
I had finished my homework. They had already travelled around the world. The bike was new, Id bought it. The match had started before he arrived. the match started when he arrived After Mary had gone home it started t to rain. Had you gone to the club? No, I hadnt / yes, I had.
26
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 18. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE The Past Perfect Progressive Tense is used to express how long something had been happening before something else happened. Is also used to express a cause of something happened in the past. 18.1 Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb had followed by the verb to be in past participle been and the verb in gerund. (See Gerund) [Subject + had + been + Verb -ing + Rest] I had been looking. Id been looking (yo hab a estado mirando) He had not been studying - he hadnt been studying. Hed not been studying. (l hab a estado estudiando)
18.2
Grammar Table Negative I You We They had (hadnt) He She It
Affirmative I You We They Had (d) He She It Interrogative I You We Had They He She It
Been
Feeling well. Playing basketball. Doing homework. Cleaning the room.
Been
Studying hard. Climbing the hair. Watching TV. Washing clothes.
Been
Preparing a lesson? Crying? Doing something? Washing clothes?
Interrogative - Negative I You We Hadnt They Been (not) (had) He She It
Playing? Feeling well? Watching TV? Washing clothes?
*** the Past Perfect Continuous is usually used with words such: how long, since, for.
I had been watching TV. He had been talking to you. I had been waiting for Susan for two hours when she arrived. They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived. She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? Jason was tired because he had been jogging. He was tired because he had been exercising so hard. Had you been studying? No, I hadnt./ Yes, I had.
27
19. GOING TO FUTURE TENSE The Going to-Future is used to express planned actions in the future, or if you are certain that something is going to happen in a nearly future. 19.1 Structure form: Its formed by the verb to be, followed by going to and the verb in infinitive. [Subject + verb to be + going to + Verb + Rest] She is going to be a nurse (Ella va a ser una enfermera)
*** the verb to be in a progressive tense should change according to the pronoun into: am, are, is. In the same way, it has the same rules for negation and contractions. (See verb to be)
19.2
We are going to sing at the party. were going to sing at the party He is not going to play. - He isnt going to play. / Hes not going to play tennis.
Grammar Table Affirmative I Am

(m)
Negative I am not Study Spanish. Dance. Type a letter. Work today.

(m not)
are
(re)
Going to
is
(s)
are not
(arent)
Going to
Take a shower. Walk to school Do homework. Watch TV. Work in Mexico.
Is not
(isnt)
Interrogative Am I You are We They Going to He is She It
Study Spanish? Dance? Type a letter? Work today
Interrogative - Negative Am I not You arent We (are) They (not) Going to He isnt She (is) It
Work now? Play? Write a letter? Sing a song? Watch TV?
I feel terrible; I think Im going to be sick. Hes going to clean the windows later. Are you going to drink coffee? No, Im not / yes, I am. Were not going to take the bus; we are going to go by car.
*** Going to can be used for express situation in the past, using the verb to be in its past conjugation.
I thought it was going to rain, but then the sun came out. He was going to do it, but he changed his mind. We were going to travel by train but then we decided to go by car.
28
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 20. FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE The Future simple tense is used to express future actions happen without the speaker's intention; Predictions, assumptions (I think, I hope, I'm sure, I'm afraid); Spontaneous actions (not planned). 20.1 Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb will [Subject + Will + Verb + Rest] Contractions: WILL/ LL ------ WILL NOT / WONT
20.2
20.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We They Will (ll) He She It Interrogative I You We Will They He She It Negative I You We They will not (wont) He She It
Travel to the moon. Live in Europe. Take a holiday. Go tomorrow.
Play football. Be tired. Go to school. Try a new game.
Travel to the moon? Live in Europe? Take a holiday? Go tomorrow?
Interrogative - Negative I You Travel to the We moon? Wont They Live in Europe? (not) (will) Take a holiday? He Go tomorrow? She It
I will take a holiday in the space. The headmaster will close the old gym. We wont play handball tomorrow. The sun will shine tomorrow. I think Sue will arrive in Paris at 6 am. Will they go to Rome next summer? Yes, they will/ No, they wont
*** In British English people sometimes use shall instead of will in the first person singular and plural. The contraction of shall is (ll) and its negated as: shall not/ shant.
I shall be tired this evening. Well go tomorrow. We shant open the window. Shall we go? No, you wont. Ill shut the door.
29
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 21. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE The Future progressive tense is used when an action will be in progress at a certain time in the future, and this action has begun before the certain time, and when something happens because it normally happens.
21.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb will followed by be and the main verb in gerund. (See Gerund) [Subject + Will + be + Verb-ing + Rest] She will be working tomorrow (Ella estar trabajando maana)
21.2
Contractions: The same rules than in the future simple tense. (See Future Simple tense)
21.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We They Will be (ll be) He She It Interrogative I You We Will They He She It Negative I You We They will not be (wont be) He She It
Singing tomorrow. Eating ice cream. Travelling next week. Going tomorrow.
Playing football. Singing tonight Going to school. Trying a new game.
Be
Singing tomorrow? Eating ice cream? Travelling? Going tomorrow?
Interrogative - Negative I You Singing tomorrow? We Be Eating ice cream? Wont They (not be) Travelling? (will) Going tomorrow? He She It
I will be playing basketball next Sunday. I will be going to the disco on Saturday night. They ll be working They wont be playing cards. Will you be singing in your Spanish class? Yes, I will/ No, I wont. When I come to school, the other kids will be waiting for me.
30
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 22. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE The Future perfect tense is used when something will already have happened before a certain time in the future.
22.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb will followed by have and the main verb in past participle. [Subject + Will + have + Verb-past participle + Rest] She will have written the letter by tomorrow (Ella habr escrito la carta para maana.)
22.2
22.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We They Will have (ll have) He She It Interrogative I You We Will They have He She It Negative I You We They will not have (wont have) He She It
Worked. Gone. Finished school. Took the bus
Played football. Gone. Finished school. Tried a new game.
Worked? Gone Finished school? Took the bus?
Interrogative - Negative I You We have (not Wont They have) (will) He She It
Played football? Gone? Finished school? Tried a new game?
I will have played basketball next Sunday. I will have gone to the disco on Saturday night. Theyll have worked. For that moment, He wont have finished his homework. Will they have finished school? Yes, they will/ no, they wont.
31
23. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The Future perfect tense is used when something that will already begin and will be continuing in the future.
23.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb will followed by have been and the main verb in gerund. (See Gerund) [Subject + Will + have + been + Verb-gerund + Rest] I will have been swimming for an hour by 6:30 (yo habr estado nadando por una hora a las 6:30.)
23.2
23.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You Working. We Studying. They Will have been Taking the bus. (ll have been) He She It Interrogative I You Working? We Studying? Will They Have been Taking the bus? He She It Negative I You Working. We Studying. They will not have been Taking the bus (wont have been) He She It Interrogative - Negative I You Working? We Have been Studying? Wont They (not have been) Taking the bus? (will) He She It
They wont have been earning money. I will have been taking the bus, when he arrives. I will have been running for two hours. Will you have been working? Yes, I will. / no, I wont
32
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 24. CONDITIONAL SIMPLE TENSE The Conditional simple tense is used to express that something might happen, and its also used in the main clause in type II of conditional sentences. (See conditional sentences.) 24.1 Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb would [Subject + Would + Verb + Rest] I would fly to Sydney if I had the money. (yo volar a a Sidney si tuviera el dinero.
24.2
Contractions: WOULD/ D ------ WOULD NOT / WOULDNT
24.3
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We They Would (d) He She It Interrogative I You We Would They He She It Negative I You We They would not (wouldnt) He She It
Eat this cake. Go to the part. Like it.
Play football. Be tired. Try a new game.
Interrogative - Negative I You We Wouldnt They (not) (would) He She It
If I were you, I would help him. I would help you to study, but I have no time. They would buy a computer, if it werent so expensive. If I had time, Id go to your party. Would you like to go? Yes, I would/ no, I wouldnt
33
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 25. CONDITIONAL PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The Conditional Progressive Tense is used to express that something might happen, and it emphasize a plan or prediction in the same way of going to, and its also used in the main clause in type II of conditional sentences. (See conditional sentences.)
25.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb would followed by be and the main verb in gerund. (See Gerund) [Subject + Would + be + Verb-ing + Rest] He would be working (El estar a trabajando)
25.2
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We They Would be (d be) He She It Interrogative I You We Would They He She It Negative I You We They would not be (wouldnt be) He She It
Singing tomorrow. Eating ice cream. Travelling next week. Going tomorrow.
Playing football. Singing tonight Going to school. Trying a new game.
Be
Singing ? Eating ice cream? Travelling? Going tomorrow?
Interrogative - Negative I You We Be Wouldnt They (not be) (would) He She It
Singing? Eating ice cream? Travelling? Going tomorrow?
I am busy next week. If I had time, I would be coming to your party. If I were going to Fiji next week, I would be taking my scuba diving gear with me Theyd be working. They wouldnt be living in New York.. Would you be singing in your Spanish class? Yes, I would/ No, I wouldnt.
34
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 26. CONDITIONAL PERFECT TENSE The Conditional Perfect Tense is used to express that something might have happen, and its also used in the main clause in type III of conditional sentences. (See conditional sentences.)
26.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb would followed by have and the main verb in past participle. [Pronoun + Would + have + Verb-past participle + Rest] She would have written the letter (Ella habr a escrito la carta)
26.2
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We Called you. They would have Passed the exam. (d have) Arrived at time. He She It Negative I You We They would not have (wouldnt have) He She It
Played football. Gone. Finished school. Tried.
Interrogative I You We Would They have He She It
Worked? Gone Finished school? Took the bus?
Interrogative - Negative I You We have Wouldnt They (not have) (would) He She It
Played football? Gone? Finished school? Tried?
I would have told him the truth. I would have phoned you, if you havent switched your mobile off. I would have passed the exam. Would you have gone? Yes, I would / no, I wouldnt.
35
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 27. CONDITIONAL PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE The Conditional Perfect Progressive Tense is used to express that something might have happened in the past, and its also used in the main clause in type III and I of conditional sentences. (See conditional sentences.)
27.1
Structure form: is formed by the auxiliary verb would followed by have been and the main verb in gerund. (See Gerund) [Subject + would + have + been + Verb-gerund + Rest] I would have been swimming for an hour. (yo habr a estado nadando por una hora a las 6:30.)
27.2
Grammar Table Affirmative I You We Working. They Would have been Studying. (d have been) Taking the bus. He She It Negative I You We They would not have been He (wouldnt have been) She It
Working. Studying. Taking the bus.
Interrogative Interrogative - Negative I I You You We Working? We Have been Working? Would They Have been Studying? Wouldnt They (not have been)Studying? Taking the bus? (would) Travelling? He He She She It It
They wouldnt have been earning money. I would have been coming to the party, if I had had a car. Maria would have been singing if there had been more people in the church. Would you have been working? Yes, I would. / no, I wouldnt
36
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 28. COMANDS: IMPERATIVE TENSE The imperative is used for express orders or to make exclamations.
28.1
Structure form: a) For the second person singular and plural (to you), the verbs goes in the infinitive form: Hurry! Wait! Stop please! Study more! Come here, please.
b) For the first person plural (to us), the imperative is expressed adding let us (lets) before the verb in infinitive: Lets pay attention Lets not go to the party. Lets go by taxi, shall we? Yes, lets
c) For the third person in imperative, its added let with the object pronoun before the verb in infinitive: (See the pronouns) Let him pay attention Let them go to the party. Let her go by taxi. Let it be.
28.2
Negation: the imperative is negated using the present simple negation (dont): (See
simple present tense)
Dont stop! Dont Wait! Dont let her go by taxi! Dont let it be.
If the imperative of the third person is negated, not is added after lets and before the verb. Lets not ask the teacher. Lets not go by taxi. Lets not play here.
37
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 29. USE OF ADVERBS
Adverbs tell us in what way someone does something, it means, the adverb is the word that changes or qualifies the meaning of a verb, adjective or another adverb. Most of the adverbs are located before the verb, but after the auxiliary verb. There are some exceptions that can be located at the beginning or at the end of the sentence such: afterwards, later, yet, most of the adverbs of place and of manner.
29.1
Types of adverbs:
a) Adverbs of frequency: Always Never Hardly Normally Afterwards usually now often ever generally sometimes regularly once up until then later rarely seldom hardly ever twice the moment
I always play the piano. He usually gets here earlier. Im watching TV now. Ive never gone. I often run on the park. Have you ever been in Quito? I could hardly say no. Its generally admitted that governments are necessary. He sometimes goes out on Fridays. She normally wears black. I regularly play the guitar. Ive seen a white tiger once. Id think twice before doing it. Afterwards, we laughed about it, but it wasnt funny at the time. Up until then, I had never lost anything important. We will talk later. Well, I will think were Ok for the moment.
***The negative adverbs (never, never before, rarely, hardly ever, and seldom) can be placed at the beginning of the sentences to give additional emphasis. The sentence should have the auxiliary verb in a positive form: Neg. Adv. + auxiliary + subject + verb.
Hardly ever has my cousin worked. Seldom do street dogs eat well. Rarely did she sing in front of people.
38
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante b) Adverbs of manner: slowly finally beautifully suddenly actually alone immediately carefully easily only intentionally together honestly nervously patiently really successfully accidentally
She speaks slowly. I'll send you a cheque immediately the goods arrive I dont know, and I honestly dont care Finally, we get the best grade. You have to drive carefully. People are nervously watching the conflict in the Middle East. She was beautifully dressed. Bread is easily obtained. More than 300 people are patiently waiting in a line. Suddenly the lights went off and we couldnt see anymore Bill must be tired. He slept only three hours last night Do you really love Paul? Actually, it was Anne who told me the truth. he intentionally set the building on fire. We did it successfully. Jane brought up three children all alone. They lived together for two years and then got married Oh, I apologize; I accidentally dented your car.
c) Adverbs of place: here there over there overseas near far close nearby behind above anywhere all over forward backwards ahead abroad
Im here. We are getting near from Christmas. I was attached from behind. Slowly, the train moved forward away from the station. Can you go there? The school is far from here. We were flying above the clouds. The two kids were quarreling and one of them fell backwards. She is walking over there. We are close to the next town. We never go anywhere together. Please walk ahead and Ill follow you. Mr. Thomson does business in his country and overseas. Is there any drugstore nearby? I need to buy medicines. After hearing the fire alarm, people moved frantically all over the building. The actress had lived abroad for two years before she returned. 39
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante d) Adverbs of time: then already late nowadays soon eventually still (pos.) yet (neg) currently recently just now not yet no longer thereafter yesterday today tomorrow again not any more
It was then that I remembered. I eventually go to the shops. Im just writing my homework. I went yesterday. Ive already been to the shops. Im still here \ Im not here yet. We are going to go to the cinema today. Better late than never. Have you finished? No, not yet. We got married a year ago tomorrow. Nowadays, people use less fat in cooking. he currently lives in New Zealand, They no longer live in this city. Try again later. They are coming soon after eight. I haven't seen him recently. They lived happily thereafter. Melissa doesn't see Oscar any more.
e) Adverbs of certainty and possibility: undoubtedly obviously clearly unquestionably surely apparently potentially probably reportedly supposedly possibly unfortunately of course certainly indeed maybe / perhaps
Undoubtledly he is the best student of the class. We obviously knew that. the minister had reportedly agreed to it Of course, I will need to know where you are going Its clearly impossible. Bulgaria's place is unquestionably inside the Eurozone. Supposedly, it can be possible. it certainly is hot today Surely you don't believe that! Apparently he crashed his car. I couldn't possibly eat any more This is indeed a remarkable discovery. Bulgaria could potentially join the eurozone within five years I probably travel to Europe. Unfortunately we didnt pass the exam. Maybe he was right. Perhaps he was right 40
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante f) Adverbs of order:
first initially at first in the first place first of all finally
lastly in the end eventually
He came first in the exam. Initially he checked the microphone. Lastly, let me summarize the main points of my presentation At first I liked the book but then it got very boring. First of all, I'll introduce myself. We finally made it home after midnight. The plane eventually departed two hours late.
g) Adverbs of Degree:
almost nearly enough strongly too
entirely quite really very mainly
extremely greatly badly partially pretty
not at all even even more even less altogether quite / fairly/ rather
I almost won the competition. I'm not entirely surprised it's extremely unlikely its not true at all. I'm nearly ready Im quite boring for him. I would greatly appreciate your help I'm freezing even with a scarf and gloves. Its enough for me. The man drove really badly. When the truth was disclosed, I liked her even more. I strongly disagree. Shes very tall Norman is partially right. The seminar was attended by 300 participants altogether. He apologized too. This law firm has mainly foreign clients. The weather is pretty cold today.
*** quite is less than very but more than a little, is used with positive ideas, used in the same way as: very, really, pretty, too and completely.
Its quite cold; youd wear your coat. She was quite different from what I expected. 41

*** rather / fairly are similar to quite, rather (unfavourable) is used for negative ideas, and fairly (favourable) is used with positive ideas.
The soup is fairly hot. (favourable) The soup is rather hot. (unfavourable)
*** Enough goes after adjectives and other adverbs, but before a noun. Its opposite is too
He didnt get the job because he wasnt experienced enough. This shirt is too big for me, I need a smaller size. Shes not old enough to get married. Shes too young to get married.
*** Too means also, too goes at the end of the sentence, while also goes before the adjective.
This method is easy and practical too. This method is easy and also practical.
29.2
Adverbs with LY ending: Adverbs with ly ending are formed by adjectives: Quick ---- quickly serious ---- seriously careful ----carefully quiet ---- quietly bad ---- badly
*** the are adverbs that are irregular like:
good ---- well bad ------ wrong
29.3
Rules:
a) adverbs with ly ending, generally are used with the next form: [Verb + (object) + Adverb] You never take me seriously. She speaks English perfectly. Tom looked at me sadly. Tom drove carefully along the narrow.
b) Verb + Adverb + adjective: Its a reasonably cheap restaurant. The food is extremely good. Its really awesome. The weather is quite cold.
42
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante c) Adverbs + verbs: some adverbs go before the verb, but after the auxiliary verb. I never remember his name. Your car has probably been stole. Ann doesnt usually smoke. I probably wont see you \ I will probably not see you. I almost fell as I was going down the stairs. He is still here. Hes already finished.
d) Some adverbs can go at the beginning of the sentence, before and after the verb: Clearly the internet is an important new means of communication. The internet clearly is an important new means of communication. The internet is clearly an important new means of communication.
*** if there are more than one adverb in the sentences, the order should be manner place. Time:
Peter sang the song happily in the bathroom yesterday evening.
43
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 30. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Subject I You We They He She It You (plural) 30.1
Object Me You Us Them Him Her It you
possessive Mine Yours Ours Theirs His Hers Its Yours
Reflexive Myself Yourself Ourselves Themselves Himself Herself Itself yourselves
Subject: when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. He plays the piano She doesnt study at that school. We didnt see your cousin last Saturday.
30.2
Object: when the pronoun is the object of the sentence, and it goes always next to the verb: (Pattern: direct object + to + indirect object). She was talking to me. I tell her about the news. You have to give him the book. I want to try it. I recommended it to them. The boots Cost him a hundred dollars.
*** With verbs such as allow, ask, cause and cost, the pattern: indirect object + direct object is used:
30.3
Possessive: It indicates the possession, it goes after the verb, but if theres the noun possessed, its used the form: noun + of + pronoun. It gives a similar connotation as the possessive adjectives (see the possessive case) Those books are yours. = those are your books. It is the cat of hers. = its hers cat. He is a friend of mine. = he is my friend.
30.4
Reflexive: when the action is made by or for oneself. He cut himself when he was showing. Well pay for ourselves. She lives by herself. Tom himself went to New York. I asked to myself. She lives by herself = she lives on her own. I asked to myself = I asked on my own.
*** The reflexives pronouns can be used instead of the structure on + object pronoun + own:
44
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 31. MODAL VERBS Modal verbs are used in the same way than auxiliary verbs, they have no conjugation, and are always used in the present form:
You may go - you may not go\ - may you go? You maynt go
31.1
May: (poder) its used for express permission, generally its used in questions: Affirmative Negative I You Be true. We May Have it They \ Stay here. He May not Any time. She (maynt) Play football It Interrogative I You We May They He She It
Stay here? Watch TV? Have lunch at school? Listen to music? Play football?
31.2
Might: (poder) its used for express permission like may, but might is less possible than may. Affirmative Negative I You Be true. We Might Know. They \ Drive the truck. He Might not Offer me benefits She (mightnt) It Interrogative I You We They He She It Stay here? Help him? Listen to music? Offer his car?
Might
31.3
Should: (debera) its used when the speaker gives a suggestion or opinion, it can be used in the past followed by have and the verb in the past participle. Affirmative Negative I You Pass the exam. We should Be difficult to find. They \ Have done it. He should not Have been listening She (shouldnt) to. It Interrogative I You We Should They He She It
Stay here? Pass the exam? Have done it? Tell the truth?
45
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 31.4 Ought to: (deber a) its used in the same way than should. Its used for advice and obligation, and it can be used for express actions in the past (have + past part.) Affirmative - Negative I You We Ought to They \ He Ought not to She It
Go bed early. Pass the exam. Have come to the party. Have been here an hour ago. Drive carefully when weather is bad.
31.5
Must: (deber) its used for express obligation or prohibition. Affirmative Negative I You Increase the incomes We Must Turn right here. They \ Learn by heart. He Must not Be hurry. She (musnt) It Interrogative I You We Must They He She It
Increase the incomes? Turn right here? Learn by heart? Be hurry?
31.6
Need not: (no es necesario) its used for express not necessary, it is the negation of the verb need. And its contraction is neednt.
We need not hurry = we dont need to hurry. We neednt wash it = we dont need to wash it. I neednt go to the supermarket = I dont need to go to the supermarket.
In the past tense we can use this to options: Didnt need: it was not necessary. Neednt have done: I did something but now I see that it was not necessary. We didnt need to get up early, so I didnt. I neednt have got up so early, I could have stayed in bed longer.
46
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 31.7 Have to: (tener que) it express obligation, an order, its also used as a verb, goes followed by any auxiliary of time and it has conjugations.
I have to stay in bed all day. You dont have to turn right there. I had to go to the hospital. Karen wont have to work on Saturday.
Have (not) got to can be used instead of have to: Ive got to work tomorrow I have to work tomorrow. Ann hasnt got to go Ann doesnt have to go. When has Ann got to go? When does Ann have to go?
Have something done we used it to say that we arrange for somebody else to do something for us. Sarah is having her hair cut = Sarah is cutting her hair. Sue is having a photograph taken = Sue is taking a photograph. Jim had the roof repaired yesterday. How often do you have your car serviced?
31.8
Can: (poder) its used for expressing possibility or ability. Its also used to express permission in the present tense.
Negation: can be in the next three forms: Can not / cannot/ cant
Affirmative - Negative I You Take good photos. We can Swim. They \ Dance. He cannot Speak English She (cant) Play tennis It
Interrogative I You We can They He She It
Stay here? Help him? Listen to music? Offer his car? Run faster than Tom?
47
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 31.9 Could: (podia/ podr a) a) Its the past form of the verb can. Its used to express ability or possibility in the past. To express permission to do something in the past. Its also used to express a polite request, offer and suggestion. Affirmative - Negative I You We could They \ He Could not She (couldnt) It
Imagine. Hurt them. Understand the lesson. Go to the cinema.
b) Its used to express a polite question, having the same meaning as may Interrogative I You We They He She It Use the phone? Borrow your bike? Wait a moment, please? Visit Grandma at the weekend?
could
c) Could do: its used to express something that can be possible now or in the future. Im so tired; I could sleep for a week. The phone is ringing, it could be Tim.
d) Could have done: its used to express something that could be possible in the past, but it didnt happen. I was so tired; I could have slept for a week. The situation was bad, but it could have been worse.
31.10 Used to: (suele/ sol a) its used to express something that happened regularly, but it doesnt happen anymore. Its negate with didnt (See Simple Past Tense) I used to play tennis, but I dont do it anymore. I didnt use to play tennis. I used to live alone. I used to live alone. ---- Im used to live alone. My brother is used to play the guitar every day before going school. 48
*** For the present, the verb to be is added before used to:
31.11 Be able to: (ser capaz de/ poder ) its used to express ability to do something in the present, it has the same meaning than can: be able to is used modifying the verb to be depending on the subject, and it can be conjugated in all the tenses, and can be used with other modal verbs. PRESENT: Im able to sleep PAST: I was able to sleep. FUTURE: he will be able to learn it. PRESENT PERFECT: I havent been able to sleep recently. PAST PERFECT: I hadnt been able to sleep well. MIGHT: Tom might be able to come tomorrow. CONDITIONAL: He would be able to talk with me.
The negation can be in the verb to be (in the case of the sentence is in the present or past tense) or in the auxiliary verb: I cant sleep - Im not able to sleep. I couldnt sleep - I wasnt able to sleep. I havent been able to sleep recently.
31.12 Be Allowed to: (ser capaz de/ poder ) its used to express permission to do something in the present, it has the same meaning than can. Be allowed to is used modifying the verb to be depending on the subject, and it can be conjugated in all the tenses, and can be used with other modal verbs. PRESENT: Im allowed to sleep PAST: I was allowed to sleep. FUTURE: he will be allowed to do it. PRESENT PERFECT: I havent been allowed to sing recently. PAST PERFECT: I hadnt been allowed to drive. MIGHT: Tom might be allowed to come tomorrow. CONDITIONAL: He would be allowed to talk with the teacher.
The negation can be in the verb to be (in the case of the sentence is in the present or past tense) or in the auxiliary verb: I cant sleep - Im not allowed to sleep. I couldnt sleep - I wasnt allowed to sleep. I havent been allowed to sing recently.
49
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 32. REQUESTS AND ADVICES
32.1
Requests:
a) Could You: (possibility) Could you please tell me the time? Could you possibly give her that message?
b) Will/ Would You: (possibility) Would you please count your change? Will you please count your change? Would you please answer this question? Will you please count your change?
c) Perhaps would you: (quizas podr as) Perhaps would you let me know when your new stock arrives? Perhaps would you let me take this opportunity?
d) Would You Mind + gerund: 32.2 Would you mind buying cigarettes for me? Would you mind helping me with this luggage?
Advices:
a) You had better + infinitive: (ser a mejor que tu) You had better drink softdrink. You had better type your assignment.
b) If I were You I would/should + infinitive: (si fuera t, yo) If I were you I would go around the world. If I were you Id buy useful things.
c) Its time you + simple past : Its time you got a good job. Its time you wrote clearly.
d) Would rather + verb. (preferir) He would rather read than to talk. I would rather go by air. Would you like a drink? Id rather have a cup of tea. (Id prefer a cup of tea) 50
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 33. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES - IF
33.1
Type I: Real Condition If Clause Simple Present Main Clause Infinitive Will-future Modal + infinitive
If I study, I will pass the exams. ( I will pass the exams, if I study) If you see John tonight, tell him to e-mail me. If Ben gets up, he can catch the bus.
33.2
Type II: Unreal Condition (si tuviera, haria) If Clause Simple past Main Clause Would + Infinitive could + Infinitive Might + infinitive
If I studied, I would pass the exams. If I studied, I could pass the exams. If I studied, I might pass the exams.
33.3
Type III: Unreal Condition (si tuviera, habr a hecho) If Clause Past Perfect Main Clause Would + have + past participle could + have + past participle Might + have + past participle
If I had studied, I would have passed the exams. If I had studied, I could have passed the exams. If I had studied, I might have passed the exams.
*** Sometimes, Type II and Type III can be mixed:
If I had taken an aspirin, I would not have a headache now. If I had known that you are going to come, I would be in then. If she had enough money, she could have done this trip to Hawaii. If I were you, I would be spending my vacations in Seattle. If I were taking this exam next week, I would be high-strung.
*** There words that can replace IF: when (it will happen), in case, as long as, on condition that, supposing that, unless, assuming that, provided that.
When Im in Paris, Ill visit you. When you freeze water, it expands. I need painkillers, in casa Im in severe pain. I got you a pizza, just in case you were hungry. 51
34. QUESTIONS
34.1
Yes/ No Questions Form: The Auxiliary verb or modal verb is located at the beginning of the sentence. [Auxiliary + subject + verb + rest?] The short answers should be in the structure: - Yes, subject + auxiliary - No, subject + auxiliary + not
Do you live here? Yes, I do. Does he often drive? No, he doesnt. Have you ever been in the US? Yes, I have. Would you prefer it? Yes, I would. Cant you play the guitar? No, I cant Can you not play the guitar? Yes, I can/ no, I cant.
When the verb to be is used in the present or in the past, it should go at the beginning of the sentence. Are you Mexican? Yes, I am. Were you going to the office? No, I wasnt. Arent you Mexican? / are you not a Mexican? No, Im not.
34.2
Question Tags: Short questions for confirmation or agreement. When the statement is in positive, the question goes in negative, but if the main clause is negative, the question then, goes in positive. Peter helped you, didnt he? We shall invite her, shant we? You didnt see him, did you? She doesnt work in, does she?
*** If the sentence has positive adverbs, then the question should go in negative:
She always plays football, doesnt she? He never went to Europe before, did he?
*** If the sentence has positive adverbs, then the question should go in negative:
She always plays football, doesnt she? He never went to Europe before, did he?
*** For the imperative, Will is used:
Dont open the door, will you? 52
34.3
Question Words: Question words goes at the beginning of the question, followed by the auxiliary verb. QUESTION WORD Why When Where Who ANSWER Reason Time Place Person as the subject
Por qu Cuando Dnde Quien
EXAMPLE Why are you typing many letters? Because I have many friends. When does he go to the club? He goes to the club on weekends. Where have you been recently? I have been in Scotland recently. Who is drinking a lot of water these days? Mary is. Who likes to drink juice? John likes. Whom did they see at the church? They saw Tom and me at the church. Whose car does she drive? She drives her husbands car. Whose motorcycle did the mechanic fix? He fixed Mr. Pandos car. What is he doing? He is writing a letter. What will Herbert go to Lima for? Herbert go to Lima for buying. How does she study? She studies underlining the most important. How often do you go to the market? I go to the market twice a week. Which book do you have? I have the red one.
Whom/ Who Whose
Person as the object Person or being in possessive
A quien De quien
What
the object (noun) or a verb
Qu
How
Which
Description of the action or the being. It can be also used with adverbs of frequency. specification
Cmo, can, que tan
Cul
*** How can be followed by some adjectives
How tall are you? Im 1.96 meters. How fast do you drive?
34.4
Indirect questions: When its introduced with modal verbs:
Where is the hospital? Can you tell me where the hospital is? Why did the nurse speak so rudely? Have you any idea why the nurse spoke so rudely?
53
35. QUANTIFIERS 35.1 No/ None: It gives a negative meaning to a positive sentence. Both words goes after the verb but, None is used when the noun doesnt appear in the sentence. I dont have lemons - I have no lemons - I have none. I didnt earn money - I earned no money - I earned none. There arent cars there - there are no cars there - theres none there.
35.2
Some/ Any: Its also used in
a) Some: (algn, alguno, algo de) its used in positive sentences. interrogative sentences for asking permission.
b) Any: (ningn, ninguno, algn) its used in negative and interrogative sentences. And the noun goes always in singular. Its also used to affirm something about a noun in general. We have some lemons - we dont have any lemon. I earned some money - I didnt earn any money. There are some cars there - there isnt any car there.
Would you like some coffee? I need some books. Do you have any question? I dont have any question. Any fool can do that. Take any of these bottles.
35.3
Compounds of Some/ Any: there are used with the same rules mentioned before. They refer to people, one person, place, time, and things.
Someone Anyone No one everyone
Somebody Anybody Nobody Everybody
Somewhere Anywhere Nowhere everywhere
Someplace Anyplace No place everyplace
Sometime Anytime No time Every time
Something Anything Nothing Everything
I see someone coming. I dont see anyone coming. Theres no one here. Everyone wants to come to the party. Somebody is coming. She will know, if anybody does. There was nobody there 54
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante Theres everybody here. They go everywhere by car. You cant go anywhere. We have nowhere to go. No matter the place, everywhere is good for me. We can do something for him. Do you want anything from the shop? Theres nothing in the room. Everything is very quiet.
Someday Sometimes
somehow anyhow
someway anyway
Someday I will go to Europe. Jan looked at the cliff, she was determined to scale it somehow or other. He sometimes goes out on Fridays. I do exercises sometimes. Im going anyway.
35.4
Other adverbs: adverb + of + Object A half of A Lot of The rest of none of lots of several each of plenty of all of
A half of schools today teaches English as second language. None of them wants to talk with us. We talked with each of them. He has a lot of friends. / he has lots of friends. There was plenty of food on the table. I will take the rest of the money. Several people were hurt. I really like all of them.
35.5
Quantifiers for countable and uncountable nouns: Uncountable much Little a little a bit of a large amount of a large quantity of a great deal Countable Many Few A few A number of A great number of A majority of A large number of
Mucho Poco Algunos Un poco de Una gran cantidad La mayor a Una gran parte
There too much sugar on the table. We dont have many friends. 55
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante There were too many people at the party. How many cigarettes do you smoke? He has little money. He has few friends. Weve got a little time before the train leaves. I went to Chicago a few days ago. we had a bit of difficulty finding a hotel He has a large amount of money. He has a great number of interesting books in his bedroom. The ship was only carrying a large quantity of mangoes. A majority of her books are in Russian. We spent a great deal of time. We bought a large number of goods.
35.6
Quantifiers to speak about group of people in general: always comes before a noun. All (100%) The majority of (80-100%) Most (51-80%) About half (49-51%) quite a few (20-50%) hardly any (>15%) almost no one (1-10%) no one (0%)
All the cinemas are closed today. The majority of the party wants reform. Most business professionals are worried about the economy. About a half of the population wants reform. Quite a few (of the) people here are concerned about crime. There were hardly any cars on the roads on New Year's day. Almost no one I know is really interested in politics. No one believes on him.
***All when it goes with pronoun could be used as: all of + Pr. / Pr. + all
All of you are good singers. / You all are good singers. You can stay with all of them. / You can stay with them all.
56
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 36. THE PASSIVE VOICE
In active voice the subject is who do the action, but in the passive voice, the subject is passive because he receives the action. Its formed with the verb to be in the verbal tense that we are talking about (the same tense as in the active voice) and the main verb in its participle form.
(See the participle)
Active Voice Passive Voice A.V: they buy a new car. P.V: the car is bought by them.
subject + verb + object Object + verb to be + Past participle + by subject
A.V: he painted five pictures. P.V: five pictures were painted by him. A.V: someone broke into the pet shop P.V: the pet shop was broken into. A.V: she will write the book. P.V: the book will be written by her. A.V: you have written a sentence. P.V: a sentence has been written by you. A.V: you would do the homework. P.V: the homework would be done by you.
In the present continuous, the structure of the passive voice is: Active Voice Passive Voice subject + verb to be+ verb-ing + object Object + verb to be + being + Past participle + by subject
A.V: he is writing a newspaper P.V: a newspaper is being written by him. A.V: they were cleaning the car. P.V: the car was being cleaned by them. A.V: they are clearing forests so that the land can be developed. P.V: forests are being cleared so that the land can be developed.
Question in the passive: Is the test written? Where is the test written? Were the students taught at home? No, they werent. Will the house be built? Has the house been built? 57
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 37. REPORTER SPEECH Its given the same meaning but from a different speaker. In the reported speech, we beginning using said (said to + object) or told (told + object) and the verb changes in the next way: Direct Speech Simple Present Simple Past Present Perfect Past Perfect will Progressive forms am/are/is was/were has been had been 37.1 I never eat meat he says Im waiting for Ann he says I took it home with me I have found a flat Ann will be in Paris on Monday She was ill I may work in the garden I can work in the garden was/were had been Reporter Speech Simple Past Past Perfect would
he said that he never ate meat. he said that he was waiting for Ann. he said that he had taken it home with him. he said that he had found a flat. he said that Ann would be in Paris on Monday. he told me that she had been ill. Peter said that he might work in the garden. Peter said that he could work in the garden.
Questions in Reported Speech: in questions we use the verb asked and then the order of the words like if it were a positive sentence. He said wheres the station he asked where the station was. Why didnt you put on the brake he asked why you hadnt put on the Brake?
*** When theres no question word, we can use if or whether
37.2
Is anyone there he asked
he asked if anyone was there.
Immediately Reported Speech: its used for general truths (when the sentence is in present) and with commands. The Reported speech goes in present as well: Susan: I work in an office Steven is going to be fired Do it! Dont say anything! Susan says she works in an office. I just heard that Steven is going to be fired. my friend told me to do it. My father told me not to say anything
*** In reported speech demonstrative words and time words are used in this way: Today that day now- then this- that A week ago a week before tomorrow- the next day here there Yesterday a day before next weekend the following week.
58
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 38. RELATIVE PRONOUNS Who (used for people) That / which (general pronoun, used for things and people) Whom Whose where 38.1 Defining relative clauses: they describe to the noun precedent to differentiate it from other nouns. The man who robbed you has been arrested. The woman who lives next door is a doctor. The buildings that are being built will be sold. The chair which I was sitting suddenly broke. Have you found the keys that you lost? We saw some people whose car had broken down. I met a man whose sister knows you. The hotel where we stayed wasnt very clean.
a) Use of relative pronouns in defining relative clauses: o Subject (required): Professionals who used to commute to their jobs are now working from home. Object (optional): An herbal therapist is a health professional (that/which) more and more people are consulting. Object of preposition(required): My herbal therapist is the health professional, to whom I speak must often. possession(required): Parents whose children are not doing well in traditional schools are turning to homeschooling as a solution.
38.2
Non-defining relative clauses: they go after a defined verb, but theres extra information about it. My brother John, who lives in London, is a doctor. Colin told me about his new job, which hes enjoying very much. Amy, whose car had broken down, was in a very bad mood. John, who speaks French and Italian, works as a tourist guide. It can be also used to make a comment about an entire sentence. People need a quick and easy way to cook food, which is / thats why the microwave has been so successful. Seat belts are now required in all vehicles, which means fewer people die in traffic accidents.
59
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 39. MULTI-WORDS VERBS
There is in English a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". A multi-word verb is a verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with". For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase" - which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs".
Verb single-word verb look
Meaning direct your eyes in a certain direction search for and find information in a reference book take care of
Example You must look before you leap. You can look up my number in the telephone directory.
phrasal verb
look up
multiword verbs
prepositional verb phrasalprepositional verb
look after
Who is looking after the baby? I look forward to meeting you.
look forward to
anticipate with pleasure
39.1
Phrasal Verbs: Phrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from. [Verb + Adverb] I dont like to get up early. He was late because his car broke down. We will have to put off. They turned down my offer.
Most of the phrasal Verbs are intransitives; it means that they dont have a direct object next to them:

What time do you get up? The plane took off and rose into the sky.
When a phrasal Verb is transitive (has an direct object) then we can usually separate the two parts, and put the direct object between both words. They turned down my offer. They turned my offer down. John switched on the radio. John switched the radio on. He cut down the tree. He cut the tree down. 60
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante However, when we use a pronoun in place of the subject, it must come between the verb and the particle in separable multi-word verbs.

Can you turn it down please? Can you turn down it please? is NOT possible.
39.2
Prepositional Verbs: They are another type of multi-words Verbs that are made from: [Verb + Preposition] Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct object, but they cannot be separated, so the object should come always after the preposition: I believe in God. He is looking after the dog. Did you talk about me? John is waiting for Mary. Who looks after the baby when youre at work?
39.3
Phrasal Prepositional Verbs: This type of multi-words Verbs that are made by three words: [Verb + Adverb + Preposition] Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always a direct object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs cannot be separated. He doesnt get on with his wife. I wont you put up with your attitude. I look forward to seeing you. We have run out of it. Who came up with that idea? I dont know how you put up with it.
61
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 40. USE OF PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs)
40.1
Prepositions of Time: English on in Usage

days of the week months / seasons time of day year after a certain period of time (when?) for night for weekend a certain point of time (when?) from a certain point of time (past till now) over a certain period of time (past till now) From a certain point of time (past till now). Since a certain time in the past earlier than a certain point of time Next to a certain point of time telling the time Approximately telling the time marking the beginning and end of a period of time How long something is going to last in the sense of at the latest up to a certain time More time than A period of time In a period of time A period of time
at
since for As from / as of ago before After to About/ around past to / till/ until till/ until by
Example on Monday in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour at night at the weekend at half past nine since 1980 for 2 years They will be living here as from Saturday. 2 years ago before 2004 She went to bed after dinner ten to six (5:50) They promised to be here about Friday ten past six (6:10) from Monday to/till Friday He is on holiday until Friday. I will be back by 6 oclock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages. The workers shouldnt work beyond five oclock. I felt asleep during the film. We met a lot of people while we were on holidays. We saw him over the weekend.
Beyond during while over
*** Differences between on time/ in time and at the end/ in the end: On time = punctual, at the planned time In time = (for do something, soon enough) The train left on time. Will you be home in time for dinner? Be on time, dont be late. I want to get home in time to see the match. At the end = at the time when something In the end = finally, when we say that the ends. (also at the beginning) final result of a situation was. (also at first) At the end of the month. In the end we sold it and bought another. All the players shook hands at the end of the match. He didnt go anywhere in the end. 62
40.2
Prepositions of Place (Position and Direction): English in Usage

room, building, street, town, country Book, paper etc. car, taxi picture, world meaning next to, by an object for table for events place where you are to do something typical (watch a film, study, work) Attached for a place with a river being on a surface for a certain side (left, right) for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio Since some place left or right of somebody or something on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else lower than something else but above ground Lower (its used for abstract things)
at
Example in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio I took a bus from Miami to here Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car. the bag is under the table the fish are below the surface He would think it beneath him to tell a lie. Miners work underneath the ground. I like being among people This is between you and me. put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall a path above the lake walk across the bridge swim across the lake Bill was eating with his elbows upon the table drive through the tunnel go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed The earth moves around the Sun. The shop is round the corner Therere many reports round the actress. Why is that table against the wall? 63
on
From by, next to,beside under below beneath
underneath Lower Among/ between over

In middle of, in midst of covered by something else meaning more than getting to the other side (also across) overcoming an obstacle higher than something else, but not directly over it getting to the other side (also over) getting to the other side higher than something else something with limits on top, bottom and the sides movement to person or building movement to a place or country for bed Turning of something Turning of something
above across upon through to
Around Round
Against
In opposition to
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante On top of Opposite At the bottom of towards into behind After Close to/ near Away from Along In front of beside Inside outside
Above, higher than something else In opposition to At the base of movement to person or building enter a room / a building At the back of something Movement behind something Near To move far of something By, crossing all the place Face to face Next to Into something Out of something
The missing book was on top of the fridge. My house is opposite the church There is a small cabin at the bottom of the mountain Billy ran towards his mother when he saw her. go into the kitchen / the house The girl sat behind you. The cat runs after the mouse. Our house is close to yours. The plane flew away from the city I walk along the street every day. Our house in front of yours. Sit beside me please. The children were playing inside the house. The dog sleeps outside the house.
40.3
Other Prepositions: English from of by on in off out of by at about for besides Usage
who gave it who/what does it belong to what does it show who made it walking or riding on horseback entering a public transport vehicle entering a car / Taxi leaving a public transport vehicle leaving a car / Taxi rise or fall of something travelling (other than walking or horseriding) for age for topics, meaning what about Result of In addition to
Example a present from Jane a page of the book the picture of a palace a book by Mark Twain on foot, on horseback get on the bus get in the car get off the train get out of the taxi prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus she learned Russian at 45 we were talking about you This machine is for peeling tomatoes. He told no one besides his wife
64
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 41. USE OF CONJUCTIONS 41.1 Copulative conjunctions: Are those that join something to what has been mentioned before. And not only...but also... not only...but...as well both...and... No sooner...than... As soon as y No solo...sino tambin... no solo...sino...tambin tanto...como... / ambas cosas Apenas...cuando... Tan pronto
He played the guitar and sang wonderful songs. Mary plays not only the guitar but also the violin. She is not only beautiful but very intelligent as well. Many politicians desire both money and power. I had no sooner gotten into the bathtub than the telephone rang. As soon as I wake up, I brush my teeth.
41.2
Disjunctive conjunctions: to express selection or either neither whether or else.. otherwise o or o...o... nor no...ni... or si...o... o sino. de otro modo
We'd better leave right now or we'll miss our bus Either you shut your mouth and listen or you leave the class. The musician neither played the piano well nor sang good songs. We must decide whether to go there today or tomorrow. We have to hurry up, or else we'll miss our bus. You'll have to hurry up, otherwise you'll be late.
41.3
Conditional conjunctions: They express a condition to do something if whether unless / except if provided/ providing (that) as long as / so long as in case si si a no ser que siempre que, mientras siempre que, mientras en caso de que
If I see him, I'll give him the message. I wonder whether she really wants to do that. You won't pass the exam unless you study harder. Well be late except if we hurry. We'll go fishing this afternoon, provided it doesn't rain. You can borrow my car providing you return it today. You can stay here as long as you work hard. Call this phone number in case you get lost. 65
41.4
Concessive conjunctions: They are used to express an objection of what was said. although / though / even though even if not even if despite / in spite of regardless of aunque incluso si ni siquiera si a pesar de sin importar, sin que importe
Although Jack is not very tall, he is excellent at basketball. She decided to go to work, though she was not feeling well. Even thought I was very tired, I couldnt sleep. I will finish the project by tomorrow, even if I have to work all night. They will not finish on time, even if they hurry up. Despite his bad reputation, the politician won the elections. It was a great match in spite of the bad the weather. They decided to finish the project, regardless of the cost.
41.5
Conclusive conjunctions: They are used to express an objection of what was said. therefore hence thus so consequently por lo tanto de ah por lo tanto entonces por lo tanto, en consecuencia
I don't know her phone number, therefore I can't call her. Frank was raised in a farm, hence his ability to ride horses. She hadn't eaten for days and thus felt very weak. She was a little fat, so she decided to go on a diet They argued all the time, consequently they eventually got divorced.
41.6
Continuative conjunctions: They are used to give a continuation to the idea that is being expressed. then moreover furthermore besides in addition to entonces adems adems adems adems de
If it is not here, then it's lost. Soccer is a good sport; moreover, it is very easy to learn. I dont want stay here; furthermore, I have things to do I don't like that house; besides, it's too expensive for me. Mrs. Baker had a great interest in literature, in addition to her interest in music.
66
41.7
Adversative conjunctions: They add a negation, or an opposite phrase to the idea mentioned before. but however nonetheless / nevertheless yet / even so still instead on the contrary except for pero sin embargo sin embargo sin embargo, aun as sin embargo en su lugar, en lugar de ello por el contrario excepto por
He spoke clearly, but I didn't understand him. They were not having fun; however they stayed until the party was over. It was very stormy; nevertheless we went fishing. He was a very good swimmer; even so, he drowned. He wanted to reply to that accusation, yet he didn't. He cannot speak very well; still he understands everything. I was invited to a party on Saturday, but went to bed instead. The boy is not dumb; on the contrary, he's very smart for his age. People in my country dont eat out except for a special occasion.
41.8
Causal conjunctions: They add a clause, showing that it is the cause of the other clause. because for because of since as due to / owing to in order to so that porque porque debido a puesto que puesto que debido a para, con el fin de as
The baby is crying because he is hungry. We'll have to stay home, for it is raining outside. They stayed in because of the bad weather. He won't understand, since he doesn't speak English. She failed to pass the exam, as she made many mistakes. The unemployment was high due to the economic crisis. They had a delay owing to the traffic jam. I enrolled in a cooking class in order to learn to cook. I purchased a video course on public speaking so that I could learn to give better speeches.
67
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 41.9 Comparative conjunctions: they are used when two sentences have a comparison grade, differences or similarities. As asass not asas not so as as if/ as though than unlike in contrast to como tan...como No tan..como no tan...como como si que a diferencia de a diferencia de
He performed the operation exactly as he was told. His car is as fast as mine. They are not as good as you think. She was not so beautiful as her mother. They treat me as if they didn't know me. Bill started to spend money as though he had won the lottery. Learning English is more difficult than most people think. They started to have more problems than they expected. Unlike Americans, people in my country study English. In contrast to Americans, people in my country study English.
41.10 Functional conjunctions: they are used to express finality, an objective or propose. so so that so as to so as not to in order to entonces para que para que, de manera que para no para
George knew he had to wake up early so he went to bed at 8pm. He gave her a present so that she would feel better. We moved the table so as to have more space for dancing. He took a nap so as not to be too tired for the party. They left early in order to arrive in time for the movie.
68
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 42. USE OF BOTH, NEITHER AND EITHER
Both = ambos (los dos) neither = ninguno (de los dos) either = cualquiera (de los dos)
We use both/ neither/ either for talk about two things. Both always goes before the noun in plural, while neither and either goes before the noun in singular: Both restaurants are very good. Neither restaurant is expensive. We can go to either restaurant, I dont mind.
*** Either is used for positive ideas, while neither is used in negative ideas.
42.1
Both of / neither of / either of/ When we use both/neither / either + of. You always need to use the, these, those, or an object pronoun. (You cannot say both of restaurants; you should say both of the restaurants. Both of the restaurants are very good. Neither of the restaurants we went to was expensive. I havent been to either of those restaurants. Can either of you speak Spanish?
42.2
Both..and / neither..nor / either..or/ a) Both and: I was both tired and hungry when I arrived home. Both Ann and Tom were late. b) neither nor: Neither Liz nor Robin came to the party. He mentioned neither the flooding nor the landslide. c) Either or: Either you apologise or Ill never speak to you again. Im not sure where hes from, hes either Spanish or Italian.
*** In the case that the noun is more than two, we use any, none, and all.
You can stay with either of them you can stay with any of them. Neither of them had any rooms. - None of them had any rooms. Both of them were full - all of them were full.
69
43. USE OF SO AND SUCH
The words so and such make of an adjective or adverb stronger. Such is generally used to give emphasis to the noun or topic we are taking about.
43.1
Patterns: So + adjective / adverb Such + (a) + (adjective) + noun Such: is followed by a noun that is usually modified by an adjective. Such a hard day So: s followed by an adverb or adjective. Shes so pretty So stupid So nice such a story / such a stupid story such people / such nice people
I like Tom and Ann, they are so nice. I like Tom and Ann, they are such nice people. The book was so good, that I couldnt put it down. It was such a good book, that I couldnt put it down.
*** So and such are also used with the meaning of like this:
I didnt expect it so warm. The house was so untidy, Ive never seen such a mess.
43.2 Such that and So that. Are used to add information or an explanation about the topic as in the relative clauses.
Many TV programs show so much violence that people are becoming desensitized to it. Television news reporting is so superficial that people are forced to get in-depth information elsewhere. Sports broadcasts attract such huge audience that TV Stations can charge large amounts for advertising.
70
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 44. USE OF AS
44.1
General Use:
a) as sometimes means because: As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut. (Because it was a public...) As they live near us, we see them quite often. b) We can use it when two things happen at the same time The thief was seen as he was climbing over the wall. George arrived as Sue left.
44.2
Use of as and Like Like = similar to, the same as, such as As = before a subject + verb. Its raining again, I hate weather like this. I left everything as I found it. Brenda as the manager, she has to make many important decisions. (in her position as manager) Mary like the manager, she also has to make many important decisions (similar to the manager. During the war our house was used as a hospital. Everyone is ill at home; our house is like a hospital.
44.3
Use of As if, as though, as/the way, and like: a) As if and as though often introduce clauses that describe behaviours or feelings. I fell as if/ as though there is never enough time in the day. He usually talks as if/ as though he was my father. My brother sometimes acts as if/ as though hes totally crazy.
b) As, and the way, introduce clauses that express a comparison. The bird doesnt fly as/ the way it used to. Misti isnt covered with snow as/the way it used to be.
c) In colloquial English, the word like can be used. I feel like is never enough time in the day. The bird doesnt fly like it used to.
71
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 45. USE OF CLAUSES
45.1
Non clauses after be: the relative clause is optional. An advantage of having a brother is (that) you always have someone to help you. The best thing about having brothers is (that) youre never lonely. A problem with having lots of brothers is (that) you dont get a very big allowance.
45.2
Adjectives of emotion + past time clauses: they are used to describe something you are happy you did or didnt do. Im glad (that) I grew up in an international city. Im thankful (that) I had the opportunity to go to colleague. Im really happy that I took this class.
45.3
Non clauses introduced by it: it refers to the clauses that follow. Its sad that kids today dont respect their elders. Its a shame that people focus so much on the past. Its also likely that there are other influences, such as his or her friends.
45.4
Non clauses introduced by verbs: Are used to describe hopes and beliefs. I hope that schools will do something about teaching respect. I believe that theres nothing we can learn from the past. I hope that people will spend more money on education.
45.5
Non clauses containing relative clauses: they can function like nouns when introduced with something. It can also occur with clauses beginning with when, how, why, etc. Something that really bothers me is people who talk loudly during a movie. One thing that annoys me is when my neighbours have louds parties late at night. The thing I cant understand about people with dogs is why they allow them to bark at night.
45.6
Non clauses beginning with question words, whether and if: Why arent there more youth centres? I dont know why there arent more youth centres. Why do stores close so early? Why stores close so early is something I dont understand.
Use If, whether or whether or not for yes.no question. Are they going to build more parking garages? I wonder if they are going to build more parking garages. I wonder whether they are going to build more parking garages. I wonder whether or not they are going to build more parking garages. 72
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 45.7 Reporting clauses: They are used to report tat someone says or think: verb + (that). Its commonly used with the verbs: admit, agree, assume, claim, explain, report, say, feel, doubt, and believe. In many countries, people believe (that) breaking a mirror brings you bad luck. Not many people like to admit (that) they are superstitious. I doubt (that) there some truth behind every superstition.
You can use a passive form of a reporting verb. Notice that the agent is often omitted and understood to be some or many people: Its reported that a woman from Spain receives messages from her dead husband. Its believed that a cow in Cambodia has cured over one hundred people. It was once believed that the earth was flat. It has been claimed by many people that the cow had extraordinary powers.
45.8
Cleft sentences: Affirmative sentences beginning with what: What I notice first is people eyes = I notice peoples eyes. What I generally listen to is peoples accent. What I like to do is listen to peoples voice.
45.9
Reduced relative clauses: the relative pronoun can also be dropped and changed by the verb with ing. Anyone who wants to be successful has to work hard. Anyone wanting to be successful has to work hard. A person, who works as an inventor, shouldnt have a big family. A person working as an inventor shouldnt have a big family.
45.10 Non clauses:
Whoever = the person who/ anyone/ everyone who Whatever = anything that/ everything that Whenever = at any time Wherever = in any place
Some animals will bond permanently with whoever spends time with them when they are young. The international community should do whatever is necessary. Whenever I go away, my dog misses me. My cat follows me wherever I go.
73
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 45.11 Non clauses with double comparatives: the first clause expresses a condition for the second clause: the more/the les s + adj/verb; the more/the les s + adj/verb
The less realistic a painting is, the more it fascinates me. The more you learn about art, the more you appreciate it. The more we listen to music, the more relaxed we feel. The earlier you start the better.
45.12 Verbs in the subjunctive: The subjunctive uses the base form of the verb (without conjugation). Some verbs and expressions are followed by the subjunctive
Verbs used before the subjunctive: Demand recommend propose Insist request suggest Jims brother suggested that he stop spending so much money. His daughter proposed that he keep a list of weekly expenses.
Expressions used before the subjunctive: Its crucial its imperative Its essential its important Its necessary itss vital Its necessary that couples discuss financial problems openly. Its necessary for couples discuss financial problems openly.
74
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 46. USE OF GERUND, INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE
46.1
Gerund: Its used as a noun and a verb in a progressive tense. Its formed by the verb in infinitive and adding ING at the end: Walk - walking stand - standing Drink drinking read - reading Sing singing go - going When the word ends in a consonant after a short, stressed vowel at the end of the word, we put a double the consonant. sit sitting put - putting
If the consonant is not stressed, we do not double it:
Benefit - benefiting (Here we stress the first 'e', not the 'i'.) In British English we double one -l at the end of the word: Travel travelling When theres one e at the end, we leave out the e: (exception: see seeing) Write writing take - taking Verbs that end in ie, change ie to y: lie lying Verbs that end in c, change c to ck: picnic picnicking
a) Gerund after an adjective + preposition: We are excited about making our own film. Sandy is famous for singing songs. She is glad about getting married again. Are you interesting in writing poems. Im tired of waiting for you.
b) Gerund after a noun + preposition: He has difficulty in sending SMS. Theres no interest in writing letters. He has the problem of swimming too slow. c) Gerund after a verb + preposition I agree with playing darts. Do you concentrate on reading or writing? They feel like going to bed. Frank thinks of playing chess. The girls insist on going out with Mark. 75
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante d) Gerund after special verbs: admit avoid carry on consider delay deny dislike can't help enjoy finish give up imagine include involve justify keep (on) mention mind miss practise regret* risk suggest He admitted having driven too fast. They avoid going on holiday on Saturdays. If we carry on sleeping so badly, we may need help. Ralph is considering buying a new house. I delayed telling Max the news. She denies reading the book. We dislike reading poems. He couldn't help falling in love with her. I enjoy playing chess. They finished working in the garden. Susan gives up playing ice-hockey. He imagined driving a new car. Your responsibility includes taking reservations on the phone. The project will involve growing plants. I cannot justify paying $100 for this ticket. They keep on running. Did Alex ever mention playing baseball? I don't mind sleeping on the couch. They miss playing with their friends. She practised playing hockey. Do you regret having mentioned it? You risk catching a cold. She suggested flying to Cairo.
e) Gerund after this special verbs: to be busy couldn't help don't mind feel like how about it's (no) good it's no use He is busy reading the paper. She couldn't help eating another apple. I don't mind telling them my opinion. We feel like having a cup of tea. How about walking home instead of taking the car? It's no good talking to this girl. It's no use talking to the headmaster.
spend one's time They spend their time reading. 76
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante there's no there's no point what about worth There's no cheating anymore. There's no point in complaining further. What about going to the zoo? The book is worth reading.
f)
Gerund after the next prepositions: after before by in spite of on without After having a shower, I waited for Steven. The tablet must not be taken before getting up in the morning. I manage it by working much longer than 40-hour weeks. In spite of studying a lot he didn't pass the exams. She insisted on calling her sister. He told the joke without laughing.
46.2
Infinitive: Its the main form of a verb, it has no conjugation.
46.2.1 Infinitive with To: a) After the first, the last, the next and adjectives: Hes the next to get the passport. Im happy to be here. Its better not to smoke. Peter was the last to watch the film.
b) After some verbs (learn, agree, choose, remember, forget, promise, want, regret, hope, etc.). I learn to drive car. I want you to help me. I want to help you. I forgot to pay the count. c) After question words: I dont know what to say. Can you tell me how to get to the bus stop?
46.2.2 Infinitive without To: a) When the infinitive goes after auxiliary verbs or modal verbs. We should sing a song. I dont know. I may flight to Africa this summer. You mustnt smoke here. 77
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante b) when the infinitive goes after a verb of perception (including let and make) + direct object (except want) She feels the rain fall on her face. They saw him climb the tree. He watched the thieves steal the car. I heard Peter sing a song. Let her go to the party. She makes me clean the house.
*** There are some verbs that can be used with both infinitive and gerund:
Gerund Enjoy Dislike Dont mind avoid
Gerund & Infinitive Like begin Love finish Hate prefer Cant stand start
He began talking = he began to talk She loves painting = she loves to paint. They like swimming = they like to swim. They enjoy reading books.
46.2.3 Infinitive and gerund phrases: It s + adjective + infinitive = gerund + object + be + adjective Its impolite to ask about the age = Asking about the age is impolite. Its boring to hear her stories = hearing her stories is boring.
46.3
Participle: it has two forms: Present participle Past participle verb ing verb- ed /
*** for see the rules of the present participle see the Gerund. And for the see the rules for the past participle see the verbs conjugation. Or see the verb list.
a) Use of the Present participle: In progressive tenses: He is reading a book. He was reading a book. When the verb is used as the subject of the sentence: Reading books is fun. Going to Texas they expected a better job. Having confidence I yourself, youll overcome obstacles. Being pessimist, you dont achieve your goals.
78
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante After verbs of perception (see, watch, hear, listen to, smell, feel) I saw him reading. I heard somebody screaming. I saw the man coming to the shop. After verbs of rest and movement (run, go, come, stay, stand, lie, sit) He sat reading in the corner. She goes walking under the rain. Why do you stay sleeping here? The boy came reading out of the room. As an adjective that describes the topic we are talking about: My job is boring. This was an exciting race. My job is depressing.
b) Use of the Past participle: Used To express shorten relative clauses: The cars produced in Japan are nice. The car washed yesterday is blue. In Perfect tenses: He has forgotten his pencil. I had known the truth before you know. He has broken my heart. In the Passive Voice: A house is built. The news was written on the newspaper yesterday. A new car is bought by them. After the verb have: Having read the book, the boy came out of the room. I have my clothes washed. He had his car washed. As an adjective that describes what the subject feels about the topic: Im bored with my job. My job makes me depressed. We were very shocked when we heard the news. When the verb acts as an adjective Look at the washed car. Look at that drunk person.
79
ANEX
I. THE TIME
1. The Months
January February March April May June 2. The days of the Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday 3. What time is it? 4:00 its four oclock. 3:00 its three oclock 2:10 its ten past two 3:20 its twenty past three. 1:15 its quarter past one. 10:45 its quarter to eleven. 9:50 its ten to ten. 7:30 its half past seven.
July August September October November December
Friday Saturday Sunday
4. The Date: Rule: day month - year I was born in 1999. (Use in with the year.) I was born in August. (Use in with the month.) I was born on 12th May, 2000. (Use on in the complete date.)
80
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante II. THE NUMBERS
Cardinal numbers
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 oh, zero, nil, love, nought * one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty-one thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety a/one hundred a/one thousand ten thousand a/one hundred thousand a/one million a/one billion
Ordinal numbers
--1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
st nd rd th th th th th th th th th th th th th th th th th st th
first second third fourth fifth sixth seventh eighth ninth tenth eleventh twelfth thirteenth fourteenth fifteenth sixteenth seventeenth eighteenth nineteenth twentieth twenty-first thirtieth
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 30
81
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante III. British English 1 2 3 4 5 6 words ending in -re words ending in -our words ending in -ogue words ending in -ise/ize final -l doubled after short vowel words ending in -ence BRITISH AMERICAN SPELLING DIFFERENCES American English change to er change to or change to og ending only in ize - l not always doubled after a short vowel change to ense Example (British - American) centre - center metre - meter colour - color catalogue - catalog realise/realize - realize travelled - traveled modelling - modeling defence - defense licence - license
IV.
ABREVIATIONS IN BUSINESS ENGLISH
a/c - acct. attn. B/E B/L cc cf. cfr. cif cip C/N c/o cod Corp. cpt cwo D/A DDP DN D/P enc(s) EXW
Account (for the) attention (of) bill of exchange bill of lading carbon copy Compare cost and freight cost, insurance, freight carriage and insurance paid to credit note care of cash on delivery Corporation carriage paid to cash with order documents against acceptance delivery duty paid debit note documents against payment enclosure(s) ex works
82

FOB for Inc L/C Ltd p&p p.p. * pto re RRP SAE VAT ZIP (code) free on board free on rail Incorporated (US) letter of credit Limited postage and packing on behalf of please turn over with reference to, regarding recommended retail price stamped addresses envelope Value Added Tax zone of improved delivery (US)
V.
PHRASAL VERBS
Ask for Back away Be back Be over Blow out Break down Bring up Burn down Call for Carry on Clear away Ring up Set up Find out Get away Get on Get out
Exigir, pedir Retroceder Regresar Estar terminando Apagar soplando Derribar, desmayarse Educar Quemarse Recoger, requerir Continuar Ordenar Llamar por telfono Comenzar un negocio Investigar Escapar Subir, realizar salir
Get ready Get up Give back Give up Go away Go down Hand out Keep on Mix up Pick out Point out Pull down Stand by Take in Take off Close down Make up
Prepararse Levantarse Devolver Renunciar Irse Hundirse Entregar Continuar Mezclar Escoger Indicar Demoler Continuar ayudando Entender Despegar Salir de un negocio inventar
Sorry, Im late, the car broke down. The bus was full, we couldnt get on. I was very tired this morning, I couldnt get up. Sally is leaving tomorrow and coming back on Saturday. It was my first sight, I was nervous as the plane took off.
83
VI.
GRAMMAR TENSES TABLE
TENSE Simple Present

(do/ does)
EXAMPLE
I play soccer. I dont play soccer. Do you play soccer? I am playing soccer. I am not playing soccer. Are you playing soccer? I have played soccer. I have not played soccer. Have you played soccer? I have been playing soccer. I have not been playing soccer. Have you been playing soccer? I will play soccer. I will not play soccer. Will you play soccer? I will be playing soccer. I will not be playing soccer. Will you be playing soccer? I will have played soccer. I will not have played soccer. Will you have played soccer? I will have been playing soccer. I will not have been playing soccer. Will you have been playing soccer? I am going to play soccer. I am not going to play soccer. Are you going to play soccer?
TENSE Simple Past

(did)
EXAMPLE
I played soccer. I did not play soccer. Did you play soccer? I was playing soccer. I was not playing soccer. Were you playing soccer? I had played soccer. I had not played soccer. Had you played soccer? I had been playing soccer. I had not been playing soccer. Had you been playing soccer? I would play soccer. I would not play soccer. Would you play soccer? I would be playing soccer. I would not be playing soccer. Would you be playing soccer? I would have played soccer. I would not have played soccer. Would you have played soccer? I would have been playing soccer. I would not have been playing soccer. Would you have been playing soccer?
Present Progressive
(be + v-ing)
Past Progressive
(was/were + v-ing)
Present Perfect
(Have/has + v. p.part.)
Past Perfect
(Had + v. p.part.)
Present perfect Progressive

(have/has been + v. ing)
Past perfect Progressive

(had been + v. ing)
Simple Future
(will)
Simple Conditional
(would)
Future Progressive
(will be + v. ing)
Conditional Progressive
(would be + v. ing)
Future Perfect
(will have/has + v. p.part)
Conditional Perfect
(would have/has + v. p.part)
Future Perfect Progressive

(will have/has been + v. ing)
Conditional Perfect Progressive

(would have/has been + v. ing)
Going to - Future
(be + going to)
84
VII.
ENGLISH PHONOLOGY
1. Consonants: Vibrating Sounds Mob/ bit /b/ Mad/dip /d/ Vile/save /v/ Good/bag /g/ Zip/faze /z/ Jar/ badge /j/ ---Ryan/ bar /r/ Am/ an /m/ /n/ Non-vibrating Sounds /p/ Mop/ pit /t/ Mat/ tip /f/ File/ safe /k/ Could/ back /s/ Sip/ face ---/ch/ /sh/ Chip/ ship --/h/ hat
Plasives sound Fricative
Velar
Nasal
/kw/ Quiet /kw/ quite /kw/ Quack /kw/ quota /kw/ /chr/ /jr/ train /chrain/ drop /jrop/
2. Short Vowels: , , , , / pe/ nt
3. Long Vowels: a, e, i, o ,u Eat / et/ Kite /kit/ Cough /cof/ bet /b t/ kit /kt/ bought / bot/
Thought /zot/ through /zru/ -tion, cion (/shun) nation (nashun)
4. Schwa: its an unstressed syllable. Sounds like /uh/
85
VIII.
COOKIE CUTTER ESSAY
Intro
Restate topic (question, gerund) Attention getter (anecdote, statistics, historical events, quotes) Thesis sentence (states your opinion: I firmly believe/ given such consequences/ I believe/ I am of the opinion that/ according to my personal beliefs
Body
Main idea with a topic sentence (support the thesis sentence) Supporting details (support main idea) X3 paragraphs Restate your thesis. Summarise main ideas (as we had seen) Global statement: use 1st and 2nd conditional
Conclusion
TOPIC: We should reduce global warming even if it means people will lose their jobs, and prices will rice.
INTRO:
1. Restate Topic. Fighting global warming is everyones responsibility, but do we think it should negatively impact people jobs, prices of goods and world economies? 2. Attention getter: In the early 1900s the local industry was growing strong. People had jobs, economies were strong and the relative prices of goods were reasonable. The only downside was that we started polluting the earth with an influx of factories. 3. Thesis sentence: I strongly disagree with combating global warming if it will be irrevocably detrimental to jobs, economies and prices of goods.
86
BODY: 1. Main idea/ Topic sentence (why thesis sentence) To save the planet is one thing. But to ruin peoples live is another. We should never disrupt the delicate economies of countries. 2. Supporting details: When Thailand decided to eliminate the factories in their country, nobody had a job. Since nobody had a job they couldnt stimulate the economy. They effectively reduced pollution, but starvation became prominent.
CONCUSION: No new information
1. Restate thesis: I find it completely unacceptable if it negatively impacts jobs, economies and prices of good. 2. Summarise main idea: As we have seen the disruption of economies has the potential to send a country into famine. In addition to famine, unemployment rates will be sky high and this will grave effects on economic relations.
87
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante IX. VERBS LIST
1. Regular verbs: verbs with regular form just add an ed at the end in the past and past participle forms. a) If the base form of the verb ends in a vibrating sound (b, h, l, m, n, r, v, w, y, z), -ed sounds like /d/:
infinitive achieve admire answer believe carry change enjoy enter explain enter happen play prefer open prepare receive remember repair return share smile survive stay try improve simple past achieved admired answered believed carried changed enjoyed entered explained entered happened played preferred opened prepared received remembered repaired returned shared smiled survived stayed tried improved past participle achieved admired answered believed carried changed enjoyed entered explained entered happened played preferred opened prepared received remembered repaired returned shared smiled survived stayed tried improved
b) If the base form of the verb ends in a non- vibrating sound (c, ch, f, k, p, s, sh, ch, x, -ed sounds like /t /:
infinitive ask dress finish fix guess simple past asked dressed finished fixed guessed past participle asked dressed finished fixed guessed
88

like look at miss notice pass practise pronounce stop talk walk wash watch wish work liked looked at missed noticed passed practised pronounced stopped talked walked washed watched wished worked liked looked at missed noticed passed practised pronounced stopped talked walked washed watched wished worked
a) If the base form of the verb ends in a /d/ or /t/ sound, -ed sounds like /did/ or /tid/. We also add an extra syllable.
infinitive accept add attend avoid dictate elect graduate intend invent land need paint provide recommend repeat start visit wait for want simple past accepted added attended avoided dictated elected graduated intended invented landed needed painted provided recommended repeated started visited waited for wanted past participle accepted added attended avoided dictated elected graduated intended invented landed needed painted provided recommended repeated started visited waited for wanted
89
English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 2. Irregular verbs:

infinitive be bear beat become begin bend bet* bid bind bite bleed blow break breed bring broadcast build burst* bust* buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig dive do draw drink drive eat fall feed feel fight find flee simple past was/were bore beat became began bent bet bid, bade bound bit bled blew broke bred brought broadcast built burst bust bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug dived/dove(AE) did drew drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found fled past participle been borne/born (AE) beaten become begun bent bet bid, bidden bound bitten bled blown broken bred brought broadcast built burst bust bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut dealt dug dived done drawn drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled infinitive fling fly forbid forecast* forget forsake freeze get give grind go grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep know lay lead leave lend let lie light* lose make mean meet pay prove* put quit* read rid ride ring rise run simple past flung flew forbade, forbad forecast forgot forsook froze got gave ground went grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt kept knew laid led left lent let lay lit lost made meant met paid proved put quit read rid rode rang rose ran past participle flung flown forbidden forecast forgotten forsaken frozen got, gotten (AE) given ground gone grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt kept known laid led left lent let lain lit lost made meant met paid proven put quit read rid ridden rung risen run
90

infinitive say see seek sell send set sew* shake shear* shed shine shoot show* shut sing sink sit slay sleep slide sling slink slit sow speak speed* spend spin spit split spread spring stand simple past said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook sheared shed shone shot showed shut sang sank sat slew slept slid slung slunk slit sowed spoke sped spent spun spat, spit split spread sprang stood past participle said seen sought sold sent set sewn shaken shorn shed shone shot shown shut sung sunk sat slain slept slid slung slunk slit sown spoken sped spent spun spat, spit split spread sprung stood infinitive steal stick sting stink stride strike string strive swear sweep swell* swim swing take teach tear tell think thrive* throw thrust tread understand wake* wear weave weep wet* win wind wring write simple past stole stuck stung stank, stunk strode struck strung strove swore swept swelled swam swung took taught tore told thought throve threw thrust trod understood woke wore wove wept wet won wound wrung wrote past participle stolen stuck stung stunk stridden struck strung striven sworn swept swollen swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrived thrown thrust trodden, trod understood woken worn woven wept wet won wound wrung written
91
X.
INTERNACIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (I.P.A)
92
93
INTERESTING SITES
Learn English Online Course http://www.learnenglish.de/ Englisch Hilfen Learning English Online Course (English version) http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/ English Club http://www.englishclub.com/ English Grammar Online for You http://www.ego4u.com/ Shreton English (in Spanish) http://www.shertonenglish.com/resources/es/adverbs.php English for everyone http://www.englishforeveryone.org/
94

Inglés - Guía Gramatical - English Grammar Guide

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Inglés - Guía Gramatical - English Grammar Guide

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ENGLISH

Mauricio Arango Bustamante

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

INTERESTING SITES ............................................................................................................ 94

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante INTRODUCTION

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 1. BASIC VOCABULARY

1.2 Personal Pronouns:

1 Person 2 Person 3 Person

Singular I You He She it

Plural We You they

2.2 Sentence Structure: Affirmative Form: Subject + Verb to Be + Complement

From Peru. In the garden. Here Strong From Greece.

From Peru. In the garden. Here Strong From Greece.

From Peru? In the garden? Here? Strong? From Greece?

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 3. THE ARTICLE

This is a banana, but this is an apple.

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 4. GENDER AND NUMBER

woman women foot feet tooth - teeth

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 5. DEMOSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

near singular plural this these

far that those

5.1 near demonstrative pronouns: This/ these

5.2 Far demonstrative pronouns: That/ those

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

b) Adjectives could go behind the substantive: A nice house. He is a good student.

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

9. THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

9.1 Degrees of comparison: POSSITIVE

Small Big Pretty Easy Cheap Expensive Difficult

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

10. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Structure form: a) Affirmative Form:

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

Football. TV. Hamburgers. Coffee.

Live in London. Work in a factory. Play volleyball. Drink tea.

Collect stamps? Watch TV? Have lunch at school? Listen to music?

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante 11. PRESENT PROGRESIVE TENSE

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

TV Tennis yesterday. To the cinema. Some homework. A Lunch with Jane.

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

You We They He She It

Working now? Playing? Writing a letter? Singing in English? Watching a movie?

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

Preparing a lesson. Working. Doing homework. Cleaning the house

Studying hard. Climbing the hair. Watching TV. Washing clothes.

Preparing a lesson? Working? Doing homework? Washing clothes?

Playing tennis? Working? Watching TV? Washing clothes?

Contractions: HAD / D ------ HAD NOT / HADNT / D NOT

Interrogative - Negative I You We Hadnt They (Not) (had) He She It

Grammar Table Negative I You We They had (hadnt) He She It

Feeling well. Playing basketball. Doing homework. Cleaning the room.

Studying hard. Climbing the hair. Watching TV. Washing clothes.

Preparing a lesson? Crying? Doing something? Washing clothes?

Interrogative - Negative I You We Hadnt They Been (not) (had) He She It

Playing? Feeling well? Watching TV? Washing clothes?

English: Grammar Mauricio Arango Bustamante

Grammar Table Affirmative I Am

Negative I am not Study Spanish. Dance. Type a letter. Work today.

You We They He She It