METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH AND ITS RELATIONS WITH OTHER SCIENCES Topics: 1.

Methods of teaching English and its relation to other sciences. 2. What factors of context should teachers take into account? 3. What roles can teachers and learners play in the learning process? 1. Methods of teaching a foreign language is understood as a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the foreign language teaching in schools and other educational institutions. It covers three ain proble s! " #o petences and subco petences"that is goal setting that $ill ans$er the %uestion $hat for or $hy to teach a foreign language " content of foreign language teaching" that is $hat to teach " ethods and techni%ues of foreign language teaching" that is ho$ to teach a foreign language in order to attain the ai s of this science in the ost effective $ay. 1. Methods of foreign language tea hing are related to other sciences such as! pedagogies& psychology& physiology and linguistics. 'edagogies is the science concerned $ith the teaching and education of the younger generation. (ince ethods also deal $ith the proble s of education and education& it is ostly related $ith 'edagogies. In order to study a foreign language one ust kno$ 'edagogies. )ne branch of pedagogies is

called *idactics. It studies the general $ays of teaching in schools. Methods co pared to *idactics study the specific $ays of teaching a definite sub+ect. Methods of foreign language teaching ean first of all the for ation and develop ent of pupils, habits and skills in listening& speaking& reading and $riting. We can not expect to develop such habits and skills in our pupils effectively if $e don,t take into account the psych and the thinking processes that constitute 'sychology,s ain ob+ect of study. -urther ore& to aster a second language eans to ac%uire another code& another $ay of receiving and conveying infor ation. In order to create this ne$ code the ost effective $ay the teacher ust take into consideration certain psychological factors. Effective learning of a foreign language depends at a great extend on the pupils, e ory. .hat is $hy teacher ust kno$ ho$ he can help his pupils to successfully e orise and keep in e ory the language aterial they learn. /ere again psych investigation of involuntary e ory led to the conclusion that e ory is retentive. #onse%uently in teaching a foreign language the teacher should create favourable conditions for involuntary e ori0ing like peripheral learning. .he experi ents ade by pro inent scientists sho$ed that psych helps ethods to deter ine the follo$ing! "the role of other tongue in different stages of teaching "the a ount of aterial for pupils in order to be assi ilated at every stage of instruction "the se%uence and $ays $hich are ore suitable for presenting the aterial and for capturing attention. If a teacher $ants his pupils speak English he ust use all the opportunities to increase their otivation& to train their e ory and logical thinking& to captivate their attention& to support their volition and encourage creative thought.

Methods of foreign language teaching are closely related to 1inguistics as it deals $ith the study of the connection bet$een language and thinking& language levels like phonological& lexical& gra atical& syntactical& language fa ilies& their genesis and classifications etc. (o it $ould be i possible to teach a foreign language $ithout being a$are of the language structure and of the lexical& gra atical& syntactical& se antic s allest units. 'hysiology is another science that teachers ay co e across $hile taking up teaching. (ince 'hysiology deals $ith the study of body syste s and organs functioning the a$areness of this fact and its usefulness beco es obvious at the o ent $hen changes in the body interfere $ith learning. .his interference is often perceived $hile $orking $ith teenagers. 2dolescence is that period $hen body changes and physical develop ent ay have direct connections $ith learners, success or failure in learning in general. .his is the period $hen adolescent,s heart gro$th ay precede the gro$th of veins and arteries that ay cause chest pain& sudden arousal and fall of blood pressure& fre%uent headaches& ood changes and fatigue that ay influence the %uality of learning. .his is also the period $hen so e parts of the body gro$ sooner then others& $hen sexual develop ent takes place& $hen the hor one activity causes pi ples and akes the feel disco fort& beco e rude or vulnerable to any criticis on their part. .he teacher should necessarily take all these things into account in order to kno$ ho$ to organi0e his teaching& ho$ to avoid group troubles& ho$ to divide tasks and ho$ to gain learners, respect. Methods of foreign language teaching as any other sciences had different $ays of investigating the proble s $hich could arise. .hey are! 1. 2 critical study of the $ays foreign language $as taught in our country and abroad. 3

2. 2 good study and su ing up the experience of the best foreign language teachers in different types of school. 3. Experi enting $ith the ai of confir ing the $orking hypothesis that ay arise during the investigation. Experi enting because ore and ore popular $ith ethodologists. 2. So ial and edu ational fa tors deter ine in a $ay teachers, activity $ithin the social attitudes to$ards the English language. 1earning $ill partly deter ine ho$ uch effort teachers have to put into otivating children. .he presence of English in co unity $ill i ediately facilitate practice opportunities such as $riting revie$s of English fil s and .3 progra es& keeping a diary of extra 4 curricular activities& outside visits& or encounter pro+ects. Its absence creates greater but not insuperable challenges for teachers& $ho $ill need to think about sources of authentic input& about creating a balance of skills $ork to ake the ost productive use of class and out 4 of 4 class ti e. .he educational syste in $hich teachers $ork $ill be influenced by cultural notions of authority $hich affect the potential roles of teachers and learners. 3. The tea hers roles and res!onsi"ilities# It is possible to identify the teacher in a nu ber of roles during a lesson 5're 4 Inter ediate #hoice6! 2s controller in eliciting nationality $ords7 as assessor of accuracy as student try to pronounce the $ords7 as corrector of pronunciation7 as organi0er in giving instruction for the pair $ork initiating it onitoring it& and organi0ing feedback7 as pro pter $hile students are $orking together and as resource if students need help $ith $ords and structures during the pair $ork. 8eneral roles of instructor& organi0er& counsellor& and helper. 2nother aspect of teaching co petence is the ability to anage activities and interactions successfully in the sense that 9

learners kno$s $hat they need to do and $hy they are doing actively& are onitored and guided $hen help is needed& and can $ork undisturbed by discipline proble s. TYPES OF COMPETENCES Communicative Area 1. linguistic competences re%uire the learning of the linguistic syste of a language together $ith its levels of co unication5phonetic& gra atical& lexical& stylistic6. .he role of etalanguage 5 for ation rules& definitions& linguistic ter s6 is not e phasi0es excepting the si plest notions as gender& nu ber& case& con+ugation& etc that $ill facilitate logical co bination of linguistic pheno ena $ith a certain co unicative situation. In other $ords the linguistic co petences are included in the learner,s lexical& gra atical& se antic& phonetic orthographic co petences. 2. communicative competences $ill de onstrate learner,s ability to use the linguistic co petences& to understand the oral5co prehension& fluent& expressive& speedy& selective reading6 and $ritten essages& to produce and reproduce the oral and $ritten essages based on the syllabus aterial as $ell as on other situations. a6 :ecepting oral essages! 1.1. identifying the general5global6 eaning of an oral essage& presented clearly and at an average speed 1.2. eliciting specific infor ation fro a short oral essage 1.3. defining a logical order of events in a short& clearly presented text. 1.9.follo$ing the speaker,s instructions appropriately ;

b6 :ecepting $ritten essages! 3.1. identifying the type of text 3.2. identifying the global eaning of a essage5 silent reading6 3.3. extracting the ain ideas fro an unkno$n text 3.9. associating the infor ation fro a text $ith a set of pictures or a picture 3.;. selecting ideas fro a text and arranging the into an appropriate sche e c6 producing $ritten essages! 9.1.asking for and giving personal infor ation 9.2. providing a co plete and clear description of a person or event 9.3. providing a description of the students, household duties 5according to a given plan6 . pragmatic competences $ill de onstrate learner,s abilities to choose the co unicative strategy that fits to a concrete co unication act5 using nonverbal eans like gestures and i e $hen the speaker has lexical blanks& the use of synony s& antony s& etc.6. .he learner should be able to apply the linguistic co petences and the nonverbal eans in filling his blanks& in $riting letters& sending e" ails $ith the ai to co unicate& to contact& to congratulate& to invite& to sho$ initiative in co unication& to find out a solution for difficult co unicative situations& to pass over the barrier of co unication disco fort as a result insufficient kno$ledge by substituting the unkno$n gra atical for s $ith si pler ones& to perceive the constitution& e ission of diverse speaking acts. <

a6 producing oral essages and interaction! 2.1. asking for and using infor ation about the student,s fa ilies 2.2. participating in a dialogue on a fa iliar topic to exchange si ple infor ation 2.3. synchronistically translating into the students, native language a se%uence of 9"; short sentences on a fa iliar topic 2.9. providing a short fluent description of the students, fa ily e bers. Cultural Area Social!pluricultural competences sho$ the learner,s ability to ac%uire the kno$ledge& skills and attitudes necessary to increase the cross"cultural a$areness concerning the allophone country5traditions& holydays& historical& cultural personalities& etc. .his group of co petences places the learner $ithin a ultidi ensional $orld $here there are different races& nationalities& peoples. 8raduating fro secondary school the learner $ill sho$ kno$ledge in geographic& historic& social& cultural peculiarities of the allophone countries& a$areness in foreign language and literature i portance as eans of national and international co unication& the recognition of different cultures integration $ithin the context of socio"econo ic globali0ation. 1. identifying and respecting the nor s of verbal and non"verbal co unication $hile interacting orally and in $ritten for 2. Identifying so e ele ents of the syste s of education of English speaking countries 5ti etable& school sub+ects& school activities& vacations =

3.>no$ledge of si ple literary texts $hich belong to the culture of English"speaking countries 9. kno$ledge of so e cartoons for children 4their structure & characters& actions& "and identifying the $ays of expressing attitudes and feelings ;.indentifying the general eaning of traditional songs <. kno$ledge of fa ous people of the target language co unity =. cooperating $ith class ates to fulfil so e study activities sho$ing responsibility respect and tolerance in the course of co unication Comparison Area Met"o#ological co petences derive fro the foreign language teaching"learning"evaluation process because the learner is placed $ithin a specific didactic environ ent being the sub+ect of it together $ith his co petences. .his process is designed for the learner& is reali0ed $ith his participation being tutored by the teacher. .hese co petences presuppose learner,s a$areness concerning the didactic ethods and eans necessary in teaching a foreign language and their abilities to use the didactic eans independently5 the copybook& the textbook& the audio& video& #*& *3* recordings& the .3 set& the co puter& the dictionary& the internet& etc.6. .he learner ust kno$ the ethods of $orking $ith the didactic aterial and so eti es be able to identify by hi self the didactic eans necessary to carry out the given tasks $ith self"for ation and self" evaluation ai s. 1. #o paring fairy tales characters in English speaking countries and Moldova ?

2. #o paring so e topics of poe s and songs for children in English speaking countries and Moldova 3. #o paring structures and content of cartoons for children in English speaking countries and Moldova 9. #o paring the $ays of explaining the rules of ga es and giving instructions in a standard language ;. #o paring the $ays of giving an address. $ntegrate# S%ill Com&ination $nter#isciplinar' co petences constitute a syste of kno$ledge & skills& attitudes& and values ac%uired during the learning process beginning $ith the secondary school $hen the learning of foreign languages and other sub+ects related to the takes place. .hese co petences for ation let the learner notice& identify& evaluate si ilarities and differences a ong the gra atical& lexical& se antic& orthographic syste s of the studied languages & a ong the ter s used in the studied languages& a ong the linguistic& social"cultural& and civic interference blanks. 8raduating fro secondary school the learner $ill posess! a. interlinguistic co petences based on the foreign languages studied. b. ter inological co petences based on the do ains of languages studied c. intercultural co petences based on the languages studied Learning a"out interlinguisti and inter ultural si$ilarities and differen es 1. Identifying si ple expressions si ilar to the ones in the students, other tongue in si ple $ritten and spoken sentences 2. dra$ing and explaining a plan @

3. dra$ing pictures and collages in the course of study activities 9. correctly $riting and pronouncing nu bers in the course of study activities ;. aking a full description of pets <. listening to and interpreting songs for children =. e ploying non"verbal eans of co unication" body ove ents& facial expressions and actions" through active ga es ?. e ori0ing and reciting rhy es& short poe s and si ple dialogues fluently and $ith proper intonation. Communit' Area Civic competences 5attitudinal and axiological6 are destined to self"evaluation and deepening. .he foreign language learning $ithin this di ension $ill contribute to the increase of toleration& altruis & condescension& indulgence& responsibility for one,s o$n opinions and +udge ents& sti ulating learners to aspire to a continuous i prove ent of his kno$ledge and skills in a certain do ain. 1. identifying the $ays of behaviour and speech acts $hich are related to various co unicative situations! at the library 2. identifying and respecting certain for s of $ritten interaction ( T"e sample su&competences )ere ta%en *rom t"e Mol#ovan national Curriculum+ t"e ,t" gra#e compartment. 1A

T-E CONTENT OF FO.E$/N 0AN/1A/E TEAC-$N/ There is no single acceptable way to go about teaching languages today. Topics: 1. .he first co ponent" four language skills. 2. .he second co ponent" linguistic co ponent 3. .he third co ponent" ethodological co ponent. .he co ponent of foreign language teaching or $hat to teach is one of the ain proble s the ain ethodologists deal $ith. %& The four language s'ills& .he 1st co ponent of $hat to teach is! skills $hich pupils should ac%uire $hile learning a foreign language according to the co petences of learning this sub+ect 5listening& speaking& reading and $riting6. .he four language skills are divided into t$o groups! a6 receptive"these are listening and $riting because by their eans $e receive or input infor ation. b6 productive" these are speaking and $riting as they help output infor ation or produce or reproduce it. .he level of skills and habits is deter ined by the syllabus for each for . /o$ever %ualitative and %uantitative characters of skill or so called ter inal behaviour is not defined yet for different types of schools and strategies of instruction. (& Linguisti o$!onent& .he second co ponent of $hat to teach is a linguistic one $hich includes language aterial& sentence patterns& pattern dialogues& texts in different styles& arranged topics and serving 11

as starting points for the develop ent of oral language and $ritten language $hich allo$s the teacher to reach the linguistic& co unicative& ethodological and cultural co petences set by the syllabus. )n the other hand& linguistic aterial for exa ple phonology gra ar& vocabulary is carefully selected for this purpose. .he selection of the linguistic aterial is very i portant. -or exa ple ini u vocabulary& gra ar has al$ays been one of the ost i portant and difficult proble s to be solved. )& Methodologi al o$!onent& .he third co ponent of $hat to teach is a ethodological co ponent. 'upils, should be taught ho$ to learn the foreign language ho$ to $ork at the sub+ect to attain the ai s. -or exa ple ho$ to e ori0e $ords and keep the in e ory& ho$ to perfor drill exercises in the ost effective $ay& ho$ to perfor creative exercises $hich re%uire a personal approach on the part of the pupils. (o the content of foreign language teaching involves three ain co ponents! 1. 'sychological habits and skills $hich ensure the use of the target language as a eans of co unication in oral 5listening& speaking6 and $ritten 5reading& $riting6 for s. 2. 1inguistic co ponent" language and linguistic aterial $hich should be assi ilated to be used in language skills. 3. Methodological co ponent" the techni%ues $hich pupils should ac%uire& to learn a foreign language in a ost effective $ay. T-E P.$NC$P0ES OF FO.E$/N 0AN/1A/E TEAC-$N/ Topics: 1. .he principle of scientific approach. 2. .he principle of infor ation accessibility. 3. .he principle of durability. 12

9. ;. <. =.

.he principle of conscious approach. .he principle of activities. .he principle of visualisation. .he principle of individuali0ation.

'rinciple is defined as a guide to teaching ethods of foreign language based on the funda ental principles of *idactics. Every school"sub+ect realises these principles in its o$n $ay. .hus didactic principles e ployed in teaching a certain sub+ect beco e ethodological principles for teaching this sub+ect. %& The !rin i!le of s ientifi a!!roa h& (cientific approach in foreign language teaching i plies careful deter ination of $hat and ho$ to teach in order to achieve the co petences set by the syllabus. .he other ai s can be achieved through the practical co and of the target language. )ne of the ain ethodological principles is the principle of the practical and co unicative approach. It eans pupils should be involved in $ritten or oral co unication. .hroughout the $hole co es out the learning the foreign language. .his principle is realised by eans of co petences and subco petences and teaching aterials no$ used in schools. 'upils are taught to use the target language as a eans of co unication for listening& co prehension& $riting& speaking and reading. Each language activity has its o$n set of actions $hich are characteristic to this activity. (& The !rin i!le of infor$ation a essi"ilit*& .he next principle is closely connected $ith the selection of aterial and its arrange ent in order to provide accessibility for language learning on the part of the pupils. 2s pupils learn the target language for co unication the aterial should be arranged in a ore suitable $ay for the 13

purpose. In odern ethodology various approaches to the arrange ent of the teaching aterials for teaching purposes are observed! 1. 1inguistic approach" $hen in foreign language teaching a certain linguistic theory is applied. .he aterial is arranged and interpreted in accordance $ith the theory. 2. .he structural"functional approach" $hen aterial is arranged in structures. )& The !rin i!le of dura"ilit*& .his principle i plies the ability of pupils to keep in e ory linguistic and language aterial they learn of ready access. .he pupils can use units of language and sentence patterns& $henever they need the for oral and $ritten co unication. .he durability is insured by! 1. 3ivid presentation of the aterial $hen pupils are involved in presentations. .heir thinking and senses are at $ork. 2. #onstant revision or drill" pupils reproduce the aterial and revie$ it out of their auditory visual kinaesthetic and otor analyses are at $ork. 3. .he use of the aterial on the part of the learners for co unication. 'upils read texts $ith various assign ent to get infor ation through listening and reading they carry on conversations $ithin the topics! 9. (yste atic control. ;. #onstant supervision of pupils, habits and skills on the part of the teacher. Bnder these conditions pupils keep the aterial longer in their e ory because it is constantly revie$ed by the and revised by the teacher. +& The !rin i!le of ons ious a!!roa h& 19

1anguage learning co prises co prehension of a linguistic pheno enon of language aterial usually by eans of native language or the arrange ent of the aterial in sentence patterns so e ele ents $hich are singled out as teaching points. In all cases pupils understand both! the for and content of the aterial. .hey are to learn and they are a$are of ho$ they should treat the aterial $hile perfor ing various exercises the ai of $hich is to develop habits and skills in using it. (uch an approach to language learning is achieved $ith the help of explanation& drills& clarification exercises& argu entation and exa ples. .he pupils should ac%uire the rules of the language in order to be able to follo$ these rules in the act of co unication and the teachers, tasks is to help the pupils in this respect. 'receding to psychological peculiarities or foreign language assi ilation and taking into account the basic progress of thought& $e ay co e to the conclusion that in order to aster a foreign language& pupils ust have a lot of practice in listening& speaking& reading and $riting. 2s for the other tongue& $e can not eli inate it" $e should use it as a eans of teaching $henever it helps pupils in ac%uiring kno$ledge necessary for developing habits and skills. #onscious approach in foreign language teaching i plies the pupils, understanding of the aterials they are to learn to be able to transfor it and to apply it in co unication in the target language. .ransfor ation is connected $ith pupils, abilities to ake the aterial fit to any ne$ situation and ne$ tasks. #o prehension is achieved! 1. through situations in $hich the aterial is used. 2. through contexts and other linguistic eans5synony s& antony s& definitions6 3. through translations into the other tongue 9. through visual presentation5pictures& ob+ects& gestures6 1;

;. pointing out so e features $hich are characteristic for this a ount of aterial <. through creating so called orientation& to be able to perfor a necessary action $ith the aterial. ,& The !rin i!le of a ti-ities& -oreign language teaching is of great i portance. .he pupil is an active participant in the process" he is involved in language activities. .hroughout the $hole course of instruction in odern 'sychology" activity is no$ generally considered to be the ain characteristic of cognitive progress. 2ctivity arises under certain conditions. .he pupil should fulfil a need to learn a sub+ect and have necessary pre"re%uired sets created for a satisfaction of this need. .he ain sources of activity are! " otivation "desire "interest (o in foreign language teaching it is necessary to sti ulate pupils, activity by involving the in the act of co unication in the target language either in oral or $ritten for . If pupils are not involved in co unication and re ain on the level of perfor ing drill of exercises& they soon loose their interest in the sub+ect and beco e passive at the lesson. It is pupils $ho should $ork and not the teacher during the lesson. (o e $ays to solve these proble s are! 1. $ork in unison. 2. ass $ork $hen pupils are invited to listening to a text& to read a text silently& to do so e exercises in $ritten for $hen they learn for the selves and do the sa e $ork. 3. $ork in s all groups $hen pupils are divided into four 4five groups and each group received a special assign ent either reading or speaking the $ork results in conversation bet$een group I and the class& group II and the class. 1<

9. $ork in pairs. ;. individual $ork in progra ed instruction $hen each pupil can $ork $ith the progra e he receives either through visual or auditory perception at his o$n pace. .& The !rin i!le of -isualisation& .his principle has al$ays been very i portant for long learning since the gaining of kno$ledge begins either $ith perception or $ith $hat has been for ally perceived $ith previous experience. 3isuali0ation ay be defined as a specially organised de onstration of linguistic aterial and language behaviour characteristic of the target language $ith the purpose of helping the pupils in understanding& assi ilating and utilising this in connection $ith the task set. (ince pupils ac%uire a second language in artificial conditions visualisation should be expanded. 3isualisation allo$s the teacher to create natural conditions for pupils of oral and practical activities and free conversation. 3isualisation can be used in teaching under various aspects of language! phonology& vocabulary& gra ar and the develop ent of four language skills. .he use of visualisation akes foreign language lessons e otionally coloured and increases pupils, interest. 3isualisation i plies an extensive use of audio"visual aids and audio"visual aterials for presenting and e ori0ing the linguistic aterial and for developing oral and $ritten language although they are to be used differently according to the stage of instruction& the age of pupils& etc. In foreign language teaching in schools it is necessary to follo$ the oral approach as it is the one that allo$s the pupils to deal $ith the language in its pri ary functions as a eans of co unication. /& The !rin i!le of indi-iduali0ation& 1=

.his principle is of great i portance since the sub+ect is an essential one and according to the curriculu each pupil should ac%uire habits and skills the syllabus sets. (o e individuals in a class learn ore rapidly than others& so eti es an individual enters in a period of fast learning& so eti es enters in a period of poor"learning. .he teacher should assess the progress of each individual and find the $ay ho$ to anage the classroo activity so that the slo$est learners are not depressed by being left behind and the fastest and ost able learners are not frustrated by being held back. Individualisation in foreign language teaching is achieved! 2. through the use of individual cards co piled by the teacher $ho is a$are of pupils, ability. 3. through the use of the progra e& aterials $hen each pupil can $ork at his o$n pace. 9. by special selection of exercises for each group of pupils in class& bright& average and full. ;. by the use of additional aterial <. by arranging pupil,s co unication in the target language so that each pupil can do his best as a participant of different activities. (o in order to apply the principle of individualisation in a foreign language the teacher should be fa iliar $ith the class $ith its individuals. FO.E$/N 0AN/1A/E TEAC-$N/ MET-O2S Topics: 1. 2pproach. Method. 'rocedure. .echni%ue 2. .raditional Methods 3. #o unicative ethods 9. Innovative Methods 1?

Cefore each group of ethods is described together $ith its specific co on features a strong necessity is felt to dra$ the distinction a ong the notions of approach& ethod& procedure and techni%ue. /ere are the definitions proposed by Dere y /ar er! a6 Approac" refers to theories about the nature of language teaching that serve as a source of practices and language teaching. 2n approach describes ho$ language is used and ho$ its constituent parts interlock. It also offers a odel of language co petence& it describes ho$ people ac%uire their kno$ledge of language& it akes state ents about the conditions $hich $ill pro ote successful language learning. b6 Met"o# is the practical realisation of the approach. It i plies types of activities& roles of teachers and learners& kinds of helpful aterial and so e odel of syllabus organi0ation. It includes proce#ures and tec"ni3ues. When ethods have clear proce#ures infor ed by a clearly articulated approac" they are easy to describe. c6 Proce#ure is an ordered se%uence of techni%ues. 2 se%uence can be described as! first you do this, then this and this. It is s aller than a met"o# and bigger than a tec"ni3ue. d6 .echni%ue is an activity that is a part of a se%uence of activities applying a skill in doing so ething. ! Methods may easily be mixed up with techniques as sometimes techniques generate methods and vice versa. Tra#itional Met"o#s o* Teac"ing The Cogniti-e Theor* .he #ognitive .heory underlays the 8ra ar .ranslation Method and according to it the language is a set of rules 1@

$hether gra atical or co unicative $hich the teacher explains and the learners assi ilate. .his theory is considered to be the oldest and the ne$est in the sa e ti e as it i plies such a ter as Monitor Model by eans of $hich the adult learners consciously onitor their speech and are a$are of the rules they are using. a4 The Gra$$ar Translation Method& .he 8ra ar .ranslation Method appeared in 8er any. .he leaders of this school $ere Dohann (eidenstuker and >arl 'lot0. It looks upon the language as an intellectual activity. .his ethod $as co only used in Europe to teach 1atin and 8reek and this is $hy it is also called the #lassical Method. In the EEth century the 8ra ar .ranslation Method $as used to help students read and appreciate foreign literature. It $as considered that through the 8ra ar of the foreign language the students $ill get fa iliar $ith the gra ar of their native language& that they $ill read and $rite better in their other tongue& that it $ill help the gro$ intellectually. .his ethod do inated fro 1?9A"1@9A. .he ain characteristics of the 8ra ar .ranslation Method are! 1. .he ai of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit fro the ental discipline and intellectual develop ent that fro foreign language study. 8ra ar .ranslation is a $ay of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its gra ar rules. 2. :eading and $riting are the a+or focus7 little or no syste atic attention is paid to speaking or listening. 3. 3ocabulary selection is solely on the reading texts used& and $ords are taught through bilingual $ord lists& dictionary study and e ori0ation. In a typical 8ra ar" 2A

.ranslation textbook the gra ar rule are presented $ith their translation e%uivalents& and translation exercises are presented. 9. .he sentence is the unit of reading and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language. ;. 2ccuracy is e phasi0ed& students are expected to attain high standards in translation. <. 8ra ar is taught deductively" that is& by presentation and study of gra ar rules& $hich are then practiced through translation exercises. =. .he student,s native language is the ediu of instruction. It is used to explain ne$ ite s and to enable co parison to be ade bet$een the foreign language and the students, native language. ?. 2lthough the 8ra ar".ranslation Method often creates frustration for students& it akes fe$ de ands on teachers. It is still used in situations $here understanding literary texts is the pri ary focus of foreign language. &4 The Dire t Method 8ouin had been one of the first of the 1@ th century refor ers to atte pt to build a ethodology around observation of child language learning& that is to naturalistic principles of studying a language. .he principal characteristics of the *irect Method are! 1. #lassroo instruction $as conducted exclusively in the target language. 2. )nly everyday vocabulary and sentences $ere taught. 3. )ral co unication skills $ere built up in a carefully graded progression organi0ed around %uestion"and" ans$er exchanges bet$een teachers and students in s all& intensive classes. 9. 8ra ar $as taught inductively. 21

;. Fe$ teaching points $ere introduced orally. <. #oncrete vocabulary $as taught through de onstration& ob+ects& and pictures& abstract vocabulary $as taught by association of ideas. =. Coth speech and listening co prehension $ere taught. ?. #orrect pronunciation and gra ar $ere e phasi0ed. .hese principles as seen in the follo$ing guidelines for teaching oral language are still follo$ed in conte porary Cerlit0 schools! " never translate! de onstrate. " never explain! act. " never ake a speech! ask %uestions. " never i itate istakes! correct. " never speak $ith single $ords! use sentences. " never speak too uch! ake students speak uch. " never use the book! use your o$n lesson plan. " never +u p around! follo$ your plan. " never go too fast! keep the pace of the students. " never speak too slo$ly! speak nor ally " never speak too %uickly! speak naturally. " never speak too loudly! speak naturally. " never be i patient! take it easy. In the *irect Method the four language skills are taught fro the beginning& but a special e phasis is placed on speaking. #lasses often start $ith the reading aloud of a specially graded text $hich introduces the lesson,s vocabulary and gra atical structural. 'ractice follo$s $ith exercises such as guided conversation& $here the teacher asks %uestions on the students ans$er using full ans$ers. .eachers so eti es co plain that it is ti e consu ing to i e vocabulary& $hen a si ple translation $ould do. (o e 22

$ords are difficult to i e. It,s necessary to use the co sense in the %uestion of translation.

on

c4 Audiolingual Method& .his ethod $as influenced by behavioural psychologist $ho believed that foreign language learning is basically a process of echanical habit for ation like $hen training an ani al to do so ething. .o do this& it,s necessary to follo$ a three"stage procedure $here the stages are! stimulus, response and reinforcement. -or exa ple! signal"light 4stimulus the rat presses the bar"response7 tasty food" reinforcement. 1. .he entry of B.(.2 into the (econd World War had significant effect on language in 2 erica. .o supply the B.(. 8overn ent $ith personnel $ho $ere fluent in foreign languages 58er an& -rench& Italian& #hinese& Dapanese& etc.6 $ho could $ork as interpreters& code 4 roo assistants& and translators& it $as necessary to set up a special language training progra . .he 8overn ent co issioned 2 erican universities to develop foreign language progra s for ilitary personnel. .hus the 2r y (peciali0ed .raining 'rogra $as established in 1@92. -ifty 4 five 2 erican universities $ere involved in the progra by the beginning of 1@93. .he ob+ective of the ar y personnel $as for students to attain conversational proficiency in variety of foreign languages. (ince this $as not the goal of conventional foreign language courses in the B(& ne$ approaches $ere necessary. 1inguists& such as 1eonard Cloo field at Gale& had already developed training progra s a part of their linguistic research that $ere designed to give linguistic and anthropologists astery of 2 erican Indian languages and other languages they $ere studying. .extbooks did not exist for such languages. .he techni%ue Cloo field and his colleagues used $as so eti es kno$n as the Hinfor ant ethodI& since it used a native speaker of the language 4 the infor ant 4 $ho served as a 23

source of phrases and vocabulary $ho provided sentences for i itation& and a linguist& $ho supervised the learning experience. .he 2r y (peciali0ed .raining 'rogra lasted only about t$o years but attracted considerable attention in the popular press and in the acade ic co unity. Cut the linguists $ho developed 2(.' $ere not interested pri arily in language teaching. .he H ethodologyI of the 2r y Method& derived fro the intensity of contact $ith the target language rather than fro any $ell 4 developed ethodological basis. It $as innovative ainly in its underling theory. /o$ever& it did convince a nu ber of pro inent linguists of the value of an intensive& oral 4 based approach to the learning of a foreign language. 1inguists and applied linguists during this period $ere beco ing increasingly involved in the teaching of English as a foreign language. 2 erica had no$ e erged as a a+or international po$er. .here $as a gro$ing de and for foreign expertise in the teaching of English. .housands of foreign students entered the Bnited (tates to study universities& and any of these students re%uired training in English before they could begin their studies. .hese factors led to the e ergence of the 2 erican approach to E(1& $hich by the id 4 fifties had beco e 2udiolingualis . *istinguishing features. In the 2udio"lingual Method& skills are taught in the natural order! listening& speaking& reading& $riting. 2udio"lingual classes begin $ith a dialogue& $hich introduces the lesson,s sentence patterns. .he students e ori0e this dialogue& then practice gra ar in drills such as listen and repeat& substitution& chain& and transfor ation. 2ccuracy in pronunciation is e phasi0ed and fostered through ini al pair drills $here students learn to differentiate bet$een sounds such as the vo$els Jship, or Jsheep,& Jhit, and Jheat,& Jbit, and Jbeat,. 1essons are se%uenced according to gra atical co plexity. .ranslation& considered to cause 29

interference fro the other tongue& is not allo$ed. 1earning is tightly controlled by the teacher& $ho follo$s the text closely. (o& in the 2udio"lingual Method! 1. -oreign language learning is basically a process of echanical habit for ation. 8ood habits are for ed by giving correct responses rather than by aking istakes. Cy e ori0ing dialogues and perfor ing pattern drills the chances of producing istakes are ini i0ed. 1anguage is verbal behaviour 4 that is& the auto atic production and co prehension of utterances 4 and can be learned by inducing the students to do like$ise. 2. 1anguage skills are learned ore effectively if the ite s to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken for before they are seen in $ritten for . 2ural 4 oral training is needed to provide the foundation for the develop ent of other language skills. 3. 2nalogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. 2nalogy involves the processes of generali0ation and discri ination. Explanations of rules are therefore not given until students have practiced a pattern in a variety of contexts and are taught to have ac%uired a perception of the analogies. /ence& the approach to the teaching of gra ar is essentially inductive rather than deductive. 9. .he eaning that the $ords of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. .eaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural syste of the people $ho speak the language 5:ivers 1@<9!1@"26.

Communicative Met"o#s 2;

!o one can learn to communicate in a new language if he is never allowed to ma"e mista"es in it. In late <As there $as seen a shift fro the 2udio"lingual Method to #o unicative language teaching. .his shift evolved partly as a result of studies carried out by the #ouncil of Europe& $hich began to identify the language needed in a variety of social situations by so eone i igrating to #o on Market countries. .he studies sought to evaluate ho$ language itself is used& ho$ native speakers of a language express the selves in various situation. .he studies had a a+or i pact on the teaching of English as a foreign language. .eachers and curriculu designers began to look at content& at the kind of language needed $hen greeting or shopping. .he e phasis on for & on explicitly learning gra ar rules or practicing gra atical patters& $as do$nplayed in favour of an approach designed to eet learners, needs $hen using the language in daily interaction. .he table that follo$s sho$s so e of the language in daily interaction and so e of the differences bet$een 8ra ar .ranslation& 2udio"lingual and #o unicative 1anguage .eaching. A comparison o* #istinguis"ing *eatures o* t"ree approac"es to language teac"ing 8ra ar .r. Meth. 8ra #entral feature Meaningful Fot #o unication i portant 'ronunciation Fot 2< ar rules 2udiolingual #o unic. Method 1ang. 1earn. Fot explained 1i ited .arget Explained $hen Fecessary #entral feature .arget

considered Bse of translation (e%uencing of lesson .eacher" student :oles 2ttitudes to errors Calance of language skills #entral feature -ollo$s linguistic co plexity .eacher" centred

native"like -orbidden -ollo$s linguistic co plexity .eacher" centred

#o prehensible Bsed $hen necessary -ollo$s learners, needs

.eacher facilitates student"to" student interaction 2ccuracy 2ccuracy Errors part e phasi0ed e phasi0ed of 1earning 'rocess :eading 1istening (kills taught and and according to $riting speaking learners, needs e phasi0ed e phasi0ed

2ccording to the /u anistic .heory the ai of learning the target language is not necessarily to co unicate $ith others but also to develop in learners the potential of hu an beings. .he teacher is ore an educator than an instructor $ho focuses ore on students, personal feelings and e otions. .his theory has given birth ot the #o unicative language learning. Co$$uni ati-e Language Learning

2=

.he #o unicative 1anguage 1earning $as developed by /.8. Widdo$son. While using this ethod the e phasis is placed on using the target language to acco plish a function such as co plaining& advising& or asking for infor ation7 in other $ords to co unicate through interaction. 2ttention is also paid to the social context in $hich this function takes place. -or instance& different language $ill be used $hen co plaining to a teacher than $hen co plaining to a close friend. #istinguishing features$ 2ll four language skills are taught fro the beginning. In speaking the ai is to be understood& not to speak like a native. In the se%uencing of lesson& priority is given to learner interests and needs. .his is the contrast to the 8ra ar .ranslation Method& $hich ay start $ith verb tenses& and $ork through fro the preset si ple to the conditionals. In a #o unicative approach if a learner needs to kno$ ho$ to give advice 5HIf I $ere you& I $ouldKI6 then this conditional is taught. Interaction bet$een speakers and listeners or readers and $riters is at the root of all activities. #hapters on teaching (peaking& :eading 1istening give any exa ples of the kind of activities to be found in a classroo follo$ing the co unicative approach. 1earners usually $ork in pairs or groups for role play& infor ation sharing or proble solving. Exercises using or recording fro the radio& are selected so that learners can practice language in real situations $here possible. The Total 1h*si al Res!onse .his ethod $as developed by Da es 2sher& a professor of 'sychology and encourages teachers to teach 2?

the language through physical activity. Involving the use of ga elike ove ents the .otal 'hysical :esponse ethod is intended to reduce learners, stress& to create a positive ood and to facilitate learning. .he co prehension skills develop ent is under the a+or focus& in other $ords the co prehension abilities $ill precede productive skills in learning the language. .he teaching of speaking ust be delayed until co prehension is achieved. (kills are ac%uired through listening and teaching e phasi0es eaning rather than for . #istinguishing features$ (kills are taught in natural order 1earners are given different co ands 2fter the first stage students $ill be ready to speak 2fter the second stage they $ill be ready to direct other students .his ethod is useful and fun and is reco ended to be used $ith beginners. The A 2uisition Theor* .his theory is based on the distinction bet$een ac%uisition and learning. Ac3uisition is the kno$ledge leading to co on perfor ance& a subconscious process. 0earning is kno$ledge leading to the ability to onitor the language& a conscious process. Mirela #odruta (tanisoara proposes 9 theories of ac%uisition! %. The &omprehensible 'nput (cquisition $here input is the language that students hear or read and is based on learner,s previous experience in a context at a higher level. 2@

). !atural *rder +ypothesis that stands for teaching languages in a conse%uent order5fro si ple to co plicated6. ,. The Monitor +ypothesis pro otes the idea that ac%uisition and learning inter ingle in the process of production ability to produce utterances and to correct the . -. The (ffective .ilter Fot only the co prehensible input is necessary for foreign language learning but also the affective factor that functions as a block that prevents language to be ac%uired. .he lo$er these affective filters5negative e otions such as anxiety& fear& stress6 are the ore probable the learners $ill be successful in passing over the barrier of co unication $hile learning the target language. .he 2c%uisition .heory gave birth to the Fatural 2pproach. The Natural A!!roa h .he Fatural 2pproach $as proposed by .racy .errell and incorporated Hnaturalistic principlesI. It focuses on teaching co unicative abilities and vie$s co unication as the pri ary function of language. 1anguage is left Hto e ergeI naturally as it is vie$ed as a vehicle of co unicating eanings and essages. .his approach also reveals the idea that ac%uisition can occur $hen people understand essages in target language. 2ccording to the Fatural 2pproach developing the Input /ypothesis is possible $hen using the follo$ing the $51 for ula that stands for having an input before passing to another stage. 3A

1earners, e otional state and attitudes constitute the filter that i pedes or blocks the input. In order to increase the language input& these affective filters should be lo$& in other $ords otivated students have better results& those $ho are self confident are likely to be ore successful because their level of anxiety and stress is lo$ and they are not afraid of aking istakes& of feeling disco fort& of looking silly& of being critici0ed& of participating actively in the learning process. The Co$!eten * 34ased A!!roa h .he #o petency"Cased 2pproach $as developed and applied in the B(2 to help i igrants and refugees learn English and life skills in the sa e ti e. It is based on theories of adult learning $hich states that in order effective learning to take place7 adults need to kno$ that $hat they are studying $ill i prove their lives. #istinguishing features$ 1earners do inate in the #o petence"based 2pproach because language skills& the gra ar and vocabulary they study are se%uenced according to their needs. .ranslation is used $hen necessary for co unication. #ontext is used as uch as possible to help the learners induce the eanings of lexical structures or the for ation of gra atical structures. 2uthentic aterials are used and the learners are encouraged to practice the language by perfor ing real tasks outside the classroo . 1ike the #o unicative 2pproach the #o petency 4Cased 2pproach bases its activities on interaction. 'air $ork and group $ork are used to generate co unication in activities such as 31

proble solving& filling infor ation gaps& %uestioning& aking surveys& etc. $nnovative Met"o#s o* Teac"ing The teacher wor"s with the student, the student wor"s with the language. The Silent Wa* .he (ilent $ay is a ethod introduced by #aleb 8ategno& a ethodologist $ho revived the interest in the use of coloured $ooden sticks called cuisenaire rods and the series of Words in #olour& an approach to the teaching of initial reading in $hich sounds are coded by specific colours. /is aterials are copyrighted and arked through an organi0ation he operated& called Educational solutions Inc.& in Fe$ Gork. .he (ilent Way ethod is based on the pre ise that the teacher should be silent as uch as possible in the classroo and the learner should be encouraged to produce as uch language as possible. .he (ilent Way shares a great deal $ith other learning theories and educational philosophies. .he hypotheses that follo$ belong to 8ategno,s $ork $ithin this ethod! 1. 1earning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than re e bers and repeats $hat is to be learned. 2. 1earning is facilitated by acco panying physical ob+ects. 3. learning is facilitated by proble solving involving the aterial to be learned& $hich represent Cen+a in -ranklin,s $ords! Tell me and ' forget, Teach me and ' remember, 32

'nvolve me and ' learn. In the (ilent Way learners are actively responsible for their o$n learning. 1earning a language is seen not as a process of habit for ation like in the 2udiolingual Method& but rather a process $hereby the learners discover the rules of the target language and then applies those rules to understand and use the language. Mistakes are considered as a part of the process of discovering the rules and the teacher should not interfere in the process by correcting the learnersL istakes. #istinguishing features$ 2ll four language skills are taught fro the beginning& though reading and $riting are se%uenced to follo$ $hat has been produced orally. (pecial charts are used to teach pronunciation. -irst& there is a sound" colour& each one representing a sound in the target language. .he teacher and student point to blocks of colour on the chart to for syllables& $ords and sentences. (econd& there are $ord charts containing $ords $hose letters are colour coded in the sa e $ay as the sound"colour chart. .he teacher and students ake up sentences& point to $ords on the chart and read the sentences they have $ritten or told. .hird& there are sounds of the language $ith their spelling. -or exa ple HayI& HeaI& HeiI and HeighI& $hich are all different spellings of the sound MeiN in English& they are listed and colour"coded together. #uisenaire rods5bits of $ood varying in length and colour6 are used to introduce vocabulary and structures. 2t the beginning level they can be used to teach nu bers and colours5Htake t$o red rodsI6. 2t the inter ediate level they can be used to teach co paratives5Hthe red rod is longer than the blue oneI& the prepositions5H the green rod is above the yello$ oneI6& the difference bet$een the 33

definite and indefinite articles 5Htake aO the red rodI6 $ith the help of the finger techni%ue. 2t a later stage they can be used to teach conditionals 5HIf I had a red rod I $ould give it to youI6. .he (ilent $ay is designed to be used $ith s all groups of learners. .eachers using this ethod usually undergo intensive training in its techni%ues and philosophy. .he usefulness of this ethod consists first& in the fact that the kno$ledge the learners discover for the selves is retained and o$ned in a ore per anent and eaningful $ay than are aterials $hich have been packaged and only re%uire students to e ori0e the . (econd& there is the idea of peer coaching in a non" co petitive environ ent. /aving presented the aterial& the teacher stands back and lets his students experi ent $ith the rules and generate talk in English. .he teacher,s role during this group $ork is to ake sure that the group at osphere is open to the contribution of all its e bers. Co$$unit* Language Learning #o unity 1anguage 1earning is a ethod developed by #harles 2. #urran and his associates. #urran $as a specialist in counselling and a professor of psychology at 1oyola Bniversity. /is application of psychological counselling techni%ues to learning is kno$n as #ounselling 1earning. #o unity 1anguage 1earning represents the use of #ounselling"learning theory to teach languages. In #o unity 1anguage 1earning the ai is to involve the learner,s $hole personality. 2ffective and intellectual $ell"being is given e%ual $eight. .he teacher is the counsellor $ho gives assistance and support to the learners& $ho are the clients. .he teacher,s role is to 39

understand learners, fears and vulnerabilities as they struggle to aster another language. Cy being sensitive to the learners, fears& the teacher can turn their negative energy of these fears into positive energy and enthusias to learning. .he relationship bet$een the learner and the teacher and a ong the learners the selves& therefore& take on great i portance. .he follo$ing procedures are typical in a #11 class! 1. Translation. 1earners for a s all circle. 2 learner $hispers a essage or a eaning he or she $ants to express. .he teacher translates it into the target language and the learner repeats the teacher,s translation. 2. /roup 0or". 1earners ay engage in different tasks such as s all group discussion on a topic& preparing a conversation& preparing a su ary of a topic for presentation to another group& preparing a story that $ill be presented to the teacher and the rest of the class. 3. 1ecording. (tudents record conversations in the target. 1anguage. 9. Transcription. (tudents transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded for practice and analysis of the linguistic for s. ;. (nalysis. (tudents analyse and study transcriptions of the target language sentences in order to focus on particular lexical usage or on the application of particular gra ar rules <. 1eflection and observation. 1earners reflect and report on their experiences as a class or group. .hey usually consist of expressing feelings"sense of one another& reactions to silence& concern for so ething to say& etc. =. 2istening. (tudents listen to a onologue involving ele ents they ight have elicited or overheard in class interaction. 3;

?. .ree conversation. (tudents engage in free conversation $ith the teacher or $ith other learners. .his ight include discussion of $hat they learned as $ell as feelings they had about ho$ they learned. 1ike the (ilent Way& #11 is a ethod $hich $orks best in s all groups and $hich re%uires special training for its teachers. It also includes useful principles $hich can easily be i ple ented during the lessons. Gou can lo$er the stress of your students by aking your goals and expectations clear& by coaching your students in exa ination strategies& and by providing lively activities $hich ake learning funny. #11 encourages learners to produce their o$n aterials. /elping the students to $rite their stories $hich are then published in the school aga0ine& organi0ing the to $rite and act plays or skits& and developing pro+ect $ork& the teacher ay acco plish t$o goals! to give students a sense of o$nership and pride and to sidestep the proble of trying to teach $ith fe$ or inade%uate textbooks. Suggestope#ia (uggestopedia is a ethod developed by the Culgarian psychiatrist educator 8eorgi 1o0anov. (uggestopedia is a specific set of learning reco endations derived fro Suggestolog'"a study concerned with the systematic study of the nonrational and3or nonconscious influences that human beings are constantly responding to. 1o0anov believes that the po$er of suggestion5learning a foreign language successfully6 is in desuggestion5lo$ering students, psychological barriers to learning6. /e has developed the process of HdesuggestionI $hich is designed to pro ote a relaxed fra e of ind and to convert learners, fear into 3<

positive energy and enthusias for language learning. (o before $e suggest& $e ust desuggest a lot. *istinguishing features! In (uggestopedia great attention is paid to environ ent. .he seating is as co fortable as possible& the light is not harsh& Caro%ue usic plays on the background. #olourful posters and charts are pinned on the $all. .he posters sho$ attractive sights in the target language country. .he charts contain gra atical infor ation $hich in causal readings the students $ill absorb $ithout conscious effort. .his is called peripheral learning. .he (uggestopedia teacher,s tone is al$ays cal as students are reassured that language learning is easy and fun. .he (uggestopedia lesson consists of three stages! 1. *eciphering"the teacher introduces the gra ar and the vocabulary. 2. #oncert session"that is divided into t$o substages a6 active"the teacher reads the text at a nor al speed and students follo$7 b6 passive"the students relax& close their eyes and listen to the teacher reading the text cal ly. Music is played in the background. .he left colu n of the text is given in the target language7 the right colu n is in students, other tongue. c6 Elaboration" students finish $hat they have learned $ith dra as& songs and ga es. -or ho e$ork& the students are asked to read the text +ust before going to bed and on getting up in the orning. .he teacher leads the class in role play& %uestion and ans$er and other activities based on the text. *uring these activities students are invited to use their i agination and to take on ne$ na es and ne$ personalities in the target language. .hey are encouraged 3=

to visuali0e the selves as successful people in their ne$ identities $ith exciting +obs and good standing in the society. /aving described briefly so e of the ethods of teaching English as a foreign language& $e ay conclude that no one is sufficient on its o$n. Whiled teaching& different learning styles should be taken in consideration7 especially those you feel $orking best $ith your students in different surroundings. .he ain thing is that your students should be interested in learning the language.

1N$T $$: ST12Y$N/ 0AN/1A/E SYSTEM Topics: 1. .eaching 1istening 2. .eaching (peaking 3. .eaching :eading 9. .eaching Writing ;. .eaching 'ronunciation <. .eaching 3ocabulary =. .eaching 8ra ar ?. .eaching $ith 3ideo TEAC-$N/ 0$STEN$N/

3?

1istening skills are very i portant in language learning as $e cannot develop speaking skills unless $e also develop listening ones7 to have a successful conversation learners ust understand $hat is said to the . .he language ay be also listened to $hile $atching fil s& listen to radio progra s or $hile listening to foreign visitors. .o develop this ability& learners need plenty of practice in listening to English at a nor al speed. In real life $e listen to a variety of things starting $ith radio and usic and finishing $ith lectures& talks& instructions& directions& announce ents& conversations& debates& stories& +okes& sounds like footsteps& laughter& screa ing& telephone rings& etc. Why do $e listen? We ay listen for infor ation& for pleasure& for feedback& attitudes& turn"taking& testing. 1istening involves ore skills and these are! phone e discri ination& $ord recognition& identification of stress& intonation& predict and infer the develop ent of essage& processOchallenge ongoing essage& creativeO active perception and linguistic kno$ledge. 2na 8orea distinguishes t$o types of listening! a4casual listening"listening $ith no particular purpose5for exa ple listening to the radio $hile doing ho e$ork6 b4 focused listening"listening for a particular purpose& to find out the infor ation that $e need to kno$5for exa ple listening to a piece of ne$s on the radio& listening to so eone explaining ho$ to operate a achine& or to do so e +ob6. In this situation $e listen uch ore closely. Dere y /ar er proposes t$o other types of listening! 3@

a4 extensive listening" $here the teacher encourages his students to choose for the selves $hat they listen to and to do so for pleasure and general language i prove ent. It $ill usually take place outside the classroo & in the students, ho e& car or on personal stereos as they travel fro a place to another. b4 intensive listening 4listening to taped aterial during the lesson at the teacher,s choice or provided by the coursebook. If the teacher decides to give students a listening task it is necessary to take the follo$ing steps! 1. prepare the students for $hat they are going to hear7 2. never ask the students +ust to listen7 3. ake sure the tasks you ask students to do are realistic and varied as possible7 9. introduce the topic5predict $hat it is going to be about67 ;. pre"teach the vocabulary7 <. give guiding %uestions before listening7 =. divide5if necessary6 the listening into stages! first step5listen for ain idea only& to ans$er the guiding %uestions& this helps to focus on ain points67 second step5listen for details6. ?. vary the %uestion types you use $ith the students7 @. train the students not to expect to understand every $ord they hear7 1A. vary the types of listening5tapes& videos& teacher& other students& visitors& conversations& announce ents& songs& ne$s broadcasts& $eather forecasts& poe s& etc.6. If the teacher uses recorded aterial& he ust ake sure that the %uality of tapes is good& that the recorder functions $ell& that there is electric po$er in the classroo $hen he intends to use it. 9A

.here are so e advantages and disadvantages in using intensive listening! a6 advantages! " variety of voices& native speakers7 "recorded aterial is useful for listening to dialogues& intervie$s7 "the cassette can be stopped and played back7 " taped aterials are extre ely portable and readily available7 " ost coursebooks include listening exercises& cassettes& and tapescripts. b6 disadvantages! " in classroo s $ith bad acoustics listening ay be difficult7 "listening is ore difficult as there is no eye contact& no clues& no gestures& no lip ove ent7 "everybody has to listen at the sa e speed& a speed dictated by the tape& not by the listeners7 .ypes of 1istening .asks 8ood listening exercises are characteri0ed by the follo$ing! " provide interesting content7 " include listening preparation7 " offer visual support7 " encourage $hole" essage listening7 " encourage listening for specific details7 " co unicate real eaning7 " re%uire listener response .ony 1ynch in H1isteningI proposes the follo$ing listening tasks! 1isten and do *uring or after listening students are asked to perfor so e non"linguistic actions! nu bering a dra$ing& 91

co pleting a ap& ordering ite s in a list& ite s& labelling& ticking. 1isten and do nothing 1isten to a story or a poe .

atching

1isten and follo$ Matching $hat students hear $ith a visual. (tudents ay have a ap or a picture and have to follo$ a route according to the tape. 1isten and respond 2ffective response. (tudents listen and are then asked $hether they likedOdisliked the text& $ho they sy pathi0ed $ith& etc. 1isten and ans$er (tudents have to find ans$ers to %uestions! trueOfalse& Wh"%uestions& ultiple choice& etc. 1isten and co pare 1istening for5dissi ilarities& bet$een t$o5or ore6 language inputs like +igsa$ listening or a ix of print and tape aterials5 for exa ple radio and press reports on ain incident6. 1isten and co plete 8ap"filling. #lo0e type exercises7 listening clo0e5$ith $ords6 asked by noise. 1isten and predict 'artial text provided and students have to anticipate the next ove or outco e. What $ill Mrs. E say next? /o$ $ill Mr. G respond? /o$ $ill the story end? 92

1isten and correct (tudents have a printed text $hich they alter to spoken version.

atch the

1isten and $rite (tudents take notes as they listen in order to prepare a su ary or to reach agree ent as to $hat $as said. 1isten and discuss Bsing tape as infor ation source for oral interaction *eduction or assess ent of infor ation& proble " solving& etc. 1isten and react Expressing value +udge ents. (tudents are asked to evaluate opinions given or actions described on tape. -or exa ple! *id E do the right thing? Pre60istening Activities Pre60istening is the period of ti e before the teacher presses the button HplayI on the tape" recorder or before the aterial is read. .he teacher ust prepare very $ell if he $ants to hive students a listening task. Mr. Bnder$ood in H.eaching 1isteningI 51@?@6 suggests the follo$ing pre"listening activities! 5loo"ing at pictures and tal"ing about them 5loo"ing at a list of items3thoughts 5ma"ing lists of possibilities3ideas, suggestions, etc. 5reading a text 5reading through questions 6to be answered while listening4 5labelling 5completing part of a chart 93

5predicting3speculating 5pre5listening language 5informal teacher tal" and class discussion. 7"ile60istening Activities While"listening is the period of ti e that begins $hen the teacher starts reading so ething to students or $hen he presses the button HplayI and ends $hen he presses the button IstopI or finishes reading so ething to students. /ere are so e $hile"listening activities! 5mar"ing3chec"ing items in pictures 5matching pictures with what is heard 5storyline picture sets 5putting pictures in order 5completing pictures 5picture drawing 5carrying out actions 5ma"ing models3arranging items in pictures 5following a route 5completing grills 5form3chart completion 5labelling 5using lists listing 5true3false 5multiple5choice questions 5text completion6gap5filling4 5spotting mista"es 5predicting 5see"ing specific items of information 5extending lists 5sequencing3grading 5matching with a reading text 5extending notes into written responses 99

5summari7ing 5using information for problem solving and decision ma"ing activities 58igsaw listening 5identifying relationships between spea"ers 5establishing the mood3 attitude3 behaviour of the spea"er. Post60istening Activities 'ost"listening is the period of ti e after the teacher presses the button HstopI or finishes reading to students. /ere are so e post"listening activities! "role"playOsi ulation7 "dictation7 "su ari0ing7 "reproduction7 "decision" aking activities. TEAC-$N/ SPEA8$N/ (peaking as a kill has e erged as a need to express one,s thoughts& feelings& experience. .his infor ation exchange takes place $hen there is so ething that one person does not kno$ and $ants to find out& and that is $hy he or she is asking a %uestion. We can say that a person has a Hco unicative needI. 3ery often $e talk in order to tell people things they do not kno$& or to find things out fro other people. .he speaking skill i plies t$o characteristics! b6fluency5 the ability to speak at a nor al speed& not too %uickly& not too slo$ly.

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.he ability to speak fluently presupposes not only a kno$ledge of language features but also the ability to process infor ation and language Hon the spotI. 2 ong the ele ents of spoken production& are the follo$ing! 1. Connecte# speec": effective speakers of English need to be able not only to produce individual phone es of English5as in saying I $ould have gone6& but also to use fluent Hconnected speechI 5as in I,d,ve gone6. In connected speech sounds are odified5assi ilation6& o itted5elision6& added5linking r6& or $eakened5through contractions and stress patterning6. 2. E9pressive #evices: native speakers of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances& vary volu e and speed& and sho$ by other non"verbal eans ho$ they are feeling. .hey allo$ the extra expression of e otion and intensity. . 0e9is an# grammar: spontaneous speech is arked by the use of a nu ber of co on lexical phrases& especially in the perfor ance of certain language functions. .eachers should therefore supply a variety of phrases for different functions such as agreeing or disagreeing& expressing surprise& shock& or approval. :. Negotiation language: effective speaking benefits fro the negotiatory language $e use to seek clarification and to sho$ the structure of $hat $e are saying. We often need to ask for clarification $hen $e are listening to so eone else talk. 2 useful thing teachers can do is to offer the phrases like '9m sorry ' didn9t quite catch that, '9m sorry, ' don9t understand, &ould you explain that again, please:. When speakers do not kno$ a $ord or +ust cannot re e ber it& they ay e ploy so e or all of the strategies to resolve the difficulty they are encountering! 9<

1. $mprovising: speakers so eti es try any $ord or phrase that they can co e up $ith in the hope that it is about right. (uch i provisations so eti es $ork& but they can also obscure eaning. 2. 2iscar#ing: $hen speakers si ply cannot find $ords for $hat they $ant to say& they ay discard the thought that they cannot put into $ords. . Foreignising: $hen operating in a foreign language& speakers so eti es choose a $ord in a language they kno$ $ell5such as their first language6 and JforeigniseI it in the hope that it $ill be e%uivalent to the eaning they $ish to express in the foreign language. :. Parap"rasing: speakers so eti es paraphrase& talking about so ething for cleaning the teeth if they do not kno$ the $ord toothbrush & or saying that they are not happy $ith so ebody $hen they $ant to say that they are really fed up. (uch lexical substitution or circu locution gets any speakers out of trouble& though it can ake co unication longer and ore convoluted. Cesides the strategies entioned above& there is another factor that has an i pact upon good speakers, productive abilities. .hese are rapid processing skills that talking necessitates! 1. 0anguage processing: effective speakers need to be able to process language in their o$n heads and put it into coherent order so that it co es out in for s that are not only co prehensible& but also convey the eanings that are intended. 2. $nteracting )it" ot"ers: ost speaking involves interaction $ith one or ore participants. .his eans that effective speaking also involves a good deal of listening an understanding of ho$ the other participants 9=

are feeling& and a kno$ledge of ho$ linguistically to take turns or allo$ others to do so. . On6t"e6spot in*ormation processing: %uite apart fro our response to others, feelings& $e also need to be able to process the infor ation the o ent $e get it. .he longer the pause bet$een the infor ation is got and the response is for ulated& the less effective $e are as instant co unicators. /o$ever& it should be re e bered that this instant response is very culture" specific& and is not pri0ed by speakers in any other language co unities. .he classroo interaction $hile teaching speaking can be of t$o types! teac"er controlle# and learner #irecte#. When it is teac"er controlle# it gives students practice in gra ar and vocabulary 5accuracy wor"6. 0earner #irecte# is putting the stress on fluency through a co bination of pair $ork and group $ork. It is i portant that students benefit fro either $ork. Accurac' activities can be controlled by the teacher and done by the $hole class5with such activities li"e$ drills, games, controlled conversation, listening, writing6 or directed by the learners and done in groups and pairs5 with such activities li"e$ exercises, controlled conversation, role play, games, questionnaires, listening, writing6. Fluenc' activities can be controlled by the teacher and done by the $hole class6 with activities li"e$ conversation, discussion, simulation, games, story5 telling, listening, writing6 or directed by the learners and done in groups or pairs5with activities li"e$ discussion, games, role play, pro8ect wor", debate, listening, reading, writing6. Communicative activities 9?

.here are any available $ays of aking learners speak. 2 $onderful one is to practice using pictures. 'ictures ay serve as an endless source of talking. /ere are so e activities that ay i prove learners, speaking skills! 1. Pre#ict t"e picture Gou ay tell your learners that you have a picture but don,t sho$ it to the . Gou only say that there is a an& a $o an and a train in the picture. .he learners ust find out exactly $hat the picture is about by asking %uestions. Gou can ans$er only GesO Fo %uestions& but you can help by giving hints5for ex! you still don9t "now where the train is6. 2fter that you can dra$ the picture on the board as the students describe it. 2nd then sho$ the real one. With senior learners you ake take a ore co plicated picture& sho$ it to the class for an instant& then ask %uestions of the type $ 0here do you thin" the action ta"es place: 0hat have you seen in the picture: Everybody is given the opportunity to say $hat he thinks he sa$ in the picture. 2fter everybody gave his opinion sho$ the picture to the class and describe it& letting the learners give their opinions of $hat they think it suggests. 2. Put t"e pictures in or#er .his is a very interesting $ay of aking learners talk. .here should be a series of pictures connected by the sa e content& each picture sho$ing a different action. .hey are cut separately and each student gets one. .hey shouldn,t sho$ the pictures to each other. (tudents take turns in describing $hat they see in their pictures. When one student talks& the rest ust listen attentively as latter they $ill have to decide on the correct se%uence of the actions. When everybody finished describing& students 9@

get engaged in discussing $hat in their opinion& ight be the correct se%uence& they ay ask any %uestions& but they ustn,t sho$ the pictures yet. When they believe they reach a final decision& they put the pictures face up in the se%uence they have decided upon. *uring the activity the teacher is silent& though the teacher should foresee $hat vocabulary the students ight need and present the $ords beforehand. In the end the teacher ay give the glue. .he ost i portant thing about such an activity is that everybody has the chance to participate in the discussion. 8uessing is not central though. It,s a $onderful $ay of practicing gra ar& such as 'resent 'rogressive& 'resent 'erfect& etc. . Spot t"e #i**erences -or this activity it is necessary to have t$o identical pictures but $hich contain so e slight differences in the & it ay be the colour& a issing button& a different position& etc. .he teacher should have enough copies of pictures for each pair of learners. )ne student $ill ask %uestions& and the other $ill ans$er the until all the differences are spot. It,s good to tell learners initially ho$ any differences they have to find. :. Complete t"e #ra)ing It,s a good activity especially for learning the use of prepositions& things in a flat& pieces of furniture& etc. .$o students have the sa e dra$ings of a roo for exa ple $ith the difference that in one picture is placed and in the other there is no furniture. Cy asking %uestions the student that has the e pty picture roo ust guess $here it stands and co plete his dra$ing& so that it is identical $ith the other student,s. ;A

;. P"otos 2ny photos can also serve as eans of developing speech habits. .hey ay be photos of learners, fa ilies& old photos $ith their grandparents& etc. .hey ay speak about the people in the & the $ay they look like& the $ay they are dressed& $hat relations are a ong the & $hen the photo $as taken& $hat $as the occasion& etc. <. /uessing 8uessing is a perfect $ay of aking learners ask %uestions and practice gra ar. .he teacher& ay for exa ple $ant the learners to repeat asking general %uestions in the 'ast (i ple .ense. .he teacher says! ;esterday ' went somewhere and ' did something. /uess where ' went and what ' did. 1earners take turns in asking %uestions of the type! H#id you go to the mar"et: #id you go to the hospital: .he teacher ight have thought that she $ent to the bank to pay so e bills. If students guess %uickly the activity ight be continued by asking ho$ the teacher $ent to the bank. H#id you go by bus: #id you go by bi"e: .he activity ay be often repeated and students the selves have the role of the ones $ho think of so ething to be guessed. =. /uess )"o $ am> 2 student ay think that heOshe is a fa ous person and the rest ask %uestions of the type! (re you dead or alive: (re you <nglish: (re you a writer: Bntil they guess $ho the person pretended to be is. ?. Miming Mi ing is another $ay of guessing especially $hen practicing 'resent 'rogressive. )ne student i es an ;1

activity and the rest have to guess the situation! opening a can& changing the light bulb& etc. @. 1n*inis"e# sentences It,s a source of beginning a conversation. (tudents are given a list $ith unfinished sentences and picking any at their choice they have to develop it into a discussion. .he sentences ight be co posed according to the age& pupils, abilities and the taught topics. 1A. Fin# someone )"oB .his kind of conversation i plies oving too& getting a list of suggested actions students have to $alk round the class talking to the class ates and find t$o other people $ho do the activities suggested in the list. 11. 7"o scores more> .he class ay be divided into t$o groups and asked to fill out a list of different things that begin $ith the sa e letter of the alphabet. .hat ay be the na e of an insect& a kind of sport& an ob+ect& an article of clothing& an ani al or bird& a to$n& a eans of transport& a colour. If both groups na e the sa e $ord& each gets one point& if they na e different things& they get t$o points. In the end the total nu ber of points is counted and the $inner is announced. .he success of the speaking activities $ill greatly depend on the teacher,s abilities of organi0ing the $ork. (peaking activities should be practiced as often as possible. (peaking ay be also done on the basis of a reading or a listening activity& even $riting.

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.ea hing 1ronun iation Topic: %. =ronunciation issues. =ronunciation difficulties. ). 0hen to teach pronunciation ton. 1. 1ronun iation issues& 2l ost all English language teachers get the students to study gra ar and vocabulary& practise functional dialogues& take part in productive skill activities& and beco e co petent in listening and reading. Get so e of these teachers ake little atte pt to teach pronunciation. /o$ever& the fact that so e students are able to ac%uire reasonable pronunciation $ithout specific pronunciation classes and exercises should not blind us to the benefit of a focus on pronunciation in our lessons. 'ronunciation teaching not only akes students a$are of different sounds& but can also i prove their speaking i easurable. 2. 1ronun iation diffi ulties and !ro"le$s& .$o particular proble s occur in uch pronunciation teaching and learning! " What students can hear! so e students have great difficulty features $hich $e $ant to reproduce. (peakers of different first languages have proble s $ith different Englipeaking sh sounds 5ObO7 OvO7 OPO7 OQO6 they don,t have in their native language. .here are t$o $ays of dealing $ith this! in the first place $e can sho$ students ho$ sounds are ade through de onstration& diagra s& and explanation. Cut $e can also dra$ the sounds to their attention every ti e ;3

they appear on tape or in our conversation. When they can hear correctly they are on the $ay to being able to speak correctly. " .he intonation proble ! for the ost teachers the ost proble atic area of pronunciation is intonation. (o e of us find it extre ely difficult to hear HtunesI or to identity the patterns of rising and falling tones. .he fact that $e ay have difficulty recogni0ing specific teaching does not ean that $e should abandon intonation teaching altogether. )ne of our tasks is to give the students opportunities to recognise oods and intentions either on tape& or through the $ay $e odel ourselves to the . 3. When to tea h !ronun iation& .eachers have to decide $hen to teach pronunciation into a lesson se%uence. " 0hole lessons! aking pronunciation the ain focus of a lesson does not ean that every inute of the lesson has to be spent on pronunciation $ork. (o eti es students ay also listen to a longer tape& $orking on listening skills before oving to the pronunciation part of the se%uence. (o eti es students can $ork on vocabulary before going on to $ork on $ord stress& sounds& and spelling. " #iscrete slots$ so e teachers insert short& separate bits of pronunciation $ork into a lesson se%uence. )ver a period of $eeks they $ork on all the individual phone es either separately or in contrasting pairs. 2t other ti es they spend a fe$ inutes on a particular aspect of intonation& say& or on the contrast bet$een t$o or ore sounds. 5'ntegrated phrases$ $hen $e odel $ords and phrases $e dra$ our students, attention to the $ay they are said7 one of the things $e $ant to concentrate on during an ;9

accurate reproduction stage is the students, correct pronunciation. 1resenting -o a"ular* .opics! 1. 'resenting vocabulary. 2. *eveloping a variety of techni%ues for the teaching vocabulary. 3. 3ocabulary expansion. %. =resenting vocabulary. .he develop ent of an ability to co unicate in English ust be a a+or goal of any effective course or lesson. -or any approach to $ork& certain conditions are essential& such as dyna ic lessons and otivation. In this chapter $ill be discussed about the i portance of vocabulary in co unication or expressing certain infor ation and the need to give ade%uate attention in teaching its ite s, eanings. In spite of the fact that for any years vocabulary $as neglected& the odern hu an experience sho$ed that really teaching vocabulary involves ore kno$ledge and skill than any teachers think. -or this reason& this chapter is ade up to dra$ teachers, attention $hile teaching vocabulary at the $ords eaning& their use in co unication& their pronunciation and spelling and to suggest $ays of dealing $ith the " shorter saying" ho$ can vocabulary be understood and presented. .his chapter provides an overvie$ of linguistic approaches to the analysis of the English vocabulary syste and uses insights fro this analysis to develop principles for the learning and teaching of vocabulary. "(ay the $ord clearly and $rite it on the board. "8et the class to repeat the $ord in chorus. ".ranslate the $ord into the learners, o$n language. "2sk the learners to translate the $ord. ;;

"*ra$ a picture to sho$ $hat the $ord eans. "8ive an English exa ple to sho$ ho$ to the $ord is used in context. "2sk %uestions using the $ord. .o teach the eaning of a $ord is best in a context and can be introduced by sho$ing real ob+ects such as H$indo$I& HdoorI& etc. Fe$ $ords ay be introduced by sho$ing pictures& $hich ay be dra$n on the board& such as HtreeI7 Hco$I7 HtractorI etc. or found in books and aga0ines. (o eti es $ords ay be presented by i ing& using actions and facial expressions& such as Hsnee0eI& Hstu bleI& and Hs ileI. Words ay be presented in a context. -or exa ple! +ouses are buildings. This school is also a building. (o eti es it is easier to introduce a ne$ $ord in a si ple sentence instead of giving co plicated explanations. 2 co bination of techni%ues is also good to sho$ the eaning of a $ord. .o introduce the $ord Hs ileI $e ay dra$ a picture& use the facial expression. Bsing pictures is interesting and learners can re e ber $ords easily. -acial expression give eaning clearly. A ti-e and 1assi-e 5o a"ular* It is a good idea for teachers to ake often a distinction bet$een Jactive, and Jpassive, vocabulary $hile teaching it. 'assive reffers to vocabulary $hich can be recognised $hen encountered& in a text for ex ple& but $hich the learner cannot easily produce in speech or $riting as active vocabulary. /o$ever& this is too si ple ;<

a characterisation of language learning. .here are $ords $hich learners can re e ber or reactualise fro e ory and use the auto atically. .here are other for $hich learners experience a Jtip of the tongue effect,& recalling so ething of the $ord but not its precise for . Get other $ords exist in the e ory but prove difficult to recall. 1et consider learners, other tongue& for instance. .here $ill be ite s $hich learners are able to recognise and understand& but $hich they find difficult to recall or do not kno$ sufficiently $ell to use accurately.3A .here can be other ite s $hich learners understand& but do not use& perhaps because they occur in contexts or types of discourse $hich are alien to the . In the language learning situation& ust be stressed the i portance of decision" aking by the teacher about $hich ite s are $orth learning for productive use and $hich are only useful for purposes of recognition. .his decision" aking has several i plications7 the teacher $ill need to select $hat he feels $ill be ost relevant for the students, productive vocabulary and this& in turn& $ill affect his treat ent of those ite s in the classroo . #learly& the teacher has a great responsibility since his kno$ledge of the co plexities and usefulness of the ite s is likely to be superior to the students, kno$ledge. Fevertheless& the learner ay be in a uch stronger position to decide $hether an ite is $orth ac%uiring productively. 31 It is also $orth stating at this point that the learner $ho perceives the vital personal relevance of an ite ay $ell ac%uire it $hether the teacher pays great attention to it or not. #onversely& the learner ay consciously or subconsciously re+ect ite s $hich the teacher is trying to teach hi . ;=

3ery often this transition of an ite fro a student,s receptive 5passive6 vocabulary to his productive 5active6 one is a gradual process. :epeatedly hearing or reading the ite over a period of ti e is often the ost co on $ay in $hich this transition takes place. In the classroo & teachers ay at ti es be atte pting to speed up this process by J aking an issue, of the ite ! thus clarifying its eaning and for and encouraging controlled practice. *ividing vocabulary into productive and receptive categories in this $ay ay see rather artificial and indeed in any cases the decisions to be ade are by no eans clear" cut. Fonetheless it see s useful to bear the distinction in ind and to strive to$ards selectivity based on the students, needs and learning environ ent. (ince vocabulary consists of a series of interrelating syste s and is not +ust a rando collection of ite s& there see s to be a clear case for presenting ite s to a student in a syste atised anner $hich $ill both illustrate the organised nature of vocabulary and at the sa e ti e enable hi to internalise the ite s in a coherent $ay. (e antic field& or& as they are co only called in pedagogical ter s& lexical sets& are ade up of sets se antically si ilar ite s. .hese fields ay range fro very broad categories& such as Jlife and living things, to s aller areas such as Jkinds of an, 5e.g. an& gentle an& fello$6 or Jkinship relations, 5e.g. son& daughter6& and clearly the sa e ite $ill occur in different fields. JMan, ay occur in a se antic field $ith Jtypes of servant, or Jhu an gender,. -ro the teacher,s point of vie$& too& any of the groupings listed bello$ are convenient. 1exical sets& for exa ple& for useful Jbuilding blocks, and can be revised and expanded as ;?

learners progress7 they often provide a clear context for practice as $ell. .he groupings bello$ consists of different types of se antic fields as $ell as phonological and gra atical sets.32 #learly& so e groupings are ore appropriate at certain levels that at others. Ite$s related "* to!i )ne of the ost co on and useful groupings found in course books e.g. types of fruit& articles of clothing& living roo furniture& etc. Ite$s 6hi h are si$ilar in $eaning .hese are ite s $hich are easily confused e.g. pretty& lovely& attractive. 2lso to be included $ithin this grouping are co only taught sets such as J$ays of $alking, 5e.g. li p& tiptoe& a ble& etc.6 or J$ays of looking, 5e.g. peer& s%uint& glance& stare& etc.6. .his type of group needs to be handled extre ely carefully7 the ite s need to be contextualised properly& and it is vital to highlight to learners the differences bet$een ite s as clearly as possible. )ne co on danger is that grouping ite s in this $ay ay force teachers into including ite s of different levels of usefulness or fre%uency. Ite$s 6hi h for$ 7!airs8 .hese can be synony s& contrasts and Jopposites, e.g.oldO ne$& buyO sell& lendOborro$& obstinateO stubborn. #ontextualisation is essential here. Ite$s along a s ale or line9 6hi h illustrate differen es of degree -or exa ple describing an essay" excellentO very goodO goodO satisfactoryO $eak hu an age" a childO a teenagerO an adult

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.he eaning of ite s $ithin a scale or cline is obviously relative7 for exa ple& a hot day is not the sa e as a hot furnace& but this rarely causes confusion in context. Ite$s 6ithin 76ord fa$ilies8 It is often possible to group ite s of vocabulary to illustrate the principles of $ord building& the eanings of prefixes and suffixes and the related phonological difficulties! e.g. biology" biologist" biological psychology" psychologist" psychological or pleasant" unpleasant helpful" unhelpful friendly" unfriendly Ite$s grou!ed "* :a; gra$$ati al si$ilarit* and :"; notional si$ilarit* .his can be particularly useful at lo$er levels $hen dealing $ith areas such as adverbs of fre%uency or prepositions& but ay be +ust as relevant at later levels to group together nouns $ith irregular plurals& or $ords expressing probability or possibility 5e.g. .here is a good chance thatK& /e,s likely toK& It,s bound toK6. Ite$s 6hi h onne t dis ourse .here are a variety of different types of connectives $hich act as Jsignposts, in discourse and can be grouped and treated as lexical ite s. .he grouping of sentence adverbials used in listing& for exa ple& could include Jto begin $ith,& Jin the second place,& Jlast of all,. In a si ilar type of grouping& one ight find ite s such as Junless,& Jother$ise,& Jor else,& Jprovided 5that6, $hich are related in that they i pose so e for of condition. 2dverbs ending in JR ly, 5e.g. unfortunately& happily& surprisingly6 are also i portant connectives& but ay not cause as uch difficulty as the exa ples above e.g. /e <A

ran out of cash. -ortunately& he had his 2 erican Express card $ith hi . .his is an extre ely i portant area since an understanding of these Jsignposts, is vital in co prehension& and unless they are understood& contextual guess$ork ay beco e al ost i possible. Ite$s for$ing a set of idio$s or $ulti< 6ord -er"s #ertain sets of ulti" $ord verbs or idio s can for coherent groups e.g. to ring up& to call up& to get through& to ring back7 out of sorts& under the $eather& on top of the $orld. Ite$s grou!ed "* s!elling diffi ult* or !honologi al diffi ult* .his can be approached $ithin a topic area e.g. food vocabulary" enu& pie& vegetable& recipe& tough eat& steak. Ite$s grou!ed "* st*le .his ay be a useful $ay to distinguish bet$een ite s $hich are neutral or collo%uial! cigaretteS ciggy& toiletS loo. (i ilarly to deal $ith Critish and 2 erican English! petrolS gasoline& pave entS side$alk& lorryS truck. It ay therefore be ost useful to see vocabulary kno$ledge as a scale running fro recognition of a $ord at one end to auto atic production at the other& $ith the help of different contexts. /o$ever& kno$ledge of so e $ords $ill re ain at the recognition end of the continuu and $ill be called on in reading and listening but ight never beco e part of learner,s productive ability. .his characterisation of vocabulary kno$ledge is co plicated by the pheno enon of forgetting! this can happen %uite rapidly if distracting activities interrupt <1

effective storing of the $ord& or ore slo$ly if the $ord has been stored in the e ory but it rarely encountered or used. .here are various reasons $hy people re e ber so e $ords better than others! the nature of the $ords the selves& under $hat circu stances they are learnt& the ethod of teaching and so on. %&( TEACHING WRITING& 7riting as a skill is very i portant in teaching and learning a foreign language& first of all& it helps pupils to assi ilate letters and sounds of English language& secondly& because together $ith speaking& listening and reading& for the four language skills $ithout $hich a foreign language cannot be taught. It is i portant for everyone& especially for pupils and students to kno$ ho$ to $rite essays& letters& co positions& dictations. Writing is the result of e ploying strategies to anage the co posing process& $hich is one of gradually developing a text. .hat is $hy& HWriting is a eans of teaching a foreign languageI. It involves a nu ber of activities! setting goals& generating ideas& organi0ing infor ation& setting appropriate language& aking a draft& reading and revie$ing it& then revising and editing. .he $riting process $as recursive and generative& $ith students re" reading their $ork& assessing it& reacting and oving on. Without kno$ing ho$ to $rite& $e $on,t be able even to co unicate $ith people through letters or e" ail. We should kno$ ho$ to $rite correctly a sentence& because in English there is a specific structure of $riting a sentence. It the 1@=A,s the interest developed that second language $riters actually do as they $rite& otivated largely by a belief that if $e $ish to influence and i prove the <2

outco es of $riting for our learners& then $e need to understand ho$ a piece of $riting co es into being. 2 big concern of researchers into second language $riting has been to identify these ental operations& and a nu ber of research ethods have been used to do this! intervie$s& observation& audio and video recording. .he $riting process $as recursive and generative& $ith pupils re"reading their $ork& assessing it& reacting& and oving on. .he greatest disadvantage of teaching $riting is that any pupils hate the $riting process. (o e of the think that it is not so i portant to $rite an infor ation or an exercise in their copybooks. -ro their point of vie$& it is easier to circle the correct ans$er in their books& or to try to e ori0e $hat teacher says than to put do$n the infor ation. Many pupils think that $riting takes a long ti e to be taught and beginning $ith the first steps in studding a foreign language& teachers should kno$ ho$ to attract pupils, attention and to ake the rules easier to be understood. 'upils learn to $rite letters& $ords& and sentences in the target language ore successfully if the understand $hat they $rite& have good patterns to follo$& and ake a lot of atte pts in $riting $hat they are satisfied that the $ork is $ell done. .he ost i portant thing is that $e should teach pupils depending on their age& interests and level. We can identify the range of $ritten products that any particular group of pupils needs. -or exa ple& in English the convention and stile of for al and infor al letters differ& and both ay differ in for at and style fro letters $ritten in the pupils, native language. 2nd any pupils en+oy the change to be creative $ith $riting. We can give beginners to $rite si ple poe s& inter ediate <3

learners $e can give a dictation& and for advanced learners it is better to $rite an essay. -irst of all& before $riting an essay $e should take into account the four stages of $riting an essay $hich are! 're$riting& Writing& :evision and 'ublishing. .on 7"ite and ,alerie Arn#t $ant to stress Hthat $riting is re"$riting7 that re"vision 4 seeing $ith ne$ eyes 4 has a central role to play in the act of creating textI.3 Ceginning $ith 're$riting& $e have to be sure that $e have chosen the right the e for the right person or a group of pupils& because $e cannot give the beginners the sa e the es $e give to advanced learners. .he reason is that the beginners don,t have a sufficient rich vocabulary to ake a good essay $hich can be $ritten by the advanced learners. 2nd again& $e cannot give to the four grade pupils the sa e the es as $e give to seven& ten& or t$elve grades pupils. *iscussing $ith pupils& teachers have to find an interesting the e for the essay. -or exa ple& for the four grade teachers can give pupils to $rite a short essay about their best friend& or about their pet. Ceginning $ith the seventh and eighth grades& $e can give pupils the possibility to choose fro such the es as! HMy ideal placeI& or H.he day I $ill never forgetI. Even at these ages 513 4 1;6& pupils don,t have a large experience of life. .hey $ill have to i agine or to think aybe of so ething i possible. -or the eleventh and t$elfth grades the best the es for essays can be! If I $ere illionaire .he diseases of the EE"th century. *rugs. 1et,s analy0e the last one! <9

.he e H*rugsI is too general and it can be difficult for pupils to speak about it& that is $hy teachers can give so e options as! .he relation bet$een infected people and the others. *iseases $hich are connected $ith drugs. 'upils can choose one option given by the teacher or to $rite their o$n subthe es. (o e pupils do very $ell on essays. If they have learned ho$ to read essays %uestions& if they have had experience organi0ing their thoughts %uickly& if they have had %uick editing skills& they $ere likely to succeed. It is good for those pupils $ho are fa iliar $ith these skills& but any pupils& still have no idea of ho$ they should $rite an essay. Many ti es this happens because the %uestions are not clear for pupils and so e of the are asha ed to ask their teacher for explanation. Well 4 constructed essay %uestions often use a series of code $ords that pupils ust understand! describe& discuss& co pare& contrast& explain& co entK..If teachers see that pupils are confused $ith understanding these $ords& they have to explain and analy0e the & by giving exa ples. .he ost co on istake is that al ost all pupils do not taught the the e they have chosen. In this case the help of the teacher is inevitable. When pupils ask %uestions& teachers have to help the . If a pupil do not understand the key 4 $ord describe the teacher have to give so e exa ples $hich involves this ter . .hese the es can be given for little children. *escribe your other,s appearance. *escribe your first day at school.

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Cut if the key 4 $ord is not understood by the 12"th grade pupils& they ay be asha ed to ask for explanation. .he role of the teacher is to be sure that all pupils understand about $hat they have to $rite. If they do not understand the $ord co ent& the teacher has to ask %uestions $hich involves this $ord. -or exa ple& she can ask pupils to co ent on the follo$ing proverbs! Fever put of till to orro$ $hat you can do today. .he proof of the pudding is in the eating 'ractice akes perfect If the teacher sho$s her authority and does not $ant to explain %uestions to pupils& she does nothing instead of creating a barrier bet$een $hole the $hole class and herself. When pupils try to give so e of their ideas& teachers have to support the and to encourage the by saying that their ideas are good. Many studies support the need for active participation by pupils in the $riting class if affective learning is to take place. 'upils have to think of their o$n ideas& to invent& to discover& $rite and analy0e. .hey ust develop the selves so e kind of authority& because $hen pupils $rite about personal experiences& they are the only one $ho really kno$ $hat happened. 2 very en+oyable activity that involves productive skills of $riting and speaking is based on free $riting. 2t the beginning of each lessons the teacher gives pupils not ore than five inutes to $rite everything that co es to their ind in that o ent. It can be si ple $ords& $ord co binations or sentences. 2ll pupils have to start at once and end $hen the teacher says. 2fter the given period of ti e& the teacher asks so e pupils to tell to the <<

rest of the class $hat they had $ritten about. It is very interesting because all pupils think in their o$n $ay and no one of the do not think at the o ent in the sa e $ay. .he contents of their $ritten $ork al ost depends on their ood and feelings& so e of pupils ay $rite about $hat they $ant to eat7 another& $here they $ould like to go7 others& of their friends and fa ily. (o e pupils ay be shy to read $hat they have $ritten& but the teacher has to encourage the . 2nother kind of exercises that involves the $riting process is dictations. In a $ay& dictations are difficult for those pupils $ho do not have enough kno$ledge in $ords spelling that is $hy dictations cannot be given to the beginners. *ictations are a valuable exercise because it trains the ears as $ell as the eyes& it fixes in the pupils, ind the part of each sentence pattern& because the teacher dictates a text part by part. *ictations can be of different for s and the $ay they are conducted. It can be visual dictations& dictation drill& self 4 dictations. 2fter a long studding of istakes ade in dictations& the teacher can give those tests. Cut in testing pupils, skills in $riting the teacher should use those kinds of $ork $ith $hich pupils are used and $hich they can do because they ust be $ell prepared before they begin to $rite the test. Each pupil should feel pride in a $ay $hen they are co pleting tests. Whenever pupils are $riting& the teacher can $alk round the class& looking $hat pupils are doing and putting a dot at the end of those lines that contain istakes. .he pupils have to find istakes and correct the . 2ny$ay& the progress in $riting a foreign language is possible in condition that pupils have enough preparation for $riting& because it is i possible to teach <=

so eone the rules of $riting if heOshe does not have the ele entary kno$ledge of $riting. In order not to create a dislike fro pupils, side& the teacher has to use so e visuals and odern technology& and to explain ho$ they influence the $riting process. Tea hing S!ea'ing S'ills 'eople usually $hen they $ant to study a foreign language are classified in three levels& &eginners+ interme#iate and a#vance# learners. 2ll these stages have their specific characteristics. .eachers have to be sure that they teach exactly the specific level& because all ethodologies& topics differ fro one level to another one. .eachers should kno$ that so e techni%ues and exercises that are $elco e for beginners are less good for pupils at high levels. -or exa ple& teachers find %uite effective to get beginner pupil to repeat sentences in chorus& but advanced learners $ho already kno$ the rules of reading& $ill never repeat so e sentences in chorus& or +ust for fun. With advanced learners& teachers can organi0e debates& discussions around different topics. It is i portant to atch topic to the level& reserving difficult the es for inter ediate and advanced learners. .eachers also have to take into account the age and interest of pupils. Fot al$ays a beginner is ten or t$elve years old& but heOshe ay be of sixteen or seventeen. 'eople of different age have different needs& co petencies. .hen the teacher has to find the corresponding $ay to teach English. 2 teenage can have different interests than a little girl ay have. 2nd $e <?

have to kno$ that beginners are not al$ays young learners7 it ay be adults& too. (o e people say that children learn languages faster than adults do. (o ething& ust account for the fact that $ith language& according to Steven Pin%er+ Hac%uisition K is guaranteed for children up to the age of six& is steadily co pro ised fro then until shortly after puberty& and is rare thereafterI&< and that this applies not only to the ac%uisition of the first language& but also to second or foreign language. When pupils go to school& they al ost are of the sa e age& but if they participate at so e co petitions& teachers have to be sure that they are chosen depending on their interests. If not& bet$een e bers of the sa e tea ay appear so e conflicts $hich are not benefice for pupils. 2nother reason that teacher has to take into account is to be sure that all pupils are at the sa e level& because if there is a difference a ong e ber the ore advanced pupils do ost of the talking or are bored& $hile the less advanced pupils are afraid to participate. /opefully& the pupils $ill subse%uently have a chance to participate in conversation practice under ore favorable circu stances. Ceginners. Many people thing that beginners are the ost difficult learners& because they even do not kno$ any rules of $riting sentences and it is also difficult to teach the English. Cut there are beginners $ho are fa iliar $ith so e ele entary gra ar rules& and they kno$ fe$ $ords. In the case if pupils are of little age& then the teacher need to $ork $ith the individually and in groups developing good relationship. .hey need to plan a <@

series of activities for a given period of ti e& and be flexible enough to ove on the next exercise $hen they see their pupils getting bored. It is very good if the teacher uses pictures& vie$s fro nature& if she speaks about trees& plants& ountains& insects& ani als. If the the e of the lesson is fa ily& then the teacher has to present all e bers of the fa ily. .hen to tell pupils to speak about their o$n fa ilies. 3isual aids $ill help not only teacher to explain the the e better& but also pupils to e ori0e easier the ne$ vocabulary. #hildren love to discover things& and because they respond $ell to being asked to use their i agination& they ay $ell be involved in ga es& dialogues. .he best activities for the pupils $ho kno$ ele entary $ords are short dialogues. .he teacher can ask t$o pupils or a s all group to i provise a situation. If t$o pupils are participating& it can be like %uestions 4 ans$ers! Meg. Maria& ho$ old are you? Maria. I a ten years old. 8reat Critain. Meg. Where do you co e fro ? Maria. I co e fro Meg. Maria& do you have a big fa ily? Maria. Ges& I do. 2nd you& Meg& do you have a big fa ily? Meg. Fo& +ust y other and e. If the teacher sees that the rest of the class are getting bored she can invent so ething else that $ill attract pupils attention& because pupils beginners have a need for individual attention and approval fro the =A

teacher. Cut $e do not have to forget the fact that little pupils often learn indirectly rather than directly& because they take in infor ation fro all sides& learning fro everything around the than only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught. )ne type of speaking activity involves the so" called Hinfor ation gapI 4 $here t$o speakers have different parts of infor ation aking up a $hole. Cecause they have different infor ation& $here is a HgapI bet$een the . 2nd one $ell kno$n infor ation 4 gap activity is called H*escribe and *ra$I=. In this activity one pupil has a picture $hich he or she ust not sho$ to hisOher partner. 2ll the partners have to dra$ the picture $ithout looking at the original& so the one $ith the picture $ill give instructions and descriptions& then $ill ask %uestions. 2fter the partner has dra$n the picture heOshe ay invent a story and to try to tell it to the $hole class. 'upils $ho are presenting the story ay kno$ all the $ords in herOhis other tongue& but heOshe eet a lot of proble s $hile expressing hi selfOherself in English. In this case the teacher has to $rite all unkno$n $ords on the blackboard. .his activity has any ele ents of speaking activity. It is highly otivating& there is a real purpose for the co unication taking place& and playing this ga e& the teacher can easily see the level of pupils& even being beginners& so e of the kno$ ore $ords than another. 2lthough& beginners do not have enough kno$ledge in kno$ing the $ords spelling& the teacher can give the short dictations $here she can check they co prehension and of cause& it $ill be also good for =1

pupils. 1ater& $hen they kno$ all the rules& looking at these dictations $ill be a fun for the . $nterme#iate level learners. 2t the inter ediate level& the possibilities of extended conversation practice increases a lot. 'upils try to express the selves in English& they al$ays $ant to be in taught $ith other pupils of the sa e level as they are or aybe $ith the advanced learners. Most teachers think that at the inter ediate level of studding pupils have enough kno$ledge to express their ideas& thoughts& opinions& that is $hy any of the organi0e discussion sessions in their classroo . If pupils change opinions& this $ay of co unications provokes spontaneous fluent language use. .eachers can also& involve pupils in group pro+ects& $hich provide speaking activity during a given task. 2ll pupils need to do is to find a co on the e for discussion. .hen pupils have to find the right e%uip ent to create successful in their o$n right as $ell as in conversation practice. -or exa ple& pupils can organi0e a pro+ect around the the e H 'resents for birthdaysI. .he teacher can give to pupils a list of ne$ $ords used at this occasion. .he pro+ect that provides a lot of aterials for conversations is an i aginary trip to a real to$n in an English 4 speaking country. .he teacher can discuss $ith pupils $here they $ould like to go& social behavior on the trip& safety easures& and so forth. 2nother $ay of teaching speaking at the inter ediate level deals also $ith ne$spaper articles. .he teacher introduces pupils to the $ay ne$spaper articles are constructed and then gets the to $rite their =2

o$n ne$spaper articles. .his activity begins $hen the teacher asks pupils if they read ne$spapers& and $hat they read about. 2fter a short discussion& the teacher gets pupils to atch ne$spaper headlines $ith the stories they brought. 'upils ay be asked to choose one of the topics to think of a short story to go $ith it. .hey $rite the headlines for their stories and $rite the up for the rest of the class to listen to later. .he teacher can suggest change& corrections and notes to the . While the pupils are $riting their articles& the teacher goes round the class offering help if necessary. 2fter everybody ends& the teacher can give pupils the task to present their articles to the rest of the class. 'upils can ask %uestions based on $hat others say& or +ust to listen and to ake notes. A#vance# learners. 2l ost all ne$ teachers $onder of the level of their pupils. -ro the first days they can understand the level of pupils and their interests. It $ill better if before beginning to teach the $hole class heOshe asks so e %uestions about their fa ilies& hobbies& interests. )nly after being in contact $ith pupils& the teacher can see their level. 2dvanced learners are the ost easier to be seen. .hey can express their opinions& can speak fluently and al ost $ithout istakes. Cut even the ost advanced pupil $hen heOshe have a speech in front of a big audience ake istakes. We are all so e$hat nervous $hen $e are asked to speak before a group. In fact& any pupils never get over their fear of public speaking. so e pupils ay rapidly run out of aterial to talk about. In this $ay& the advanced pupil has to be encouraged by =3

hisOher teacher& and after the pupil finished hisOher speech& she can ask class e bers %uestions about $hat heOshe has said& $hile hi Oher has a fe$ inutes to relax. If pupils have reached the advanced level in English& they ay en+oy participating in debates. In order for debates to be successful& the teacher has to ake clear the state ents HproI and HconI. .eachers have to do this to i prove debating skills. 'upils ay speak ore fluently during a debate if they can represent their true feelings in an issue. In order not to appear conflicts bet$een tea s& the teacher has to take into account so e suggestions! 1. Cefore beginning a debate& the teacher has to put all pupils $ho are HproI in one tea and pupils $ho are HconI in another one. 2. .he teacher has to describe clearly the debate topic& and to be sure that all pupils has understood correctly. . .he nu ber of pupils has to be e%ual in both tea s. :. .he teacher has to allo$ pupils sufficient ti e to prepare their argu ents. .hey can speak looking in their notes but not to read the . ;. .ea s have to sit in front of the class to be seen better by everyone. <. .he teacher has to tell pupils to choose a HcaptainI& $ho $ould su ari0e the tea s ideas. =. .he teacher has to stop the debate $hen heOshe sees that the sub+ect is exhausted or if the pupils get involved in heated argu ent.

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8enerally speaking& it is best not to have the audience vote on $hich tea they found ost i pressive since this ight touch on pupils, sensitivities. 2fter ending the debate& the teacher has tell the tea s that they ade a great +ob& and their argu ents $ere good. In a case that not all pupils have participated at the debate& the teacher does not have to na e the & this $ay of telling pupils that they did not take part in the discussion ay inhibit pupils. In such a $ay& the teacher does not do anything then to regress the speaking process. 2ll pupils should be encouraged to express their ideas& thoughts& opinions in oral for . If pupils see the encourage ent fro the teacher,s side& then they $ill try to speak ore than ever. -ro another point of vie$& teachers $ill have participants at their lessons& because all pupils $ill sho$ their interest to$ard the speaking process. It is very difficult to teach a conversation class $here no one $ants to speak& to co unicate $ith the teacher. In this case& both teacher and pupils have to present the interest in aking the process of speaking easier and ore interesting. Tea hing listening Topics: 1. 'urpose for listening 2. *esigning listening activities for the classroo . 1. 'urpose for listening. .he usefulness of the interactional distinction for the teaching of listening lies in appreciation of the range and balance of skills involved in each.

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-or exa ple& in order to function successfully in social s all talk and avoid istakes and gaffes& second language listeners $ill need to appreciate the $ay in $hich the language used by other participants arks levels of fa iliarity and for allty $ithin the group. .his king of listening is also called focused listening. .here is also non"participatory listening& such as listening to a radio talk or conference presentation. 2gain& the skills involved $ill depend on the precise purpose for listening& $hether it is listening to the general content out of curiosity or for en+oy ent or listening to +ot do$n exa ples used by the presenter for one,s o$n professional $ork. .his is casual listening . .he language classroo should help students to develop the listening process described in this section through activities $hich give a range of purpose for listening. 2. *esigning listening activities for the classroo . #reating purpose for listening activities can otivate students. It has beco e standard practice to use the follo$ing procedure $hen dealing $ith a listening text in class7 " pre " listening activities. 2t the pre 4 listening stage& the teacher $ill need to decide $hat king of listening purpose is appropriate to the text. .he learners $ill need to Htune in H to the context and the topic of the text& perhaps express attitudes to$ards that topic certainly bring to the front of their inds anything that they already kno$ about the topic and ost probably hear and use so e of the less fa iliar language 5vocabulary& proper nouns& nu bers& phraseological units&etc.6 2n i portant ob+ective for the pre 4 listening phase is to contextuali0e the text& providing& any info needed to help learners appreciate the =<

setting. (o e topics lend the selves to pre 4 listening activities $hich re%uire learners to for an opinion. " While listening activities. .he $ork at the $hile listening stage needs to link in relevant $ays to the per 4 listening $ork. While they listen& learners $ill need to be involved in an authentic purpose for listening and encouraged to attend to the text ore intensively or ore extensively. .he choice of activity $ill depend on the level of response $hich is appropriate& not only to the type of text but also to the level of students " post 4 listening activities. 'ost 4 listening activities can take students into a ore intensive those of study in $hich of botto 4 up listening are practised. 'ost listening $orks can also usefully involved integration $ith other skills through develop ent of the topic into reading& speaking& or $riting activities.

Tea hing reading Topics: 1. .he different H$aysI of reading. 2. (tages in a reading skills lesson. 1. 2s reading& as listening is a receptive skill& a lesson based around the co prehension of a reading text is si ilar in any $ays to that designed to practise listening skills. .he different H$aysI of reading! " ski ing "$hen reading a ne$spaper $e often glance over the headlines until $e find on article that ==

cathes our interest. If $e are in a hurry $e read through the article %uickly probably not reading every $ord& aybe reading only the first sentence of each paragraph. " (canning "next $e ay $ant to see $hat,s on ..3. this evening at ? o,clock.. We are unlikely to start reading fro the beginning of the list of progra es 4 starting $ith $hat,s on at < o,clock in the orning. Instead our eyes ove %uickly over the page until $e find ?. p. and then $e start reading the details of the progra es. " Intensive reading. In the sa e ne$spaper $e ay find so ething that $e $ant to read in detail. 'erhaps the article $e ski read at first is really interesting and $e $ant to read it again in order to ake a ental note of so e details. " Extensive reading. .his is the $ay $e usually read $hen $e are reading for pleasure 4 perhaps a navel or a biography. 2. (tages in a reading skills lesson. " before reading Encourage the students to think about and discuss $hat they are going to read. #onsider $hether there are any key $ords $hich you $ant to teach before the students read the text. " first reading 1. (et a task to assist overall understanding 5%uestion&task&etc6. 2. .he students read the text. 3. -eedback. " (econd reading

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C1MPO0SO.Y C$C0$O/.AP-Y: 1. /edge& .ricia H.eaching and 1earning in 1anguage #lassroo I& )xford& 2AAA. 2. /ar er& Dere y H .he English 1anguage .eachingI& 1ong an& 2AA1. 3. /ar er& Dere y H/o$ to teach EnglishI& 1ong an& 2AA3. 9. 8orea& 2na HMetodica predarii li bii engle0eI& notite de curs ;. 8o$er& :oger H.eaching 'ractice /andbookI& Mac illan /eine ann& 1@@;. 1. Wright& 2ndre$ H 8a es for language learningI& #a bridge& 2AA9. 2. #ro$ther& Donathan H2dvanced cross$ordsI& )xford& 1@?A. 3. Ito& Fina H.he great bingo bookI& 'ro 1ingua& 2AA2. 9. >irn& Elaine H -ro 2 to T! #reative ideas& $est los 2ngeles #ollege& 1@@;. ;. Mc#allu & 8eorge& H1A1 $ord ga esI& )xford& 1@?A. .ECOMEN2E2 C$C0$O/.AP-Y: 1. /o$att& 2.:.'.& U2 history of English 1anguageI& )xford& 1@@9. 2. Wood$ard& .essa U Models and Metaphors in language .eacher trainingI& #a bridge& 1@@1.

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S*lla"us Design .opics! 1. 2. 2. 3. (yllabus *esign 'rinciples .he (teps in #ourse *esign. .ypes of syllabus.

(yllabus is an i portant atter in the foreign language"teaching field. .he syllabus is a for of support to the teaching activity. 8enerally a syllabus is a state ent of $hat is to be taught& is a state ent of approach& an instru ent for tackling ost i portant things. .he syllabus is day"to"day& locali0ed guide for the teacher. .he entioned above expression H$hat is to be taughtI either ay refer to $hat is to be done in the classroo or to $hat is to be learnt as a result. .he syllabus is the ain docu ent& $hich lays do$n the ai s of teaching& the extent of kno$ledge& habits and skills pupils ust ac%uire. It also includes the se%uence of topics& $hich constitute the acade ic content of the sub+ect or course. .he syllabus is an essential docu ent for every teacher and he is responsible for the fulfil ent of its re%uire ent. .he syllabus is unifor for the teachers $orking in a school of the given type. .he syllabus includes! 1. .he explanatory note. /ere the teacher $ill find the ai s of a foreign language teaching in school and so e suggestions as to the approach to teaching oral language& reading and $riting& vocabulary and gra ar. Cesides the teacher $ill find so e indications about pupils, independent $ork& ho e$ork& ho$ to carry on extra"curricular $ork in a foreign language at school. ?1

2. .he syllabus itself. .he teacher $ill find the re%uire ents for the co and of kno$ledge! " In speaking and learning " In reading " In $riting " 2pproxi ate topics for speaking and reading. In the syllabus the teacher $ill find all the instructions concerning the kno$ledge he ust i part to his pupils& the habits and skills he ust develop. .he textbook for every for should correspond to the syllabus. When the progra re%uire ents are changed& textbooks should undergo all necessary changes as $ell. (yllabus is the docu ent that gives a detailed description of each sub+ect separately& for an acade ic year. (yllabus specifies the nature and the volu e of the kno$ledge& abilities& and skills that have to be learned for a certain period. .he content of the syllabus is divided into chapters& subchapters& and topics indicating the nu bers of hours. C"aracteristics. .he syllabus has co on characteristics. .his docu ent consists of a list. .he list particulari0es all the things that are to be taught in the course for $hich the syllabus $as designed it is therefore co prehensive. .he actual co ponents of the list ay be either content ite that are ore co on or process ones. .he ite s are ordered usually having co ponents that are considered easier or ore essential earlier& and ore difficult and less i portant ones later. .his ordering ay be %uite fairly detailed and rigid& or general and flexible. .he syllabus generally has explicit ob+ectives& usually $ritten at the beginning of the docu ent& based ?2

on $hich the co ponents of the list are selected and ordered. .he syllabus is a public docu ent. .he syllabus is accessible for study not only by the teachers but also by the learners and their parents& by inspectors& school boards and by other interested e bers of the public such as researchers& teacher trainers& or textbook $riters. .here are other optional features. )ne of the is ti e schedule. (o e syllabuses deli it the ti e structure of their co ponents& prescribing for exa ple that these ite s should be dealt $ith the first onth& those in the second7 the class should have co pleted this uch by the end of the year. In a syllabus ay be indicated a preferred ethodology or approach& another optional feature is that a syllabus ay reco end aterials such as course& visual aterials or supple entary aterials. 1.S'lla&us 2esign Principles. #ourse designers have to consider so e issues $hen designing their aterials. (yllabus design concerns the solution of ite s to be learnt and the grading of those ite s into an appropriate se%uence. .here are a nu ber of different types of the language syllabus all of $hich ight be taken as a starting point in the planning of a ne$ course book& or of ter s& or year,s $ork. Each syllabus needs to be elaborated on the support of certain principles. .he principles are a basis for designers to decide if they $ant to include the ite in %uestion and $here to put it in the se%uence. .he principles are! 2earnability 4 so e structural or lexical ite s are easier for students to learn than others are. .hus they are taught easier things first and then extend the level of difficulty as the student,s language level rises. .he ?3

principle infor s the teacher that at the beginner level it is easier to teach uses of was and were i ediately after teaching uses of is and are rather than follo$ is and are $ith the third conditional. 1earnability ight convince the teachers to teach some and any on their o$n rather than introduce a $hole range of %uantities all at the sa e ti e. .requency > it $ould ake sense to introduce ite s that are ore fre%uent in the language than ones are that are only used occasionally by native speakers. &overage > so e $ords and structures have greater coverage than others do. .hus& $e ight decide because of coverage& to introduce the going to future before the present continuous $ith future reference& if it could be possible to sho$ that going to could be used in ore situations than the present continuous. ?sefulness 4 the reason that $ords as loo" and boo" figure so highly in classroo s is that they are useful $ords in that situation. In the sa e $ay& $ords for fa ily e bers occur early on in a student,s learning life because they are useful in the context of $hat students are linguistically able to talk. 2. T"e Steps in Course 2esign. When designing a course it is preferable to take into account a se%uence of steps. .he steps are! 1. #onsidering the students. 2. #onsidering the context 3. Establishing goals and ob+ectives 9. *esigning the syllabus ;. Evaluating 1. Consi#ering t"e stu#ents. With adolescents and adults& teach English for general purposes it is not possible for designers to identify their final $ishes for using English. /o$ever& a preparatory stage in a course ?9

design nevertheless is necessary. .he preparatory stage is a stage of collection infor ation that can illu inate the course design process and ay include re arks of classroo ethodology and revie$ of educational progra e and intervie$s and %uestionnaire surveys a ong teachers& students& advisory staff& and the inspectorate. In a course design& teachers can consider their students fro four vie$points! a. #onsideration of students as individuals $ill e phasi0e such atter as the need to associate age to interests& ho$ aterials can be ade to sti ulate students etc.7 b. #onsideration of students as e bers of a group $ill infor decisions about the ob+ectives levels of co unicative ability or the ethodology to class di ensions7 c. #onsideration of students as e bers of a particular educational syste $ill identify such atters as the relationship of course ob+ectives to the exa ination syste or the i portance of evaluating to a selective or co prehensive syste 7 d. #onsideration of students as e bers of a social group $ill ake the i portance of course ob+ectives to the role of English in society is in a certain state or the %uantity of exposure to English that students receive. #ourse designers can use teacher,s experience& reflection& and observation as $ell as ask students directly& using si ply presented %uestionnaires& about their otivations for learning English& the ethods in

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$hich they like to learn& the difficulties they have $ith studying English. .he facts can also be gathered casual in ter s of class $ork in $hich students, first ans$er in $ritten fir to a se%uence of %uestion then talk to each other and at last lead to class discussion. .he infor ation should be gathered as syste atically as possible. 2fter that& the ob+ectives of the course can be for ulated. 2. Consi#ering t"e conte9t. .he four vie$points fro the step 1 created to establish contextual constraints $ithin $hich the course ust be planned and taught. .herefore& it is sufficient to e phasi0e the i portance of atching course to context. 2 $ell"organi0ed course design is one that takes into account specific and general factors. (pecific factors are class si0e& ti e available& the teacher,s o$n co unicative ability& and kno$ledge of the language syste . 8eneral factors are educational values& perceptions of the teacher,s role& and expectations of classroo procedures. . Esta&lis"ing goals an# o&Dectives. Fo$ I $ould like to speak about the difference bet$een the ter s goals and ob8ectives that is bet$een the general and the specific. -or instance& the goal is to develop the student,s reading skills and the ob+ectives are! .o develop productive plan of $ork for dealing $ith unkno$n $ords7 .o be able to differentiate fact fro opinion7 .o build trust in dealing $ith a vast kind of tests such as ne$s reports& charts& aga0ine articles& and short stories.

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8enerally& the goals are set out in a national curriculu or by the authors of the institutional progra e and the teachers are those $ho have to interpret these in specific ob+ectives. .here are not an exact nu ber of teachers& $ho use these ob+ectives for their o$n courses. Making the expressing of ob+ectives a different stage in course planning has so e advantages! It allo$s teachers to evaluate correct course aterials7 It akes explicit the purposes of the course and ho$ these have been established7 It sti ulates students to i prove their agendas for the course. (tudents can beco e involved through consultation and negotiation in this stage of course planning. :. 2esigning a course unit. .o plan course unit designers need to consider so e decisions. *ecisions about ho$ to set units and lessons $ithin units are relatively si ple $hile others are ore co plicated and interrelated involving careful thought. -or instance! 1. Which aspect provides the organi0ing principle in as ulti di ensional syllabus? 2. /o$ does the choice of organi0ing principle deter ine the se%uence of activities in a course unit and the se%uence of units in a course? 3. What content does a course offer to students?

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- 1ni

Situatio Function Structures n s .ravellin g 'resentin g .his is .here is .here are

S%ills )or%

(peaking! an i aginary +ourney :eading! a text Writing! co position

1. .his table sho$s very clear ho$ a situational syllabus is organi0ed. .he situation is the basis of the design. .he choice of situation indicates key functions and structures can be selected as for al exponents of those functions. .here is the possibility to decide on relevant skills $ork. .he es can also be used as an organi0ing principle to create different aspects of a syllabus. .here are designers $ho began $ith skills by enu erating nor al texts or speaking situation associated to the the e. .his helps in deter ining lexical areas $ithin the topic and the language structures needed to express definite tasks. -or instance& tal"ing about plans $ill re%uire the use of future for s or tal"ing about your last 8ourney $ill i ply the vocabulary of places and activities and the use of the past si ple tense. 2. .he choice of organi0ing principle can be an outstanding feature in the final se%uence of activities in a unit. When structural aspect is pri ary& it is nor al to find a 'resentation"'ractice"'roduction structure in aterials. /o$ever& there are other structures for se%uencing activities in a course unit. 2 skills"based unit

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can follo$ the ele entary pre"reading& $hile reading& post"reading se%uence. 'resent 4 day aterials have taken events based approach to se%uencing activities. /ere the content follo$s a se%uence of events& as they $ould happen in real life& using each event as the basis for language practice. .he choice of organi0ing principle also establishes the level of flexibility in the se%uence of course units. 2 structural syllabus builds in a linear ethod& $ith cautious grouping& $hich re%uires to be follo$ed by students in the group se%uence. In contrast& a topic"based syllabus can take a odular structure& each odule containing of self"included aterials. .hey can $ork $ith the order preferred by teacher and students. 3. In this context& the ter content refers to the characters of a book $ith their backgrounds& experiences& opinions& and the events in $hich they participate. (o e other possibilities are accessible and teachers re%uire choosing the suitability of each for their o$n students. .he plot of a book for younger students $ith the sa e characters and places can appeal to their fa iliarity $ith the story genre& can develop hu our and fun& and can present a pleasant kno$n background kept to ho e and school. While adults, students& the plot of a book has the good point of introducing the characters in interaction in order to sho$ the connection bet$een language and role relationship. .opic"based aterials are good techni%ues to organi0e course units. .he key of success is to find te pting& intellectually sti ulating& and popular the es. ;. Evaluating. .he ter HevaluationI eans the assess ent of students at the end of course. (killbeck has ?@

ade a differentiation bet$een assess ent and evaluation. (ssessment in the curriculum is a process of determining and passing 8udgments on students9 learning potential and performance evaluation means assembling evidence on and ma"ing 8udgments about the curriculum including the process of planning, designing and implementing it.i -ro this point of vie$& evaluation can apply to courses and students in different ethods. )ne of the ethods is to exa ine the course ho$ is planned. Evaluation can try to observe& describe& and esti ate $hat in fact. In classroo s& take place as the course advances. It also can check $hat students have learned fro the course. Funan calls these three features of evaluation Hthe planned curriculu I& Hthe i ple ented curriculu I and Hthe assessed curriculu I.ii .hus& if evaluation of a course is tackling only by its first eaning& to assess students at the end of the course& this techni%ue $ill give +ust a part of the educational syste . .he evaluation can be successful if all its techni%ues are used such as co unicate to teacher and students& exa ine teachers, $ork plans& and observing classes. . T'pes o* s'lla&us. *ifferent types of syllabus are used in foreign language teaching. Celo$ is listed ost i portant syllabus. .he 8ra ar syllabus is the co onest type of syllabus. .here is a list of ite s that is arranged in such a $ay that the students gradually obtain general infor ation of different gra atical structures. .hough gra ar syllabus has been used successfully for a @A

certain period& there are still ethodologists $ho recogni0e it as the $rong organi0ing principles for a syllabus. .hus& they have offered so e alternatives as support to hang a language progra e on. .he lexical syllabus is a list of lexical ite s $ith associated collocations and idio s& usually divided into graded parts. 2pplying syllabus principles to a lexical syllabus can be co plex. .his occurs because lexis has any features such as! .he vocabulary linked to #o pound lexical ite s topics Issues of $ord for ation #onnecting and linking $ords .he functional"notional syllabus .he language functions are facts that do things& for instance identifying& denying& offering but notions express. .here are fe$ pure functional syllabuses. Bsually both functions and notions are co bined. .he situational syllabus (uch a syllabus gives the opportunity of selecting and ordering different real"life situations. .he divisions ight have the titles such as eating a meal, in the street, at the ban", at the supermar"et etc. In such syllabus students& have $ell"defined conversational de ands& arranged teaching aterial by the situations. .hese syllabuses usually are created not for students of general English because it is proble atic to pro ise that language for one specific situation $ill be productive in another. Moreover& selecting key situation for an ordinary class is difficult because it depends on $ho the students are and $here they are learning. .he topic"based syllabus .his syllabus has so e si ilarities $ith the situational one except that the titles are topic"based such as food, the family, the weather, @1

sport etc. .he the es give an organising criterion since can be established on $hat students are interesting in. In addition& it is possible to find out $hat the es are ost appropriate to students, conversational re%uire ents. .his ay be different fro $hat they $ant. .he task"based syllabus 5procedural6 .his syllabus has a list of learning tasks. Exa ples of tasks ight be ap reading& doing scientific experi ents& story $riting etc. .he ost $ell kno$n task"based syllabus is that associated $ith the Cangalore 'ro+ect by F. 'rabhu,s tasks are associated to the es as in this exa ple! 1. #lock face .elling the ti e fro clock face7 positioning the hands of a clock to sho$ a given ti e7 #alculating durations fro the ove ent of a clock,s hands7 $orking out intervals bet$een given ti es7 (tating the ti e on a t$elve"hour clock and a t$enty"four hour clock7 relating ti es to phases of the day and night.iii (o e ethodologists as Willis and others list six task types can be used $ith al ost any topics.iv .hese are listing& ordering and sorting& co paring& proble solving& sharing personal experience and creative tasks. .he ulti"syllabus syllabus .his syllabus co bines ite s fro gra ar& lexis& language functions& situations& topics& tasks& and different language ability tasks. )ften course book $riters do not follo$ a syllabus $ritten by an education inistry or educational institution& a ulti"syllabus syllabus is the ethod that is @2

ost often follo$ed. (o e exa ples are given at the 2ppendix 9. 1LANNING LESSON Pre6planning. 1esson planning is the art of co bining a nu ber of different ele ents into a coherent $hole so that a lesson has an identity that students can recognise& $ork $ithin and react. Cefore teacher can start to consider planning their classes& they need to kno$ a considerate a ount about three ain areas! the +ob of teaching& the institution& and the students. .he +ob of teaching. #learly $ell prepared teachers need to kno$ a lot about the +ob they are to do before they can start to ake successful plans. .here are six a+or areas of necessary kno$ledge. The language for the level. .eachers ust kno$ the language that they are to teach. Cy Hkno$I& it eans that teachers ust be to use the language the selves and have an insight into the rules that govern its for and the factors& $hich affect its use. .his is obviously the result not only of the teacher,s o$n kno$ledge of English but also of preparation and study $here facts about language can be absorbed. The s"ills for the level. .he teachers need to Hkno$I the skills they are going to ask their students to perfor . It is no good asking to do a report if they are not taught to. The learning aids available for the level. .he teachers need to kno$ $hat aids are available and appropriate for the level they are teaching. .hese ay include $all @3

pictures& flashcards& flipcharts& cards& tapes& tape recorders& video playback achines& overhead pro+ectors& set of books and aterials& and the board. @tages and techniques in teaching. .he teachers need to kno$ and recogni0e different teaching techni%ues and stages. .he teachers need to kno$ the difference bet$een accurate reproduction and co unicative activities so that they do not act as controllers in both cases. .he teachers also need to be able to recogni0e stages in the textbook they are using so that they reali0e $hen an activity is controlled rather than free or vice versa. ( repertoire of activities. Well"prepared teachers have a large repertoire of activities for their classes. .hey can organi0e presentation and controlled output practice7 they can direct student in the ac%uiring of receptive skills and organi0e genuinely co unicative activities enables the to have varied plans and achieves an activities balance. &lassroom management s"ills. Well"prepared teachers $ill have good classroo anage ent skills. .hey $ill be able to adopt a nu ber of different roles& $ill be able to use different student groupings& and $ill be able to aintain discipline. .hese areas are all vitality i portant for a teacher and they all i ply a lot $ork particularly $here a level is being taught for the first ti e. Without these areas of kno$ledge& a teacher is in poor position to ake decisions about lesson planning. .he institution. .eachers need to kno$ a lot about the institution as far as it is involved $ith their teaching. .he follo$ing five areas of kno$ledge are crucial.

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Time, length, frequency. .he teacher should kno$ at $hat ti e& for ho$ long and ho$ often classes take place. =hysical conditions. .eachers need to kno$ $hat physical conditions exist in the place that is going to teach. It is no good taking in an electrically po$ered tape recorder if there is no socket for a plug in the classroo . It $ill be i portant& $hen planning to bear that rather detail in ind as $ell as ore a+or considerations like the condition of the chairs and blackboard& the brightness of the lightning& the si0e of the roo . @yllabus. It is clearly i portant to be fa iliar $ith the syllabus the institution has for the levels that are being taught. .he teachers $ill have to be sure in general ter s that they can cover the a+ority of the syllabus $here possible. It is i possible to plan $ithin an institution $ithout such kno$ledge. <xams. It is also extre ely i portant to kno$ $hat type of exa s the students $ill have to take and $hen& since clearly a a+or responsibility of the teacher $ill be to try to ensure that the students are successful in tests and exa s. 1estrictions. .eachers should be a$are of any restrictions i posed by the institution upon their teaching! apart fro the obvious restrictions of physical si0e and shape of the classroo & there are also the li itations of the class si0e& availability of aids and physical conditions. .he students. .eachers need to kno$ a considerable a ount about their students. Each class is uni%ue and as a result& each class $ill need to be treated differently. @;

Fo$here is this ore true than in planning& $here the activities are selected that $ill be suitable for the students. In order to do so the teachers obviously need to kno$ a lot about the . .eachers need to kno$ $ho the students are and $hat the students bring to the class 5 otivation and attitude& educational background& kno$ledge& interests6 and $hat the students need. 7"' plan at all> (o e teachers $ith experience see to give an ability to believe that they do not need to plan their lessons. /o$ever& ost teachers do on preparing lessons throughout their career& even if the plans are very infor al. -or students& evidence of a plan sho$s the that the teacher has devoted ti e to thinking about the class. It strongly suggests a level of professionalis and an involve ent in the kind of preparation they ight reasonably expect. 1ack of a plan ay suggest the opposite of these teacher attributes. -or the teacher& a plan gives the lesson a fra e$ork& an overall shape. It is true that& he or she ay end up departing fro it at stages of the lesson& but at very least it $ill be so ething to fall back on. )f course& good teachers are flexible and respond creatively to $hat happens in the classroo & but they also need to have thought ahead& have a destination they $ant their students to reach& and kno$ ho$ they are going to get there. 'lanning helps& because it allo$s teachers to think about $here they are going and gives the ti e to have ideas for to orro$ and next $eek,s lessons. In the classroo & a plan helps!

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1.

.o re ind teachers $hat they intended to do 4 especially if they get distracted or o entarily forget $hat they intended7 2. -inally& planning helps because it gives students confidence! they kno$ i ediately $hether a teacher has thought about the lesson& and they respond positively to those that have. .he plan is +ust possibilities for the lesson& $hich ay or ay not co e about. )f course& the teacher $ill be happy if things go Jaccording to plan,& but they often do not. 2ll sorts of things can go $rong! e%uip ent not $orking& bored students& students $ho have Jdone it before,& students $ho need to ask unexpected %uestions or $ho $ant or need to pursue unexpected path$ays. .hat is $hen the teacher has to be flexible& has to be able to leave the plan for ho$ever long it takes to satisfy the students, needs at that point in the lesson. (o eti es& the plan has to be abandoned co pletely and it is only after the lessons that the teacher can look at it again and see so e parts of it are recoverable for future lessons. .here is one particular situation in $hich planning is especially i portant& and that is $hen a teacher is to be observed as part of an assess ent or perfor ance revie$. .he observer needs to have a clear idea of $hat the teacher intends in order to +udge the success of the lesson. 2 good lesson needs to contain a +udicious blend of coherence and variety. 2 good plan needs to reflect this. #oherence eans that students can see a logical pattern to the lesson. Even if there are three separate activities& for exa ple& there has to be so e connection bet$een the 4 or at the very least a perceptible reason for changing direction. In this context& it $ould not ake @=

sense students listen to a tape& ask a fe$ co prehension %uestions and then change the activity co pletely different $as then atte pted7 the teacher ight $ell $ant to call the lesson incoherent. .here has to be so e variety in a lesson period. .he ideal co pro ise is to plan that has an internal coherence but $hich allo$s students to do different things. 0esson planning. .here have to be considered so e points such as! 1. (im of the lesson. .here are four ain things that a teacher needs to kno$ before going into the class to teach a lesson! .he ai of the lesson .he ain stages of the lesson What ne$ language the lesson contains 1. What to do at each stage

2anguage. It is also i portant for the teacher to kno$ $hat language $ill be taught in the lesson. Most lessons introduce either ne$ vocabulary or a ne$ structure& or both. (o e points are i portant! Fe$ vocabulary. Fot all ne$ $ords in a lesson are e%ually i portant7 the teacher ust decide $hich ust be practiced and $hich only entioned. (tructure. If a ne$ structure is introduced in the lesson it $ill need to be presented carefully and practised& the ones introduced in earlier lessons should also be revie$ed. (kills. .he teacher needs to be a$are of $hat skill $ill be developed in the lesson! speaking& listening& reading& @?

or $riting. If possible& the lesson should include practice of ore than one skill 4 this $ill increase the variety and interest of the lesson. @tages of the lesson. 2ny lesson is divided into different stages of activity. .eachers ay listen to a dialogue& explain ne$ $ords& practice orally so e aterial& so it can be na ed so e stages such as! 'resentation. .he teacher presents ne$ $ords or structures& gives exa ples& and $rites the on the board. 'ractice. (tudents practice using $ords or structures in a controlled $ay e.g. aking sentences for pro pts& asking and ans$ering %uestions& giving sentences based on a picture. 'ractice can be oral and $ritten. 'roduction. (tudents use the language they learnt& or express the ore freely& e.g. to talk or $rite about their o$n lives and interests& to express opinions& to i agine the selves in different situations. 1ike practice& production ay be oral and $ritten. :eading. (tudents read a text and ans$er %uestions or do a si ple task. 1istening. .he teacher reads a text or dialogue $hile pupils listen and ans$er %uestions. Where it is possible& students ay listen to a cassette. :evie$. .he teacher revie$s the language learnt in an earlier lesson to refresh pupils, e ories as a preparation for a ne$ presentation. It ust be borne in ind that stages are in no fixed order. .he teacher can plan the lesson as he feels to be better. Each stage could occur several ti es in a single lesson. When it is talked about stages of a lesson& it is thinking @@

of the focus of the lesson. It is i portant for the learners to kno$ the ai of the lesson as a $hole and the purpose of each stage. -or the teacher it is i portant to introduce each stage of the lesson& by saying Jno$& $e are going to do this or thatK, 7riting a lesson plan. .o $rite a plan is very i portant and it should be $ritten not for the benefit of the inspector or head teacher& its ain purpose should be helping the teacher. Writing a plan helps the teacher not only to prepare for the lesson and to decide exactly $hat he has to do at very stage and ho$ to do it& but also to appreciate $hat has been done and ho$ $as done. .herefore& looking at the plan again after the lesson the teacher can use it to evaluate $hat happened. 5see the annex6 Planning a se3uence o* lesson. .here are nu ber of issues in planning a se%uence of lessons such as! Cefore and during! ho$ever carefully teachers plan& in practice& unforeseen things are possible to happen during the course of a lesson and so the plans are continually odified. Even ore than a plan for an individual lesson& a sche e of $ork for $eeks or onths of lessons are only a proposal of $hat teachers hope to achieve in that ti e. (hort and long"ter goals! ho$ever otivated a student ay be at the beginning of a course& the level of that otivation ay fall if the student is not engaged or if they cannot see $here they are going 4 or kno$ $hen they have got there. In order for students to stay otivated& they need goals and re$ards. While satisfactory long"ter goal ay be J aster the English language,& it can see only a vague and distant 1AA

possibility at various stages of the learning cycle. In such circu stances& students need short"ter goal too& such as the co pletion of so e piece of $ork and re$ards such as success on s all& staged lesson tests& or taking part in activities designed to recycle kno$ledge and de onstrate ac%uisition. When teachers plan a se%uence of lessons they need to build in goals for both students and the selves to ai at& $hether they are end of $eek tests& or a+or revision lessons. .hat $ay teacher can hope to give our students a staged progression of successfully et challenges. .he atic co ponents! one"$ay to approach a se%uence of lessons is to focus on different content in each individual lesson. .his $ill certainly provide variety. It ight be better for the es to carry over ore than one lesson& or at least to reappear& so that students perceive so e coherent topic co ponents as the course progress. With such the atic threads& teachers and their students can refer back$ards and for$ards both in ter s of language. 1anguage planning! $hen teachers plan language input over a se%uence of lessons they $ant to propose a sensible progression of syllabus ele ents such as gra ar& lexis& and functions. .hey also $ant to build in sufficient opportunities for recycling or re e bering language& and for using language in productive skill $ork. If teachers are follo$ing a course book any of these decisions ay already have taken& but even in such circu stances they need to keep a constant eye on ho$ things are going& and $ith the kno$ledge of Jbefore and after, odify the progra e they are $orking fro $hen necessary.

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2ctivity balance! the balance of activities over a se%uence of lessons is one of the features that $ill deter ine the overall level of student involve ent in the course. 1sing lesson plans. /o$ever carefully teachers, plan and $hatever for their plan takes& they $ill still have to use that plan in the classroo & and use plans as records of learning for reference. A tion and rea tion. 'lanning a lesson is not the sa e as scripting a lesson. Wherever teachers, preparations fit on the planning& $hat they take into the lesson is a proposal for an action& rather than a lesson blueprint to be follo$ed slavishly. Moreover& teachers, proposal for action& transfor ed into action in the classroo & is bound to evoke so e sort of student reaction. .eachers have to decide ho$ to cope $ith that reaction and $hether they can continue $ith their plan or $hether $e need to odify it as teachers go along. .here are a nu ber of reasons& $hy teachers ay need to odify the plan for action once a lesson is taking place!

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Magic moments: so e of the ost affecting o ents in language lessons happen $hen a conversation develops unexpectedly& or $hen a topic produces a level of interest in students& $hich teachers had not predicted. .he occurrence of such agic o ents helps to provide and sustain a group,s otivation. .eachers have to recognise the $hen they co e along and then take a +udge ent about $hether to allo$ the to develop& rather than denying the because they do not fit into the plan. Sensi&le #iversion: another reason for diversion fro teachers, original plan is $hen so ething happens $hich teacher cannot ignore& $hether this is a surprising student 1A2

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reaction to a reading text& or the sudden announce ent. In the case of good teaching teacher take& the opportunity to teach language& that has suddenly co e up. (i ilarly& so ething ight occur to teachers in ter s of topic or in ter s of a language connection that they suddenly $ant to develop on the spot. 1n*oreseen pro&lems: ho$ever $ell teachers plan& unforeseen proble often crop up. (o e students ay find an activity that teachers thought interesting incredibly boring7 an activity ay take ore or less ti e than teachers anticipated. It is possible that so ething teachers thing that it $ould be si ple for students turns out to be very difficult. .eachers ay have planned an activity based on the nu ber of students they expected to turn up& only to find that so e of the are absent. )ccasionally they find that students have already co e across aterial or topics teachers take into class and their co on sense suggest that it $ould be un$ise to carry on. In any of above scenarios& it $ould be al ost i possible to carry on $ith their plan as if nothing had happed7 if an activity finishes %uickly& teachers have to find so ething else to fill the ti e. If students cannot do $hat they are asking of the & teachers $ill have to odify $hat they are of the . If so e students have already finished an activity teachers +ust leave those students to get bored. It is possible to anticipate potential proble s in the class and to plan strategies to deal $ith the . /o$ever& $ell teachers do this& things $ill still happen that surprise the and cause the to ove a$ay fro their plan. /o$ever $ell teachers plan& their plan is +ust a suggestion of $hat they ight do in class. Everything depends upon ho$ students respond and relate to it. In 1A3

Di (crivener,s $ords& Jprepare thoroughly. Fevertheless& in class& teach the learners 4 not the plan,. .his chapter deals $ith the presentation of the curriculu & syllabus& and planning lesson. #urriculu has another vie$ that of the learner 4centred curriculu . .his is ne$ sight taken to the curriculu . .he leaner should be in the centre of the teaching process.

:eferences

.aba& /. 51@<26 &urriculum #evelopment$ Theory and =ractice Fe$ Gork! /arcourt Crace. 2 (tern& /./. 51@?36 .undamental &oncepts of 2anguage Teaching )xford! )xford Bniversity 'ress. 3 .yler& :. 51@9@6 Aasic =rinciples of &urriculum and 'nstruction Fe$ Gork! /arcourt Crace. 9 1a$ton& *. 51@=36 @ocial &hange, <ducational Theory and &urriculum =lanning 1ondon! /odder and (toughton. ; Wheeler& *. 51@<=6 &urriculum =rocesses 1ondon! Bniversity of 1ondon 'ress. < (tenhouse& 1. 51@=;6 (n 'ntroduction to &urriculum. :esearch and *evelop ent. 1ondon! /eine ann = Funan& *. 51@??6 @yllabus #esign )xford! )xford Bniversity 'ress. @ Eltis& >. and C. 1o$ 51@?;6 2 revie$ of the teaching process in the 2ME'& #anberra. 1A 2lcorso& #. and M. >alant0is 51@?;6 The learning process and being a learner in the (M<=& #anberra. 1A9

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Willing& >. 51@?;6 2earning @tyles in (M<. (ydney! F(W 2ME( 12 Funan& *. 51@?;6 2anguage Teaching &ourse #esign$ Trends and 'ssues. 2delaide! Fational #urriculu :esource #entre. 13 #andlin& #. 51@?96 @yllabus design as a critical process )xford! 'erga on. 19 1ong& M. 51@?;6 Modelling and 2ssessing (ound 1anguage 2c%uisition. #levedon! Multilingual Matters. 1; (killbeck& M. 51@?96 @chool5based &urriculum #evelopment. 1ondon! /arper and :a$. 1< Funan& *. The 2earner5&entred &urriculum 2 (tudy in (econd 1anguage .eaching. #a bridge Bniversity 'ress. 1= 'rabhu& F. 51@?36 =rocedural @yllabuses (ingapore. 1? Willis& *. 51@@A6 The 2exical @yllabus$ ( !ew (pproach to 2anguage Teaching. 1ondon! #ollins.

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