A MODERN COURSE IN ENGLISH SYNTAX

HERMAN WE KKER AND LILIANE HAEGEMAN

First published in 1985 by Croons Hel

!td

Reprinted in 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 199" by Routled#e $ $% Ne& Fetter !'ne( !ondon EC)* )EE +9 West ,5th -treet( Ne& .or/( N. 10001

Rout/edge is on International Thomson Publishing company . ! 1955 Her

'n We//er 'nd !ili'ne H'e#e 'n

*rinted 'nd bound in Gre't 1rit'in by Diddles !td( Guild2ord 'nd Kin#3s !ynn All ri#hts reser4ed% No p'rt o" this boo/ 'y be reprinted or reprodu5ed or utili6ed in 'ny 2or or by 'ny ele5troni5( e5h'ni5'l or other e'ns( no& /no&n or here'2ter in4ented( in5ludin # photo5opyin# 'nd re5ordin#( or in 'ny in2or 'tion stor'#e or retrie4'l syste ( &ithout per ission in &ritin# 2ro the publishers%

1ritish !ibr'ry C't'lo#uin# in *ubli5'tion D't' We//er% Her 'n A odern 5ourse in En#lish synt'7% 1% En#lish l'n#u'#e8-ynt'7 $% 9itle i1% H'e#e 'n( !ili'ne )+5 *E1,"1 !ibr'ry o2 Con#ress C't'lo#uin# in *ubli5'tion D't' We//er( Her 'n% A ode 5ourse in En#lish synt'7% 1% En#lish l'n#u'#e8-ynt'7% 1% H'e#e 'n% !ili'ne M % : $2% 9itle

P#13$1.%3& 198' )+8%+ 8581,99) I()* 0811580,"8)88)

CONTENTS

*re2'5e I: Aims and 1%1 $%+ 1%+%1 1%+%+ 1%+%, 1%+%) 1%+%5 1%, 1%,%1 Wh't is Representin# -tru5ture 1r'5/etin# !'belled# 9ree Di' r' s -tru5ture -enten5e 'nd E7er5ises Constituen5y :'ri'tions on *'tterns 5 " " 8 10 1, 15 15 1"

1 +%)%+ +%)%+ +%)%+ +%)%, +%)%, +%)%, +%)%, +%)%, +%)%, +%)%, +%)%) +%)%)% +%)%) +%)%5 Ele ents '2ter the He'd -u in# up the N* E7er5ise :erb *hr'ses introdu5tion :erb Co ple ents Ele ents be2ore the 9he First Au7ili'ry in die :* -u in# up the :* E7er5ises *reposition'l *hr'ses -u in# up the ** E7er5ise Ad;e5ti4e *hr'ses

i% , + Cle2tin# , *seudo8 ,.3.4 *'ssi4is'tion 1%,%5 1%,%" Frontin# 1%,%> E7er5ises

1" 1$8 18 19 19

+%)%5 +%)%5 +%)%" +%)%" +%)%" +%5 +%5%1 2 %5%1% +%5%+ +%5% +%5%) +%5% +%5% +%5% +%5%

+? Constituents $ntrodu5tion +%1%$ E7er5ise +%1%+ Word @rder +%1%, Constituents +%+ -enten5es +%+%1 -i ple De5l'r'ti4e +8+%+ Co 'nd pound 'nd Co ple7 +%+%, E7er5ise +%, Cl'uses +%,%1 E7er5ises +%) *hr'ses +%)%1 $ntrodu5tion +%)%+ Noun +%)%+%1 Ele ents +%)%+%+ *ronouns +%)%+%, @ne8&ord ,%,%, ,%) +1 ++% >+ +) +5 +5 +" 29 +9 ,) ,5 ,5 ,5 He'd ,> )0 > > > > > > > > > > > > > 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9

-u in# up the Ad<= E7er5ises Ad4erb *hr'ses -u in# up the Ad4* E7er5ises Words $ntrodu5tion Word Cl'sses? the o2 Words Nouns :erbs Ad;e5ti4es Ad4erbs *repositions Con;un5tions E7er5ises "

3: Functions ,%1 $ntrodu5tion? the its Co ple ents ,%+ Gr' 'ti5'l ,%+%1 E7er5ises ,%, Gr' 'ti5'l in ,%,%1 -ub;e5t ,%,%+ *redi5'te )%+%) )%+%) )%+%) )%+%5 )%+%5 )%+%5 )%+%5 )%+%" )(+%" )%+%" )%+%" )%+%" )%+%" )%+%" )%+%" )%+%> )%+%> )%+%8 )%+%8 )%+%9 )%+%9 )%, )%,%1 )%,%+ G13h8Auestions Wh8 o4e ent o2 1(13h 8 o4e ent E7er5ises $ndire5t Buestions $ndire5t .es8No $ndire5t Wh8 !on# Wh8 Rel'ti4e Cl'uses E7er5ise 9he Me'nin# o2 Cl'uses Deletion in Cl'uses That in Rel'ti4e Ad4erbi'l Rel'ti4e Rel'ti4e Cl'uses Non8restri5ti4e Cl'uses E7er5ises Appositi4e E7er5ises Redu5ed Rel'ti4e E7er5ises Frontin# E7er5ise *'ssi4is'tion 9he *ro5ess 9he 1y8phr'se " " " " " > 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 $ 1 $ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

-enten5e Ad;un5ts Gr' 'ti5'l in :* ,%)%$ *redi5'ti4e ,%)%1%1 E7er5ise ,%)%+ Dire5t @b;e5t ,%)%+%1 E7er5ise ,%)%, $ndire5t @b;e5t ,%)%,%1 E7er5ises ,%)%) Ad4erbi'l &ith $ntr'nsiti4e ,%)%)(1 E7er5ise ,%)%5 Ad4erbi'l &ith 9r'nsiti4e ,%)%5%1 E7er5ise ,%)%" *redi5'ti4e C Ad4erbi'l ' Co ple7 ,%)%"%1 E7er5ise ,%)%> :erb *'tterns 'nd Fun5tions? ' ,%)%>%1 E7er5ise ,%)%8 Ad;un5ts 'nd ,%)%8%1 E7er5ise ,%)%9 -enten5e Ad;un5ts :*8Ad;un5ts ,%)%9%1 E7er5ise ,%)%10 *redi5'ti4e ,%)%10%1 E7er5ise

5? Non and 5%1 5.+ 5 5 5 5 5 5%, 5 5%,+ 5 5 5%) 5 5 5 5 5 5

,%)%1 1 Fun5tions o2 ,%)%11%1Finite Cl'uses ,%)%11%+ Non82inite Cl'uses ,%)%11%, E pty Non82inite 'nd Cl'uses ,%5 Gr' 'ti5'l *hr'ses? ' 1rie2 ,%5%1 E7er5ises )? rocesses )%1 )%+ $ntrodu5tion !e2t&'rd Wh8 o4e ent 'nd 9r'ns2or 'tions )%+%1 Buestions? )%+%+ -ub;e5t8Au7ili'ry )%+%, Do8insertion )%+%,%1 E7er5ise )%+%) Wh8 o4e ent )%+%)%1 -ub5'te#oris'tion 'nd Wh8 o4e ent )%+%)%+ E7er5ise )%+%)%, *reposition'l

9 9 9 9 9 9

)%,%, )%) )%)%1 )%)%1 )%)%1 )%)%1 )%)%1 )%)%1 )%)%$ )%)%+ )%)%, )%)%) )%)%5 )%)%" )%5 )%5%1 )%5%+ )%" )%> )%>%1 )%>%+ )%>%,

1 1 1 1 1 $ 1 1 1

E7er5ise Mo4e ent to $t8e7tr'position $t8e7tr'position in -enten5es $t8e7tr'position in -enten5es $t8e7tr'position Non82inite Cl'uses E7er5ise $t8e7tr'position in Cl'uses $t8e7tr'position Cl'uses -ub;e5t8:erb 9here8insertion E7tr'position 2ro He'4y @b;e5t8shi2t -u in# Dp Cle2tin# 'nd 5le2tin# Cle2tin# *seudo85le2tin# -ubstitution by Ellipsis -ub;e5t Deletion :erb G'ppin# 'nd G'ppin# @ther E7' ples

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 $ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

6: Rea Brac "%1 "%+

202 Index underlyin# stru5ture +8)( 101( 10+( 10)( 1,+ un#r' 'ti5'l +,( ,+ un 'r/ed +, 4erb ,( 9( )+( ))( 5!" "5( "" 4erb 5o ple ent ),8"( 5,( 19+ 4erb #'ppin# 155( 180 4erb phr'se E:*< "( !" 15( ++( )+8 51( >1( 80( 98( 188( 19) 4erb type )5 4erbless 5l'use 3#" 9588( 1)0( 1)1 &it82rontin# ,

&h8 o4e ent 10>81,( 118( 119 &h8oper'tor $11 &h8Auestion +5( +"( ,+( 10,( 10>( 11+( 115( 119 &h8Auestionin# 85 &ord 588( +1( 5"88 &ord 5l'ss 9( 5>( 58

&ord order ++( +, yes!no Auestion +5( ,1( )8( )9( 101( 10,( 10)( 108( 11)( 115 6ero85o ple ent'tion 80 6ero rel'ti4e pronoun 1+0( 1+1( 1+8( 1+9

PREFACE

9his boo/ is 'n 'tte pt to in5orpor'te so e o2 the less 5ontro4ersi'l insi#hts 2ro odern theoreti5'l lin#uisti5s into the te'5hin# o2 En#lish synt'7% $t see/s to stri/e ' b'l'n5e bet&een the tr'dition'l 'nd stru5tur'l 'ppro'5hes 'nd tr'ns2or 'tion'l #ener'ti4e synt'7( &hi5h is 5urrently the ost 5onsistent 'nd in2luenti'l lin#uisti5 2r' e&or/% We t'/e the 4ie& th't it is i port'nt 2or students o2 En#lish 888 &hether or not they &ill #o on to spe5i'lise in En#lish synt'7 8 to be 'ble to interpret the stru5ture o2 senten5es 'nd their 5o ponent p'rts% 9he pr'5ti5e o2 synt'5ti5 'n'lysis( or Fp'rsin#3 's it is tr'dition'lly 5'lled( &ill i pro4e students3 underst'ndin# o2 the stru5ture o2 En#lish( it &ill 2'5ilit'te their 5o prehension 'nd produ5tion o2 the l'n#u'#e 'nd it &ill en'ble the to 5o p're 'nd 5ontr'st En#lish stru5tures 'nd to per2or synt'5ti5 oper'tions on the % 9he 'bility to 'n'lyse stru5tures in their 5onte7t is ' 4ery use2ul 'nd i port'nt s/ill 2or under#r'du'tes to '5Auire 'nd 'ster% $t is ' s/ill &hi5h in4ol4es 2' ili'rity &ith( ' on#st other thin#s( the prin5ip'l 5'te#ories 'nd 2un5tions in En#lish( the 'in synt'5ti5 oper'tions% 'nd the ethods o2 synt'5ti5 'r#u ent'tion% Althou#h the i port'n5e o2 synt'5ti5 'n'lysis is #ener'lly re5o#nised( none o2 the presently '4'il'ble #r' 'rs o2 En#lish pro4ides students &ith ' syste 'ti5 introdu5tion to the ethods o2 En#lish synt'5ti5 'n'lysis% Most o2 these #r' 'rs 5ont'in e75ellent in4entories o2 the 2'5ts o2 En#lish( but 2'il to sho& students e7pli5itly ho& to 2or ul'te synt'5ti5 'r#u ents( 'nd ho& to 'pply rele4'nt ob;e5ti4e 5riteri' 'nd synt'5ti5 tests in the 'n'lysis o2 senten5es% 9his boo/ is e'nt to 2ill this #'p% $t o22ers 'n '55ount o2 &h't &e 5onsider to be the b'si5 rules 'nd prin5iples o2 En#lish synt'7( 'nd it tries to '/e students '&'re o2 synt'5ti5 stru5tures 'nd their rel'tions% $t 'lso tries to #i4e so e insi#ht into the #ener'l ethodolo#y o2 synt'5ti5 des5ription% 9his 5ourseboo/ is 'inly intended 2or inter edi'te students o2 En#lish 't uni4ersities or 5olle#es &ho h'4e done one or ore introdu5tory #r' 'r 5ourses( but 're not yet re'dy to enter ' spe5i'list 5ourse% -in5e in our e7perien5e students need ' #re't de'l o2 syste 'ti5 #uid'n5e 'nd pr'5ti5e in the 'n'lysis o2 senten5es% &e h'4e pro4ided nu erous e7' ples 'nd e7er5ises o2 di22erent types% + ,odern -ourse in #nglish (ynta. 'lso prep'res students 2or 2urther re'din# in the liter'ture on En#lish synt'7( i%e% both the ore 3tr'dition'l3

'55ounts 'nd the 5urrent tr'ns2or 'tion'l 'n'lyses% $t o22ers so e ne&

2 Pre"ace Pre"ace 3

ide's 'nd insi#hts( espe5i'lly 2ro the E7tended -t'nd'rd 9heory EE-9<( &hi5h &e h'4e here tried to de'l &ith in 'n in2or 'l 'nnerG theory8intern'l dis5ussions 'nd irrele4'nt te5hni5'lities 're #ener'lly '4oided% We h'4e 2ound th't the 'teri'l o2 this boo/ 5'n be used pro2it'bly in En#lish synt'7 5ourses in 5on;un5tion &ith re2eren5e #r' 'rs su5h 's those by R'ndolph Buir/ 'nd his 'sso5i'tes% $n 'n 'tte pt to '/e this boo/ 's sel285ont'ined 's possible( &e h'4e re2r'ined 2ro in5ludin# re2eren5es to En#lish #r' 'rs or the lin#uisti5 liter'ture% $t ust be e ph'sised th't it is not the te5hni5'l ter inolo#y or the #r' 'ti5'l l'bels th't 're o2 5entr'l i port'n5e in this boo/( but the 'ppro'5h de4eloped 2or t'l/in# 'bout senten5es in En#lish% While the boo/ does not #o into 'll the des5ripti4e or theoreti5'l det'il o2 ' 2ully de4eloped synt'7( 'nd &ilt there2ore le'4e 'ny issues undis5ussed( it is intended to o22er students the te5hniAues 2or #oin# into ore 5o ple7 'tters% We e7pe5t th't the boo/ &ill sh'rpen students3 obser4'tions( 'nd '/e the '&'re o2 &h't 're 4'lid 'r#u ents 'nd ethods 2or e'nin#2ul 'n'lysesH *'rts o2 the 'teri'l o2 this 4olu e h'4e been used in En#lish synt'7 5ourses 't Dni4ersity Colle#e( !ondon E 'inly students o2 En#lish liter'ture 'nd l'n#u'#e<( 't the Dni4ersities o2 Ni; e#en 'nd Ghent EDut5h 'nd 1el#i'n students o2 En#lish<( 'nd 't ' te'5her tr'inin# 5olle#e in Ni; e#en% $n de4elopin# this 5ourse( &e h'4e 'ssu ed th't the student h's so e /no&led#e o2 En#lish #r' 'r% E7er5ises 're in5luded 'nd inte#r'ted into the stru5ture o2 the boo/% 9hey 're e'nt to #i4e students insi#ht into the 'in p'tterns 'nd proble s o2 En#lish synt'7( 'nd to 'ppe'l to their o&n lin#uisti5 intuitions 'nd 5re'ti4ity% @ur th'n/s 're due to 5olle'#ues in se4er'l En#lish dep'rt ents in En#l'nd( 1el#iu 'nd 9he Netherl'nds 2or use2ul 5o ents on 'n e'rlier dr'2t o2 this &or/% $n p'rti5ul'r &e &ould ention 9on 1roeders( Al'sd'ir M'5Don'ld( -idney Greenb'u ( Anne oon 4'n Hest( Frits -tuur 'n 'nd I'n :erdon5/( &ho h'4e #i4en us det'iled 5riti5is s 'nd sound 'd4i5e on ho& to Fsol4e3 'nd present 5ert'in proble s% 9he boo/ h's #re'tly bene2ited 2ro their su##estions% Needless to s'y( &e '55ept 2ull responsibility 2or the 4ie&s e7pressed here 'nd 2or 'ny short5o in#s th't re 'in% We 're 'lso #r'te2ul to Di'ne Croo/( Mies F'ber 'nd M'riette W'uters 2or their p'tien5e in typin# su55essi4e 4ersions o2 the 'nus5ript%

THE BACKG ROUND 9he 'ppro'5h presented here 'dopts 's its 'in theoreti5'l b'5/#round the ulti8le4el 'n'lysis o2 the E-982r' e&or/( &hi5h distin#uishes le4els o2 D8stru5ture 'nd -8stru5ture( 'nd le4els o2 *honeti5 2or 'nd !o#i5'l 2or % D8stru5ture Eor( rou#hly( Funderlyin# stru5ture3< is deter ined by E'< phr'se stru5ture E*-< rules 'nd Eb< the !e7i5on% *rules #ener'te the

underlyin# stru5ture o2 the senten5e% 9he !e7i5on 5ont'ins the store o2 le7i5'l ite s o2 the l'n#u'#e( e'5h &ith ' spe5i2i5'tion o2 its synt'5ti5 5'te8#ory 'nd 'n insertion 2r' e% :erbs( 2or e7' ple( 're spe5i2ied 2or the type o2 5o ple ent'tion they reAuire% $nsertin# le7i5'l 'teri'l into the stru5tures deri4ed by the *- rules is restri5ted by ' 't5hin# 5ondition? nouns 5'n only be inserted into slots 'r/ed NG 4erbs 5'n only be inserted into : slots( et5% 9he 't5hin# 5ondition h's re5ently been repl'5ed in E-9 by e5h'nis s su5h 's C'se 'ssi#n ent 'nd the 9het' 5riterion( but these notions 're not in5orpor'ted into this boo/% 9he 5onstituent stru5ture #ener'ted by the *- rules 'nd 2illed in by le7i5'l ite s #i4es us the D8stru5ture% 9he underlyin# stru5tures 'y be '22e5ted by oper'tions su5h 's Fp'ssi4is'tion3( Fe7tr'position 3( et5% Follo&in# re5ent de4elop ents in the tr'ns82or 'tion'l 2r' e&or/( this boo/ distin#uishes bet&een ele ent'ry oper'tions on synt'5ti5 p'tterns 'nd the 2un5tion'l e22e5t th't is '5hie4ed by the oper'tions% 9he pro5ess o2 &h8Auestion 2or 'tion( 2or e7' ple( is not seen 's ' sin#le tr'ns2or 'tion but r'ther 's the 5o poundin# o2 E'< -ub;e5t8Au7ili'ry $n4ersion( 'nd Eh< Wh82rontin# Hen5e( the tr'nsition 2ro /ohn sa0 0ho to %ho did /ohn see1is not ' sin#le tr'ns2or 'tion( but ' pro5ess in4ol4in# t&o tr'ns2or 'tions% -ub;e5t8Au7ili'ry $n4ersion 'nd &h82rontin# 'y both oper'te independently in other en4iron ents( produ5in# other 2un5tion'l e22e5ts% For e7' ple? Not one o ent did he re#ret his de5ision% 9he #irl 0hom he h'd in4ited did not 5o e% We h'4e 'lso 2ollo&ed the re5ent trend in E-9 to&'rds redu5in# the types o2 tr'ns2or 'tions to the sin#le oper'tion o2 3 o4e ent3? o4e ent 'y be either to the le2t E2or e7' ple( &h8 o4e ent( o4e ent o2 the @b;e5t o2 p'ssi4es( 'nd r'isin#< or to the ri#ht E's in e7tr'position<% Further ore( &e 'ssu e th't 'ny o4ed 5'te#ory le'4es behind 'n e pty position% 9he o4e ent o2 0ho in %ho did Peter in2ite !!!1, 2or e7' ple( h's le2t behind 'n e pty @b;e5t position 'r/ed 888% $n 5urrent E-9 this 'ppro'5h is 5o4ered by 9r'5e theory% 9he 4'rious o4e ent tr'ns2or 'tions re2erred to 'bo4e yield -8 stru5tures% -8stru5ture is 'ssu ed to be the le4el 't &hi5h C'se is 'ssi#ned 'nd 't &hi5h 5oinde7in# t'/es pl'5e% -in5e C'se 'ssi#n ent 'nd 5oinde7in# 're not dis5ussed in this boo/( D8stru5ture 'nd -8

stru5ture &ill loo/ identi5'l 2or 'ny senten5es% 9his is ' boo/ 'bout En#lish synt'7 in the n'rro& sense o2 th't ter ( 'nd the le4els o2 *honeti5 2or 'nd !o#i5'l 2or 're re2erred to only o55'sion8'lly% 9he le4el o2 *honeti5 2or ( in E-9( is th't 't &hi5h ' nu ber o2 'ddition'l orpholo#i5'lJphonolo#i5'l 5h'n#es 're per2or ed% For

E'< Eb< -

3 Pre"ace e7' ple( the '22i7in# o2 the endin# o2 the 2inite 4erb is 'ssu ed to t'/e pl'5e 't the phoneti5 le4el o2 the #r' 'r r'ther th'n 't the synt'5ti5 le4el( i%e% '2ter the le4el o2 -8stru5ture% 9he oper'tions per2or ed on -8stru5tures in the *honeti5 5o ponent le'd to sur2'5e stru5tures% Althou#h -8stru5tures 'nd sur2'5e stru5tures( on the one h'nd( 'nd D8stru5tures 'nd underlyin# stru5tures( on the other( 're not identi5'l in E-9( &e sh'll '/e no ri#id distin5tion bet&een the t&o p'irs( 'nd 'inly de'l &ith sur2'5e stru5tures 'nd underlyin# stru5tures% !o#i5'l 2or ( too( is only introdu5ed dis5ursi4ely( &ith respe5t to the Fbindin#3 rel'tions in senten5es% 9he notion o2 bindin# pl'ys 'n i port'nt p'rt in the tre't ent o2 re2le7i4e pronouns( &hi5h 're usu'lly bound to 'n 'nte5edent in the s' e 5l'use% 9his notion is 'lso used &ith respe5t to the lin/in# o2 rel'ti4e 'nd interro#'ti4e pronouns &ith the 3#'p3 't the 4'5'ted site% Ho&e4er( the tre't ent o2 su5h inter8dependen5ies 't the le4el o2 !o#i5'l 2or is /ept 4ery in2or 'l 'nd the st'nd'rd E-9 tre't ent o2 su5h lin/s in ter s o2 5oinde7in# is not introdu5ed% 1y redu5in# 'bstr'5t 2or 'lis'tions to ' ini u ( &e 2o5us on En#lish senten5es 'nd their 'n'lysis r'ther th'n on the 2or 'l te5hni5'lities o2 the 'n'lysis% $n /eepin# &ith the b'si5 E-9 'ppro'5h o2 this 5ourseboo/( &e sh'll not nor 'lly re2er to se 'nti5s or pr'# 'ti5s( unless in2or 'tion o2 this type i#ht 5l'ri2y the 'n'lysis% $n this boo/ &e h'4e de4oted ore sp'5e to #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tions th'n is 5usto 'ry in the E-9 tr'dition( 'doptin# the 5on2i#ur'tion'l 'ppro'5h to #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tions( &hi5h sees notions su5h 's 3-ub;e5t3( F@b;e5t3( et5%( not 's pri iti4es o2 synt'7( but r'ther 's 2ully 5on2i#ur'tion'lly deter ined( 'nd thus deri4'ti4e% 9his o55'sion'lly le'ds to 'n'lyses &hi5h de4i'te 2ro the ore tr'dition'l des5ripti4e tr'dition( but &e 2eel th't these odern 'n'lyses 're ore illu in'tin# th'n tr'dition'l ones% With respe5t to the oti4'tion o2 the 'n'lysis o2 5onstituent stru5ture 'nd 2un5tion( &e 5onsistently rely on st'nd'rd 'r#u ents o2 o4e ent( substitution 'nd 'n'lo#y% An'lo#y h's been used to oti4'te the presen5e o2 e pty 5'te#ories( 'nd it 'y 't le'st p'rtly be seen 's 'n in2or 'l tr'nsl'tion o2 the *ro;e5tion prin5iple in E-9( &hi5h st'tes th't distribution'l in2or 'tion en5oded in the !e7i5on Ee%#% sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es< ust be preser4ed 't e'5h le4el o2 stru5ture% Her 'n We//er

!ili'ne H'e#e 'n Ni; e#en Gene4'

1 A$M- AND ME9H@D-

re'd F2ro le2t to ri#ht3( or F2ro ri#ht to le2t%3 9he 'rro&s pointin# to the ri#ht indi5'te th't ' senten5e 5onsist o2

'y

i.7 W H AT I S S Y N TA X ? $ynta%" or synt'5ti5 analysis" 'y be de2ined 's? deter inin# the rele4'nt 5o ponent p'rts o2 ' senten5e des5ribin# these p'rts #r' 'ti5'lly% 9he 5o ponent p'rts o2 ' senten5e 're 5'lled constituents& $n other &ords( synt'7 in4ol4es the t&o 5losely rel'ted t's/s o2? E'< bre'/in# do&n the senten5e into its constituents E b< 'ssi#nin# so e #r' 'ti5'l l'bel to e'5h 5onstituent( st'tin# &h't type o2 5onstituent Eor grammatical category' it is( 'nd &h't grammatical function it h's% 9his de2inition o2 synt'7 i plies th't &e st'rt 2ro &h't is re#'rded 's the l'r#est unit o2 synt'5ti5 des5ription 8 the senten5e 888 'nd pro5eed until &e 'rri4e 't the s 'llest e'nin#2ul unit% 9his is 5'lled ' Ftop to botto 3 'n'lysis% 9he units s 'ller th'n the senten5e &ill be re2erred to 's clauses" ()rases" *ords 'nd mor()emes respe5ti4ely% Ho&e4er( inste'd o2 s'yin# th't ' senten5e 5'n be bro/en do&n into s 'ller 'nd s 'ller 5onstituents( &e i#ht 'lso loo/ 't the senten5e the other 0ay round 8 th't is( 2ro botto to top3 8 'nd s'y th't 5onstituents 't di22erent le4els 5'n 5o bine to 2or in5re'sin#ly l'r#er units? &e pro5eed then 2ro the orphe e to the senten5e 's ' &hole% Constituents 're li/e buildin# blo5/s &hi5h p'ttern in 5ert'in &'ys to 2or l'r#er 'nd l'r#er units( the l'r#est unit bein# the senten5e% E'5h 5onstituent Ee75ept the s 'llest< 5'n be bro/en do&n into its 5o ponent p'rts% 9he purpose o2 doin# synt'7 is to dis5o4er the & ' s in &hi5h 5onstituents 5o bine to 2or the structure o2 senten5es% $n this boo/ &e 'dopt the Etr'dition'l< hier'r5hy o2 senten5e 5onstituents( 's sho&n in the 2ollo&in# di'#r' ? -EN9ENCE C!AD-E *HRA-E W@RD M@R*HEME 9his di'#r' represents the hier'r5hi5'l s5'le o2 5onstituents% 9he 2our double8pointed 'rro&s in the di'#r' indi5'te th't it 'y be

Her husb'nd is 'n 'risto5r't%

$ +ims and ,ethods one or ore th'n one 5l'use( th't ' 5l'use 'y 5onsist o2 one or ore th'n one phr'se( th't ' phr'se 'y 5onsist o2 one or ore th'n one &ord( 'nd th't ' &ord 'y 5onsist o2 one or ore th'n one orphe e% Morphe es 're the ini 'l( indi4isible units in synt'7% Con4ersely( 's indi5'ted by the 'rro&s pointin# to the le2t( &e i#ht 'lso s'y th't one or ore th'n one orphe e 'y 5onstitute ' &ord( one or ore th'n one &ord 'y 2or ' phr'se( one or ore th'n one phr'se 'y 2or ' 5l'use( 'nd one or ore th'n one 5l'use 'y 2or ' senten5e% $n &h't 2ollo&s &e sh'll 'lso see th't ' 5l'use 'y 5ont'in one or ore 5onstituent 5l'uses( 'nd th't ' phr'se 'y 5ont'in one or ore 5onstituent phr'ses or 5l'uses% 9o illustr'te the hier'r5hi5'l stru5ture o2 senten5es( let us 5onsider senten5e E1<? E1< 9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd s&'llo&ed it% 9his senten5e 5onsists o2 t&o 5oordin'te 5l'uses( ;oined to#ether by the 5o8ordin'tor and. 9he 2irst 5l'use is? The sna4e 4illed the rat, 'nd the se5ond is? s0allo0ed it. 9he se5ond 5l'use h's ' redu5ed 2or % $ts 5o plete 2or &ould be it s0allo0ed it. 9he 2irst 5l'use in E1< 5onsists o2 t&o phr'ses( 'nd the se5ond( 's it st'nds( 5onsists o2 only one phr'se% 9he t&o phr'ses in the 2irst 5l'use 're The sna4e 'nd 4illed the rat, 'nd the phr'se in the se5ond 5l'use is s0allo0ed it. +s &e sh'll see l'ter( the sna4e is ' noun ()rase 'nd 4illed the rat 'nd s0allo0ed it 're both +er, ()rases& E'5h phr'se is 'de up o2 &ords% The sna4e 5onsists o2 t&o &ords? the 'nd sna4e5 4illed the rat 5onsists o2 three &ords( o2 &hi5h the l'st t&o 6the 7 rat8 '#'in 5onstitute ' noun phr'seG 'nd s0allo0ed it 5onsists o2 t&o &ords( o2 &hi5h the se5ond in itsel2 5onstitutes ' noun phr'se% 9he 5onstituents the rat 'nd it 're e7' ples o2 Enoun< phr'ses &ithin E4erb< phr'ses% -enten5e E1< 5ont'ins ei#ht &ords( in5ludin# the 5oordin'tor and E'5h &ord 5onsists o2 one or t&o orphe es? the, sna4e, rat, and 'nd it are one8 orphe e &ords( &here's 4illed 'nd s0allo0ed 're both t&o8 orphe e &ords% The, sna4e, rat, et5% 're 2ull &ords 'nd orphe es 't the s' e ti e? the &ord 'nd orphe e bound'ries 5oin5ide% 9he t&o orphe es o2 4illed 'nd s0allo0ed 're 4ill 'nd !ed, 'nd s0allo0 'nd !ed Esee 1%+%+<% 1 . 2 REPRESENTING SENTENCE STRUCTURE

1.2.1 BRACKETING 9he synt'5ti5 stru5ture o2 senten5e E1< 'bo4e 'y be represented pro84ision'lly by 'r/in# o22 e'5h 5onstituent 2ro senten5e le4el to &ord le4el

+ims and ,ethods & by sAu're br'5/ets? K L% 9o si pli2y 'tters( &e sh'll i#nore the or 8 phe e bound'ries here% 9his 5on4ention o2 ,racketing yields the 2ollo&in# 'n'lysis( &hi5h loo/s r'ther d'untin# 't 2irst si#ht? - - - K9heL Ksn'/eL L K K/illedL K KtheL Kr'tL L L L E2' K'ndL K K Ks&'llo&edL K KitL L L L L An'lysis E+< is the result o2 2irst br'5/etin# the senten5e( then the t&o 5l'uses( then the phr'ses( 'nd 2in'lly the &ords( 's 2ollo&s? .(entence9 E,'< K9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd s&'llo&ed itL -lauses9 6 ,h< K K9he sn'/e /illed the r'tL 'nd Ks&'llo&ed itL L Phrases9

E,5<
%ords9

K K K9he sn'/eL K/illed Kthe r'tL L L 'nd K Ks&'llo&ed KitL L L L

E,d<

K K K K9heL Ksn'/eL L K K/illedL K KtheL Kr'tL L L L K'ndL K K Ks&'llo&edL KlitLLLLL An'lysis E,d< is o2 5ourse identi5'l &ith E+< 'bo4e% 9he br'5/etin# h's here been done on ' purely intuiti4e b'sis% $n the 2ollo&in# 5h'pters &e sh'll de'l &ith the 2or 'l 'r#u ents &hi5h ;usti2y those 5hoi5es% Che5/ throu#h the 'bo4e 'n'lysis 5're2ully '#'in( 'nd try to br'5/et the 2ollo&in# senten5es 2ro senten5e le4el to &ord le4el in the s' e &'y? E)< 9he terrorists 'ss'ssin'ted the ' b'ss'dor33 E5< E"< He #'4e his other ' present% $n E+< 'bo4e &e 5'n see th't &ord 'nd orphe e bound'ries 'y 5o8 in5ide? the, sna4e, rat, et5% 're 'll one &ord 'nd one orphe e( 's opposed to 4illed 'nd s0allo0ed, &hi5h 're &ords 5onsistin# o2 t&o orphe es e'5h% Words 'nd phr'ses 'y 'lso 5oin5ide( 's in? E>< Iohn l'u#hed%

8 +ims and ,ethods +ims and ,ethods 9 E1,<

$n this senten5e /ohn is both ' phr'se E' noun phr'se< 'nd ' &ord E' noun<G laughed is 'lso both ' phr'se E' 4erb phr'se< 'nd ' &ord E' 4erb<% 9he units senten5e 'nd 5l'use 'lso 5oin5ide in E><% 1r'5/etin# 2ro senten5e le4el to &ord le4el yields E8<? E8< K K KIohnL L K Kl'u#hedL L L L Word( phr'se( 5l'use 'nd senten5e 'y 'lso 5oin5ide( 's in?

9he category la,el is inserted in the botto 5orner o2 the le2t8h'nd br'5/et% 9his senten5e( 's &e h'4e seen( 5onsists o2 t&o 5l'uses? the 5l'use The sna4e 4illed the rat 'nd the 5l'use 6it8 s0allo0ed it. 9he t&o 5l'uses 're ;oined to#ether by the 5oordin'tor and 9he 5l'uses 5'n be br'5/eted 'nd l'belled 's 2ollo&s?

E9< E10<

RunM

9he br'5/etin# o2 senten5e E9< is 's 2ollo&s? KKKKRunLLLL $t is stru5tur'lly one senten5e( one 5l'use( one phr'se 'nd one &ord E'lso one orphe e<% 9he 'bo4e e7' ples sho& th't ' senten5e is not ne5ess'rily lon#er th'n ' 5l'use( ' 5l'use not ne5ess'rily lon#er th'n ' phr'se% 'nd ' phr'se not ne5ess'rily lon#er th'n ' &ord Ein #ener'l( &e sh'll not #o beyond the le4el o2 the &ord in our 'n'lyses<% We sh'll see th't senten5es 'y 4'ry in len#th 'nd 5o ple7ity 2ro one 5l'use to inde2initely 'ny 5l'uses( 5l'uses 2ro one phr'se to inde2initely 'ny phr'ses( 'nd phr'ses 2ro one &ord to inde2initely 'ny &ords% $n Ch'pter + &e sh'll loo/ 't e'5h o2 these #r' 'ti5'l units in ore det'il% 1%+%+ !A1E!!ED 1RACKE9$NG 9he syste o2 br'5/etin# &hi5h &e h'4e used so 2'r is not 4ery s'tis2'5tory% $t is di22i5ult to see( 2or e7' ple( &hi5h br'5/ets #o to#ether to 'r/ o22 ' 5onstituent% 9he not'tion introdu5ed 'bo4e 5ould be i pro4ed by 'ddin# 'n 'ppropri'te #r' 'ti5'l l'bel to e'5h p'ir o2 sAu're br'5/ets% 9he l'bel indi5'tes &h't type o2 5onstituent Eor #r' 'ti5'l 5'te#ory< is 5ont'ined &ithin the br'5/ets% 9his 5on4ention is 5'lled la,elled ,racketing& 9o illustr'te the ne& syste ( let us 5onsider '#'in the stru5ture o2 the senten5e The sna4e 4illed the rat and s0allo0ed it 6618 'bo4e<% We sh'll use sAu're br'5/ets &ith the l'bel - Eshort 2or Fsenten5e3< to 'r/ o22 the bound'ries o2 the &hole senten5e( 's 2ollo&s? E11< Ks9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd s&'llo&ed itL

E1+<

Ks( Ks( 9he sn'/e /illed the r'tL 'nd K Eit<s&'llo&ed itL L

br'5/etin# to represent senten5e stru5ture%

9he t&o 5l'uses 're l'belled - & 'nd -, here( 'nd the &hole senten5e is l'belled -(% - + 'nd -G 're 5l'uses inside -( Ethe nu bers 1(+(, et5% 're 'dded here 'nd else&here ;ust 2or 5on4enien5e? they en'ble us to re2er un' bi#uously to the di22erent -s<% We use the l'bel - 2or senten5es 's &ell 's 5l'uses( sin5e 5l'uses 5'n be de2ined 's -s inside 'n - or inside ' phr'se% 9he 5l'uses in E1+< 5'n be 2urther 'n'lysed into phr'ses 's 2ollo&s? Ks1 Ks(KN*9he sn'/eL K4p/illed K((the r'tL L L 'nd Ks( KN* Eit<L N4ps&'llo&ed KO*itL L L L 9he l'bel N* st'nds 2or noun phr'se( 'nd the l'bel :* 2or 4erb phr'se% The sna4e 'nd the rat 're N*s( be5'use their ost i port'nt ele ent is ' noun EN<G it, &hi5h repl'5es 'n N*% is 'lso 'n N* E52% 1%+%) 'nd +%)%+%+<% 9he :*s in E1,< 5onsist o2 ' 4erb E:< 2ollo&ed by 'n N*% 9he 4erbs 're 4illed ' n d s0allo0ed. The N*s the rat in 4illed the rat 'nd it in s0allo0ed it 're p'rts o2 the :*s( 'nd '5t 's Co ple ents o2 the 4erbs 4illed 'nd s0allo0ed respe5ti4ely% 9he &ords th't '/e up the 'bo4e phr'ses 5'n 'lso be br'5/eted 'nd l'belled 's 2ollo&s? E 1%1< !F( Ks( KO* / ( 9 h e L K(sn'/eL L K(%* Ks/illedL KOp KDe( theL K O r'tL L L L K'ndL ll Ks, KP*Eit<l1 K 4 ( KO(s&'llo&edL KQitL .. i Fhe l'bel Det st'nds 2or deter iner( the l'bel N 2or noun% 'nd the l'bel : 2or 4erb% Noun 'nd 4erb 're ';or *ord classes" 'nd Det is ' 5olle5ti4e ter 2or 4'rious ite s pre5edin# the noun% e%#%? the, a, that, this, some, 'ny% No& 5o p're E1)< &ith E+< in se5tion 1%+%1 'bo4e% 9he only di22eren5e bet&een the t&o is th't p'irs o2 br'5/ets 're l'belled here% @ur synt'5ti5 'n'lysis o2 the senten5e does not usu'lly #o belo& the le4el o2 the &ord or e4en the phr'se( but o55'sion'lly it &ill be use2ul to 'r/ o22 the orphe e stru5ture o2 ' #i4en &ord( 2or e7' ple the stru5ture o2 the p'st tense 2or s o2 4erbs( or o2 the plur'ls 'nd #eniti4es o2 nouns% 9his( too( 5'n be done by e'ns o2 l'belled br'5/etin#( 's( 2or e7' ple( in the 5'se o2 4illed9 E1"< KF K(/illL K 5 d R L Here the l'bel 1 is used 2or the ,ase Eo2 the 4erb<( 'nd the l'bel -u22 2or suffi% Esee se5tion 1%1<% 9hrou#hout this boo/ &e sh'll 2reAuently use this /ind o2 l'belled

Det

:*

8 G : 8N*
N

N * 8

1 0 Aims and ,ethods

1.2.3 TREE DIAGRAMS AND PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES !'belled br'5/etin# is one o2 the ost 5o on &'ys o2 representin# the 5onstituent stru5ture o2 senten5es% Ho&e4er( there 're 'ny other ethods o2 'r/in# di'#r' 'ti5'lly &h't ele ents in ' senten5e #o to#ether 'nd &h't ele ents do not% @ne other 4ery 5o on represent'tion is the tree diagram& 9he tree di'#r' is ' not'tion'l de4i5e &hi5h is entirely eAui4'lent to l'belled br'5/etin#? 'lthou#h it loo/s di22erent( it pro4ides the s' e in2or 'tion 'bout the synt'5ti5 stru5ture o2 ' senten5e% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the 2ollo&in# Esi pli2ied< tree di'#r' o2 the senten5e? 9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd Eit< s&'llo&ed it%

5ont'ined in di'#r' E1"< is essenti'lly the s' e 's th't pro4ided by the l'belled br'5/etin# in E1)< in se5tion 1%+%+% $t is l'r#ely ' 'tter o2 t'ste or pr'5ti5'l 5on4enien5e &hether one 5hooses the not'tion o2 E1)< in se5tion 1%+%+ or th't o2 E1"< 'bo4e% 9o re'd tree di'#r' E1"< &e reAuire so e 'ddition'l ter inolo#y% For e7' ple( &e s'y th't -t Ethe &hole senten5e< is e%(anded 's -+ 'nd -3 Et&o 5l'uses<( &hi5h 're 5oordin'ted by 'nd - t is s'id to 5ont'in 's its immediate constituents -Q -, 'nd the 5oordin'tor and (+ is e7p'nded 's N*8

EJ N : N*

N 9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd Eit< s&'llo&ed t

9he tree di'#r' pro4ides the 'n'lysis o2 senten5e E1< do&n to &ord le4el Edeter iner( noun( 4erb( et5%<G in prin5iple( it &ould 'lso be possible to stop 't phr'se le4el EN*( :*( et5%<( or to #o beyond &ord le4el 'nd indi5'te the orpholo#i5'l stru5ture o2 e'5h o2 the &ords% .ou 5'n '/e your #r' 'ti5'l 'n'lysis 's det'iled 's you li/e( or 's is ne5ess'ry 2or ' spe5i2i5 purpose% 9he synt'5ti5 in2or 'tion

Ai s and ,ethods 11 :*( 'nd so is - 3% 9he :* in e'5h 5'se is e7p'nded 's :8N*% 9he 5onstituents entioned so 2'r 're 5onsidered to be the 'in 5onstituents o" the senten5e% Further do&n the tree( N* 'y '#'in be e7p'nded 's either Det8N 6the!sna4e8 or 's N Eit<% 9here is ' 5on4ention &hi5h is #ener'lly used to su up the syste o2 e7p'ndin# one unit into other units% $t is ' set o2 instru5tions 5'lled ()rase structure rules E*- rules<% !et us pro4ision'lly 2or ul'te the 2ollo&in# 2our *- rules? E$>'< - 8 S - 8 5 o or d 8 E1>b< - 8 8 e N * 8 : * E1>5< E1>d< 9he 'rro&s e'n? Fe7p'nd3 or Fre&rite 3 T 's . E&here T represents 'ny ele ent on the le2t o" the 'rro&( 'nd . 'ny ele ent on the ri#ht<% 9he 5u br'5/ets in rule E1>d< indi5'te th't N* 'y be e7p'nded or re&ritten 's either Det8N or *. 9he 5'te#ory l'bels in tree di'#r' E1"<( su5h 's -G( - +( -,( N*( :*( :( et'?%( 're 'll 'tt'5hed to the nodes o2 th't tree( 'nd the lines 5onne5tin# these nodes 're 5'lled ,ranc)es& 9he node l'bels in the tree di'#r' 5orrespond to the l'bels in the l'belled br'5/etin# in 1%+%+% 9he node l'belled -( in E1"< dominates the nodes l'belled -(( 5ooed( 'nd -,% 9he node l'belled - 6 do in'tes the nodes l'belled N* 'nd :*( but 'lso 'll the other nodes 2urther do&n th't h'l2 o2 the tree% 9he s' e 'pplies to - 3% N*( :*% et5% 're s'id to be do in'ted by -( or -,% We 'lso see th't -( 'nd -G both 5ont'in t&o N*s% @ne N* is immediately dominated by -(J-,( the other by the :*8node% 9he N* i edi'tely do in'ted by the :*8node is 'lso do in'ted by -(J-,( but it is not i edi'tely do in'ted by -(J -,?P1tPt i port'nt to distin#uish bet&een dominance 'nd immediate dominance& $n the l'tter 5'se there ust be no 2urther nodes inter4enin# bet&een the nodes 5onsidered% 9he le%ical items /i&e& the &ords< the, sna4e, 4illed, et5%( 're 'tt'5hed to the so85'lled terminal nodes o2 the tree di'#r' ( i%e% the botto nodes% 9he other nodes in the tree di'#r' 're non-terminal& 9ree di'#r' E1"< sho&s( ' on# other thin#s( th't the EDet< 'nd sna4e EN< 5o bine to 2or one 5onstituent E'n N*<( th't 4illed 6:8 'nd the rat EN*< 5onstitute ' :*( th't the N* the sna4e 'nd the :* 4illed the rat 're ' senten5eJ5l'use E- +< inside 'nother senten5e E-(<(

et5% $n the s' e &'y the ri#ht h'l2 o2 the tree di'#r' the intern'l stru5ture o2 5l'use - ,% $u,ordination o2 ' 5l'use( 's in?

'lso spe5i2ies

12 +ims and ,ethods +ims and ,ethods 13

there 'y be in8de2initely e7' ple?

Np

'ny -s e bedded inside other -s% For

E18<
the r'tL

$ /no& Ksth't the sn'/e /illed 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s? s

E+0<

$ /no& th't you thin/ th't she hopes th't you &ill s'y to her th't you lo4e her%

E19<
N*

:* s

9ree di'#r' E19< is pro4ision'l% We sh'll loo/ in #re'ter det'il 't ho& &e should tre't the seAuen5e that!the sna4e 4illed the rat l'ter Esee se5tion +%,<% 9he pro4ision'l set o2 *- rules in E1>< 5'nnot 2ully des5ribe stru5tures li/e E19<% For e7' ple( rule E1>'< is option'l? it need not 'pply E'2ter 'll( not 'll senten5es 5ont'in 5oordin'te 5l'uses<% We st'rt the re&ritin# oper'tions 2or E19< 't rule E1>b<% Also( inste'd o2 re&ritin# :* 's :8N*( 's stipul'ted by rule E1>5<( &e ust re&rite the :* in E19< 's :8-% ConseAuently( our *- rule E1>5< ust 'llo& 2or this possibility? &e ust 'd'pt it in the 2ollo&in# &'y Ethe 5urly br'5/ets '#'in indi5'te ' 5hoi5e? 3either %%% or3<? E1>5< : * % 8 t 8 : 8 N - * R 9he -( &hi5h no& 'lso o55urs on the ri#ht8h'nd side o2 the 'rro&( 'y in its turn be e7p'nded 's N*8:*( 's indi5'ted in rule E1>b<( 'nd this :* 'y no& be5o e either :8N* or :8-( 'nd so on% $t is possible to h'4e 'n - e bedded inside 'nother -% 9his /ind o2 e beddin# Eor subordin'tion< 'y( in prin5iple( be repe'ted inde2initely 'ny ti es?

Dr'& ' tree di'#r' representin# the synt'5ti5 stru5ture o2 E+0<% in di'#r' E19< -( is ' subordin'te 5l'use( &hi5h 2un5tions inside -(? -( is do in'ted by -$( 'nd i edi'tely do in'ted by :*% -s E5l'uses< 'y 'lso 'ppe'r inside N*s 's in? E+1< K9he sn'/e K&hi5h /illed the r'tL Lbelon#s to our nei#hbours% s Wh't &e h'4e here is not subordin'tion inside the :* E's in E18< 'nd E+0< < but subordin'tion inside 'n N*% 9his 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s?

9he round br'5/ets 'round - e'n th't - is option'l? &e 'y 5hoose to re&rite N* 's Det8N8- or 's Det8N% Altern'ti4ely( 's indi5'ted by the 5urly br'5/ets( &e 'y 'lso re&rite N* 's ;ust N%

1.2.! SENTENCE AND DISCOURSE We h'4e s'id th't in synt'7 the senten5e is re#'rded 's the l'r#est or

E++<

Nis

H D5i Np%

s%
:*

J3888%

the sn'/e
%:*

&hi5h /illed

the

r't

belon#s to our nei#hbours

9his si pli2ied tree di'#r' sho&s th't -( is i edi'tely do in'ted by N*(? -% is 'n i edi'te 5onstituent o2 the N*% 9he triangle under :* in E++< is ' de4i5e 5o only used to indi5'te th't &e 're not 5on5erned &ith the intern'l stru5ture o2 th't 5onstituent% We sh'll o2ten use the tri'n#le &hen the intern'l stru5ture o2 ' 5onstituent is not rele4'nt to the point under dis5ussion% 9o des5ribe senten5es li/e E++< &e ust '#'in 'd'pt the *- rules in E1>< 'bo4e% We re2or ul'te rule E1>d< 's 2ollo&s? E1>d< N * 8 S N e t 8 N H E - < R

13 +ims and ,ethods +ims and ,ethods 1'

Draw at least four different tree diagrams, using the set of S ##.N #$ i l % &'% $ #### $## S rules !elow"

hi#hest unit on the hier'r5hi5'l s5'le o2 5onstituentsG it is the l'r#est unit o2 synt'5ti5 des5ription% 1ut( o2 5ourse( senten5es do not nor 'lly o55ur in isol'tion% 9hey usu'lly 2or p'rt o2 ' l'r#er te7t Eor discourse' &hi5h is 'lso or#'nised in ' p'rti5ul'r &'y% 9he senten5es o2 ' te7t 2ollo& e'5h other in so e Flo#i5'l3 order( 'nd re2le5t ' 5ert'in seAuen5e o2 thou#hts or e4ents% 9here 're o2ten ele ents in ' senten5e &hi5h 'r/ its rel'tionship &ith the conte%t& 9e7ts 're stru5tured( 'nd 're ore th'n ;ust ' r'ndo 5olle5tion o2 senten5es% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the te7t 1.2.3, 5onsistin# o2 only 2our senten5es? Te.t 1.2.3 -oon '2ter bre'/2'st M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es% Mr% C'rey sh'red it &ith t&o nei#hbours% He h'd it 2ro ten till one( &hen the #'rdener too/ it o4er to Mr% Ellis 't the !i es( &ith &ho it re 'ined till se4en% 9hen it &'s t'/en to Miss 1roo/s 't the M'nor llouse( &ho( sin5e she #ot it l'te( h'd the 'd4'nt'#e o2 /eepin# it% Ad'pted 2ro W. -o erset M'u#h' ( ;" <uman )ondage. 9he intern'l stru5ture o2 this te7t is sho&n by ' nu ber o2 2'5tors% For e7' ple? 9he order in &hi5h the 2our senten5es o55ur is not '55ident'lG it re2le5ts the order in &hi5h the e4ents des5ribed in the te7t o55ur% 9he &ords it, he 'nd she rel'te to 5onstituents in pre4ious senten5es% Che5/ &hi5h ele ents these &ords 're rel'ted to in the te7t 'bo4e% 9here is ' lin/ bet&een 3t&o nei#hbours3 in the se5ond senten5e 'nd FMr% Ellis3 'nd 3Miss 1roo/s3 in the t&o 2ollo&in# senten5es% 9he use o2 then at the be#innin# o2 the 2ourth senten5e 'lso indi5'tes th't there is ' 5ert'in te por'l seAuen5e o2 e4ents% !i/e senten5es( te7ts h'4e 'n intern'l stru5ture% Ho&e4er( the stru5tur'l or#'nis'tion o2 te7ts is di22erent 2ro th't o2 senten5es% 9he rules 5onditionin# the or#'nis'tion o2 te7ts 're the rules o2 te%t grammar or discourse grammar" &here's the rules &hi5h

deter ine the stru5ture o2 senten5es '/e up sentence grammar or synta%& 9he rules o2 te7t #r' 'r o2ten reAuire 'n 'ppe'l to notions &hi5h 're not synt'5ti5 Esee points E'<8Ed< 'bo4e<% $n this boo/ &e sh'll only be 5on5erned &ith the des5ription o2 senten5es% 9he 'n'lysis o2 lon#er stret5hes o2 dis5ourse &ill #ener'lly be le2t out o2 5onsider'tion% Althou#h &e sh'll be o22erin# nu erous illustr'ti4e te7ts( &e sh'll usu'lly only p'y 'ttention to the stru5ture o2 the indi4idu'l senten5es in the te7t% @55'sion'lly( &e sh'll #o beyond the le4el o2 the senten5e( i2 this is ne5ess'ry 2or the 5l'ri2i5'tion o2 so e point% 9he e ph'sis o2 this boo/ is on 2or 'l stru5tur'l properties o2 senten5es

r'ther th'n on their pronun5i'tion( their e'nin# or their use in 5o uni5'tion? it is ' boo/ on En#lish synt'7( not on phonolo#y( se 'nti5s( or pr' # 'ti5s% 9hrou#hout this boo/ the ter s F#r' 'r3 or Fsynt'73( 3 F#r' 'ti5'l3 'nd Fsynt'5ti5 &ill he used inter5h'n#e'bly% 9he ter F#r' 'r3 is 'lso so e8ti es used in ' 4ery #ener'l sense to in5lude synt'7( phonolo#y( se 'nti5s( et5%

're% 9o illustr'te so e o2 these pro5esses( let us 5onsider the te7t in 1%,%1%

1. 2. " EXERCISES &(% N #o.Det#N Insert le)i*al items at the terminal nodes of the trees. +e suggest that ,ou *hoose from the following" a)

Eb<
N.

the, a, this, that for the *ategor, Del-. policeman, professor, girl, student for the *ategor, kissed, warned admired for the *ategor, $ if followed !, N . thought, knew, said for the *ategor, $ if followed !, (that)-S; awned, snored, laughed for the *ategor, $ if not followed !, N or S.

E5<

// 0on1ert ea*h tree diagram that ,ou ho1e drawn into a la!elled !ra*2eting re3resentation.

1.3 CONSTITUENCY TESTS We h'4e seen th't te7ts 5onsist o2 senten5es 'nd th't e'5h senten5eJ5l'use 'y be bro/en do&n into the 5onstituents N* 'nd :*% 9he :* 5onsists o2 ' :( &hi5h 'y be 2ollo&ed by one or ore 5onstituents% 9he i edi'te 5onstituents o2 the senten5eJ5l'use EN*88:*< 'nd those o2 the :* 're 5onsidered to be the 'in 5onstituents o2 synt'5ti5 'n'lysis% 9hey 'y be in4ol4ed in ' nu ber o2 pro5esses &hi5h 5h'n#e the 'ppe'r'n5e o2 ' b'si5 senten5e p'ttern% 9hese pro5esses 'l&'ys '22e5t 5o plete 5onstituents( 'nd thus en'ble the student o2 l'n#u'#e to dis5o4er &h't the 5onstituents o2 senten5es

E'< Eh< 1" + i m s and ,ethods +ims and ,ethods 1>

moths, in the se5ond 5oordin'te 5l'use<? this 5ontr'st is 'r/ed in E+< th'n in E1<%

ore 5le'rly

1%,%1 :AR$A9$@N- @N 1A-$C -EN9ENCE *A99ERN- Re'd te7t 1%,%1?

Te.t 1.3.1 Most o2 the sil/ &e see in 1rit'in 5o es 2ro sil/&or s( but &ild sil/ oths in 5ountries li/e $ndi' 'nd I'p'n 'lso produ5e it% 9hey 'll spin 5o5oons 'nd( 'lthou#h their sil/ is not 's 2ine 's sil/&or s3( se4er'l spe5ies 're 5ulti4'ted% 9he t&o ost i port'nt &ild sil/s 're t's'r 'nd u#'% 9's'r is produ5ed in ' hu id 'nd dense belt o2 tropi5'l 2orest in $ndi'% @n5e the 5o5oons h'4e been spun( the l'r#est 're used 2or 2uture breedin#% When the oths e er#e( the 2e 'les 're tethered by thre'd tied round the b'se o2 their &in#s to pre4ent the 2lyin# '&'y% Mu#' sil/ is produ5ed e75lusi4ely in Ass' by the 'ss' iensis 5'ter8pill'r% 9he sil/ 4'ries in 5olour 'nd te7ture( dependin# on their diet% 9hose 2ed on the youn# le'4es o2 the ';'n/ori tree produ5e p'te sil/ 8 'l ost 5re' y &hite 8 &hile those 2ed on older le'4es produ5e sil/ o2 ' #olden 5olour% Ad'pted 2ro ;bser2er EColour supple ent<( 1) M'r5h 198+%

$n the se5tions belo& &e sh'll illustr'te the ost i port'nt senten5e pro5esses &hi5h h'4e 'pplied or 'y 'pply to the senten5es in this te7t% We sh'll de'l brie2ly &ith oper'tions 5'lled cle"ting 61.3.28, pseudo! cle"ting 61.3.38, passi2isation 61.3.38, pronominalisation 61.3.'8 'nd "ronting 61.3.$8. For ' ore det'iled '55ount( see Ch'pter )% 1%,%+ C!EF9$NG 9he 2irst senten5e o2 te7t 1%,%1 5ont'ins t&o 5oordin'te 5l'uses% 9he 2irst 5l'use is? E1< Most o2 the sil/ &e see in 1rit'in 5o es 2ro sil/&or s% 9he 5onstituent "rom sil40orms in E1< 'y be #i4en ore e ph'sis by pl'5in# it 't the be#innin# o2 the senten5e 'nd Fsurroundin#3 it by the &ords it 0as/0as ... that, 's 2ollo&s? E+< $t is "rom sil40orms th't ost o2 the sil/ &e see in 1rit'in 5o es% E1< 'nd 628 h'4e ' di22erent out&'rd 'ppe'r'n5e Eor form'" but their 5on8tent Eor meaning' is ore or less the s' e% 9he only di22eren5e in e'nin# bet&een the is th't in E+< the ele ent "rom sil40orms is 4ery e ph'ti5'lly 5ontr'sted &ith so ethin# else in the 5onte7t E 0ild sil4

9he oper'tions o2 2rontin# ' 5onstituent li/e "rom sil40orms 'nd sur8 roundin# it by it 0as/0as... that are p'rt o2 ' pro5ess /no&n 's clefting& $2 &e represent the strin# "rom sil40orms by =, &e 5ould su 'rise the pro5ess 35 2ollo&s? C!AD-E $t is T th't C!AD-E K&ith TL K&ithout TL -o? Most o2 the sil/ &e see in 1rit'in 5o es "rom sil40orms. $t is "rom sil40orms th't ost o2 the sil/ &e see in 1rit'in 5o es% Consider 'lso? /ane ga2e this hoo4 to )ill on (aturday. A#'in &e sho& ho& one 5'n e7tr'5t ' 5onstituent 'nd put it in ' ore pro inent position by 'pplyin# the pro5ess o2 5le2tin#? E'< T S on (aturday $t &'s on (aturday th't I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill% 6h8 = > to )ill $t &'s to )ill th't I'ne #'4e this hoo/ on -'turd'y%

ga2e, 2or e7' ple( is not%

E5< T S this boo4

$t &'s this boo4 th't I'ne #'4e to 1ill on -'turd'y%

Ed< = > /ane $t &'s /ane th't #'4e this boo/ to

1ill on -'turd'y% -enten5es resultin# 2ro the 5le2tin# pro5ess 're 5'lled cleft sentences& $t is not possible to produ5e ' 5le2t senten5e by puttin# ;ust 'nythin# in the position 2or T% For e7' ple? E,< U$t &'s /ane ga2e th't this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% Cle2tin# 5'nnot '22e5t the strin# /ane ga2e, be5'use this is not ' 5onstituent in the senten5e% EAn 'steris/ in 2ront o2 ' senten5e e'ns th't the senten5e is un#r' 'ti5'l in En#lish% 9his 5on4ention &ill be used throu#hout the boo/<% Cle2tin# is ' use2ul &'y o2 dis5o4erin# &hi5h &ords in ' senten5e 2or 5onstituents 'nd &hi5h do not? /ane is ' 5onstituent( but /ane

/4 +ims and ,ethods Aims and ,ethods 19

/.(.( SE5D6#0LE7TING A pro5ess 5losely rel'ted to 5le2tin# is th't o2 (seudo-clefting& 9his in4ol4es the use o2 0hat to 2or senten5es li/e? E)< Wh't I'ne did &'s #i4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y%

Consider the se5ond senten5e o2 te7t 1%,%1( &hi5h be#ins &ith they 'nd &hi5h 'lso 5ont'ins the &ord their. Wh't do they 'nd their rel'te to= 9o

E5< E"<

Wh't I'ne #'4e to 1ill &'s this boo/% 9his boo/ is &h't I'ne #'4e to 1ill on -'turd'y%

9hese three senten5es 5'n 'll be rel'ted to the senten5e /ane ga2e this boo4 to )ill on (aturday. *seudo85le2tin#( '22e5ts &hole 5onstituents( e%#% ga2e this boo4 to )ill on (aturday 'nd this boo4. /.(.8 ASSI$ISATI6N Most o2 our e7' ple senten5es 'bo4e e7press 'n '5ti4ity per2or ed by ' person( 'nd '22e5tin# so e other person( 'ni 'l or thin# &hi5h under#oes the '5ti4ity% 9he person &ho per2or s the '5ti4ity is the Agent" 'nd &ho8e4er or &h'te4er under#oes it is 5'lled the *'tient% A#ent 'nd *'tient 're roles& $n the E'<8senten5es in E>< 'nd E8< &e 2irst ention the A#ent( then the *'tient% $n the Eb<8senten5es it is the other &'y round% 9he 5h'n#e 2ro E'< to Eb< is (assi+isation& 9he e7' ples 're t'/en 2ro te7t 1%,%1% E>'< Wild sil/ oths in 5ountries li/e $ndi' 'nd I'p'n 'lso produ5e it%

E>b< E8'< E8b<

$t is 'lso produ5ed by &ild sil/ oths in 5ountries li/e $ndi' 'nd I'p'n% *eople 5ulti4'te se4er'l spe5ies% -e4er'l spe5ies 're 5ulti4'ted%

!i/e 5le2tin#( p'ssi4is'tion is ' &'y o2 re'rr'n#in# the in2or 'tion in ' senten5e? i2 2or so e re'son the *'tient is to be 'de ore pro inent( &e 'y use ' p'ssi4e senten5e( $n p'ssi4es the A#ent role is no lon#er obli#'torily e7pressed E52% E8b< 'bo4e<% $n '5ti4e senten5es( nor 'lly( the A#ent pre5edes 'nd the *'tient 2ollo&s% $n p'ssi4e senten5es the *'tient pre5edes 'nd the A#ent( i2 'ny( 2ollo&s% *'ssi4is'tion 'lso '22e5ts 5o plete 5onstituents% -enten5e E>b<( 2or e7' ple( sho&s th't 0ild sil4 moths in countries li4e India and /apan 'nd it 're both 5onstituents% /.(.9 :6N6;INALISATI6N

'ns&er this Auestion( &e ust loo/ 't the pre5edin# senten5e% 9he t&o &ords they 'nd their h'4e the s' e re2eren5e 's 0ild sil4 moths in coun! tries li4e India and /apan9 they 'nd their 're 5o8re2erenti'l &ith the N*% -in5e they 5'n be substituted 2or 'n N*( they 're 5'lled (ronouns" or ore #ener'lly pro82or s% -ubstitution by pronouns is 5'lled prono in'lis'tion% !i/e 5le2tin# 'nd p'ssi4is'tion( prono in'lis'tion 5'n '22e5t 5onstituents only% /.(.< 7:6NTING 9he 2ourth senten5e o2 te7t 1%,%1 is 's 2ollo&s? E9 < 9's'r is produ5ed in ' hu id 'nd dense belt o2 tropi5'l 2orest in $ndi'%

His un*le died from fatt, degeneration of the heart. The girl with the red hair has won the 3ri?e. The man disa33eared last wee2. @ohn o3ened the *ellar door. Anne stirred the mi)ture *ontinuousl,. Someone has 2illed the dragon. The sAuatters ha1e o**u3ied two !uildings. The lad, standing in the *orner has Bust !ought that famous :u!ens 3ointing. ll 0omment on the differen*e !etween the following two senten*es, and e)3lain wh (a) fits !etter in te)t /.(./ than &!%" &a +hen the moths emerge, the females are tethered !, thread tied round the !ase of their wings to 3re1ent them fl,ing awa,.

$ his senten5e 5ont'ins the strin# in a humid and dense belt o" tropical "orest in India. &hi5h 'y he o4ed to the be#innin# o2 the senten5e( 's 2ollo&s? E10< $n ' hu id 'nd dense belt o2 tropi5'l 2orest in $ndi'( t's'r is produ5ed%

We 5'll this pro5ess 2rontin# Eor (re(osing'& @nly 5ert'in senten5e ele8 ents 5'n be 2ronted( 'nd these ele ents ust be 5onstituents% /.(.= EXE:0ISES 0onsider the senten*e" !wo oung "utch #ournalists insulted the new $rime %inister of &ritain on tele'ision last night( 0left>rig and pseudo-clefting) 3rodu*e *left and 3seudo# *left senten*es from this e)am3le. $cssi'isation) gi1e the atient element more 3rominen*e !, ma2ing the senten*e 3assi1e. $ronominciisation) re3la*e the N s in the senten*e !, 3ronouns, where1er ,ou *an. *ronting) 3la*e as man, *onstituents os 3ossi!le in front 3osition without *lefting. Tr, to *onstru*t 3assi1e senten*es *orres3onding to the following a*ti1e senten*es &3assi1isation is not alwa,s 3ossi!le%" The go1ernment s3ends thousands of 3ounds on road safet, e1er, ,ear. The do*tor 3ut m, aunt on o stri*t diet.

+1

+0 +ims and ,ethods &!% +hen the moths emerge, it is the females that ore tethered !, thread round the !ase of the females- wings to 3re1ent the females fl,ing awa,. I$ 0omment on the differen*e !etween the following 3airs of senten*es" &l*% ;uga sil2 is 3rodu*ed e)*lusi1el, in Assam !, the assomiensis *ater3illar. &/ !% E)*lusi1el, in Assam, the assamiensis *ater3illar 3rodu*es muga sil2. &'o% The sil2 1aries in *olour and te)ture, de3ending on their diet. &'!% It is in *olour and te)ture that the sil2 1aries, de3ending on the *ater3illarsdiet. &(o% Those fed on the ,oung lea1es of the maBan2ori tree 3rodu*e 3ole sil2 # almost *ream, white ### while those fed on older lea1es 3rodu*e sil2 of o golden *olour. ole sil2 # almost *ream, white # is 3rodu*ed !, those fed on the ,oung lea1es of the maBan2ori tree, while sil2 of o golden *olour is 3rodu*ed !, those fed on older lea1es.

The following 3assage is the &slightl, ado3ted% first 3aragra3h of an essa, !, the Ameri*an author @ames Caldwin. aint out fa*tors and de1i*es whi*h ser1e to e)3ress *onne*tions !etween the senten*es in this te)t. 6n the 'Dth of @ul,, in /D8(, m, father died. 6n the same da,, a few hours later, his last 1 *hild was ,orn( -'er a month ,efore this, while all our energies were *on*entrated in wait-( mg for these e1ents, there had !een, in Detroit, one of the !loodiest ra*e riots of the *entur,. Two da,s !efore m, father-s funeral, while he la, in state in the underta2er-s *ha3el, a ra*e riot !ro2e our in Harlem. 6n the morning of the (rd of August, we dro1e m, father to the gra1e,ard through a wilderness of smashed 3late glass. @ames Caldwin, .otes of a .ati'e Son/

&(!l

$ Indi*ate whi*h of the itali*ised strings in the senten*es !elow *an !e re3la*ed !, o 3ronoun. 6!ser1e how the form of the 3ronoun 1aries with its 3osition in the senten*e. loon is slimming. !he poor thing must ha1e !een 3rett, des3erate. +er hus,and is a reel aristo*rat. The do*tor *alled the oung girl a fool. I shall s3ea2 to the headmistress( His wire is Gree2. I li2e that 3i*ture of our father( !he ,o s 2illed the rots with a long stick( !he new-,orn ,a, was ado3ted !, an elderl, couple( "a'id was widel, a**laimed for his a'ant-garde paintings(

CONSTITUENTS

$n this 'nd the 2ollo&in# 5h'pters &e sh'll be 'l ost e75lusi4ely 5on85erned &ith the 5onstituent stru5ture o2 En#lish senten5es( not th't o2 te7ts% As &e h'4e seen in Ch'pter 1% senten5es 5'n be 'n'lysed into 5l'uses( 5l'uses into phr'ses( phr'ses into &ords( 'nd &ords into orphe es% -enten5es 're hier'r5hi5'lly or#'nised into di22erent constituents&

'./ INT:6D50TI6N !et us return to one o2 our e7' ple senten5es in Ch'pter 1? E$< 9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd Eit< s&'llo&ed it% We h'4e 'r#ued th't sentences h'4e structure" 'nd 're not ;ust strin#s o2 5ords &hi5h o55ur in ' r'ndo order% 9he &ords do not ;ust 2ollo& e'5h i $her li/e the be'ds on ' strin# or the 5'rri'#es o2 ' tr'in( 'll o2 &hi5h 're o2 the s' e si6e 'nd stru5ture( 5onne5ted &ith e'5h other in one str'i#ht the 'nd in e7'5tly the s' e &'y% 9he &ords o2 ' senten5e 're stri5tly or#'nised intern'lly? there is 'n underlyin# p'ttern% For e7' ple( the #oes &ith sna4e r'ther th'n &ith 4illed, 'nd it is ore 5losely 'sso5i'ted &ith ?,0allo0ed th'n &ith and, 4illed or sna4e. 9he stru5ture o2 senten5es 5'n be dis5o4ered by 5ert'in 5onstituen5y tests% -i il'rly( &e h'4e 'r#ued( it &ould be n'i4e to thin/ o2 te.ts 's bein# si ply 'de up o2 le7i5'l ite s strun# to#ether one '2ter the other% 9he ite s in ' te7t 're so eho& or#'nised? te7ts 'lso h'4e ' 5ert'in stru5ture% $3e7ts 5ont'in one or ore p'r'#r'phs( o2ten set o22 by indent'tion% *'r'8#r'phs in turn 5onsist o2 senten5es( &hi5h 're usu'lly set o22 by ' 5'pit'l l'ter 't the be#innin# 'nd ' 2ull stop( 'n e75l' 'tion 'r/ or ' Auestion 'r/ 't the end% 9hus( te7ts 're hier'r5hi5'lly or#'nised into p'r'#r'phs( s'd p'r'#r'phs into senten5es% 9here 're ini 'l te7ts &hi5h 5ont'in only one p'r'#r'ph( &hi5h in turn 5onsists o2 only one senten5e% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the 2ollo&in# noti5es? +< :isitors ust not 2eed the 'ni 'ls% i E,< -hopli2ters &ill be prose5uted% Announ5e ents su5h 's these 're one8p'r'#r'ph( one8senten5e te7ts% Most te7ts( ho&e4er( 5ont'in ore th'n one p'r'#r'ph( 'nd e'5h p'r'#r'ph ore th'n one senten5e%

5he'ted 'lle#edly% Geor#e 5he'ted 't

-onstituents -onstituents 23 H'r4'rd H'r4'rd H'r4'rd H'r4'rd H'r4'rd H'r4'rd Et5%
22

'lle#edly% Geor#e 5he'ted 'lle#edly 't% 'lle#edly Geor#e 5he'ted 't% 'lle#edly Geor#e 't 5he'ted%

2.1.1 EXERCISE The following e)er*ise illustrates on*e again what we mean !, hierar*hi*al organisation &or stru*ture%. In ea*h string !elow the words ha1e !een s*ram!led. Tr, to *onstru*t one or more senten*es from these random strings. Har1ard#George#at#allegedl,#*heated. eter#dog#are#his#and#great#friends. Arthur# aul#sAuash ra*2et#,esterda,# lent#his. a33ointed#!een#George# manager#has. Bo2e#affair#whole#@ohn# trea ted#as#stu3id#the#a the#The#a# rose#!o,#g irl#!o ught#red#,oung#3rett,. not# him#her#She#ad1entures#London##tell#a!out## in#did. ma2es#dust#All#,ou#that#thirst,. She#awa,#went#*lo,s#three#for. des*ri!ed#'9#(E#She# old#as#!etween#and#gunman#,ears#!eing#the. He #her##hi s#new#!oo2s#da,#re*ords#and#a# for#lent. ill##I itfie#!o,#!een#ma,#Her#ha1e# ,esterda,. should#*areful#*hildren#!een#ha1e# The#more. !o,#stor,#girl#The#interesting# 7ren*h##English#told#the#an. her#She#long# da,s##these#wears#hair. 2.1.2 WORD ORDER -tri5tly 'the 'ti5'lly( e'5h o2 the strin#s in +%1%1 should 'llo& 2or ' #re't nu ber o2 5o bin'tions% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the strin#? E)< H'r4'rd8Geor#e8't8'lle#edly85he'ted%

-u5h ' r'ndo pro5edure &ith 2i4e &ords should yield 1+0 di22erent 5o bin'tions% Ho&e4er( only so e o2 these strin#s &ill be 5orre5t En#lish senten5es% 9he senten5es &hi5h the #r' 'r o2 En#lish does not 'llo& 're s'id to be ungrammatical& 9he 2ollo&in# senten5es 're 'll #r' 'ti5'l( but they 'y be ordered on ' ore8or8less des5endin# s5'le o2 acce(ta,ility: E11< Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he'ted 't H'r4'rd%

$2 senten5es &ere r'ndo 5o bin'tions o2 &ords( &e should 't le'st be 'ble to 2or the 2ollo&in# Fsenten5es3? Geor#e 't 'lle#edly 5he'ted% Geor#e 't

At

H'r4'rd

Geor#e

'lle#edly

5he'ted%

Alle#edly Geor#e 5he'ted 't H'r4'rd% = Alle#edly 't H'r4'rd Geor#e 5he'ted% = Geor#e 't H'r4'rd 'lle#edly 5he'ted% = Geor#e 't H'r4'rd 5he'ted 'lle#edly% -enten5es E11<8E1,< 're 'll 2'irly nor 'l( E11< bein# the ost usu'l strin#% 9he senten5es E1)<8E1"< h'4e ' 4ery unusu'l &ord order( 'nd reAuire ' spe5i'l inton'tion to sound '55ept'ble% We s'y th't senten5es E1)<8E1"< 're marked stylisti5'lly? they &ill only o55ur r'rely 'nd in e75eption'l 5ir5u st'n5es( i2 't 'll% 9he other senten5es 're less 'r/ed( 'nd E11< 'y be s'id to be the unmarked 4ersion% $n order to be 'ble to s'y &hy E1)<( 2or e7' ple( is less usu'l th'n E11<( E1+< or E1,<( it is ne5ess'ry to be 'ble to 5o p're the % 9hese senten5es do not di22er &ith respe5t to the nu ber or /inds o2 &ords% Wh't distin#uishes the is the order o2 the &ords% 0ord order in En#lish is 2i7ed to ' l'r#e e7tent( 'nd i2 ' #i4en &ord order is disrupted the senten5e 'y be5o e less '55ept'ble or e4en un#r' 'ti5'l% $n order to spe5i2y the &ord order o2 En#lish senten5es( &e i#ht( o2 5ourse( de4ise ' rule s'yin#? Fi2 you h'4e the &ords <ar2ard, @eorge, at, cr Aeated, 'nd allegedly, then you 5'n produ5e #r' 'ti5'l En#lish senten5es by 'rr'n#in# the &ords 's 2ollo&s? E1>< Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he'ted 't H'r4'rd%

une5ono i5'l( 'nd &e ust there82ore loo/ 2or ore #ener'l rules o2 senten5e 2or 'tion% -ynt'7 should pro84ide ' generalised '55ount o2 senten5e stru5ture%

E18< E19<

At H'r4'rd Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he'ted% Alle#edly Geor#e 5he'ted 't H'r4'rd% Et5%3

-u5h ' rule &ould yield ' list o2 possible &ord orders( #i4en these 2i4e &ords% 1ut su5h 'n 'ppro'5h &ould e'n th't &e ust 2or ul'te ' sep'r'te rule 2or e'5h o2 the 2ollo&in# strin#s? E+0< I'ne8supposedly8.'le85he'ted8't%

E+1<

1ill8'lle#edly8DC!85he'ted8't% Et5%

$2 &e pro5eeded in this &'y( &e &ould end up &ith ' #r' 'r 5onsistin# o2 'n enor ous set o2 di22erent rules( e'5h o2 &hi5h &ould &or/ 2or only one #i4en senten5e% 9his is ob4iously 4ery

23 -onstituents -onstituents 2'

2.1.3 CONSTITUENTS We /no& no& th't so e &ords in ' senten5e 're lin/ed ore 5losely to#ether th'n others% 9hey 2or #r' 'ti5'l units &ithin the senten5e( 'nd 'ny 4'ri'tion in the order o2 &ords ust respe5t the 2'5t th't there 're su5h units% 9hese #r' 'ti5'l units Esenten5e( 5l'use( phr'se( &ord 'nd orphe e< 're the 5onstituents o2 ' senten5e% We h'4e 'lso brie2ly noted in Ch'pter 1 th't there 're 4'rious pro5esses &hi5h help us to identi2y su5h 5onstituents% $n senten5es E11<8E1"< 'bo4e( 2or e7' ple( at 'nd <ar2ard 5'n he seen to he ti#htly 5onne5ted? they 2or ' 5onstituent% 9hey 're in 2'5t only r'rely sep'r'ted( 'nd the resultin# senten5e is then not 4ery #ood% E++< =H'r4'rd Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he'ted 't% Here 2ollo&s ' list o2 so e o2 the tests &hi5h 5'n be used to identi2y strin#s li/e at <ar2ard 's 5onstituents? E'< 9he strin# at <ar2ard 5'n be repl'5ed by one &ord 6there89 Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he'ted 't H'r4'rd there @ne 5'n 's/ ' Auestion o2 the 2ollo&in# 2or ?

5o ponents? their 5onstituent stru5ture &ill be 'n'lysed% We sh'll be loo/in# 't the 5onstituents in hier'r5hi5'l order( st'rtin# &ith the l'r#est unit o2 our 'n'lysis( the senten5e( #oin# do&n to the le4el o2 the 5l'use( the ne7t unit do&n on the s5'le( 'nd then do&n to the phr'se 'nd to the &ord% 9he stru5ture o2 &ords &ill only be dis5ussed &here rele4'nt%

Eb<

Where did Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he't=

E5<

'nd the 'ns&er &ill be at <ar2ard. %here 5orresponds to Eor 3Auestions3< at <ar2ard. +t 'nd <ar2ard 5'n be o4ed 'round to#ether( 's the senten5es E11<8E1"< illustr'te% it &'s at <ar2ard th't Geor#e 'lle#edly 5he'ted%

Ed< +t <ar2ard can be the 2o5us ele ent T in ' 5le2t senten5e?
9hese tests 're used to deter ine the 5onstituent8hood o" at <ar2ard. 9heir 'ppli5'bility 'y be su ed up 's 2ollo&s? +t 7 <ar2ard E'< -ubstitution by one &ord Eb Buestioned ? by one &ord E5< Mo4e to#ether Ed C'n be the 2o5us ele ent T in ' 5le2t senten5e y e y y y

$t is the purpose o2 this 5h'pter to bre'/ do&n senten5es into their

9hrou#hout this boo/ the 5onstituent stru5ture o2 senten5es( 5l'uses( phr'ses( et5% &ill be indi5'ted by e'ns o2 l'belled br'5/etin# Esee 1%+%+< or by e'ns o2 tree di'#r' s Esee 1%+%,<%

E,< E)<

%hen did he 5o e b'5/= %hich girl did 1ill li/e best=

2.2 SENTENCES 2.2.1 SIMPLE DECLARATI#E AND INTERROGATI#E SENTENCES Consider the pie5e o2 5on4ers'tion in te7t +%+%1? Te.t 2.2.1 Coroner? 9he 5ollision o55urred 't the ;un5tion o2 Hi#h -treet 'nd Chur5h Ro'd% Ho& 2'r '&'y &ere you= Witness? $ &'s 5) y'rds( + 2eet( " in5hes '&'y 2ro th't spot% Coroner? .ou 're 4ery pre5ise% Did you e'sure the dist'n5e= Witness? .es% $ e'sured it 5're2ully% Coroner? Why did you e'sure it= Witness? $ /ne& th't so e idiot &ould 's/ e% Ad'pted 2ro Christi'n 1r'nn( Pass the Port. 9his 5on4ers'tion 5le'rly in4ol4es 'n e75h'n#e o2 in2or 'tion? the 5oroner 's/s Auestions( 'nd the &itness tries to 'ns&er the % -enten5es 5'n #ener'lly be used to #i4e in2or 'tion( 'nd they 5'n be used to 's/ 2or in2or 'tion% $denti2y the Auestions in the 'bo4e te7t% Buestions li/e Bid you measure the distance1 's/ 2or the 'ns&er Ces or No% 9hey 're s'id to he Ces!*o Auestions% $2 you 's/ ' Ces!9*o Auestion( you &'nt to /no& &hether so ethin# did or did not h'ppen% Ho&e4er( i2 you /no& th't so ethin# h'ppened( you i#ht &'nt to he'r 'bout the 5ir5u st'n5es o2 the e4ent Ee%#% the ti e( pl'5e( re'son o2 the e4ent<( or you i#ht &'nt to /no& ore 'bout the p'rti5ip'nts Ethe people in4ol4ed<% When the 5oroner in the te7t 'bo4e 's/s %hy did you measure it1, he /no&s th't the &itness e'sured the dist'n5e( be5'use the &itness h's ;ust s'id so% 1ut the 5oroner does not /no& the re'son 2or this 60hy85 5onseAuently he 's/s the &itness to supply the issin# in2or 'tion% Buestions &hi5h 's/ 2or ' p'rti5ul'r pie5e o2 in2or 'tion( r'ther th'n 2or si ply Ces or ?:o( 're 5'lled &h8Auestions% We 5'll the &h8Auestions be5'use they 're o2ten introdu5ed by ' &ord Eor phr'se< be#innin# &ith 0h!. For e7' ple? E1< %here did Iohn hide the oney= E+< %hat did she s'y=

2$ -onstituents -onstituents 2& E"< E>< E 8<

E5< 0ho(m) did ou eet there= Ho&e4er( the &h8&ord does not 'l&'ys open the Auestion% $t 'lso 'ppe'r inside the 2irst 5onstituent o2 the senten5e? Dor 0hat reason did you le'4e e'rly= In 0hat 0ay did Iohn o22end her= +t 0hat distance &ere you 2ro th't spot=

'y

e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith herG but his 'unt 2e'red th't he i#ht 5't5h so ethin#( 'nd his un5le s'id th't e4il 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners% Ad'pted 2ro W% -o erset M'u#h' ( ;" <uman )ondage. @2 the t&o te7ts( the 184ersion 'ppro7i 'tes the ori#in'l p'ss'#e in -o erset M'u#h' 3s no4el ore 5losely% Ho& 'ny senten5es 're there in the A8te7t= Ho& 'ny do you 2ind in the 18te7t= Note th't the se5ond( third( 'nd 2ourth senten5es o2 A h'4e been ;oined to#ether in 1 to 2or one lon# senten5e%

9hese 're 'lso &h8Auestions% In 0hat 0ay 5'n be repl'5ed by ho0, 'nd at 0hat distance by ho0 "ar. <o0 'nd 5onstituents 5ont'inin# ho0 're 'lso re#'rded 's &h8ele ents% For e7' ple? E9< <o0 did you #et to /no& hi =

E10< E11< E1+<

<o0 "ar a0ay &ere you 2ro <o0 old 're you=

th't spot=

<o0 much money do you e'rn=

-enten5es used to 's/ Auestions 're interrogati2e senten5esG senten5es used to supply in2or 'tion 're declarati2e senten5es% 2.2.2 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES Co p're te7ts +%+%+%A 'nd +%+%+%1? Te.t 2.2.2.+ M'ry Ann3s stories o2 the se' tou5hed *hilip3s i '#in'tion% @ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her% His 'unt 2e'red th't he i#ht 5't5h so ethin#% His un5le s'id th't e4il 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners% Ad'pted 2ro W% -o erset M'u#h' ( ;" <uman )ondage. !ext 2(2(2(& M'ry Ann3s stories o2 the se' tou5hed *hilip3s i '#in'tion% @ne

9he bound'ries o2 the senten5es in A 're still 4isible in 1? the pl'5e &here the lin/in# h's t'/en pl'5e is indi5'ted by e'ns o2 spe5i'l pun5tu'tion E' 5o ' or ' se i85olon< 'nd by e'ns o2 5oordin'tors su5h 's and, but 'nd or. A 5l'use &hi5h is 5oordin'ted &ith 'nother 5l'use in this &'y is 5'lled ' 5on;oin% 9hus( the se5ond senten5e o2 1 5onsists o2 three 5on;oins &hi5h h'4e been ;oined to 2or one senten5e% 9he three 5on;oins 're? E1,'< @ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her% E1,h< Ebut< his 'unt 2e'red th't he E 1,5< E'nd< his un5le s'id th't e4il 5o 'nners% i#ht 5't5h so ethin#% uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood

belo&% 9here 're 'lso i7ed types o2 senten5es( &hi5h in4ol4e both 5o8 ordin'tion 'nd subordin'tion? there 'y be subordin'te 5l'uses &ithin 5on;oins 'nd subordin'te 5l'uses 'y 'lso be 5oordin'ted% An e7' ple o2 28 -onstituents the 2or er is senten5e E1,< 'bo4e Erepe'ted here 's E+0<<? E+0< @ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith herG but his 'unt 2e'red th't he i#ht 5't5h so ethin#( 'nd his un5le s'id th't e4il 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners%

E?

9he 2ollo&in# 're e7' ples o2 5oordin'tion o2 subordin'te 5l'uses?

+

E+

A senten5e &hi5h 5onsists o2 ' strin# o2 5oordin'ted 5l'uses E5on;oins< is 5'lled ' 5o pound senten5e% Here 're so e 2urther e7' ples o2 5orn8pound senten5es? E1)< Geor#e 5he'ted 't H'r4'rd 'nd I'ne 5he'ted 't .'le%

r't and it s&'llo&ed it%

E5<

E+1<

$ /no& th't the

E+,b< 9he sn'/e /illed the

r't( be"ore it s&'llo&ed it% Eb< 9he 5oordin'tor 'l&'ys 'ppe'rs in ' position bet&een t&o 5o8 ordin'ted 5l'uses( &here's the subordin'tor is p'rt o2 the subordin'te 5l'use% As ' result( it is i possible to pl'5e the se5ond 5on;oin to#ether &ith the 5oordin'tor in 2ront o2 the 2irst 5on;oin% Co p're? E+)'< 9he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd it s&'llo&ed it%

E15< E1"< E1><

-ue &ent to !ondon 'nd st'yed there 2or ' &ee/% Iohn studied 4ery h'rd l'st ye'r but he 2'iled his test% *'ul &ill #o to the 5ine ' toni#ht( or he &ill st'y 't ho e to re'd ' boo/%

sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd Eth't it< s&'llo&ed it%

E++<

$n e7' ples E1)<8E1>< si ple senten5es h'4e been 5oordin'ted to 2or 5o pound senten5es% A third 5'te#ory is th't o2 com(le% senten5es% 9o de2ine these( let us 5onsider the senten5es? E18< $ /no& th't the sn'/e /illed the r't%

9he sn'/e &hi5h /illed the r't 'nd E&hi5h< s&'llo&ed it belon#s to our nei#hbours%

E19<

9he sn'/e &hi5h /illed the r't belon#s to our nei#hbours%

$n Elb< the strin# that the sn'/e 4illed the rat is ' 5l'use( but it is not 5o8ordin'ted &ith 'nother 5l'use% R'ther( it 2or s p'rt o2 'nother 5l'useG it is e bedded in 'nother 5l'use% 9he other 5l'use Ethe main 5l'use< is? 1 4no0 th't the sna4e 4illed the rat. 9he e bedded 5l'use is ' 5onstituent o2 the :* o2 the 'in 5l'use Esee +%)%,<% $n E19< the strin# 0hich 4illed the rat is 'lso ' 5l'use% 9his 5l'use 2or s p'rt o2? The sna4e 0hich 4illed the rat. &hi5h is 'n N* Esee +%)%+<% 9he 5l'use is e bedded in the N*G the e bedded 5l'use is ' 5onstituent o2 the phr'se in &hi5h it o55urs% -enten5es &hi5h 5ont'in e bedded 5l'uses o2 this /ind 're s'id to be comple.. We sh'll return to the synt'5ti5 di22eren5es bet&een 5o pound 'nd 5o ple7 senten5es

9hese i7ed types o2 senten5es 're 5'lled com(ound-com(le% senten5es% 9here 're i port'nt di22eren5es bet&een 5oordin'te 'nd subordin'te 5l'uses% For e7' ple? E'< Coordin'te 5l'uses 're introdu5ed by 5oordin'tors 6and, but, or, "or, etc.8.. 'nd subordin'te 5l'uses by subordin'tors E 0hen, be"ore, because, i", since, although, that, et5%<% Co p're? E+,'< 9he sn'/e /illed the

E+)b< And it s&'lln&ed it%

the sn'/e /illed the r't% @n the other h'nd( subordin'te 5l'uses 'nd the subordin'tors &hi5h intro8 du5e the 5'n be 2ronted to#ether?

E+5'< 9he sn'/e /illed the

r't( be2ore it s&'llo&ed it%

2. 2. 3 E X E R CI S E -ndi*ate whether the senten*es !elow are sim3le, *om3ound, *om3le), or *om3ound# *om3le), and e)3lain wh," +hile I atta*h a 1er, high 1alue to the 3orental emotion, I do not draw the inferen*e, whi*h is too *ommonl, drawn, that mothers should do os mu*h as 3ossi!le themsel1es 2or their *hildren. There is a *on1ention on this su!Be*t whi*h wos all 1er, well in the da,s when nothing was 2nown a!out the *are of *hildren e)*e3t the uns*ientifi* odds and ends that old women handed on to ,ounger ones. i(F A mother is not e)3e*ted to tea*h her son *rithmeti*,

E+5b< 1e2ore it s&'llo&ed

it( the sn'/e /illed the r't% 9he subordin'tor 'nd the 5l'use 2or one 5onstituentG the 5oordin'tor 'nd the se5ond 5on;oin 're t&o sep'r'te 5onstituents( &hi5h 5'nnot be o4ed to#ether% 9his di22eren5e bet&een 5oordin'tion 'nd subordin'tion o2 5l'uses 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s? 5oordin'tion? Ks( K-+ L 5oord K-,L L subordin'tion? N- t subord I i Coordin'tion &ith and, but 'nd or 'llo&s deletion o2 the sub;e5t o2 the se5ond 5on;oin( i2 it is 5o8re2erenti'l to the sub;e5t o2 the 2irst K-+

howe1er mu*h she ma, lo1e him. so for as the a*Auisition of !oo2#learning is *on*erned, it is re*ognised that *hildren *an a*Auire it !etter from those who ha1e it than from a mother who does not ha1e it. 5ndou!tedl, *ertain things are !etter done !, the mother, !ut as the *hild gets older, there will !e an in*reasing num!er of things !etter done !, someone else. A woman who h*s a*Auired *n, 2ind of 3rofessional s2ill ought, !oth for her own sa2e and for that of the *ommunit,, to !e free to *ontinue to e)er*ise this s2ill in s3ite o2 motherhood. A *hild o1er nine months old ought not to form an insu3era!le !arrier to its mother-s 3rofessional a*ti1ities.

=B The mother is, in a great man, *ases, e)*e3tionall, selfish towards her *hildren, for, im3ortant as 3arenthood is os on element in life, it is not satisf,ing if it is treated as the whole of life, and the unsatisfied 3*rent is li2el, to !e *n emotionall, gras3ing 3arent. +% , C!AD-EWe use the ter F5l'use 3 to re2er to senten5es &hi5h 're 5onstituents o2 other senten5es or o2 phr'ses% A 5onstituent senten5e Eor 5l'use< 'y be 5oordin'ted &ith one or ore other 5onstituent senten5es to 2or ' 5o pound senten5e( or it 'y be e bedded in 'nother senten5e or in ' phr'se to 2or ' 5o ple7 senten5e Esee te7t +%+%+%1<% $n si ple senten5es the bound'ries o2 senten5e 'nd 5l'use 5oin5ide? ' si ple senten5e is ' one8 5l'use senten5e( &here's 5o pound 'nd 5o ple7 senten5es 'l&'ys 5ont'in 't le'st t&o 5l'uses% !et us return to the 5o pound senten5e in te7t +%+%+%1% In order to sho& its stru5ture( &e sh'll no&

G!.

br'5/et e'5h o2 the 5on;oins 'nd l'bel the by e'ns o2

- E2or senten5eJ5l'use< in the le2t8h'nd 5orner( 's 2ollo&s?

,0 -onstituents -onstituents ,1 El'<

pro8

the subordin'te 5l'use E52% +%+%+<% E8< - that!( i#ht #o ho e &ith herG but 9he ele ent that o55upies the so85'lled coni(lementiser slot /C12 slot' in 2ront o2 the senten5e -(% @ur br'5/etin# o2 Elb< 'y no& be 'd'pted 's 2ollo&s? E9< Ks His 'unt 2e'red K t h ' t Ks(he i#ht 5't5h so ethin#L

Ks@ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he Elb< Kshis 'unt 2e'red th't he 'nd El5< Kshis un5le s'id th't e4il 5o

i#ht 5't5h so ethin#L

uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood

'nners%L !et us st'rt by loo/in# 't the stru5ture o2 Elb< 's ' sep'r'te( independent senten5e% $2 &e p'ssi4ise this senten5e( &e #et? E+< 9h't he i#ht 5't5h so ethin# &'s 2e'red by his 'unt% *'ssi4is'tion is ' pro5ess &hi5h oper'tes on senten5es? it re'rr'n#es the senten5e 5onstituents% -in5e( in our e7' ple( p'ssi4is'tion '22e5ts the strin# that he might catch something, &e 5on5lude th't this strin# is ' senten5e 5onstituent% @ur 5on5lusion is 5on2ir ed by pseudo85le2tin# 'nd by no in'lis'tion Euse o2 it, that, 0hat, et5%<? Wh't his 'unt 2e'red &'s th't he His 'unt 2e'red it th't Wh't did his 'unt 2e'r= 1r'5/etin# o2 this 5onstituent pro4ision'lly #i4es us the 2ollo&in# result? i#ht 5't5h so ethin#%

E"<

KsHis 'unt 2e'red Kth't he

i#ht 5't5h so ethin#LL

$t is 5le'r th't the strin# he might catch something is 'lso 'n -( but &h't 'bout the ele ent that1 -enten5e E"< is to be br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s?

E><

Ks(hlis 'unt 2e'red K(th't KsHhe i#ht 5't5h so ethin#L L L -( is ' senten5e inside senten5e -(? it is ' 5onstituent o2 senten5e -(% Ho&8e4er( p'ssi4is'tion( pseudo85le2tin# 'nd prono in'lis'tion Esee E+<8E5< 'bo4e< '22e5t the 5onstituent l'belled T in E><( not ;ust - +% 9he role o2 that in E>< is th't o2 lin/in# -( Ethe e bedded senten5e< to the senten5e inside &hi5h it o55urs? that is the subordin'tor% 9he 5onstituent T( 5o prisin# the subordin'tor 'nd -Q is o2ten l'belled E-8b'r< or -P E-8pri e<% $t is ' unit 5ont'inin# the subordin'tor 'nd

!et us no& try to 'n'lyse the third 5on;oin in El5< 'bo4e( repe'ted here 's E10<? E10< His un5le s'id th't e4il 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners% Follo&in# the pro5edure &e h'4e used 'bo4e( &e 2ind th't E10< h's essenti'lly the s' e stru5ture 's Elb<% Moreo4er( in both senten5es that 5'n be o itted Eor deleted': E1 l'< His 'unt 2 e ' r e d 8 8 8 he i#ht 5't5h so ethin#% E1 1b< His un5le s ' i d 8 8 8 e 4 i l 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners% $ lo&e4er( in the p'ssi4e 4'ri'nts o2 these senten5es that is not delet'ble E52% 'lso E+< <? E1+'< U 8 8 8 h e i#ht 5't5h so ethin# &'s 2e'red by his 'unt% E1+h< U8888e4il 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners &'s s'id by his un5le% No& let us 2in'lly 'lso 5onsider the stru5ture o2 the 2irst 5on;oin in El'< 'bo4e( repe'ted here 's E1,<? E$,< @ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her% $2 you 'pply so e o2 the tests des5ribed 'bo4e( you &ill 2ind th't 0hether he might go home 0ith her is a 5onstituent% For e7' ple( pseudo85le2tin# yields? E1)< Wh't he 's/ed one e4enin# &'s &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her% We 5'n 's/ ' Auestion li/e E15<?

E15<

Wh't did he 's/ one e4enin#=

9he 'ns&er to this &ould be? 0hether he might go home 0ith her. 9he strin# 0hether 7 he might go home 0ith her is 'n e bedded Yes-No Auestion% When Ces!*o Auestions 're e bedded( the subordin'tor is 0hether or i", nV2( ghat -enten5e E1,< 'bo4e 'y thus be br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s? &hether E1"< Ksi@ne e4enin# he 's/ed K- i2 Ks4he i#ht #o ho e ; Uth't &ith her( 9his br'5/etin# e'ns( ' on# other thin#s( th't the C@1)$* slot 5'n be 2illed by 0hether, 's in E1,<( 'nd 'lso by i", but not by that. 9o#ether &ith the e bedded senten5e -( 0hether or i" 2or the 5onstituent - E-8b'r<%

E+"<
32 -onstituents -onstituents 33 E &8< should ust be sh'll 're &orn %%%

Wh't the ne& l'& reAuires is 2or se't8belts to be &orn by 'll p'ssen#ers%

Wh't 5on5lusion 5'n &e dr'& &ith respe5t to the 5onstituents o2 these senten5es= $t see s th't E+1< reAuires the 2ollo&in# Ep'rti'l< br'5/etin#? E+>< Ks9he ne& $'& reAuires KKth't Ks se't8belts should be &orn by %%%L L L

Noti5e th't 0hether 'nd i" 5'nnot be deleted( unli/e that in E11'< 'nd El lb<% Re e ber th't in 'ddition to Ces!*o Auestions En#lish 'lso h's &h8 Auestions? E1>< Why did you e'sure the dist'n5e=

E18<

Wh't did you see there=

-u5h &h8Auestions 'y 'lso be e bedded in other senten5es( but &e need no spe5i'l subordin'tor to do th't% 9he &h8&ord itsel2 ser4es 's ' lin/in# de4i5e% For e7' ple? E19< KsH9he 5oroner 's/ed K-&hy Ks!the &itness h'd e'sured the dist'n5eL L L

E+0<

Ks(9he poli5e 'n 's/ed

e K-&h't Ks($ h'd seen thereL L R

We sh'll e7pl'in l'ter ho& the &h8ele ents 5o e to o55upy the C@M* slot in 2ront o2 -( ECh'pter )<% No& 'lso 5o p're E+1< 'nd E++< belo&G 6228 is ore '55ept'ble in A eri5'n En#lish th'n in -t'nd'rd 1ritish En#lish% $s there 'ny di22eren5e in e'nin# bet&een the = And &h't 'bout their 2or = 9he ne& l'& reAuires th't se't8belts should be &orn by 'll p'ssen#ers% E++< 9he ne& l'& reAuires 2or se't8belts to be &orn by 'll p'ssen#ers% E+1< 'nd E++< h'4e the s' e e'nin#( 'nd 'lso b'si5'lly the s' e stru58 ture% 9o see this( &e 'y p'ssi4ise the ?

E+1<

E+,< E+)<
We

9h't se't8belts should be &orn by 'll p'ssen#ers is reAuired by the ne& l'&% For se't8belts to be &orn by 'll p'ssen#ers is reAuired by the ne& l'&% 'y 'pply pseudo85le2tin# to both? Wh't the ne& l'& reAuires is th't se't8belts should be &orn by 'll p'ssen#ers%

E+5<

9he strin# "or seat belts to be 0orn by all passengers in 6228, 's &e h'4e seen( stru5tur'lly rese bles the - that seat!belts should be 0orn by all passengers. %e sh'll 'ssu e( by 'n'lo#y &ith E+><( th't "or 'lso o55upies he C@M* slot( 'nd th't seat!belts to be 0orn by all passengers is 'n e bedded senten5eG 5l'use% 9he 'n'lysis( then( o2 E++< is 's 2ollo&s? Ks 9he ne& l'& reAuires K-2or Es se't8belts to be &orn by %%%L L L Ele ents &hi5h o55upy the C@M* slot 6that, 0hether, i", "or, et5%< 're o2ten re2erred to 's com(lementisers& 9here 're( o2 5ourse( di22eren5es bet&een the e bedded -s in E+1< 'nd E++<% We sh'll only point out ' 2e& here( 'nd return to the l'ter ECh'pter
F<

9he it'li5ised strin# in E,+< is ' non82inite b're in2initi4e 5l'use( th't in E,,< is 3' non82inite !ing p'rti5iple 5l'use( 'nd th't in E,5< is ' non8 2inite !ed
&/% &'% &(%
(4)

@ohn !elie1es Cill to !e a *om3etent leader. I am im3atient for him to *ome home. It was arranged for the *hildren to !e ado3ted. +e are all ho3ing for Cill to win.

El'< Elb<

Identif, the 1er!less *lauses in the senten*es !elow. Tr, to rewrite them as finite or as non#finite *lauses"

;/H
&'%

If a1aila!le, the !oo2s will !e sent to ,ou within two wee2s. He dro1e home after the 3art,, dead drun2.

El5< E+' E+b E+5

,) -onstituents p'rti5iple 5l'use% ,ary s lea2ing in E,)< is so eti es 5'lled ' gerund 5l'use% Ap'rt 2ro 2inite 'nd non82inite 5l'uses o2 4'rious types( En#lish 'lso h's +er,less 5l'uses% :erbless 5l'uses 're 5l'uses in &hi5h the 4erb Eusu'lly ' 2or o2 to be8 'nd so eti es other ele ents h'4e been deleted% Consider( 2or e7' ple?

First o2 'll( note th't E+1< 'llo&s ' #re't de'l o2 4'ri'tion in 2ront o2 be 0orn. We 5ould repl'5e should by must or shall, 'nd should be 0orn by are 0orn. $n 2'5t( should, must or shall may 'lso be 'bsent% 9he 4'rious possibilities 're e7pressed by 62989

E+9<

9he ne& l'& reAuires th't se't8belts

E,"<

Iohn belie4es the prisoner innocent.

$r% E++<( ho&e4er( no su5h 4'ri'tion is 'llo&ed? in 2ront o" be 0orn &e only 2ind to, 'nd to is obli#'tory% 9he seAuen5e to be 0orn is 5'lled ' toinfiniti+e o2 the 4erb 0ear. $2 &e repl'5e seat!belts by ' pronoun( &e 2ind 'nother 5ontr'st% E,0< 9he ne& l'& reAuires th't they should be &orn %% % E,1< 9he ne& l'& reAuires 2or them to be &orn %%% in E,0< &e need they, in 6318 them. 9he e bedded senten5e in E+1< is finite" sin5e the 4erb phr'se is 2inite E52% +%)%,%,<G the e bedded senten5e in E++< is non-finite" sin5e its 4erb phr'se is non82inite% Non82inite 5l'uses 'y 'lso 5ont'in ' ,are infiniti+e E&hi5h is 'n in2initi4e &ithout to8, or they 'y 5ont'in 'n 8in# (artici(le or 'n -ed (artici(ie& Consider( 2or e7' ple? E,+< We s'& ,ary lea2e. E,,< We s'& ,ary lea2ing. E,)< $ do not ind ,ary s lea2ing. E,5< We 2ound all the seats occupied.

$n this senten5e the it'li5ised seAuen5e is ' 4erbless 5l'use( &hi5h &e 'ssu e is ' redu5ed 4ersion o2 the to8in2initi4e 5l'use in E,><? E,>< Iohn belie4es the prisoner to be innocent. 9he 2ollo&in# senten5es 5ont'in 2urther e7' ples o2 4erbless 5l'uses Eit'li5ised<? E,8< He 5onsidered the girl a good student.

E,9< E)0<

%hene2er in trouble, 1ill r'n# his #irl82riend% He 'rried her 0hen a student at <ar2ard.

-ee 'lso se5tions ,%)%11%+ 'nd ,%)%11(,% Non82inite 5l'uses 'nd 4erbless 5l'uses 're 'l&'ys e beddedJ subordin'te% 2.3.1 EXERCISES Cra*2et all em!edded senten*es in the following e)am3les. Indi*ate the !oundaries of 9 I 9 and 9' !, la!elled !ra*2eting.

&//

@ohn !elie1es that Sue is a s3,. I wonder whether he still remem!ers that da, in A3ril. That @ohn should ha1e done su*h a thing is rather worr,ing. E)< It is li2el, that he will 3ro3ose to her soon. E5< It would !e ni*e if ,ou *ould Boin us for a meal. E"< I dou!t whether he will e'er finish the !oo2. E>< I do not 2now when the sho3s *lose in this town. &C% I ho3e the, will all *ome to see me when I om in hos3ital. E9< @ohn thin2s that George and ;ar, would ma2e a ni*e 3air. E10< He as2ed me wh I had written that letter.

E+< E,<

-onstituents 3' /(/ 1 tour de force !, an, re*2oning, Juir2-s grammar *arries on the great wor2 of @es3ersen !ut with more e*onom, and greater 3re*ision.

See also 0ha3ter 9. 2 ! PHRASES 2.!.1 INTRODUCTION Re'd the 2ollo&in# te7t 'nd de5ide &h't types o2 senten5es it 5ont'ins Esi ple( 5o pound( 5o ple7( or 5o pound85o ple7<? Te.t 2.3.1 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry% He l'u#hed% He turned ' p'#e( he re'd it 'nd he l'u#hed '#'in% He le'ned to&'rds the Ger 'n #irl 'nd s'id ' 2e& &ords to her% 9he E#ypti'n &'s 5lo&nin#G the noise in the roo 5ontinued% -oon the youn# Ger 'n #irl &'s o22erin# 5ho5ol'te 2or the se5ond ti e% Her 4oi5e &'s 4ery so2t% 9he tr' p &'s un2oldin# his '#'6ine slo&ly% He stopped suddenly( he loo/ed 't the 5ho5ol'te% 1ut she h'd #i4en hi no 5ho5ol'te% He un2olded his '#'6ine% 9hen he destroyed it% :%-% N'ip'ul( In a Dree (tate. 9ry to isol'te 's 'ny phr'ses 's you 5'n in e'5h senten5e 'bo4e% .ou &ill see th't these 5onstituents 2'll into 4'rious #r' 'ti5'l 5'te#ories Eor 5onstituent types<% $t is the purpose o2 this se5tion to loo/ ore 5losely 't the di22erent 5'te#ories o2 phr'ses% 2.!.2 N O U N PHRASES $2 &e #o throu#h the te7t in se'r5h o2 phr's'l 5onstituents( &e 2ind one 4ery 5o on type( &hi5h is represented by 5onstituents su5h 's the tramp, the diary, he, a page, it, the @erman girl, a "e0 0ords, her, the #gyptian, the noise, the young @erman girl, chocolate, et5%

//

Identif, the non#finite *lauses in the senten*es !elow. Tr, to rewrite them as finite *lauses"

ill

$t is o2ten possible to repl'5e one ite by 'nother% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the 2ollo&in# substitution 2r' es? the di'ry his '#'6ine ' p'#e 5ho5ol'te no 5ho5ol'te hot 5ho5ol'te

," -onstituents -onstituents 3&

Constituents &hi5h 5'n 'ppe'r in the s' e en4iron ents Eor 5onte7ts< 're s'id to h'4e the s' e distri,ution& $2 &e loo/ 't the e7' ples o2 5onstituents listed 'bo4e( &e see th't the type o2 5onstituent &e 're here de'lin# &ith h's 's its ost i port'nt ele ent ' &ord o2 the class of nouns /N': tramp, diary, page, chocolate, ... 9his N 'y be pre5eded by su5h &ords 's the, a, no, et5% 'nd 'lso by &ords su5h 's @erman, young, ... $t is( ho&e4er( Auite 5le'r th't these 'ddition'l ite s 're less i port'nt th'n the N% $n our te7t 'bo4e &e 2ound( 2or e7' ple( the 5onstituents no chocolate 'nd the chocolate, but &e 'lso 2ound ;ust chocolate. $2 ' 5onstituent h's 's its 5entr'l Enon8o issible< ele ent 'n N( then su5h ' 5onstituent &ill be l'belled N*% 9he noun is the 3ead o2 the N*? E,< $h((the chocolate He'd

Ap'rt 2ro 'rti5les &e 'lso 2ind ele ents li/e his 'nd her in 2ront o2 the He'd N( e%#%? his magaAine, her 2oice. <is 'nd her '#'in help to est'blish the re2erent? they identi2y the '#'6ine or 4oi5e by indi5'tin# the possessor?

'.8.'./ Elements !efore the Head $n te7t +%)%1 'ny N*s be#in &ith &ords su5h 's the or a. $t is ob4ious th't these &ords 're not the 5entr'l ele ents o2 the N*s% $n 2'5t( i2 you &ere to ;ot do&n ' Aui5/ s/et5h o2 the story told in this 2r'# ent( you &ould prob'bly do so &ithout usin# the or a. For e7' ple? Tramp read diary ... <e turned page, et5% And ost o2 the in2or 'tion in the te7t &ould be pre8ser4ed% Con4ersely( le'4in# out the He'd Ns le'ds to no te7t 't 'll? FThe read the ... turned a ..., et5% Words su5h 's a 'nd the 're use2ul de4i5es 2or '/in# ore pre5ise &h't the N* e'nsG they help to s(ecify &h't person or thin# is indi5'ted by Eor re2erred to by< the N*% 9he person or thin# re2erred to by 'n N* is its referent& Co p're( 2or e7' ple( E)'< 'nd E)b< belo&? E)'< 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry% E)b< A tr' p re'd ' di'ry% $n E)'< the tramp su##ests th't &e 'lre'dy /no& &ho( or &h't tr' p( is in4ol4ed% 9he re2erent o2 tramp ust 'lre'dy h'4e been introdu5ed in the te7t be2ore% $n E)b<( on the other h'nd( the re2erent o2 tramp is introdu5ed 2or the 2irst ti e% 9he s' e 'pplies to diary. -in5e the de2inite 'nd the inde2inite 'rti5le 6the 'nd a8 both ser4e to s(ecify the re2eren5e o2 the N*( they 're s'id to be $(ecifiers o2 the N*% $n te7t +%)%1 there 're nu erous other inst'n5es o2 N*s &ith 'rti5les 2un5tionin# 's -pe5i2iers% $denti2y the ?

his 'nd her Epossessi4e pronouns< st'nd 2or the tramp s 'nd 2or the young @erman girl s respe5ti4ely% 9he 2or s &ith ! s are #eniti4es% *ossessi4e rronouns 'nd #eniti4es thus 'lso 2un5tion 's -pe5i2iers n'rro&in# do&n the re2eren5e o2 the N*s in &hi5h they o55ur% @ther possessi4e pronouns 're? m2, your, its, our, their, e.g.9 The baby hates its pram5 1 li4e my ne0 dress, et5% 9he de onstr'ti4e pronouns this, that, these 'nd those, 'nd ite s li/e tome, any, 0hat, 0hich, 0hose, each, e2ery, all, hal", both, much, many, 'nd the nu er'ls 6one, t0o, ...8 'y 'lso h'4e ' spe5i2ier 2un5tion% Consider the 2ollo&in# e7' ples 'nd identi2y the N*s Eby br'5/etin#< 'nd their He'ds Eby underlinin#<? Whi5h reporter &ill inter4ie& 'll the pl'yers= 9&o boys 2ound these di' onds% 1oth the #irls en;oy 5l'ssi5'l usi5%

repe'ts the

H'l2 the 'udien5e st'rted #i##lin# &hen the three #irls be#'n to sin#% $2 nu er'ls o55ur in the stru5ture o2 'n N*( they typi5'lly 2ollo& &ords li/e the( y( our, these, but pre5ede the He'd noun% For e7' ple? the three girls. <al", both, all 'nd double typi5'lly pre5ede the, my, our, these, et5% F r e7' ple? hal" the bottle, both the girls, all my "riends. $te s li/e those entioned &hi5h pre5ede the N* He'd( belon# to the #r' 'ti5'l 5'te8#ory o2 deter iner% Dependin# on their position rel'ti4e to e'5h other( deter iners 'y be (redeterminers 6hal", both, all, double8, central deter-miners 6the, a, this, that, my, his, et5%< or (ostdeterminers Enu er'ls( et5%<% $n #ener'l( &e sh'll use the 5olle5ti4e l'bel Fdeter iner3 to re2er to 'll the ite s ;ust entioned% Deter iners 2un5tion 's -pe5i2iers in the N*% 9he He'd o2 'n N* 'y 'lso be pre5eded by 'd;e5ti4e phr'ses E52% +%)%5<( &hi5h odi2y the He'd N( 's in? young boys, e.pensi2e diamonds, classical music 'nd the three gorgeous girls. -in5e young, e.pensi2e, et5% nor 'lly pre5ede the He'd( they 're s'id to (remodify it% *re odi2iers 2ollo& deter8 iners% An i port'nt di22eren5e bet&een -pe5i2iers 'nd *re odi2iers is th't they 're re'lised by tot'lly di22erent 5'te#ories o2 &ords? the 2un5tion o2 -pe5i2ier is re'lised by the 2'irly li ited 5olle5tion o2 ite s &hi5h &e 5'll deter iners( &here's the 2un5tion o2 *re odi2ier is usu'lly re'lised by 'd;e5ti4e phr'ses or other o(en class ele ents Esee the 2in'l p'r'#r'ph o2 +%)%+%+<% +%)%+%+ *ronouns Return to te7t +%)%1 on5e ore% $t see s th't in this te7t the N*s the tramp, his magaAine, the @erman girl 're /ey8phr'ses% 9he 'uthor

38 -onstituents

-onstituents 39
V

E1,< by she. 9he 5hoi5e o2 the 2or is not r'ndo % 9he result o2 br'5/etin# the 5onstituents in E1+< 'nd in E1,< is 's 2ollo&s? E1)< Ks K 5( *hilipL K&li/ed K((M'ry AnnL L L

Auite o2ten% Ho&e4er( he does not 'l&'ys '5tu'lly use the N* the tramp &hen he &'nts to re2er to th't p'rti5ul'r person% -o eti es he uses the substitute 2or he9 E9< The tramp re'd the di'ry% <e l'u#hed% <e turned ' p'#e% <e is ' &ord used inste'd o2 'n N*( it is ' (ro-form& -in5e it repl'5es 'n N*( it is 'lso 5'lled a pronoun. C'n you 2ind other su5h pronouns in our te7t= Words li/e he, she, it 'nd they Eperson'l pronouns< 're used &hene4er repetition o2 the 2ull N* is unne5ess'ry% Constituents &hi5h 5'n be repl'5ed by person'l pronouns ust be N*s% *erson'l pronouns di22er 2ro e'5h other in ter s o2 their rel'tionship to the spe'/er? $ re2ers to the spe'/er Eor &riter<G you re2ers to the person or persons spo/en to ES the 'ddresseeEs< <G 0e re2ers to the spe'/er 'nd so e other person or personsG 'nd he, she, it, they re2er to the personEs< or thin#Es< spo/en 'bout% 9his 5ontr'st is usu'lly re2erred to 's one o2 person? $ 'nd 0e 're 2irst person( you is se5ond person( 'nd he, she, it, they 're third person% Moreo4er( $ indi5'tes one person only( &hile 0e indi5'tes ore th'n one% <e re2ers to one person( but they to ore ore th'n one% 9his 5ontr'st bet&een Fone3 'nd F ore th'n one3 is ' 5ontr'st o2 num,er4 the opposition is one bet&een singular 'nd (lural& E-ee 'lso +%5%+%< Cou 'y be either sin#ul'r or plur'l% For e7' ple? E10< .ou( Iohn( ust st'nd o4er there%

E15<

Ks 5(

K M'ry AnnL K4p&'s li/ed by *hilipL L L

E11<

.ou &ill 'll he'r 2ro

e soon%

9he 5ontr'st bet&een he, she 'nd it is one o2 gender& <e is s'id to h'4e masculine #ender( she feminine #ender 'nd it neuter #ender% Another 5ontr'st 2ound &ith person'l pronouns( in 'ddition to those o2 E'< nu ber( Eb< person 'nd E5< #ender( is th't bet&een the 2or s he 'nd him, 'nd bet&een the 2or s she 'nd her, et5% 9his is ' 5ontr'st o2 5'se% 9'/e the 2ollo&in# p'ir o2 senten5es? E1+< *hilip li/ed M'ry Anne%

E1,<

M'ry Ann &'s li/ed by *hilip%

Repl'5e the *Ps Philip 'nd ,ary +nn by suit'ble pronouns% .ou &ill see th't in E1+< you h'4e to 5hoose he to repl'5e Philip, in E1,< you h'4e to 5hoose him5 in E1+< ,ary +nn h's to be repl'5ed by her 'nd in

We use he 'nd she 2or the N* &hi5h pre5edes the :*G it is this N* &hi5h( tonether &ith the :*( '/es up the &hole senten5e% $n ' tree di'#r' represent'tion the N* &ould be i edi'tely do in'ted by -% -in5e this N* is the -ub;e5t( he 'nd she 're 5'lled the -ub;e5t 2or s o2 the pronouns% We 5hose her 'nd him to repl'5e N*s &hi5h o55ur inside ' :*? su5h 2or s 're 5'lled @b;e5t 2or s% We sh'll loo/ ore 5losely 't -ub;e5ts 'nd @b;e5ts in Ch'pter ,% We h'4e seen th't person'l pronouns repl'5e 5o plete 5onstituents( in the s' e &'y th't 5le2tin#( p'ssi4is'tion( et5% '22e5t &hole 5onstituents% *ronouns 're use2ul de4i5es 2or '4oidin# repetition o2 the &hole N*% Consider( 2or e7' ple? 1$8 John et ,ar2 't the entr'n5e o2 the st'tion% <e bou#ht her 'n i5e85re' % As the 'rro&s indi5'te( /ohn 'nd he 're lin/ed( 'nd so 're ,ary 'nd her. /oint 'nd he are 5o8re2erenti'l( 'nd so 're ,ary 'nd her. Consider no&? 61&8 /ohn &'s un'ble to 5ontrol him. E$8< ,ary /illed her. ust be t'/en to re2er

<imsel" 'nd hersel" 're pronouns &hi5h ust be ,ound inside their senten5es% @ther re2le7i4e pronouns 're? mysel", yoursel" himsel", itsel" our!

$n E1>< /ohn 'nd him 're not 5o8re2erenti'lG him to so eone else( 's in? E 98

)ill &'s 4ery drun/% /ohn &'s un'ble to 5ontrol him. it 8HHHHHHHHHH1

$n 6188 ,ary 'nd her 're not rel'tedG her re2ers to 'nother 2e 'le% For e7' ple? E+0< (usan &'s thre'tenin# to /ill the 5hildren &ith ' 5'r4in#8 /ni2e% $n the p'ni5 &hi5h 2ollo&ed ,ary /illed her <im in E19< 'nd her in E+0< 're 5o8re2erenti'l to 'n ele ent outside the senten5e? they 're ,ound outside the senten5e% 1e5'use they 're not lin/ed to so ethin# inside the senten5e &e 5'n s'y they 're free inside the senten5e% <im 'nd her 5'nnot be used in E19< 'nd E+0< to e7press ' re2erenti'l lin/ inside the senten5e% $n order to s'y th't Iohn l'5/ed sel285ontrol( 2or e7' ple( i%e% th't FIohn 5'nnot 5ontrol Iohn3( &e use ' spe5i'l pronoun &ith !sel" 6a re2le7i4e pronoun<? E+1< /ohn &'s un'ble to 5ontrol himsel" $2 &e &'nt to 5on4ey th't M'r4 5o itted sui5ide( &e 5'nnot use her E's in E+0<<( but &e ust use hersel"9 ,ary 4illed hersel"

3G -onstituents -onstituents )1 3+< E,,<

E+8<
o22erin#%

$t &'s chocolate th't the youn# Ger 'n #irl &'s

sel2es, yoursel2es 'nd themsel2es. We return to the notion o2 Fbindin#3 in Ch'pters ) 'nd 5% Ap'rt 2ro the possessi4e pronouns my, your, our, et5%( &hi5h belon# to the 5'te#ory o2 deter iners E+%)%+%1<( En#lish 'lso h's the possessi4e pro8nouns mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours 'nd theirs. 9hese 5'n be used to repl'5e ' 5o plete N* 'nd 5'n thus o55ur on their o&n% For e7' ple? E++< 9his is your bi5y5le% ,ine is o4er there%

-i il'rly( p'ssi4is'tion is possible? it shi2ts chocolate to senten5e8 initi'l position? E+9< -hocolate 0as bein# o22ered by the youn# Ger 'n #irl% Frontin# produ5es?

E,0<
te'<%

-hocolate the youn# Ger 'n #irl &'s o22erin# Enot

E+,<
mine.

9hey 'll 'd ired her ne& dress% Nobody li/ed yours or 9hese presents 're theirs, not ours.

E+)<

9here is 'lso the 5'te#ory o2 de onstr'ti4e pronouns? this, that, these 'nd those. This 'nd that 're sin#ul'r( these 'nd those plur'l% We h'4e seen E+%)%+(1< th't( li/e possessi4es 'nd 'rti5les( they 'y o55ur 's deter iners( 2un5tionin# 's -pe5i2iers o2 the N* in &hi5h they o55ur% Ho&e4er( the 2our de onstr'ti4e pronouns 'y 'lso o55ur independently 's N*s% For e7' ple? E+5< This is y other 'nd that is my 2'ther%

E+"<

Those &ere the d'ys%

C'n you thin/ o2 'ny person'l( re2le7i4e( possessi4e or de onstr'ti4e pro8nouns 'p'rt 2ro the ones th't &e h'4e entioned= 9he 5orre5t 'ns&er to this Auestion ust be ne#'ti4e( 2or pronouns 're s'id to 2or closed sets" sin5e it is possible 'nd 2'irly e'sy to '/e 'n e7h'usti4e list o2 'll the pro8nouns in En#lish% Ad;e5ti4es( nouns( 4erbs 'nd 'd4erbs( on the other h'nd( 5onstitute o(en classes E52% +%)%+%1<% $n these 5'ses it is i possible to list 'll the ite s belon#in# to ' 5l'ss( sin5e su5h ' 5l'ss 5'n be inde2initely e7tended by 'ddin# ne&ly 2or ed 'd;e5ti4es( nouns( 4erbs or 'd4erbs% '.8.'.( 6ne#word hrases Return on5e ore to te7t +%)%1% Noti5e( 2or e7' ple% th't the N* the chocolate 'ltern'tes &ith the noun chocolate. Does the l'tter 'lso 5ount 's 'n N*= 9o 'ns&er this Auestion( &e ust 'pply ' 2e& 5onstituen5y tests? 5le2tin# identi2ies the b're N chocolate 's ' 5onstituent? E+>< 9he youn# Ger 'n #irl &'s o22erin# chocolate.

Moreo4er( one 5'n e'sily e7p'nd the 5onstituent? the chocolate E,1< 9he youn# Ger 'n #irl &'s o22erin# hot chocolate 2ery hot chocolate 0ith sugar -hocolate 'nd the chocolate, et5% '5t in pre5isely the s' e &'y &ith respe5t to 5le2tin#( p'ssi4is'tion 'nd 2rontin#% Hen5e( it &ould be 4ery une5ono i5'l to tre't the 's di22erent #r' 'ti5'l 5'te#ories% 9hey h'4e the s' e distribution 'nd they under#o the s' e pro5esses% ConseAuently( &e sh'll s'y th't they 're both N*s% '.8.'.8 Elements after the Head $n te7t +%)%1 'll N*s h'ppen to end &ith the He'd N% 9his is by no e'ns 'l&'ys the 5'se% 1r'5/et the N*s in the 2ollo&in# senten5es 'nd underline the He'd Ns? 9he di'ry &hi5h the tr' p &'s re'din# &'s ' usin#% 9he ide' th't he i#ht li/e so e 5ho5ol'te did not o55ur to the Ger 'n #irl% E,)< 9he Auestion &hether the tr' p h'd 'ny oney did not 'rise% $?r'5/etin# o2 the N* in E,+< #i4es us? E+5< K((((9he di'ry K-&hi5h the tr' p &'s re'din#L L

E,><?

9he He'd N diary is 2ollo&ed by the strin# 0hich the tramp 0as reading. O:e h'4e seen E1%+%,< th't su5h ' strin# is 'n e bedded senten5e% 9his senten5eJ5l'use is 2ully inte#r'ted &ithin the N*% 9he 5l'use El'belled -l 2ollo&s the He'd noun in 'n N*( 'nd h's the 2un5tion o2 *ost odi2ier% %hich in the 'bo4e e7' ples is ' rel'ti4e pronounG rel'ti4e pronouns introdu5e relati+e 5l'uses Esee )%+%"<% 9he other 5l'uses 'bo4e E&ith that 'nd 0hether8 're not rel'ti4e 5l'uses( but a((ositi+e 5l'uses( &hi5h #i4e 'n indi5'tion o2 the 35ontent 3 o2 the idea or the Huestion. 9hey 're 'lso s'id to 2un5tion 's *ost odi2iers% 9here 're( ho&e4er( i port'nt di22eren5es bet&een rel'ti4e 5l'uses 'nd 'ppositi4e 5l'uses( to &hi5h &e sh'll return l'ter E)%+%><% Consider 'lso the it'li5ised N* in E,"<? E,"< T0o boys 0ith red hair entered the roo % 9he strin# 0ith red hair is ' preposition'l phr'se E**<( &hi5h post odi2ies the He'd o2 the N* E52% +%)%)<% -ee 'lso Ch'pters , 'nd >% +%)%+%5 -u in# up the N* We h'4e seen th't noun phr'ses in En#lish usu'lly h'4e the stru5ture in

32 -onstituents

-onstituents ), Catego redet <al" ry both, all double Functio $(ecifier n h'l2 both 'll

Centr&5e t Art oss Aron the ' his these th't the

ostde t Num

Ad6 7& &&

$7

7 &&&

'.8.(./ Introdu*tion Consider the 2ollo&in# senten5e 2ro our te7t +%)%1 '#'in? E,8< 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry%

*re o d

3ead tr' p p'#e '#'6in e 5hildren boys #irl soldiers they students il/ Iohn he '#'6in e

*ost od

t&o ten 2i4e

lo4ely Ger ' n 1 Fren5h

&ith red h'ir &ho sur4i4ed the 5r'sh o2 En#lish in bottles

no the tr' p3s the

Dut5h ;

E,>< 9o#ether &ith the 5entr'l deter iner E&hi5h 'y be Aero8, the He'd 6tramp, page, magaAine, et5%< 5onstitutes the /ernel o2 the N*% $n the 5ourse o2 this 5h'pter &e sh'll 5o ent in ore det'il on 'll the 5'te#ories &hi5h o55ur inside the N*% '.8.'.< E)er*ise Indi*ate the stru*ture of the following N s"

E1< E+< E,<

two ni*e English girls without Bo!s the girls in the *orner the !est Dut*h *lassi*al musi* of the se1enteenth *entur, &8H m, two greatest friends in this uni1ersit, &9% the Auestion whether he enBo,ed the 3la, '.8.( $E:C H:ASES

*'ssi4is'tion( 2rontin# 'nd 5le2tin# help to est'blish the 2ollo&in# Ep'rti'l< br'5/etin#? E,9< Ks KNp9he tr' pL re'd K 5pthe di'ryLL The tramp 'nd the diary 're N*s% 1ut &h't 'bout read1 9he &ord read belon#s to the 5l'ss o2 4erbs 60al4, tal4, sleep, help, et5%<% We sh'll loo/ 't the properties o2 4erbs in +%5%,% $s read a 5onstituent= A#'in &e need so e tests to 'ns&er this Auestion% Cle2tin# 'nd 2rontin# yield un#r' 'ti5'l senten5es? E)0< U$t is read th't the tr' p the di'ry% E) $< U Read the tr' p the di'ry% $n 2'5t( pseudo85le2tin# sho&s th't read 'nd the diary 5onstitute one unit?

E51< E5+<

9he tr' p le'ned to&'rds the Ger 'n #irl% 9he tr' p put the 5ho5ol'te on the t'ble%

$denti2y the :*s in these senten5es by br'5/etin#% We 2ind th't laugh in E)"< t'/es no Co ple ent? the :* 5onsists o2 the

E)+<

Wh't the tr' p did &'s read the diary.

Moreo4er( &e 5'n repl'5e the strin# read the diary by ' spe5i'l pro8 2or &ith do. For e7' ple? E),< 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry( 'nd the E#ypti'n did 6so8 too% 1))< 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry% Bid he=

:e sh'll 5'll the strin# read the diary the 4erb phr'se E:*<% 9he 4erb E:< read is the He'd o2 the :*% $n our e7' ple( the He'd 6read8 is 2ollo&ed by 'n N*% 9he stru5ture o2 the :* 'y thus be represented 's 2ollo&s? E)5< 9he tr' p N4pre'd KNpthe di'ryL here the diary is 'n N* &ithin ' :*% $n ' sense% the N* 5o pletes the :* 'nd is there2ore 5'lled ' Co ple ent o2 the 4erb read. '.8.(.' $er! 0om3lements Consider the 2ollo&in# senten5es?

E)"< E)>< E)8< E)9< E50<

9he tr' p l'u#hed% 9he story &'s interestin#% 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry% He told the #irl 'n interestin# story% He 5'lled her ' 5le4er #irl%

return to these 2un5tions in Ch'pter ,% Consider 'lso the 2ollo&in# senten5es? E5,< He told the #irl th't she &'s 5le4er%
)) -onstituents -onstituents 3' E"+'< W 8888888( E"+h< R W E"+5< K

E5)<

He told 'n interestin# story to the #irl%

$n E5,< &e 2ind th't the 4erb phr'se 5ont'ins ' th't85l'use 's one o2 the Co ple ents o2 the 4erb% 9he :* here is? told the girl that she 0as cle2er. *seudo85le2tin# 'nd substitution by do 6so8 indi5'te th't the th't85l'use is p'rt o2 the :*? E55< Wh't he did &'s tell the girl that she 0as cle2er.

E5"< E5><

He told the #irl th't she &'s 5le4er 'nd $ KsHe K4(told K*Pthe #irlL Kyth't she &'s 5le4erL L L

did 6so8 too% 9he stru5ture o2 E5,< is E5><?

Et<+d< E"+e< E"+2< E"+#< Copul' Monotr'nsiti4e Ditr'nsiti4e Co ple7 tr'nsiti4e $ntr'nsiti4e 9r'nsiti4e
R

-enten5e E5)< 'bo4e is 'n 'ltern'ti4e 4ersion o2 E)9<% 9he seAuen5e told!N*8N* 5'n be re'rr'n#ed 's? told8N*88** E&ith to8, &ithout ' 5h'n#e in e'nin#% 9he t&o 'ltern'ti4es EE)9< 'nd E5)< 'bo4e< 'y he br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s? E58< KHe K%(told KO(the #irlL K 7p'n interestin# storyL L l

E59<

KHe KF((told K(( G*'n interestin# storyL K p(to the #irlL L L

Note th't tell in E)9< 'bo4e 'nd call in E50< both t'/e t&o N*s 's Co ple ents% Co p're the t&o senten5es( here repe'ted 's E"0< 'nd E"1<? E"0< He told the #irl 'n interestin# story%

E"1<

He 5'lled her ' 5le4er #irl%

4erb only% In E)>< the 4erb reAuires interesting E'n 'd;e5ti4e phr'se< 's its Co ple ent% $n E)8< the 4erb t'/es 's its Co ple ent the N* the diary. $n E)9< the 4erb is 2ollo&ed by t&o Co ple ents( the N*s the girl 'nd 'n interesting story. $n E50< the 4erb call t'/es 's its Co ple ents the N* her 'nd the N* a cle2er girl. $n E51< the 4erb reAuires ' ** 6to0ards the @erman girl8. And in E5+< the 4erb put is seen to t'/e 's its Co ple ents the N* the chocolate 'nd the ** on the table. :erb Co ple ents 're ele ents &hi5h obli#'torily 2ollo& the 4erb in the :* Esee ,%1<% 9he 4erb 6laugh, be, read, et5%< is the He'd o2 the :*( 'nd the Co ple ents EN*( Ad;*( **( et5%< 'y h'4e 2un5tions li/e Birect ;bIect, Indirect ;bIect, Predicati2e -omplement, et5% We sh'll

We sh'll see l'ter th't E"0< 'nd E"1< h'4e Auite di22erent p'tterns o2 beh'4iour( 'nd th't the t&o N*s h'4e Auite di22erent #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tions Esee ,%)%, 'nd ,%)%"<% 9he e7' ples #i4en 'bo4e illustr'te the ost i port'nt senten5e types

o2 En#lish( in ter s o2 the 5o ple ent'tion th't the He'd o2 the :* reAuires% $n ,%1 22% &e sh'll pro4ide ' ore e7h'usti4e sur4ey o2 En#lish senten5e p'tterns% For the o ent( it is i port'nt to note th't in the p'ttern underlyin# E)>< 'bo4e the 'd;e5ti4e phr'se EAd;*< 'y be repl'5ed by 'n N* or ' ** E's in? The story 0as a great su55ess 'nd The room 0as in a mess8. -i il'rly( the : in the p'ttern underlyin# E)8< 'y t'/e 'n - inste'd o2 'n N* E's in? <e 4ne0 th't the sna4e had 4illed the rat8, et5% We sh'll s'y th't ' 4erb su,categorises 2or ' 5ert'in type o2 Co ple8 ent% $n other &ords( ' 4erb o55urs inside ' 5ert'in 2r' e( 'nd is obli 8 #'torily 2ollo&ed by 5ert'in 5l'sses o2 5'te#ories% -u5h 2r' es 're 5'lled sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es% E"+'<8E"+#< 're si pli2ied e7' ples o2 su5h 2r' es? -uh5'te#oris'tion 2r' es 2or +er,s 8er, ty(es $ntr'nsiti4e Ad;* N* ** N*8N* V V N*88** HHHHHN*8 A d ; * N* R HHHHH**L HHHHHN*8 * * L 9his list o2 sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es is still pro4ision'l( 'nd so 're so e o2 the l'bels #i4en to the di22erent 5'te#ories o2 4erb E34erb types3<% E'5h 2r' e e'ns th't in the position indi5'ted by the d'sh one 'y insert 'ny 4erb &hi5h t'/es 's its Co ple entEs< the 5onstituentEs< spe5i8 2ied there% As usu'l( the 5urly br'5/ets N R indi5'te ' 5hoi5e? 5opul's( 2or e7' ple( 'y t'/e 'n Ad;*( 'n N*( or ' **( 'nd onotr'nsiti4e 4erbs 'y t'/e 'n N* or 'n -( et5% 9he sAu're br'5/ets in 6$2a!g8 'r/ o22 the bound'ries o2 the :*% $t is only the obli#'tory ele ents &ithin the :* th't 're Co ple ents% 9he -ub;e5t N*( &hi5h 2'lls outside the :*( is not ' Co ple ent to the 4erb% -ee 'lso ,%1% -o 2'r &e h'4e only re2erred to Eobli#'tory< Co ple ents( i%e% those ele ents &hose presen5e is synt'5ti5'lly reAuired% 1ut &e sh'll see th't it is 'lso possible 2or inde2initely 'ny o(tional 5onstituents to o55ur in ' senten5e% For e7' ple?

3$ -onstituents -onstituents )>

E"><
'#'6ine% '#'6ine 6"or the girl8 6Huite une.pectedly8 ...

!p9ense8: %%%L

E",< E")<

He un2olded his He un2olded his

&here %%% st'nds 2or Co ple ents 'nd Ad;un5ts in the :*( in5ludin# 6ero% @2 5ourse ulti 'tely the tense is 'tt'5hed to the ri#ht o2 Ethe b'se%o2< the : 's ' su22i7? I 0or4/I 0or4#B.

Wh't is the :* in the 'bo4e senten5es= $n E")< &e 2ind 'ddition'l ele ents Eit'li5ised 'nd bet&een br'5/ets< &hi5h 're option'l% We sh'll s'y th't these ele ents belon# to the :*( but th't they 're not Co ple entsG they 're not needed to 5o plete the :*G they erely 'dd 2urther in2or 'tion? they re'lise the #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tion o2 Ad6unct Esee ,%)%8<% 9he stru5ture o2 E")< 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s? E"5< He Ks(*un2olded Khis '#'6ineL KE2or the #irl<L KEAuite une7pe5tedly<L %%%L A 4erb does not sub5'te#orise 2or Ad;un5ts% 9he br'5/ets 'round "or the girl 'nd Huite une.pectedly indi5'te th't these 5onstituents 're option'l% 9he dotted line 't the end o2 the senten5e is e'nt to su##est th't the nu ber o2 option'l 5onstituents 5'n( in prin5iple( be e7tended inde2initely% $n Ch'pter ) &e sh'll see th't Eoption'l< Ad;un5ts 'y be o4ed to other positions in the senten5e% '.8.(.( Elements !efore the Head 9e7t +%)%1 'bo4e h's p'st ti e re2eren5e% We i#ht 'dd to the te7t ti e8 spe5i2yin# phr'ses EAd;un5ts< su5h 's last year, in those d'ys( at the time, et5% @b4iously( &e 5'nnot 'dd tomorro0, later on, today, ne.t 0ee4, et5% 9o 5h'n#e the ti e re2eren5e o2 te7t +%)%1 to the present( &e &ould h'4e to 'lter 'll the 4erb 2or s( 's 2ollo&s?

E""<

9he tr' p reads the di'ry% He laughs. He turns a p'#e( he reads it 'nd he laughs '#'in% Et5%

$2 &e 5h'n#e the ti e re2eren5e o2 the te7t 2ro p'st to present( &e 2ind th't e4ery ti e it is the 2or o2 the 2irst ele ent in the :* &hi5h is '22e5ted% For e7' ple? laughed be5o es laughs, 'nd 0as un"olding be5o es is un"olding. 9he 2or o2 the 4erb is 'ltered 2ro p'st tense to (resent tense& For e'5h :* in the te7t ' tense 5hoi5e h's been 'de? either p'st or present% $2 ' :* is 'r/ed 2or tense( it is s'id to be 2inite% 6*on!"inite :*s 're those &hi5h e7hibit no 5ontr'st bet&een p'st 'nd present tense%< We 5'n represent the rel'tionship bet&een the 4erb 'nd its tense 'r/in# by the 2ollo&in# not'tion?

$2 &e &ere to re&rite the te7t so 's to 5h'n#e its ti e re2eren5e to %the 2uture( &e &ould #et senten5es li/e the 2ollo&in#? E"8< 9he tr' p 0ill re'd the di'ry% He 0ill turn the p'#e %%% Ap'rt 2ro 0ill, one i#ht 'lso use may, must, could, et5% in the s' e position% $n 'll these 5'ses &h't &e do is 'dd ' &ord in 2ront o2 the :% 9hese pre84erb'l ele ents 're the so85'lled od'l 'u7ili'ries( or od'ls Ee%#% shall, 0ill, may, can, should, 0ould, might, could, must8. 9hey ust he 'dded in 2ront o2 the :( '2ter the tense ele ent E52% E"><<% A 5loser loo/ 't the od'ls su##ests th't to so e e7tent they 're p'ired? 0ill! 0ould5 nary!might5 can!could5 shall!should. 9his p'irin# is b'sed on tense 5ontr'sts? 0ill is present 'nd 0ould p'st( et5% Co p're? E"9'< 9he tr' p s'ys th't he 0ill re'd the di'ry% E"9"< 9he tr' p s'id th't he 0ould re'd the di'ry% 9here 're three ore types o2 pre84erb'l ele ent? per"ect, progressi2e 'nd passi2e. Consider( 2or e7' ple? E>0< -he had #i4en hi no 5ho5ol'te% KSr'5/et the :*% Wh't type o2 : is gi2e1 1r'5/et 'nd l'bel the Co plen e s% 9he 4erb gi2e is pre5eded by had, 'nd the 2or gi2e is 'ltered to the p'st p'rti5iple gi2en. @i2en 5o bines &ith ha2e to 2or the per2e5t 'spe5t% $n our e7' ple the 'u7ili'ry ha2e itsel2 is in the p'st tense had. We distin#uish bet&een the present per"ect 'nd the past per"ect. Consider 'lso?

'u7ili'ries ha2e 'nd be 2un5tion 's $(ecifiers o2 the :*% For 5on4enien5e( the ter F'u7ili'ry ele ent3 &ill o55'sion'lly be used &ith re2eren5e to both tense 'nd 'u7ili'ries%

E>1<

He 0as un2oldin# his

'#'6ine%

2 Iere the 4erb un"old is pre5eded by &'s Ethe p'st tense o2 the 'u7ili'ry be8 'nd the present p'rti5iple su22i7 8in# is 'dded to it% )e C in# e7presses pro#ressi4e 'spe5t% A#'in you see th't the p'st tense is 'tt'5hed to the 'u7ili'ry% C'n you 2ind 'ny other e7' ples o2 pro#ressi4e :*s in te7t +%)%1= 9he third pre84erb'l ele ent is th't o2 the (assi+e 4oi5e% *'ssi4e is e7pressed by the 'u7ili'ry be 'nd the p'st p'rti5iple su22i7 !ed, &hi5h is 'tt'5hed to :% For e7' ple? E>+< 9he tr' p 0as 'rrested by the poli5e% 9he e7' ples 'bo4e sho& th't 2inite :*s 5ont'in 'n obli#'tory ele ent( tense% 9he re 'inin# ele ents &hi5h &e h'4e entioned E od'l( per2e5t( pro#ressi4e 'nd p'ssi4e< 're 'll option'l? they 'y( but need not o55ur in the :*% 9ense( the od'l 'u7ili'ries 'nd the

38 -onstituents -onstituents 39 :* V 0 'y r *resen M t

ha2e V *er2

)#en

&or/lNG
9

1 9 *ro#r

/$#' E85<

order o2 the 2irst 5onstituent in the senten5e 6The #gyptian, The young girl, et5%< 'nd the 2irst ele ent o2 the :* E&'s( had, et5%<% 9he &hole 2irst 5onstituent is in4ol4ed in this in4ersion( not ;ust p'rt o2 the 5onstituentG the 'u7ili'ry &'s or had is o4ed '5ross the entire 5onstituent to senten5e8initi'l position% Co p're( 2or e7' ple? E8,'< K (( 9he ne& *ri e Minister o2 1el#iu L is in the Dnited N'tions to orro&% E8,b< $s K(%pthe ne& *ri e Minister o2 1el#iu L in the Dnited N'tions to orro&= '/in# ' st'te ent '/in# ' st'te ent

9he 2ollo&in# di'#r' su s up the ele ents &hi5h be"ore the He'd o2 the :*? E>,<

'y o55ur : J He'd

tense nodal per"ect progressi2e passi2e JJJJJJX h'4e C !ed be C !ing be C !!ed 1

Not? E8,5< U K9he ne& *ri e MinisterL is Ko2 1el#iu L in the Dnited N'tions to orro&= No4 let us 2or Ces!*o Auestions 2ro '/in# ' st'te ent

: -pe5i2iers

$2 one or ore option'l ele ents 're re'lised( they ust o5ur in the order #i4en by the di'#r' % 9he 'rro&s pointin# to the ri#ht indi5'te th't the su22i7es 'sso5i'ted &ith these ele ents 're o4ed to the end o2 the ne7t 4erb on the ri#ht% For e7' ple( the :* o2? E>)< -he 'y h'4e been &or/in# in the #'rden h's the 2ollo&in# stru5ture? H E>5<

E8)< 'nd E85< belo&?

&ould M

ha2e *er2

1Een *'ss

solD :

E8"< E8><

Does the tr' p #irl=< Did he l'u#h=

:* 9he stru5ture o2 0ould ha2e been sold is 's 2ollo&s? E>"< *'st :* 2(2(3(2 !he *irst 1uxiliar in the 4$ Consider '#'in the 2ollo&in# senten5es 2ro te7t +%)%1 Esli#htly 'd'pted<? E>>< 9he E#ypti'n &'s 5lo&nin#% -ed

E>8< E>9<

9he youn# #irl &'s o22erin# 5ho5ol'te 2or the se5ond ti e% -he h'd #i4en hi 5ho5ol'te%

9hese de5l'r'ti4e senten5es E52% +%+%1< 5'n be turned into Ces!*o Auestions( 's 2ollo&s? E80< W's the E#ypti'n 5lo&nin#=

E81< E8+<

W's the youn# #irl o22erin# 5ho5ol'te 2or the se5ond ti e= H'd she #i4en hi 5ho5ol'te= As the e7' ples sho&( Ces!*o

Here &e 'l&'ys #et the 'ddition'l ele ent does or did in the 5orrespondin# Auestions% For e7' ple? Wh't is the di22eren5e bet&een e7' ples E>><8E>9< 'nd e7' ples E8)< 'nd E8<= Why is there si ple in4ersion in one 5'se( 'nd in4ersion plus do8insertion in the other= 9he 'ns&er is th't En#lish Ces!*o Auestions 'l&'ys need 'n 'u7ili'ry in initi'l position( 'nd i2 there is no 'u7ili'ry '4'il8'ble in the underlyin# stru5ture E's in E8)< 'nd E85<<( then the 3du y3 ele ent do ust be inserted% Bo is then 'lso 5'lled 'n 'u7ili'ry% $t is 'l&'ys the "irst au.iliary in the :* th't is in4ol4ed in the in4ersion &ith the -ub;e5t N*% Wh't &e h'4e s'id 'bout the role o2 the 2irst 'u7ili'ry 'nd the use o2 do 'lso 'pplies to the ne#'tion o2 En#lish senten5es% Ne#'tion is nor 'lly '5hie4ed by insertin# not '2ter the 2irst ele ent o2 the :*% No& ne#'te both senten5es E>><8E>9< 'nd senten5es E8)< 'nd E85< 'bo4e% .ou &ill 2ind th't E>><8E>9< 'llo& si ple not8insertion E&ithout do8, &here's E8)< 'nd E85< '#'in reAuire do8insertion &hen they 're ne#'ted% 9he ne#'ti4e senten5es 5orrespondin# to E>>< 'nd to E8)<( 2or e7' ple( 're the 2ollo&in#?

Auestions 're 2or ed by re4ersin# the

50 -onstituents

+%)%,%5 -u

in# $% &'( #P E9,<?

E88< E89<

9he E#ypti'n &'s notJ&'sn3t 5lo&nin#% 9he tr' p does notJdoesn3t 'd ire the #irl% ENot? U9he tr' p 'd ires not the #irl<%

We h'4e seen th't :*s in En#lish usu'lly h'4e the stru5ture sho&n in

Why is there do8insertion in E89<( but not in E88<= 9he 'ns&er is '#'in th't ne#'ti4e senten5es 'l&'ys need 'n 'u7ili'ry in 2ront o2 not. And i2 there is no 'u7ili'ry '4'il'ble( the 'u7ili'ry do ust be inserted% 9he 2irst 'u7ili'ry in the :* E' od'l( or ha2e or be8 is not only in4ol4ed in oper'tions li/e Auestion 2or 'tion 'nd ne#'tion( but 'lso( 2or e7' ple( in t'# 2or 'tion% 9he Ft'# Auestion3 5orrespondin# to E>>< is E90< 'nd th't 5orrespondin# to E8)< is E91< belo&% Co p're?

E90< E91<

9he E#ypti'n &'s 5lo&nin#( &'sn3t he= 9he tr' p 'd ires the #irl( doesn3t he= ENot? U9he tr' p 'd ires the #irl( 'd iresn3t he=<%

9he 'u7ili'ry in the t'# in E90< 5orresponds &ith the pro#ressi4e 'u7ili'ry 0as 'nd is ne#'ted% $n E91< do8insertion is '#'in reAuired in the 'bsen5e o2 'n 'u7ili'ry% Buestion 2or 'tion( ne#'tion 'nd t'# 2or 'tion 're three &'ys to illustr'te the spe5i'l st'tus o2 the 2irst 'u7ili'ry in the :*? 's &e h'4e seen( this 2irst ele ent 'y be ' od'l 60ill, must, should, et5%<( the per2e5t 'u7ili'ry ha2e, the pro#ressi4e 'u7ili'ry be, or the p'ssi4e 'u7ili'ry be. We sh'll return to the oper'tion o2 do8insertion in se5tion )%+%,% Ho&e4er( it is not only the 'u7ili'ries ha2e 'nd be th't 're in4ol4ed in in4ersion( ne#'tion 'nd t'# 2or 'tion( but 'lso the le7i5'l 4erbs ha2e 'nd be. For e7' ple?

E9+'< E9+b< E9+5< E9+d<

Her 4oi5e &'s so2t% W's her 4oi5e so2t= Her 4oi5e &'sn3t so2t% Her 4oi5e &'s so2t( &'sn3t it=

9hese le7i5'l 4erbs beh'4e li/e 'u7ili'ries here% 9his is ' 5'se o2 stru5tur'l indeter in'5y or Fre'n'lysis3 Esee Ch'pter "<%

-onstituents 51 E9,< 9ns( N1J*eril *ro#J*'ss -pe5i2ier V 8 ust h'4e 'y h'4e &ould h'4e Ad;*JN*J-l 7 &&& 8er, Co ple ent interestin# the di'ry the #irl 'n interestin# story N 7$7 7 Ad+ 7 &&&
A

Eb<

Negati1e statements I*% Tag Auestions 0omment an an, *ases where the three o3erations ,ield *urious results. 0an ,ou thin2 of an, other o3erational tests to show the s3e*ial status of the first au)iliar,L +%)%) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES *hr'ses 5onsistin# o2 ' preposition 6in, about, under, to, 0ith, et5%< 2ollo&ed by 'n N* or 'n - 're 5'lled prepositional phrases E**s<% We sh'll 'ssu e th't the preposition E*< is the He'd o2 the **( 'nd th't &h't

C'te# ory Fun5t ion

8 3 l'u#h &'s re'di told 5'lle

'#'in &ith #re't interest yesterd'y i2 she h'd the 'ns&er

this di'#r' is pro4ision'l% We sh'll return to det'ils o2 the stru5ture o2 the :* belo&% Here it is i port'nt 3to repe't th't the only obli#'tory ele ents in the :* 're? the He'd :( its Co ple ents( i2 'ny( 'nd the -pe5i2ier tense E9ns<% 9he re 'inin# ele ents 're option'l% 9he #r' 'ti5G $ 2un5tions in :* &ill be de'lt &ith in Ch'pter ,% Co p're di'#r' E9,< && th di'#r' E,><( &hi5h su s up the stru5ture o2 the N* E+%)%+%5<% +%)%,%" E)(*+,s(s Anal,se the $ s of the following senten*es, 3a,ing 3arti*ular attention to the elements 3re*eding the Head $. Draw diagrams similar to &=9% and &=<% a!o1e. &/ l Ins3e*tor ;ills will Auestion the 3risoner first. &'% I am loo2ing forward to hearing from ,ou soon. &(/ The 3oli*eman *ould ha1e arrested the tram3. (4; Susan has !een writing letters all afternoon. &9/ ;*Donald was booked for hitting his o33onent in the stoma*h. &< All these do*uments ha1e !een e)amined !, Dr. Klut?!aum. 0lassif, all the le)i*al 1er!s in the a!o1e senten*es &&/%#&<%% in terms of their *om3lementation. +here1er 3ossi!le, *hange ea*h of the a!o1e senten*es

III into"

E'<

5es-.o Auestions

'2 -onstituents -onstituents '3 M t1

id

'/ &(/ 2)< M9% ,,

9he nor 'l order o2 ele ents in the ** is? *8N*% Ho&e4er( En#lish 'lso h's ' nu ber o2 (ost(ositions" &hi5h typi5'lly 2ollo& their Co ple ents( 's in? three 0ee4s ago 'nd all Io4ing aside5 ago 'nd aside 're li/e prepositions in th't they ser4e 's the He'd o2 ' **%
E10"< G108<

2ollo&s the He'd is its Co ple ent E*reposition'l Co ple ent( or *rep5<% For e7' ple Ethe * is it'li5ised<? E9)< in the 5orner

E95< E9"< E9><

to the tr' p 0ith red h'ir about this topi5

9he preposition 'y be pre5eded by 'n ele ent &hi5h spe5i2ies it% For e7' ple? E98< right on the spot

+%)%)%1 -u in# up the ** 9he stru5ture o2 the ** 'y be su ed up 's in E10"<? C'te#or Ad+ 7N N 7$7 y Fun5tio -pe5i2ier H Com(lement n &ith red h'ir ri#ht on the spot t&o $ be2ore her 'rri4'l inutes 'bout this topi5 re#'rdin &hether he i#ht # 5o e Co p're this di'#r' +%)%,%5 'bo4e% &ith di'#r' s E,>< 'nd E9,< in +%)%+%5 'nd

E99< E100< E101<

slap in the

iddle +%)%)%+ E7er5ise Cra*2et the following senten*es, 3a,ing 3arti*ular attention to the stru*ture of the s" She will !e wearing a white dress with o dro33ed waistline. I will see ,ou at the east gate of the 3ar2. He 3ut the mone, in an old shoe#!o) three yeors ago. She was !orn in Trinidad or in @amai*aO Those two 3aintings !, Sal1ador Dali are for sale. +at*h out for a tall man with a mousta*he. +%)%5 ADIEC9$:E *HRA-E- @ur te7t +%)%1 5ont'ins phr'ses su5h 's? E10>< 4ery so2t

straight throu#h the &'ll three inches 'bo4e the door

9he -pe5i2iers in the **s 're it'li5ised% 9he -pe5i2iers in E98<8E100< 're 'd4erb phr'ses( 'nd th't in E101< is 'n N*% @55'sion'lly the * o2 ' ** is 2ollo&ed by 'nother **( e%#% since a"ter the 0ar 'nd "rom behind the green door. 9he *rep5 is 'lso delet'ble 't ti es( e%#% /ohn is inside 6the room8. Noti5e th't **s 'y o55ur &ithin :*s( N*s( et5% Consider( in p'rti5ul'r( the 2ollo&in# senten5es 2ro our te7t( 'nd de5ide &hether the **s o55ur inside ' :* or 'n N*? E10+< He le'ned to&'rds the Ger 'n #irl%

E10,<
$n?

9he noise in the roo

5ontinued%

E10)<

$ K43 et her 't the entr'n5e o2 the 5ine 'L

the ** at the entrance o" the cinema o55urs inside ' :*( 'nd the ** o" the cinema inside the N* the entrance o" the cinema, &hi5h is the *rep5 o2 at. 9he stru5ture o2 this ** is 's 2ollo&s?

E105<

Kpe't K Nthe entr'n5e K ( o 2 KN the 5ine 'L L i 1

Ger 'n

E109< youn#
9hese 're 'd;e5ti4e phr'ses EAd;*s<( 9he He'd o2 'n Ad;* is 'n 'd;e5ti4e 6so"t, @erman, young8, ;ust 's the he'd o2 'n N* is 'n N or the He'd o2 ' :* ' :( et5% 9he Ad;*s E108< 'nd E109< 5onsist o2 ' He'd 'd;e5ti4e EAd;< only( &here's in E10>< the He'd Ad; is pre5eded by 'n 'd4erb phr'se E 2ery8 &hi5h spe5i2ies it% 9he He'd Ad; 'y 'lso be 2ollo&ed by ' ** or 'n - &hi5h ser4es 's ' Com(lement o2 the He'd Ad;% For e7' ple Ethe Co ple ents 're it'li5ised<? E110< &orried about the "uture E111< '2r'id that she might die E11+< 2ond o" the sea De5ide &hether the it'li5ised Ad;*s o55ur inside ' :* or inside 'n N* in

'3 -onstituents

-onstituents ''

t)e senten5e belo& Ethe N* itsel2 E11,< E11)< Her 4oi5e &'s 2ery so"t.

'y be inside ' :* or ' **<?

He le'ned to&'rds the @erman #irl%

1r'5/etin# o2 E11,< should yield the 2ollo&in# 5onstituent stru5ture? - 11 " . Ks K ( ( H e r 4oi5eL K4p&'s KAdip:ery so2tL L L

9he Ad;* 2ery so"t 2un5tions 's ' :erb Co ple ent in the :*% 1r'5/etin# o2 E11)< #i4es? E11"< Ks KO*HeL K((((le'ned K*pto&'rds K((the K1d(*Ger 'nL #irlL L L L
E1+0<

+%)%5%+ E7er5ises AdB s usuall, des*ri!e some sort of Aualit, that is atta*hed to a 3erson or thing, e.g. She is nice atta*hes -ni*eness- to -she-. Identif, the AdB s &t / His de*ision was 1er, unwise. &'% The ,oung girl was left in a!solute miser,. &(/ She loo2s 1er, attra*ti1e. This im3ortant de*ision was rea*hed after 3ainful &8 / -"1 The old $i*ar *onsidered their !eha1iour sinful. &<% The idea seems to me to !e rather 3ro1o*ati1e. &=/ The, 3ainted the door dar2 red. E81 She married the Du2e ,oung. 0om3lete the senten*es !elow !, adding o 0om3lement with the a33ro3riate e7tre ely 4ery r'ther Co p're this di'#r' youn# h'ndso e &orried '2r'id 2ond

9he Ad;* @erman 2un5tions 's ' *re odi2ier in the N* the @erman girl. N*s 'y 5ont'in ore th'n one Ad;* 2un5tionin# 's *re odi2ier% For e7' ple? E11>< the youn# Ger 'n #irl

'bout the 2uture th't she i#ht die

E118< the little old l'dy E119< th't ni5e youn# Fren5h student
Words li/e only, 's in an only child, 'nd utter, 's in an utter "ool, 're 'lso Ad;*s% Ho&e4er( they 're li ited in their distribution? unli/e the 4'st ';ority o2 Ad;*s( they 5'nnot o55ur '2ter the Copul' be in ' senten5e? Fthe child is only or Fthe "ool is utter. 9hese Ad;*s( it 'ppe'rs( 5'n only be used attri,uti+ely" not (redicati+ely& @ther ADI*s( su5h 's a0a4e or alone, 5'n only be used predi5'ti4ely( not 'ttributi4ely( e%#%? Fthe a0a4e child F the alone boy. +%)%5%1 -u in# up the Ad;* 9he stru5ture o2 the Ad;* 'y be su ed up 's in E1+0<? Catego ry Functio n Ad+ $(ec Ad6 3 7$ Com(lement

&ith di'#r' s E,><( E9,< 'nd E10"< 'bo4e%

She was nol aware ... She is angr, She was 1er, en1ious ... You are guilt, ... 0hildren are often afraid ... 2.!./ AD#ERB PHRASES E3e7t +%)%1 'lso 5ont'ins phr'ses su5h 's? E$+1< 11++< Ei +,< E1+)< '#'in soon 4ery slo&ly

E$+5< then l3hese 're 'd4erb phr'ses EAd4*s<% 9he He'd o2 'n Ad4* is 'n 'd4erb E?Od4<% ;ust 's the $le'd o2 'n N* is 'n N or the He'd o2 ' :* ' :( et5% 9he Ad4*s in E1+1<8E1+5< 5onsist o2 ' He'd Ad4 onlyG our te7t 5ont'ins no inst'n5es o2 Ad4*s 5ont'inin# ele ents &hi5h spe5i2y the He'd% E7' ples o2 su5h Ad4*s 're the 2ollo&in#? E1+"< 4ery soon E1+>< e7tre ely slo&ly Ad4*s 'y o55ur in ' :* or in 'n Ad;*% De5ide &hether the it'li5ised Ad4*s belo& o55ur inside ' :* or 'n Ad;* Ethe Ad;* itsel2 'y be inside 'n N* or ' :*<? E1+8< He le2t 2ery recently. E1+9< -he 5opied the do5u ents Huite accurately. E1,0< An une.pectedly l'r#e 5ro&d too/ p'rt in the de onstr'tion%

E1,1< He is typically 1ritish%

E1<
'$ -onstituents -onstituents '& 3

-oon'2

terbre'/2'stM'ryAnnbrou#htin9he9i es

E1,+< E1,,< E1,)<

He 'rri4ed rather une.pectedly. 9he 2il &'s mar2ellously 2unny% -he h's ' really s&eet person'lity% @bser4e th't Ad4*s t'/e no Co ple ents% '.8.<./ Summing u3 the Ad1 9he stru5ture o2 the Ad4* 'y be su ed up 's in E1,5<?

he &ill no doubt be 'ble to identi2y the indi4idu'l &ords in this senten5e Auite e'sily( 'nd he &ill /no& th't the 'ppropri'te &ord bound'ries 're 's in E+< belo&( r'ther th'n 's in E,<?

E1,5<

Category Function

Ad+ $(ec

Ad+

4ery re5ently typi5'lly then e7tre ely slo&ly Co p're this di'#r' &ith di'#r' s E,><( E9,<(E10"< 'nd E1+0< 'bo4e%

li

'.8.<.' E)er*ises Add Ad1 s to the itali*ised AdB s in the senten*es !elow" Et I She become angr ( E+< His attitude is intolera,le( E,< George is tired( E)< She is afraid that she might die( Add Ad1 s denoting 3manner3 to the following senten*es" &i The old man sat down ... &'% She spoke to him ... &(/ The $i*ar *onsidered the matter ... (4) The 3rofessor e)3lained the 3ro!lem ...

+ % 5 W@RD'.9./ INT:6D50TI6N E4ery spe'/er o2 En#lish &ill intuiti4ely re5o#nise &h't the &ords in 'n En#lish senten5e 're% F'5ed &ith the strin#?

-oon '2ter bre'/2'st M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es% U-oo n'2 terbre '/2'st M'ry Ann brou# htin 9he9 i es% $2 you /no& ' l'n#u'#e &ell enou#h( you 5'n do this sort o2 de 'r5'tion o2 &ord bound'ries Auite 'uto 'ti5'lly( by intuition% $t is your lin#uisti5 5o peten5e &hi5h 'llo&s you to do this% @2 5ourse( su5h 5o peten5e is '7i8 'l only 2or your other ton#ue( 'nd it is less th'n per2e5t 2or other l'n#u'#es &hi5h you do not spe'/ 2luently% And you h'4e no su5h 5o peten5e 2or the l'n#u'#es &hi5h you do not spe'/% $2 you do not /no& ' l'n#u'#e( you &ill 2ind it i possible to identi2y the &ord bound'ries in e4en the si plest senten5es% 9he 2ollo&in# strin# is 'n e7' ple o2 ' 4ery si ple Welsh senten5e 2ollo&ed by its tr'nsl'tion in En#lish? E$< 1ethy 'ye rysynei&neud= ? Wh't is E rys doin#= $2 you do not /no& Welsh( you &ill not be 'ble to de5ide th't the &ord bound'ries 're 's 2ollo&s? E5< 1eth y 'y E rys yn ei &neud= Words 're #r' 'ti5'l units &hi5h ' spe'/er o2 ' l'n#u'#e 5'n intuiti4ely re5o#nise% A2ter 'll( 4ery little #r' 'ti5'l edu5'tion is needed to he 'ble to pl'y -5r'bble( 'nd this #' e essenti'lly relies on the re5o#nition o2 &ords% 9he s' e 'pplies to other &ord #' es% '.9././ +ord 0lasses" the Distri!ution of +ords $n order to 2or senten5es( &ords ust 'ppe'r in ' p'rti5ul'r stru5tur'l rel'tionship 'nd in ' p'rti5ul'r order% 9he distribution o2 e'5h 5l'ss o2 35ords is di22erent% Distribution'l properties o2 &ords 're /no&n intuiti4ely by ' n'ti4e spe'/er% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the e7tr'5t belo&( &hi5h is t'/en 2ro W% -o erset M'u#h' 3s ;" <uman )ondage. We h'4e le2t out ten &ords 2ro the te7t% 9ry to 5o plete the te7t by insertin# 'n 'ppropri'te &ord? E"< *hilip h'd led the %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E1< li2e o2 'n only 5hild( 'nd %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E+< loneliness 't the 4i5'r'#e &'s no %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E,< th'n it h'd been &hen his %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E)< li4ed% He 'de 2riends %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E5< M'ry Ann% -he &'s ' 5hubby little %%%%%%%%%%%%%E"< o2 thirty82i4e( the d'u#hter o2 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E>< 2isher 'n( 'nd h'd 5o e to the %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E8< 't ei#hteenG it &'s her 2irst %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E9< 'nd she h'd no intention o2 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%E10< it%

.ou &ill prob'bly 2ind th't 't so e o2 the points in the te7t you 5ould insert Auite ' nu ber o2 'ppropri'te &ords( &hile 't other points you 're 2'r ore restri5ted in your 5hoi5e% At 1( 2or e7' ple( you i#ht h'4e thou#ht o2 &ords li/e solitary, lonely, unhappy, isolated, secluded, sheltered protected, miserable, une2ent"ul, sel"!centred, boring, dull,

:)8

-onstituents

-K7istituents '9

E9 < E1,< brou#ht the ne&sp'per%

9he senten5es sho& ' 5ontr'st bet&een sin#ul'r 'nd plur'l nouns? tramp 'nd diary re2er to only one person or thin#G tramps 'nd diaries re2er to ore th'n one person or thin#% 9his 5ontr'st bet&een sin#ul'r 'nd plur'l is one o2 num,er Esee 'lso +%)%+%+ 'bo4e<% Consider no& the 2ollo&in#? E1+< $ 9he 'id M'ry Ann 9he boy i &'s ill% *hilip

Philip 'nd ,ary +nn t'/e the s' e position 's the seAuen5e 'rti5le C

happy, uninteresting, stable, tedious, romantic, "ull, empty, et5% 1ut 't point + you 5'n only 5hoose bet&een Philip s 'nd his, 'nd perh'ps the. We no& #i4e the list o2 the '5tu'l &ords( 's they o55urred in the ori#in'l te7t? solitary, greater, his, a5 mother, person, 2icarage, place5 lea2ing5 0ith. C'n you identi2y &hi5h &ord &ent &here in the te7t 'bo4e= -ee 'lso te7t +%5%8% Words 5'n be 5l'ssi2ied dependin# on the type o2 en4iron ents in &hi5h they 5'n 'ppe'r% At 1 in the te7t none o2 the &ords suit'ble 2or + &ould h'4e been 'ppropri'teG 'nd 4i5e 4ers'% 9he en4iron ent in &hi5h ' &ord o55urs Ethe 5onte7t< ser4es 's 'n i port'nt 5riterion 2or settin# up 5l'sses o2 &ords% Words &hi5h 5'n 'ppe'r in the s' e 5onte7t &ill be s'id to h'4e the s' e distribution? they belon# to the s' e &ord 5l'ss% $n this se5tion it is our purpose to loo/ ore 5losely 't &ord 5l'sses% +%5%+ N@DN$n se5tion +%)%+ &e h'4e identi2ied N*s 's 5onstituents &hose He'd is ' noun Ethe He'd Ns 're it'li5ised<? E>< 9he tramp &'s re'din# his diary.

E8<

9he Ger 'n girl &'s pourin# hot chocolate.

9hus ' &ord is ' noun EN< i2 it 5'n 2ill the bl'n/ in 2r' es li/e? KNp9he %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L &'s re'din# KN((his %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L E10< K ( ( 9 he Ger 'n %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L &'s pourin# K5*hot %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L As &e h'4e seen( Ns 'y be pre5eded by deter iners( but 'lso by Ad;*s to 2or N*s% Nouns 'y 4'ry in 2or % Co p're? E1l'< 9he tramp is re'din# his diary. E1 lb< 9he tramps 're re'din# their diaries.

noun% $n 2'5t( &e sh'll 5onsider the to be ' 5R%55i'l 5'te#ory o2 nouns? (ro(er nouns& 9hey do not nor 'lly t'/e 'n 'rti5le 6F.The /ane 0as ill8 'nd usu'lly o55ur in the sin#ul'r only 6F/anes8. Ho&e4er( Y9rHie proper nouns 'l&'ys o55ur in the plur'l 'nd t'/e ' de2inite 'rti5le? The *e. rides, The Lnited (tates, The Times. +%5%, #ERBS $n +%)%, &e h'4e introdu5ed :*s% 1r'5/et the :* in the senten5es belo& 'nd underline the He'd : in e'5h 5l'use? E1)< M'ry Ann h'd 5o e to the 4i5'r'#e &hen she &'s ei#hteen% E15< *hilip 's/ed her &hether he i#ht 5o e &ith her% E1"< Her p'rents li4ed in ' little house ne'r the h'rbour% 9he he'd :s in E1)<8E1"< 're come Et&i5e<( 's/ 'nd li2e. 9hese 're 5'lled 'in 4erbs or le7i5'l 4erbs% 9he ite had in had come in 6138 is 'n 'u7ili'ry Eo2 the *er2e5t<( 'nd might, in might come in E15< is ' od'l E'u7ili'ry<% For the 'in di22eren5es bet&een le7i5'l 4erbs 'nd 'u7ili'ries( see +%)%, 'bo4e% !e7i5'l 4erbs 're 4erbs &hi5h 2un5tion 's the He'd o2 ' :*( 'nd &hi5h 's su5h 5'n be the only 4erb in ' senten5e% !e7i5'l 4erbs 5'n he pre5eded by one or ore 'u7ili'ries% 'u7ili'ries 5'nnot nor 'lly o55ur on their o&n( 'lthou#h in so e 5'ses the le7i5'l 4erb 2un5tionin# 's the He'd 'y h'4e to be re5o4ered 2ro the 5onte7t? &e s'y then th't the le7i5'l 4erb E'nd other 'teri'l '55o p'nyin# it in the 5onte7t< is deleted% E7' ples 're? E1>< A? Who h's bro/en the &indo&= 1? Iohn h's Ebro/en the &indo&<% E18< A? C'n you spe'/ D'nish= 1? No( $ 5'n3t Espe'/ D'nish<% 9he it'li5ised ele ents in the 2ollo&in# :*s 're 'll 'u7ili'ries( the 4erb arrest in e'5h e7' ple bein# the le7i5'l 4erb? E19'< %%% 0ill 'rrest %%% E19b< %%% has 'rrested %%% E195< %% 0ill ha2e 'rrested %%% E19d< %%% 0ould ha2e been 'rrested %%% +%5%) AD0ECTI#ES $n se5tion +%)%5 &e h'4e des5ribed Ad;*s 's 5onstituents &hose He'd is 'n 'd;e5ti4e% Consider( 2or e7' ple( the 2ollo&in# Ad;*s Ethe He'd Ad;s 're it'li5ised<?

"0 62 G8 E+ 1< E+

-onstituents solitary 4ery nice r'ther hot o o l d t r ' p s -o e 'd;e5ti4es 'y h'4e di22erent 2or s dependin# on the de#ree o2 the Au'lity they e7press? E+)< M'ry Ann is nice, *hilip is nicer, but the :i5'r is nicest. 9he 2or nice is s'id to he the b'seG nicer is the 5o p'r'ti4e de#ree Eusu'lly 2ollo&ed by ' phr'se or ' 5l'use be#innin# &ith than8, 'nd nicest is the superl'ti4e de#ree% 1'se( 5o p'r'ti4e 'nd superl'ti4e 're the three de#rees o2 5o p'rison% !on#er 'd;e5ti4es 5'nnot he F#r'ded3 by 'ddin# !er/! est to the b'se% $nste'd &e ust put more 'nd most

mos best badl

Ad;e5ti4es in En#lish do not 5h'n#e in 2or to sho& nu ber Eunli/e Fren5h 'd;e5ti4es( 2or e7' ple<? E + , ' < ' n o l d t r ' p E + , h < t &

be2ore the 'd;e5ti4e to 2or the 5o p'r'ti4e 'nd the superl'ti4e% E+5'< -he is ambitious. E+5h< -he is more ambitious th'n her sister% E+55< -he is the most ambitious student in the 2irst ye'r% 9here 're 'lso irre#ul'r de#rees o2 5o p'rison su5h 's? good!better!best5 bad! 0orse!0orst5 'nd little!less! least.

l'ti4e de#rees% A 2e& short 'd4erbs li/e soon, early 'nd late t'/e !er 'nd !est %, but the ';ority o2 'd4erbs reAuire more 'nd most, 'nd so e 're irre#ul'r% For e7' ple? early!earlier!earliest5 beauti"ully!more beauti"ully!

'.9.9 AD$E:CS Ad4erbs 2un5tion 's the He'd o2 Ad4*s Ethe He'd Ad4s 're it'li5ised in the e7' ples belo&<? E+"< mar2ellously

*repositions 2un5tion 's the He'd o2 ' ** E52% +%)%)<% *repositions 'y 5onsist o2 only one &ord Ee%#%? on, at, in, inside8, or o2 ore th'n one &ord Ee%#%? in relation to, 0ith respect to, because o", in "a2our o", in aid o"8. 9hese ulti8&ord prepositions 're F2ro6en3 units( &hi5h h'4e be5o e sin#le le7i5'l ite s% 9heir intern'l '/e8up is irrele4'nt 2or our purposes? 's ' ZZhole they 2un5tion 's one preposition Esee 'lso ulti8&ord 5on;un5tions belo& E+%5%>< <% *repositions 'y he sep'r'ted 2ro their Co ple ents in 5'ses li/e E+8< 'nd E+9< Ethe ** is it'li5ised<? E+8< That boo4 I h'4e been loo/in# "or 2or &ee/s% E+9< %hat is this in aid o"1

9hey 'y 5onsist o2 only one &ord 6and, but, or, that, i2( et5%< or ore th'n one &ord 6so that, in order that, as soon as et5%<% Con;un5tions 'y 'lso be subdi4ided into 5oordin'tors 6and. but, or, /r, [et5%< 'nd subordin'tors 6that, i", although. so that. as soon 's( et5%< E52% +%+%+<% 9he 5oordin'tors in the 2ollo&in# e7' ples 're it'li5ised? E,0< Iohn #ot up and &'l/ed out%

E,1<
E,5<

Not *'ul( but O:e h'd to hurry% "or

1ill 2'iled his 2in'ls% &e &ere l'te% 9he e7' ples belo& 5ont'in subordin'tors Eit'li5ised<?

E+><

4ery slo0ly

Ad4erbs 're o2ten 2or ed by 'ddin# the su22i7 8ly to the 5orrespondin# 'd;e5ti4es( e%#%? mar2ellous! mar2ellously5 beauti"ul! beauti"ully. <o0! e4er( not 'll 'd4erbs 're 2or ed &ith !ly. For e7' ple( soon, 0ell, then, there, "ast, no0 h'4e no re#ul'r 5orrespondin# 'd;e5ti4e 2or s% #arly, "ast, hard, 4indly. 'nd late 're both 'd4erbs 'nd 'd;e5ti4es% !i/e 'd;e5ti4es( 'd4erbs 'y be put in the 5o p'r'ti4e 'nd the super8

E,,< E,)<

%hen he is ill( he

-ee 'lso )%+%)%,% En#lish 'lso h's so e postpositions li/e ago, 's in? three days ago E52% +%)%)<% '.9.= 06N@ 5N0TI 6NS Con;un5tions ser4e to lin/ senten5esJ5l'uses( or phr'ses%

does not #o to 5hur5h% He didn3t #o( because he 2elt ill% E,5< 9hey 5' e b'5/ e'rly( in order that they 5ould see the3 2il on 9:% -in5e subordin'tin# 5on;un5tions o55ur in the C@M* slot they 're o2ten re2erred to 's 5onrple entisers%

",

$2 -onstituents

2.".1 EXERCISES

3 @ohn is alwa,s tr,ing to a*hie1e the impossible. 6nl, the absurd is worth writing a!out. +ould ,ou *all the itali*ised strings N s or AdB sL Gi1e e1iden*e to Bustif, our answer. +hat &s,nta*ti*% differen*es are there !etween the itali*ised strings in &/% and &'% and those in &(% and (4) a!o1eL

E,< E)<
P/% &'% &(% &8% P/% &'% &(% &8% &9% &<%

Cra*2et the senten*es, *lauses and 3hrases in the

following te)t" Te)t 2(6(7 hili3 had led the solitar, life of on onl, *hild, and his loneliness at the 1i*arage was no I greater than it had !een when his mother li1ed. He made friends with ;ar, Ann. She was a *hu!!, little 3erson of thirt,#fi1e, the daughter of a fisherman, and had *ome to the 1i*arage at eighteen. it was her first 3la*e and she had no intention of lea1ing it. !ut she held a 3ossi!le marriage as a rod o1er the timid heads of her master and mistress. Her father and mother li1ed.in o little house off Har!our Street, and she went to see them on her e1enings out. 6ne e1ening hili3 as2ed whether he might go home with her. Ada3ted from +. Somerset ;augham, -f +uman Bondage. Il Are the senten*es in the a!o1e te)t sim3le, *om3ound, *om3le) or *om3ound#*om3le)L III List all the N s, $ s, AdB s, Ad1 s and s in the te)t. I$ Tr, to *lassif, all the words in the te)t into different *lasses" ma2e lists of all nouns, ell 1er!s, all adBe*ti1es, all ed1er!s, et*. $ 7ind the 3ronouns in the te)t and tr, to esta!lish what N the, re3la*e. $I 0onsider the following senten*es" !he oung are often selfish. The, ha1e ne1er reall, learnt to share. The *rench are renowned for their good taste.

$Il 0onsider the following senten*es" You might ha1e *ome home a !it earlier. All the a33li*ants should ha1eO O!een e)amined. +hen as2ed a!out his fa1ourite author, he alwa,s mentions @.D. Salinger. The, wanted me to *ome at on*e, !ut I refused. I remem!er seeing him doing that tri*2 !lindfolded. She hod a *urious feeling of ha1ing !een there !efore. Determine whether the underlined 1er!s are au)iliaries or le)i*al 1er!s. 7or ea*h au)iliar,, state whether it is a modal or not, and for ea*h le)i*al 1er!, indi*ate whether it is o finite or non#finite form.

:%-% N'ip'ul( In a Free State. FUNCTIONS lienti2y N*s( :*s 'nd **s in the te7t by br'5/etin# 'nd l'bellin#% $2 you loo/ 5're2ully 't the stru5ture o2 e'5h 5l'use( you &ill 2ind there is 'l&'ys ' 5o bin'tion o2 one N* 'nd one :* per 5l'use% 9o illustr'te this point( let us 'n'lyse 'll the 5l'uses o2 the 2irst p'r'#r'ph o2 te7t ,%1? & /% KsK (9he tr' pL K4*e'd KFlithe di'ry L L

, % 1 $N9R@DDC9$@N? 9HE :ER1 AND $9C@M*!EMEN9- !et us return on5e here 's te7t ,%1% ore to te7t +%)%1( repe'ted

E+< Te.t 3.1 ES +%)%1< 9he tr' p re'd the di'ry% He l'u#hed% He turned ' p'#e( he re'd it 'nd he l'u#hed '#'in% He le'ned to&'rds the Ger 'n #irl 'nd s'id ' 2e& &ords to her% 9he E#ypti'n &'s 5lo&nin#G the noise in the roo 5ontinued% -oon the youn# Ger 'n #irl &'s o22erin# 5ho5ol'te 2or the se5ond ti e% Her 4oi5e &'s 4ery so2t% 9he tr' p &'s un2oldin# his '#'6ine slo&ly% He stopped suddenly( he loo/ed 't the 5ho5ol'te% 1ut she h'd #i4en hi no 5ho5ol'te% He un2olded his '#'6ine% 9hen he destroyed it%

K $ r e L K4i'u#hedL L

KsKNHeL K4tturned !%\ p'#eLLL KsK s*el K 2r *e'd Ky*tL L L

E5< E"<
E ><

KsKN*eL K4*'u#hed K # ' i n L L L

K5KN*HeL :(

K le'ned*K**to&'rds the Ger 'n #irlL L L

KsKN* Ehe<L K4s'id KN(\ 2e& &ordsL K*tto h e l l L L

Dunctions "5 He #'4e K(Gr(the #irlL KP*' boo/L He 5'lled K%% phi L Ksp' 2oolL He le'ned Krpto&'rds the #irlL He put K(Gphis he'dL Kr(r(on her shoulderL

$3 Dunctions 9he 2irst N* in E>< is ellipted( 's the p'rentheses indi5'te( but it is 5le'r 2ro the 5onte7t th't the N* ust be he. E'5h 5l'use 5ont'ins ' :* pre5eded by 'n N*( 's is re2le5ted by one o2 the phr'se stru5ture rules o2 En#lish? E8< - 888CN*8:* 9he e22e5t o2 this re&rite rule 'y 'lso be represented by the 2ollo&in# tree di'#r' Esee 'lso 1%+%,<? s E9<

NP VP

$2<

$ntr'nsiti4e C **( e%#% lean

M tiR 9r'nsiti4e C ** e.g. put

Ad;

* N*

N*8

$$ 1 **L

K((p8 N*8
**L

Ed<
Ditr'nsiti4e( e.g. gi2e

9he N* i edi'tely do in'ted by - is the $u,6ect N /3&3&.'" 'nd the :* is the redicate o2 - E,%,%+<% @n the use o2 the Ftri'n#les3 in E9<( see 1%+%,% 1r'5/et the re 'inin# 5l'uses o2 te7t ,%1 'nd identi2y the -ub;e5t N* 'nd the *redi5'te o2 e'5h 5l'use% 9here 're 2our -s Ei%e% 5l'uses< in the se5ond p'r'#r'ph( 'nd si7 in the third% As &e h'4e seen ECh'pter +<( le7i5'l 4erbs 5'n be 5l'ssi2ied '55ordin# to the type o2 5o ple ent'tion they t'/e Eth't is( in ter s o2 the sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es in &hi5h they 5'n o55ur<% We repe't here the 5l'ssi2i5'tion o2 4erbs #i4en in +%)%,%+( &ith one e7' ple senten5e 2or e'5h 4erb type%

Ee< Co ple7 tr'nsiti4e( e%#% call

$n the 2ollo&in# se5tions &e sh'll loo/ 't the beh'4iour o2 Co ple ents in ore det'il( re2inin# 'nd 5o pletin# the 'bo4e s5he ' 's &e #o 'lon#% Moreo4er( &e sh'll 'lso de'l &ith Ad;un5ts in :*s( &hi5h 're not in5luded in this sur4ey o2 b'si5 p'tterns( sin5e Ad;un5ts 're not obli#'tory 5onstituents% $t is i port'nt to point out th't the 4erb itsel2 'y 5ont'in ore th'n in5 &ord( e%#%? EM @< He 0ent out. E1 1< He ga2e up 'l5ohol%

Go o0 is ' ulti8&ord 4erb &hi5h t'/es no Co ple ent( &here's gi2e up is ' ulti8&ord 4erb &hi5h needs 'n N* Co ple ent%
:e rb typ es E'< $ntr'nsiti 4e( e%#% laugh He see e d K((d,
*

er2ulL He /illed K((the

Ad;*

ouseL

N*

PP

23%

Ns %%N* RL

Eb< Copul'( e%#% seem E5< Monotr'nsiti4e( e%#% 4ill

Fr' es 23P 4 E7' ples He l'u#hed E1+< E1,<

4er

y 5he

@o out is intr'nsiti4e( 'nd #i4e up is onotr'nsiti4e% 1oth 're ()rasal +er,s E52% Ch'pter "<% it is 5le'r th't sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es 're not b'sed on synt'5ti5 in2or 'tion onlyG the meaning o2 the le7i5'l 4erb Ethe He'd o2 the :*< 'lso pl'ys 'n i port'nt p'rt in the settin# up o2 su5h 2r' es% As ' rule( 4erbs

$$ Dunctions Dunctions $&

E 5< N* :* the di'ry

e7press acti+ities o2 so e /ind Ebut the ter F'5ti4ity3 is to be interpreted here in ' 2'irly &ide sense( to in5lude su5h e4ents( h'ppenin#s( st'tes o2 '22'irs 'nd situ'tions 's 're e7pressed by 4erbs li/e die, dream, "all, hate, possess, resemble8. A5ti4ities usu'lly in4ol4e one or ore (artici(ants& 9he '5ti4ity F/ill3( 2or e7' ple( e7pressed by the 4erb 4ill, in4ol4es t&o p'rti5ip'nts? the A#ent 'nd the *'tient% $n order to re2er to the '5ti4ity o2 3/illin#3( &e ust there2ore 'lso re2er to these t&o essenti'l p'rti5ip'nts% $n the senten5e /ohn 4illed the tramp, the A#ent is e7pressed by /ohn, the *'tient by the tramp. 9he 5onstituents /ohn 'nd the tramp 're respe5ti4ely the -ub;e5t o2 - 'nd the Co ple ent o2 :% 9hus( ' sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' e 5'n be seen 's ' #r' 'ti5'l spe5i2i5'tion o2 ' 4erb( &hi5h 'lso re2le5ts the semantic content Eth't is( the e'nin#< o2 the 4erb% sho&ed , %+ GRAMMA9$ CA! FDNC9$@NCo p're the 2ollo&in# senten5es? di'ry to the #irl% 9hese t&o senten5es 5ont'in identi5'l &ords( 'nd their 5onstituent stru5ture is 'lso e7'5tly the s' e% 1oth senten5es 're to be br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s?

E,<

K- KN* L K:* KN*

E1< E+<

9he #irl sho&ed the 9he tr' p sho&ed the

di'ry to the tr' p%

M't5h the 5onstituents in E1< 'nd in E+< to the br'5/etin# in E,<% 9he tree di'#r' s E)< 'nd E5< represent E1< 'nd E+< respe5ti4ely? E)< s

9he #irl the di'ry to the tr' p

sho&ed

9he trees 's su5h 're identi5'l( but the le7i5'l ite s the tramp 'nd the girl, t&o N*s( o55ur 't di22erent stru5tur'l positions in the tree% $n E)<( the N* the girl is i edi'tely do in'ted by - Eit is the -ub;e5t E-u<<( &here's in E5< it is the N* the tramp &hi5h is i edi'tely do in'ted by - E'nd is thus the -u<% As you 5'n see( -ub;e5t N*s 're outside the :*% $n E)< the tramp o55urs inside the :*? it is i edi'tely do in'ted by **% 'nd it is 'lso do in'ted by :*% $n E5<( the girl is in the s' e stru5tur'l position? it is i edi'tely do in'ted by **( 'nd it is 'lso do in'ted by :*% @n the distin5tion bet&een i edi'te do in'n5e 'nd do in'n5e( see 1%+%,% 9he di22eren5e in the

position o2 the N*s 5le'rly h's 'n e22e5t on the beh'4iour o2 su5h N*s in the senten5e% For

e7' ple( only the t&o N*s inside the :* Ee%#% the diary 'nd the tramp8 'y s&it5h pl'5es% Co p're? E1< 9he #irl sho&ed the di'ry to the tr' p%

E"< 9he #irl sho&ed the tr' p

the di'ry% E>< U9he di'ry sho&ed the #irl to the tr' p% We sh'll s'y here th't the 5h'n#e 2ro E1< to E"< 'bo4e 'lso in4ol4es the deletion o2 the preposition to. 9he N*

outside the :* 6the girl8 is not '22e5ted by the oper'tion &hi5h 5h'n#es E1< into E"<% 9his oper'tion is 5'lled 5ati+e 2o+ement" @n the other h'nd( i2 &e p'ssi4ise senten5e E1< &e 2ind th't it is the N* outside the :* th't is '22e5ted( 's &ell 's one o2 the t&o N*s inside the :*% 9he -ub;e5t N* is shi2ted ri#ht&'rds 'nd the preposition by is 'dded to it% 9he other N* is o4ed le2t&'rds out o2 the :*% Co p're? E1< The girl sho&ed the diary to the tramp.

$8 Dunctions Dunctions "9 688 698

S

E,<

9he -ub;e5t o2 ' senten5e h's been de2ined 's &ith the :* to &ords( the -u is i edi'tely tree di'#r' Consider? E1< 9he tr' p

the N* &hi5h 5o bines 2or 'n -% $n other the N* &hi5h is do in'ted by - in ' represent'tion% &'s l'u#hin#%

The diary &'s sho&n to the tr' p by the girl. The tramp &'s sho&n the di'ry by the girl. A#'in &e 'ssu e th't in the 5h'n#e 2ro E1< to E9< the preposition to is deleted% We 5on5lude th't( dependin# on their stru5tur'l position( the N*s 'nd **s in E1< 'nd E+< h'4e di22erent synt'5ti5 properties% Constituents 're s'id to h'4e di22erent grammatical functions EGFs<% $n E1<( 2or e7' ple( the girl is -ub;e5t E-u<G the diary is Dire5t @b;e5t E@d<( to the tramp is $ndire5t @b;e5t E@i<% We sh'll s'y th't in E1< the -ub;e5t is realised ,y 'n N*( the @d is re'lised by 'n N*( 'nd the @i by ' **% For E1<( &e 'y pro4ision'lly 'bbre4i'te this in2or 'tion 's 2ollo&s? N*J-u( N*J@d( 'nd **J@i% Con4ersely( &e i#ht &'nt to s'y( 2or e7' ple( th't the N* the girl in E1< realises the GF o2 -u? N*J-u( or N* functions 's -u% 9he sl'sh 5on4ention introdu5ed here pro4ides ' Aui5/ &'y o2 indi5'tin# the GFs 'nd their re'lis'tions in ' #i4en senten5e% $n the se5tions &hi5h 2ollo& &e sh'll loo/ 't 'll the i port'nt GFs in En#lish% We be#in &ith the 2un5tions in - E,%,<( 'nd then pro5eed to the 2un5tions in :* E,%)<% 3.2.1 EXERCISES :e3la*e the N s in &/% and &'% a!o1e !, 3ronouns. +hi*h of them ha1e su!Be*ti1e forms, and whi*h ha1e o!Be*ti1e formsL II ro1ide *ounter#e)am3les to the following *laim" In standard English su!Be*ti1e forms of 3ronouns o**ur as Su!Be*t and o!Be*ti1e forms as 6!Be*t.

$n E1< the -ub;e5t N* is the tramp. Here 're t&o 'ltern'ti4e represent'8 tions? E+< KsK 9he tr' pL K (&'s l'u#hin#LL

, % , GRAMMA9$CA! FDNC9$@N- $N ,%,%1 -D1IEC9

$denti2y the -ub;e5t in E)< 'nd in E5< belo&( usin# both l'belled br'5/etin#( 's in E+<% 'nd ' tree di'#r' represent'tion( 's in E,<? E)< 9he E#ypti'n &'s 5lo&nin#% 9he Ger 'n #irl &'s o22erin# us so e 5ho5ol'te% $ et us 5onsider so e o2 the synt'5ti5 5h'r'5teristi5s o2 -ub;e5t N*s su5h 's the tramp, the #gyptian 'nd the @erman girl in E1<( E)< 'nd E5< 'bo4e% We h'4e 'lre'dy noted E+%)%,%)< th't N*s 2un5tionin# 's -u in4ert &ith the 2irst 'u7ili'ry ele ent 60as in our e7' ples< in the 2or 'tion o2 Auestions% For e7' ple? Et(< W's the tr' p l'u#hin#= *ie s&it5h o2 the -ub;e5t N* 'nd the 2irst 'u7ili'ry ele ent is 5'lled -ub;e5t8Au7ili'ry $n4ersion E-A$<% 9he e5h'ni5s o2 this pro5ess &ill be de'lt &ith in se5tion )%+%1% Another 5h'r'5teristi5 o2 -ub;e5t N*s in 2inite 5l'uses is th't they nor 'lly '#ree in nu ber &ith the 2irst ele ent in the :*% $2( 2or e7' ple( &e put the N* the tramp in the plur'l( &e #et senten5e E>< inste'd o2 E1<? E >< 9he tr' ps 0ere l'u#hin#% 9he 5h'n#e 2ro sin#ul'r to plur'l here does not only '22e5t the -ub;e5t N* but 'lso the :*? &'s 'lso h's to be repl'5ed by ' plur'l 2or % Agreement is o4ertly 'r/ed in 2inite 5l'uses on the 2irst 'u7ili'ry ele ent( or( i2 there is no 'u7ili'ry ele ent( on the le7i5'l 4erb itsel2% Note th't other ele ents in the :* 'y 'lso be '22e5ted by this% Co p're( 2or e7' ple? E8'< 9he tr' p ne4er en;oys hi sel2% E8h< 9he tr' ps ne4er en;oy the sel4es% A third &'y o2 re5o#nisin# -ub;e5t N*s is th't pronouns repl'5in# the &ill nor 'lly h'4e the sub;e5ti4e 2or 6he, she, they, et5%<( not the ob;e5ti4e 2or 6him, her, them, et5%<% For e7' ple? E9'< He &'s l'u#hin#% E9"< UHi &'s l'u#hin#%

&G Dunctions 9he three 5h'r'5teristi5s o2 -ub;e5t N*s entiond here E-A$( '#ree ent 'nd substitution by pronouns< 5'n be used to identi2y the -ub;e5t o2 ' 2inite 5l'use% Dsin# these three tests( identi2y the -ub;e5t N*s in E10<8 E1)< belo&? E10< 9he p'tient h's been e7' ined by Dr M'5Don'ld%

Dunctions >1 3 . ! G R A M M AT I C A L F U N C T I O N S I N # P H'4in# loo/ed 't the t&o ';or #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tions in the senten5e? -ub;e5t E-u< 'nd *redi5'te EFred<( &e sh'll no& 5onsider the 2un5tions re'lised by 5onstituents &ithin the :*% $n se5tion ,%5 &e sh'll dis5uss the #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tions in N*s( Ad;*s( Ad4*s 'nd **s% 9he :*( 's &e h'4e seen( 'y 5ont'in ele ents o2 4'rious types &hi5h either pre5ede or 2ollo& the He'd o2 the :* E' le7i5'l 4erb<% We h'4e distin#uished bet&een Co ple ents in the :* 'nd Ad;un5ts in the :*% Co ple ents 're obli#'tory 5onstituents( &hi5h 're needed to 5o plete the :*% 9hey 're Fsele5ted3 by the le7i5'l 4erb E52% ,%1 'bo4e<% $n 'ddition to Co ple ents o2 :( the :* 'y 'lso 5ont'in option'l Ad;un5ts( #ener'lly denotin# pl'5e( ti e( 'nner( 5ondition 'nd the li/e% 9he 2un5tions in the :* th't &ill be de'lt &ith 're? *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent E,%)%1<( Dire5t @b;e5t E,%)%+<( $ndire5t @b;e5t E,%)%,<( Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent &ith intr'nsiti4e 4erbs E,%)%)<( Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent &ith tr'nsiti4e 4erbs E,%)%5<% 'nd ' 5o ple7 #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tion &hi5h is ' 5o bin'tion o2 *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent 'nd Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent E,%)%"<% ,%)%1 *RED$CA9$:E C@M*!EMEN9$ le 2un5tion o2 ' Predicati2e -omplement E*5< is th't o2 's5ribin# so e pi operty to the -ub;e5t o2 the senten5e% 9his 2un5tion is nor 'lly re'lised hV N*s% Ad;*s or **s( 'nd the 4erbs th't sele5t su5h ' Co ple ent belon# to the 5l'ss o2 5opul's 6be, loo4, seem, et5%<% E7' ples? (.(.( SENTEN0E ADIDNC9Ap'rt 2ro -u 'nd Fred( the senten5e 'y 'lso 5ont'in ele ents &hi5h 're peripher'l in the stru5ture o2 the senten5e? they 2'll outside the ';or 5on8 stituents N* 'nd :*% 9hese peripher'l senten5e ele ents 're o2 t&o types?
E5'< E5b<

E11< E1+< E1,< E1)<

9he tr' p &'s sh'4in# hi sel2% 9he e7' is 't the end o2 ne7t ter %

9h't p'intin# -ue does not li/e% A2ter bre'/2'st the boys &'ndered out into the pl'y#round%

Dis5uss 'ny proble s th't you 're 2'5ed &ith in 'pplyin# 'll three tests to the 'bo4e senten5es% ,%,%+ *RED$CA9E We h'4e seen th't the -ub;e5t N* 'nd the :* to#ether senten5e? -VN*8:* 9he :* Fpredi5'tes so ethin#3 o2 the -ub;e5tG its 2un5tion is Fpredi5'ti4e3% -in5e the 2un5tion o2 :* is th't o2 predi5'tin#( &e sh'll 5'll it the redicate EFred< o2 the senten5e% We sh'll see belo& th't 5onstituents inside the :* 'y 'lso h'4e so e /ind o2 predi5'ti4e 2un5tion% '/e up '

EI

&' E,

E)

E'<

ite s &hi5h ser4e to spe5i2y the spe'/er3s 'ttitude to&'rds the rest o2 the senten5eG

e7' ples 're? un"ortunately, certainly, in my 2ie0, in "act. For e7' ple?

E15<

Ln"ortunately, the &e'ther%

't5h &'s

5'n5elled be5'use o2 b'd

Eb< ite s &hi5h ser4e to 5onne5t senten5es in ' te7tG e7' ples 're? more! o2er, ho0e2er, ne2ertheless, yet. For e7' ple?

E1"<

Iohn h'd pl'nned to s&i '5ross the Ch'nnel l'st ye'r% <o0e2er, &hen the ti e 5' e he did not h'4e the 5our'#e% 9he ite s under E'< 'nd Eb< 're 5olle5ti4ely re2erred to 's $entence Ad6uncts E-'s<% We sh'll return to the in se5tion ,%)%9%

9he He'd o2 the :* in E1< is the 5opul' seem. $t is 2ollo&ed by 'n N*% In E+< the :*8He'd is 2ollo&ed by 'n A5$;*( in E,< by 'n N* '#'in( 'nd in E)< by ' **% $t is these obli#'tory 5onstituents 2ollo&in# the : &hi5h h'4e the GF o2 *5 E*redi5'ti4e Co ple ent<% 9hey h'4e been it'li5ised% We h'4e noted th't the :* 's ' &hole 'lso h's ' predi5'ti4e 2un5tion? it predi5'tes so ethin# o2 'n N*% Ch'r'5teristi5'lly( ele ents in ' predi5'ti4e rel'tion EN*J-u 'nd :*( 2or e7' ple< &ill sho& '#reee ent? Iohn is &or/in# in Fr'n5e 't the o ent% Iohn 'nd I'ne are &or/in# in Fr'n5e 't the o ent%

&2 Dunctions Dunctions &3

L/% .'1

As you 5'n see( the :* 5ont'ins t&o 5onstituents in 'ddition to the :*8 He'd 'nd its -pe5i2iers? 'n N* 'nd ' **? -1. K4 &'s un2oldin# Ktithe '#'6ineL KV22or the se5ond ti eL L

MQl is%

23P N*L

-i il'rly in E"< the *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent Eto the -ub;e5t< '#rees in nu ber &ith the -ub;e5t N*?

Whi5h o2 these is 'n Ad;un5t= 9h't is( &hi5h o2 the 5'n be le2t out e'sily= 9he N* the magaAine ust be re#'rded 's obli#'tory in this 5onte7t% $t is ' Co ple ent o2 :? un"old sub5'te#orises 2or Eor sele5ts< 'n N*? un"old9 9he N* the magaAine 5'nnot be o itted% E9< U9he tr' p &'s un2oldin# 2or the se5ond ti e%

E"'< E"b<

-he is an actress. 9hey 're actresses.

$n 'ny l'n#u'#es EFren5h( 2or e7' ple< Ad;*s 'lso sho& '#ree ent &ith the ele ents they h'4e ' predi5'ti4e rel'tion &ith% Copul's 5h'r'5teristi5'lly ser4e to 3lin/3 the -ub;e5t N* 'nd the property e7pressed by the *5% F1ein# ' #ood student3( 2or e7' ple( is seen 's ' property o2 the person re2erred to 's I'ne in E1< 'bo4e( &hile in E+< F2oolishness3 is 's5ribed to Iohn% 3 .! .1 . 1 E)(*+,s( +hat is the redi*ati1e 0om3lement & *% in ea*h of the following senten*esL &/% ;ar, is in lo1e with her dri1ing instru*tor. &'% He is o tall, thin man with a sallow fa*e and a long nose. &(% The mil2 has turned sour. &8% The 1ending ma*hine is out of order. &9% ;r +ilson was the ri*hest man in Cia*2sta!le. &<% The room is in a mess. &=% His hair was very white. /4% Your un*le has grown old. E9< That tri3 is out of the Auestion. E10< She got angr, with him. 3.!.2 DIRECT OB0ECT 1r'5/et the ';or 5onstituents in E>< belo&% Dr'& ' tree di'#r' 'nd identi2y the -ub;e5t% E>< 9he tr' p &'s un2oldin# the '#'6ine 2or the se5ond ti e%

$ 2 &e p'ssi:ise senten5e E><( &e 2ind th't the N*8Co ple ent be5o es the -ub;e5t o2 the p'ssi4e senten5e? E10< The magaAine 0as bein# un2olded by the tr' p 2or the se5ond ti e% An N*8Co ple ent o2 : &hi5h be5o es the -ub;e5t o2 ' p'ssi4e senten5e / s'id to h'4e the 2un5tion o2 @b;e5t% More spe5i2i5'lly( the magaAine is the Dire5t @b;e5t E@d< o2 un"old :erbs su5h 's un"old &hi5h sub5'te#orise 2or ' 5onstituent 2un5tionin# 's @d 're s'id to be onotr'nsiti4e% 3.!.2.1 E)(*+,s( Lra*2et N >Su and $ in the following e)am3les. Are there an, 0om3lements inside $ L Are Rhere an, 6!ie*t N sL He s3o2e a few words to the German girl. He loo2ed o dull gu,. She had forgotten his name. He destro,ed all the maga?ines. 3.!.3 INDIRECT OB0ECT Consider the 2ollo&in# e7' ple? 111< -he h'd #i4en the tr' p no 5ho5ol'te%

E15< E1"<

-he h'd #i4en no 5ho5ol'te to the tr' p% U-he h'd #i4en the tr' p to no 5ho5ol'te%

1oth N*s in E11< 're @b;e5ts? no chocolate is the Dire5t @b;e5t E@d<( 'nd the tramp is the $ndire5t @b;e5t E@i<% $t is 5h'r'5teristi5 o2 the @i th't it 5'n o2ten be repl'5ed by ' ** &ith either to or "or. An e7' ple o2 the l'tter?

$ he :* 5ont'ins t&o N*s?

E1+<

Ks-he K(%*h'd #i4en K( (t he tr' pL K((no 5ho5ol'teL

Roth N*s 're Co ple ents to the le7i5'l 4erb gi2e, &hi5h is ditr'nsiti4e% 1oth N*s 're( in 2'5t( @b;e5ts sin5e both 5'n be5o e the -ub;e5t o2 ' p'ssi4e senten5e?

E1,< E1)<

*o chocolate h'd been #i4en to the tr' p% The tramp h'd been #i4en no 5ho5ol'te%

1ut the t&o N*s Eit'li5ised< do not beh'4e in Auite identi5'l &'ys% $n E1,< &e h'4e to 'dd the * torn the N* the tramp, but in E1)< &e 5'nnot insert to be2ore no chocolate. 9his is rel'ted to the 2'5t th't there is 'n 'ltern'ti4e 4ersion o2 E11<( in &hi5h the N* the tramp 5'n be repl'5ed by ' ** &ith to5 the N* no chocolate 5'nnot be repl'5ed by ' ** &ith to.

E++<
>) Dunctions Dunctions &' K E+1<

9he ne&sp'per re 'ined &ith Mr Ellis 2or three hours%

1r'5/et the :*% Wh't /inds o2 5onstituents does the :* 5ont'in=

E+,<

9he ne&sp'per KF(*e 'ined K*p ith Mr EllisL Kpoor three hoursLL

E1>< E18< E19< E+0<

-he poured the tr' p ' drin/% -he poured ' drin/ 2or the tr' p% Ho&e4er( o55'sion'lly there -he stru5/ hi ' blo&%

9here 're t&o **s in the :*( o2 &hi5h the se5ond see s to be option'l 'nd the 2irst obli#'tory?

is only one possibility o2 re'lisin# the @i( e%#%

E+)< E+5<

9he ne&sp'per re 'ined &ith Mr Ellis% U9he ne&sp'per re 'ined 2or three hours%

-he stru5/ ' blo& to hi %

Ditr'nsiti4e 4erbs li/e gi2e, o""er 'nd pour nor 'lly h'4e one o2 the 2ollo&in# sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es? N*8N*L V @R KHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHN*8 N * L N*8 * * SoL K HHHHN*8 * * t o r L V ,%)%,%1 E7er5ises Cra*2et the Indire*t 6!Be*t N s and s in the senten*es !elow" / / H She showed him her drawings. /'% This song gi1es me o heada*he. &(/ @ohn taught Cill linguisti*s. &8% The, offered the 2idna33ers o large sum of mone,. &Sl He told us an in*redi!le stor,. &<% @ohn suggested o rather interesting solution to us. &=H The 3rin*ess donated all her mone, to the 0hur*h. &4% I do not en1, ,ou ,our Bo!. &D/ Arthur demonstrated his new in1ention to his friend. &/E% That ad1enture is going to *ost them their li1es. If +hi*h of the senten*es a!o1e ha1e an alternati1e indire*t 6!Be*t *onstru*tionL &i.e. in whi*h *ases *an the N >6i !e re3la*ed !, a >6i and 1i*e 1ersaL% ,%)%) AD:ER1$A! C@M*!EMEN9- W$9H $N9RAN-$9$:E :ER1- Consider the 2ollo&in# senten5es?

Dor three hours is 'n option'l :*8Ad;un5t% %ith ,r #llis is ' :erb Co ple ent% Remain in this 5'se reAuires ' **? E0,J PPN , Remain is 'n intr'nsiti4e 4erb? it does not t'/e 'n @d% 1ut 't the s' e

ti e remain sub5'te#orises 2or ' **% 9he sub5'te#orised ** spe5i2ies the pl'5e &here the ne&sp'per re 'ined% Constituents &hi5h #i4e us ore in2or 'tion 5on5ernin# the pl'5e( 'nner( ti e( dur'tion( et5% o2 'n '5ti4ity 're s'id to h'4e 'n ad+er,ial 2un5tion( 'nd i2 su5h 'n ele ent Eli/e the ** 0ith Mr #llis8 is obli#'tory( &e 5'll it 'n Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent EA5<% Note th't remain does not ;ust sub5'te#orise 2or ' ** introdu5ed by 0ith5 other prepositions 're 'lso possible? E+"< 9he ne&sp'per re 'ined 't the 4i5'r'#e%

'n A5 re'lised by either ' ** or 'n N*% $denti2y the A5 in e'5h o2 the 2ollo&in# senten5es 'nd l'bel the 5'te#ory &hi5h re'lises the 2un5tion A5?

E+>< E+8< E+9<

9he sun re 'ined behind the 5louds 'll d'y% 9he p'per re 'ined on the shel2% 9he boo/s re 'ined in the libr'ry% 'y be re'lised by

Altern'ti4ely( the Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent o2 remain 'n Ad4*? E,0< He re 'ined there.

E,1<
8

9he &o en re 'ined upstairs.

he Ad4* '#'in is ' Co ple ent? it is non8o issible% Further ore( it 3oe5i2ies the lo5'tion o2 the '5ti4ity? it h's 'n 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion% 9he 2ollo&in# e7' ples illustr'te other uses o2 4erbs &hi5h t'/e 'n A5 Ethe A5 is it'li5ised<? E,+< He le'ned against the sideboard.

E,,< E,)< E,5< E,"< E,>< E,8<

<e is in Oondon. <e is at his club. His birthd'y is ne.t (aturday. 9he per2or 'n5e l'sted 6"or8 t0o hours. 9he enterprise 5ost thousands o" pounds. 9his p'r5el &ei#hs t0o 4ilos.

$n these e7' ples be is not ' 5opul'? the Co ple ents 6in Oondon, at his club, et5%< do not 'ssi#n ' property to the -ub;e5t N*( but r'ther spe5i2y the pl'5e o2 Fbein#3 EE,,<( E,)<<( or the ti e o2 Fbein#3 in E,5<% 9he 4erbs in the re 'inin# senten5es 're 'lso intr'nsiti4e( but they reAuire 'n A5 to des5ribe the '5ti4ity or st'te% An A5 'y be re'lised by 4'rious synt'5ti5 5'te #ories% For e7' ple( the 4erb last in E,"< t'/es

&$ Dunctions 2
-11 - 1 -3. -"1 -/. -7.

Dunctions &&

p'rt o2 the **s &hi5h 2un5tion 's A5 here% Hen5e( there is ' di22eren5e bet&een the 2ollo&in# senten5es? E,9< Iohn belon#s to se4er'l so5i'l 5lubs%

E,9< E)0< E)+< E),< E))< E)5< E)"<

Iohn belon#s to se4er'l so5i'l 5lubs% -he spe5i'lises in bio5he istry% 9he 2ire l'sted three d'ys% Iohn li4es in *'ris% -he st'yed 't the Hilton% Iohn 5ondes5ended to help us%

E55<
2ollo&s?

-o ebody h's slept in

y bed%

-enten5e E55< 5'n be p'ssi4ised 's

E)+< .our ne& 5'r dri4es 4ery s oothly%

E5"<

My bed h's been slept in%

$8lis 2'ther li4ed to be 9G. $t is not 'l&'ys e'sy to de5ide &ith 5ert'inty &hether ' 5onstituent 2ollo&in# the le7i5'l 4erb is obli#'tory or option'l% 9here 're 'ny 5'ses &hi5h 're less 5le'r85ut th'n those 'bo4e? the 5riterion 2or de5idin# on the nono issihility o2 ' 5onstituent in the :* is &hether the re 'inin# p'rt o2 the senten5e is still #r' 'ti5'l or &hether the e'nin# o2 the le7i5'l 4erb 5h'n#es dr'sti5'lly 's ' result o2 o ittin# th't p'rti5ul'r 5onstituent% !et us see &h't h'ppens to the senten5es 'bo4e i2 &e le'4e out the **s( Ad4*s( or -s th't 2ollo& the le7i5'l 4erb Ethe U indi5'tes un#r' 'ti5'lity 'nd the M ' dr'sti5 5h'n#e in e'nin#<? E)>< UIohn belon#s% E)8< U-he spe5i'lises%

E)9< E50< E51< E5+< E5,< E5)<

U.our ne& 5'r dri4es% U9he 2ire l'sted% MIohn li4es% M-he st'yed% UIohn 5ondes5ended%

P <is 2'ther li4ed% N*s su5h 's se2eral social clubs, biochemistry 'nd his attempt in the e7' ples 'bo4e 5'nnot be5o e the -ub;e5t o2 5orrespondin# p'ssi4e senten5es% 9hese N*s 're not @b;e5ts o2 the le7i5'l 4erbs( but 2or

9his su##ests th't m y bed in E55< is 'n @d E52% Ch'pter "<% Ho&e4er( sin5e E,9< 5'nnot be p'ssi4ised in the s' e &'y( se2eral social clubs in 6398 is not to be re#'rded 's 'n @d? t o se2eral. social clubs is ' ** 2un5tionin# 's A5% 3.!.!.1 E)(*+,s( +hi*h of the following senten*es *ontain Ad1er!ial 0om3lementsL Cra*2et the A*s and indi*ate how the, are realised. He has gone off the rails. He li1es in o *oun*il house in Dagenham. The La2e Distri*t is u3 in the to3 left#hand *orner of England. This new en*,*lo3edia *osts =E 3ounds. Slo3 in the middle of England stands the 0it, of 6)ford. The *hild was in tears. He darted towards the door. 3 . ! . " AD#ERBIAL COMPLEMENTS WITH TRANSITI#E #ERBS $n se5tion ,%)%) &e h'4e seen th't 4erbs li/e remain, belong, last reAuire 'n A5 to 5o plete the :*% 9he 4erbs &ere 'lso seen to be intr'nsiti4e? they h'4e no @d% $n this se5tion( &e sh'll see th't tr'nsiti4e 4erbs 'y 'lso sele5t 'n A5% Consider( 2or e7' ple? E5>< Iohn put the oney in ' bo7%

$t 5ont'ins 'n N* 'nd ' **% 9he ** in a bo. is ' Co ple ent o2 the : 'nd e7presses the lo5'tion o2 Fputtin#3% %here did he put the oney=? I n a bo.. 9his 5onstituent is thus 'n A5% 1r'5/et senten5es E58< 'nd 6'98 'bo4e in the s' e &'y% 9he A5 2or put can 'lso be re'lised by 'n Ad4*?

E")<

Iohn put the &8 Dunctions

oney there/upstairs.

9he 4erb put h's the 2ollo&in# sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' e? E"5<

.ote)

K:*

N*88N ** Ad4*

1
;

'nd E"8< sh'l 2un5

I& ,s 56$7&8$9 :'(&'(* ,; s(;&(;+( -". &'( PP ,; 82 seconds ,s <; 6%&,6;<9 A53(*7,<9 6* <; A+. W'<& 56 =6$ &',;>?

the ** '/es% $t is 5le'r( ho&e4er( th't the ** is non8 o issible? E""< re ind U9he 5hildren 'l&'ys e

,%)%" *RED$CA9$:E C@M*!EMEN9 C AD:ER1$A! C@M*!EMEN9? A C@M*!ET FUNCTION

-1.

E+< -3.
&8% (6)

-/.

E58< E59<

He &orded the letter 4ery 5're2ully% 9he 5hildren 'l&'ys re ind e o2 their #r'nd2'ther%

9he 4erbs p ut , 0ord 'nd remind 're tr'nsiti4e? they t'/e 'n N*J@d( &hi5h 5'n re#ul'rly be5o e the -ub;e5t o2 ' p'ssi4e? E"0< 9he oney &'s put in ' bo7%

E"1< E"+< E",<

9he letter &'s &orded 4ery 5're2ully% $' 'l&'ys re inded o2 their #r'nd2'ther% 9he :* o2 oneyL -(( ' bo7L 1

senten5e E5><( 2or e7' ple( h's the 2ollo&in# stru5ture? K ( ( p ut KNpthe

9he 4erb 0ord in E58< 'bo4e is 'lso ' tr'nsiti4e 4erb( &hi5h sele5ts both 'n @d 'nd 'n A5% A5 is re'lised by 'n Ad4* E 2ery care"ully8. While the A5 in E5>< e7presses lo5'tion( th't in E58< e7presses 'nner% $n E58< the Ad4* 5ould be repl'5ed by ' ** 6in a care"ul 0ay8. $n E59< &e 2ind 'nother 4erb t'/in# 'n @b;e5t N* 'nd ' ** 's Co ple ent% 9hou#h &e 5'n see th't the ** is obli#'tory( it &ould be di22i5ult to s'y &h't se 'nti5 5ontribution

Note th't in senten5e E59< me is the Dire5t @b;e5tG the N* their grand!"ather is not 'n @b;e5t( but the *rep5 o2 o" E52% +%)%)<% ,%)%5%1 E7er5ise W',+' 68 &'( 86996:,;? s(;&(;+(s +6;&<,; A53(*7,<9 C6@%9(@(;&s? B*<+>(& &'( A+s <;5 ,;5,+<&( '6: &'(= <*( *(<9,s(5. T'( 56+&6* %$& '(* 6; < 5,(&. H( >(%& ',s @6;(= ,; 6 s'6(A76). T'( G63(*;@(;& '<s 7*6$?'& &'( +6$;&*= +96s( &6 (+6;6@,+ *$,;. T'( %69,+( %6s&(5 20 @(; <*6$;5 &'( '6$s(. A *(<99= (88,+,(;& %,& +*(: +<; %$& !0 ?<996;s 68 8$(9 ,; < +<* <;5 +'<;?( &:6 :'((9s ,; 12 s(+6;5s. S'( 5(36&(5 '(* 9,8( &6 +'<*,&=. No& 5onsider the 2ollo&in# e7' ples?

E">< E"8<

9he #o4ern ent set 9he :i5'r 2lun# the

E>0< s(& 2 &'( %*,s6;(*s4 2s *8*((4 od A53(*7,<9

the prisoners 2ree% door open% 1r'5/et the ';or 5onstituents% Note th't the :*s 5ont'in 'n obli#'tory Co ple ent in 'ddition to the @d% For e7' ple?

;ust 's in E">< 'nd E"8<% Note th't the se5ond N* 2ollo&in# the 4erb in E>1< is not 'n @b;e5t? unli/e the 2irst N*( @eorge 5'n8not be5o e the -ub;e5t o2 ' p'ssi4e% Co p're?

E>,<
Geor#e%

Her b'by &'s 5'lled UGeor#e &'s 5'lled

E>)<

E"9<

9he #o4ern ent K3pset KN%the prisonersL KA59P2reeL I Wh't is the 2un5tion o2 the Ad;* "ree1 -in5e it is obli#'tory( it is ' Co ple ent &ithin the :*% $t n'rro&s do&n the e'nin# o2 set E'nd is thus 'd4erbi'l<( but it 'lso lin/s up &ith the Dire5t @b;e5t N*? it predi5'tes so ethin# o2 the N* the prisoners. 9he Ad;* "ree is thus both 'd4erbi'l

P*(5,+<&,3( her b'by% 9he 2un5tion'l p'ttern o2 the $n ' sense( "ree is both ' :* in E>1< is li/e th't #i4en *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent 'nd in E>0< 'bo4e% $n this 5'se( 'n Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent% ho&e4er( the predi5'ti4e 9his 5o bin'tion o2 2un5tions 2un5tion o2 the N* 6@eorge8 5ould be 'bbre4i'ted 's *5CA5% :erbs &hi5h sele5t ' *5CA5 're 5'lled comple. transiti2e. 9his ter is ' shorth'nd l'bel 2or the 5o ple7 2un5tion'l s5he ' #i4en in E>0<% Consider 'lso? E!&1< Geor#e% E 3+< -he 5'lled the propos'l 'bsurd% 1r'5/et the :* 'nd its 5onstituents in E>1< 'nd E>+<% $n e'5h 5'se you see th't there is 'n N* &hi5h is the Dire5t @b;e5t o2 the 4erb Ep'ssi4is'tion 5on2ir s this<% 1ut( in 'ddition( there is ' Co ple ent &hi5h n'rro&s do&n the '5ti4ity o2 F5'llin# %G it is ' Co ple ent &ith 'n 'ddition'l 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion( -he 5'lled her b'by

is perh'ps stron#er th'n its Ad4erbi'l 2un5tion% -till( there is ' 5le'r rel'tion bet&een the N* @eorge 'nd both the 4erb call 'nd the N* her baby. A#'in the GF o2 @eorge is th't o2 *5CA5( 'nd call is here ' 5o ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erb% Co ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erbs su5h 's call, set 'nd "ling reAuire t&o Co ple ents( one o2 &hi5h is the Dire5t @b;e5t( &hile the other h's 'n 'd4erbi'l 'nd( perh'ps ore i port'ntly( ' predi5'ti4e 2un5tion rel'tin# it to the Dire5t @b;e5t%

80 Dunctions Dunctions 81
&// P'/ P(/ {41 P9/ &a% Eb<

E5<
&d% Ee< &f %

,%)%"%1 E7er5ise Cra*2et the *SA*s in the following senten*es and indi*ate how the, are realised, +ho left the door o3enL Shall we *all it a da,L The, ele*ted ;r 6wen *hairman. @ohn treated the whole affair as a Bo2e. She threw the window o3en. Note. see se*tions (.8.//.' and (.8./ /.( for alternati1e anal,ses of the senten*es a!o1e. , % ) % > :ER1 *A99ERN- AND FDNC9$@N-? A -DMMAR. $n ,%1 &e h'4e presented ' pro4ision'l su 'ry o2 the ost i port'nt di22erent types o2 :* in En#lish( b'sed on the types o2 5o ple ent'tion th't le7i5'l 4erbs reAuire% !oo/in# 't the intern'l stru5ture o2 :*s in En#lish( &e h'4e distin#uished the 2ollo&in# types o2 Co ple ent to the 4erb? *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent E*5<? se5tion ,%)%1% Dire5t @b;e5t E@d<? se5tion ,%)%+% $ndire5t @b;e5t E@i<? se5tion ,%)%,% Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent &ith intr'nsiti4e 4erbs EA5<? se5tion ,%)%)% Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent &ith tr'nsiti4e 4erbs EA5<? se5tion ,%)%5% 9he 5o ple7 GF o2 *5CA5? se5tion ,%)%"% :erbs su5h 's laugh, snore 'nd ya0n h'4e no Co ple ent E52% <e laughed8. 9his is not the s' e 's 9:ero9 com(lementation& 9he ter F6ero3 5o pLetnent'tion is used &ith re2eren5e to 5'ses li/e <e is reading, &hi5h 'y be opposed to <e is reading a boo4. F]ero3 is only

used i2 there is ' 5orrespondin# e7pli5it Co ple ent Ee%#% N*J@d<( 'nd not i2 there is no 5orrespondin# e7pli5it Co ple ent nor 'lly( 's in the 5'se o2 <e laughed/ snored /ya0ned, et5% 9'ble ,%)%> su s up the se4en ost i port'nt :*8stru5tures in En#lish% $n e'5h :* the le7i5'l 4erb E:< is the He'd( 'nd the He'd sele5ts 5ert'in Co ple ents% -in5e the -ub;e5t N* 2'lls outside the :* 'nd sin5e it is obli#'tory 2or 'll :*s E52% -8%N*8:*<( there is no need 2or us to st'te th't ' :* t'/es ' -ub;e5t N*? e4ery - ust h'4e ' -ub;e5t position% 9he stru5ture o2 the :* is represented in ter s o2 sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es o2 :% $n t'ble ,%)%> on p'#e 8+ the 2irst 5olu n #i4es the l'bel 2or the type o2 4erb% 9his l'bel is erely ' shorth'nd de4i5e 2or su in# up the sub85'te#oris'tion 2r' e #i4en in the se5ond 5olu n% For e7' ple( ' 4erb &hi5h t'/es ' Dire5t @b;e5t 's its only Co ple ent( is ' onotr'nsiti4e 4erb% As the 5urly br'5/ets in the se5ond 5olu n sho&( the @d 'y be re'lised by either 'n N* or 'n -% -o e 4erbs do not t'/e the -8option 6eat, 2or e7' ple<( others nor 'lly only take the sententi'l re'lis'tion 6thin4, 0onder8, 'nd others '#'in t'/e either re'lis'tion 6belie2e, re2eal8. 9he

third 5olu n #i4es one or t&o e7' ples o2 e'5h type% $n the l'st 5olu n &e h'4e su ed up the 2un5tion l'bels 'nd the 4'rious &'ys in &hi5h GFs 5'n be 5o bined in b'si5 senten5es% -uK:L( 2or e7' ple( e'ns th't this is ' senten5e 5ont'inin# ' -ub;e5t 'nd ' :* &ith only ' : 'nd no Co ple ent% -uK :8@dL e'ns th't the senten5e h's ' -ub;e5t 'nd ' :* 5ont'inin# 'n @d 's :erb Co ple ent% !et us 't this point 'lso su up &h't &e h'4e s'id 'bout #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tions% $n the 2irst pl'5e( &e h'4e distin#uished bet&een the t&o ';or senten5e 2un5tions o2 -ub;e5t E-u< 'nd *redi5'te EFred<% 9he 2or er GF is re'lised by the N* i edi'tely do in'ted by -( 'nd the l'tter is re'lised by the :*% 9he *redi5'te s'ys so ethin# 'bout the -ub;e5t% -e5ondly( &e h'4e dr'&n ' distin5tion bet&een Co ple ents 'nd Ad;un5ts in the :*( the 5riterion bein# th't o2 o issibility% Co ple ents 're de2ined 's obli8 #'tory 5onstituents in the stru5ture o2 the :*( &hi5h 're reAuired by the : to 5o plete the :*% Ad;un5ts o2 : 're option'l 5onstituents o2 the :*% 9he di22erent Co ple ents 5'n be 5h'r'5terised synt'5ti5'lly% For e7' ple( Dire5t 'nd $ndire5t @b;e5ts 're '22e5ted by p'ssi4is'tion 'nd be5o e -ub;e5ts o2 p'ssi4e senten5esG the order N*J@d8**( oJ@i is 'n 'ltern'ti4e to the order N*J@i8 .N*J@dG predi5'ti4e N*s usu'lly sho& nu ber '#ree ent &ith the -ub;e5tG Ad4erbi'l Co ple ents 5'nnot be5o e the -ub;e5t o2 ' p'ssi4e et5% Moreo4er( there is ' #ener'l tenden5y 2or *redi5'ti4e Co ple ents to be re'lised by Ad; *( N* or **( Dire5t @b;e5ts by N* or -E-<( $ndire5t @b;e5ts by N* or **( Ad4erbi'l Co ple ents by **( Ad4* 'nd o55'sion'lly N* or -E-<( et5% $n 'n'lysin# senten5es( &e sh'll #ener'lly &'nt to in5lude in2or 'tion 'bout the 5onstituents o2 ' senten5e 'nd 'bout the GFs o2 the senten5e85onstituentsG &e sh'll nor 'lly use ' sl'sh to sep'r'te the 5onstituent 2ro the GF( e%#% N*J-u( et5% 9he 'n'lysis o2 ' senten5e li/e (he ga2e /ohn the money, 2or e7' ple( is? N*J-u K:8 N*J@i88N*J@dL% 9he sAu're br'5/ets 'r/ the bound'ries o2 the :*J*red% 9he hyphens 're 'dded 2or 5on4enien5e to sep'r'te the : 'nd the :erb Co ple ents% -i il'rly( the p'ttern 2or @eorge cheated at <ar2ard is9 *P/(u K:8**JAL( th't 2or + man that cannot lo2e a horse cannot lo2e a 0oman Ws? N*J-u K:88N*J@dL( 'nd th't 2or (he called her baby @eorge is9 *P/(u K:8N*J@d8N*J *5CA5 ; % ,%)%>%1 E7er5ise rodu*e English senten*es with the following 3atterns" /% N >Su N$#N > *T l'% N >Su N$#N >6i#N >6dT

(/>Su N$#U> *T P 8/ Ad1 >A#N >Su N$#N >6d# >A# ###I Note" the dashes ### in the $ mar2 the original 3osition of the AdBun*t Ad1 , whi*h has !een fronted. /9/ N >Su N$# >A*l

82 Dunctions Dunctions 8,
;Eo G 88888888(

6,

~
#

V6

'

#o 6 Q W

a
N

A X
LID

>. ` >
:l :

> >

<=&&&"r& ~
-

CI 0-

CL

Am
; F5

.#..Q.#, Q Z d ]4<
9

a o

>

>_

oo :

Da

o
1-

&</ &=% &4/ iD% &/E%

N >Su N$T N >Su N$- N /Od- >A*% N >Su N$- N /OdAdP IPc A!" N >Su N$N /O#- N > *T N >Su N$- N /O#- > *- / A "

(.8.4 AD@5N0TS AND 06; LE;ENTS 9he t'ble in ,%)%> #i4es only the ele ents &hi5h 're ini 'lly reAuired in ' senten5e &ith ' 5ert'in type o2 :% @2 5ourse( option'l Ad;un5ts 5'n be 'dded 2'irly 2reely% -o( st'rtin# 2ro ' b'si5 stru5ture su5h 's?

E>5<

9he do5tor put the #irl on ' diet

&hi5h 5ont'ins the tr'nsiti4e 4erb put 'nd its t&o Co ple ents E@d

'nd A5<( &e i#ht 'dd to this senten5e 'ny nu ber o2 option'l Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5ts EA<% Consider( 2or e7' ple?

E>"<

!'st ye'r the do5tor relu5t'ntly put the #irl on ' diet be5'use she &'s o4er&ei#ht%

Oast year is 'n Ad;un5t Eo2 ti e< re'lised by 'n N*( reluctantly is 'n Ad;un5t Eo2 'nner< re'lised by 'n Ad4*( 'nd because she 0as o2er0eight is 'n Ad;un5t Eo2 re'son< re'lised by 'n -% $2 these ele ents 're o itted( the senten5e does not be5o e un#r' 'ti5'l% Nor does the le7i5'l 4erb put 5h'n#e its e'nin#% ,%)%8%1 E7er5ise The following e)am3les *ontain 1arious 2inds of o3tional AdBun*ts. Identif, these omissi!le elements !, underlining them, and state how the, are realised. 7or ea*h senten*e determine what senten*e t,3e it is &*f. (.8.=%. &/% I'% He must ho1e left here on 7rida, morning. His room loo2ed Auite tid, ,esterda,. The, alwa,s dis*uss their finan*es !efore lea1ing. He ma, soon regret his de*ision. The, a33ointed him $i*e 0han*ellor last wee2. 6n 7rida, she saw her *ousin in the de3artment store. He was born in @amai*a on / August /D<(. Yesterda, the, were still waiting for further news. I will no longer tolerate ,our !ad !eha1iour. -f +uman &ondage is generall, *onsidered to !e Somerset ;augham-s master3ie*e in a long, 1ersatile, and e)tremel, distinguished literar, *areer.

E,< E)< E5<

&</ /=/ &4% /D% &/E%

AdBun*ts ma, o**ur in 1arious 3ositions and some *on easil, !e mo1ed around in the senten*e. Tr, 3re3osing them. (.8.D SENTEN0E AD@5N0TS AND $ # AD@5N0TS Consider te7t ,%)%9?

8) Dunctions Dunctions 8'

E8)<

Te.t 3.3.9 Willi' &'l/ed slo&ly do&n the ro'd% He 2elt th't he should disli/e the little #irl intensely% He de5ided th't he should ne4er eet her '#'in% -he &'s 5ert'inly ' 4ery unre'son'ble person% .et he 5ouldn3t disli/e her% He hoped th't he should see her '#'in% He belie4ed sin5erely th't ' 2riendship &ith her &ould be e75itin#% Any&'y( Willi' h'd 'l&'ys pre2erred people &ho Au'rrelled &ith hi % He &'s bored &ith people &ho '#reed &ith hi % He 5onsidered the little #irl Auite 'ttr'5ti4e% Ad'pted 2ro Ri5h 'l Cro pton( %illiam The Betecti2e.

-he 1 $ &'s N* ! - -u :*

5ert'inly Ad4* -'

' 4ery unre'son'ble #irl N* *5

-ertainly is 'lso 'n option'l Ad;un5t EA<( but there is 'n i port'nt di22eren5e bet&een certainly 'nd slo0ly in E>>< 'bo4e% -ertainly does not re2er to the ti e o2 'n e4ent( or to pl'5e or 'nner( but it indi5'tes the spe'/er3s 'ttitude to&'rds the rest o2 the senten5e? E>8< e'ns Fit &'s 5ert'inly true th't she &'s ' 4ery unre'son'ble #irl3( or? F&h't &'s 5ert'in is this? she is 'n unre'son'ble #irl3% -ertainly is 'n Ad;un5t &hi5h rel'tes to the 5ontent o2 the senten5e 'nd is there2ore s'id to be ' -enten5e Ad;un5t E-'<% 9he -' 'y 'lso be re'lised by **s? We sh'll 2irst loo/ 't the si ple senten5es in the te7t% Co ple7 senten5es &ill be de'lt &ith in se5tion ,%)%11% $denti2y the si ple senten5es in te7t ,%)%9% Dnderline 'll the Ad;un5ts in those senten5es% 9here 're 2our si ple senten5es in the te7t?

E85< E8"<

E>>< E>8<
person%

Willi' -he &'s

&'l/ed

slo&ly do&n the ro'd% 5ert'inly ' 4ery unre'son'ble

$n this 5onte7t slo0ly see s less obli#'tory in the :*% Co p're? E81< Willi' &'l/ed do&n the ro'd%

E8+<
.et he 5ouldn3t 18le 5onsidered &'l/ed slo&ly%

=Willi'

E>9<
disli/e her%

E80<

the little #irl Auite 'ttr'5ti4e% 1r'5/et the :* 'nd -ub;e5t N*% $denti2y the 5onstituents inside :* 'nd l'bel the % $s the 4erb 0al4 in E>>< intr'nsiti4e or tr'nsiti4e= Are there 'ny :erb Co ple ents= We 'y de5ide th't the 4erb 0al4 reAuires 'n obli#'tory indi5'tion o2 lo5'tion? do0n the road, &hi5h in th't 5'se 2un5tions 's Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent EA5<%

We su##est th't E>>< is ' senten5e o2 the -uK:8A5L type( &ith 'n 'ddition'l Ad;un5t slo0ly9 E8,< slo&ly Willi' &'l/ed do&n the ro'd N* Ad4* ** - -u :* A A5

9he Ad;un5t slo0ly is ' 'nner Ad;un5t% $n #ener'l( Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5ts 're Modi2iers o2 the '5ti4ity e7pressed by the 4erb% -enten5e E>8< 'bo4e 5ont'ins ' 5opul' 6be8 &ith ' *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent E*5< re'lised by 'n N*?

-ertainly. in "act 'nd in my opinion odi2y the truth 4'lue o2 the senten5e% 9hey do not rel'te to the 5ontent o2 the :*( but to th't o2 the senten5e 's ' &hole% Cet in senten5e E>9< 'bo4e is 'lso 'n -'? its 2un5tion is to 5onne5t senten5es% $n this 5'se( it 5onne5ts <e couldn t disli4e her &ith the pre5edin# senten5eEs< in te7t ,%)%9% @ther e7' ples 're Ad4*s su5h 's ho0e2er, ne2ertheless, then or **s su5h 's in addition, in spite o" that, et5%?

E89< E90<

He &'l/ed do&n the U-he 'rri4ed ho e

oreo4er= -o eti es% it is 'lso possible to use 'n A 's the 2o5used ele ent in ' 5le2t senten5eG -'s 5'n ne4er be 2o5used in this &'y% Co p're?

ro'd slo0ly, not Aui5/ly% be2ore d'r/( "ortunately, not un2ortun'tely%

E91<

UWh't 5ould he do

E9+<

'bout it( ho0e2er, not

$t is only recently th't $ s'& hi %

E8>< E88<

<o0e2er, &h't 5ould

he do 'bout it= ,*e2ertheless, &e

ust #et on &ith the ;ob% We 5on5lude th't En#lish h's t&o 'in types o2 Eoption'l< Ad;un5ts? Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5ts EAs< 'nd -enten5e Ad;un5ts E-'s<% Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5ts 'ppe'r inside the :* Ethey 'y thus 'lso be 5'lled :*8 Ad;un5ts<( -'s rel'te to the entire senten5e E-8Ad;un5ts<% 9here 're t&o synt'5ti5 tests &hi5h 'y be used to di22erenti'te bet&een As% on the one h'nd( 'nd -'s( on the other? E'< 2o5usin#? it is possible to 2o5us on 5ert'in As but not on -'s?

8"

Dunctions

certainly E9 U$t is in "act th't she is ' 4ery unre'son'ble #irl% ,< ho0e2er Eb< &h8Auestionin#? As 5'n be Auestioned &ith &h8ite s( e%#%? E9 Ho& did he &'l/ do&n the ro'd= (lo0ly. )< E9 When did you see hi = Recently. 5< 5'nnot be Auestioned in this &'y? -'s E9 When &'s she ' 4ery unre'son'ble #irl= U-ertainly. "< 3.!.B.1 E)(*+,s( Identif, the fun*tions &Su, $, 6, et*.% in the senten*es !elow, and indi*ate !, what *onstituents &N , $ , et*.% the are realised. :emem!er that the o3tional elements here ma, !e $ # AdBun*ts &A% or S#AdBun*ts &So%. *ountr,-s maBor industries. &DH I would not 3ut it 3ast her. &/E% 7red testified relu*tantl,. &II% @ohn worded the letter 1er, *arefull,. &/'% Thomas Hard, is 3erha3s the greatest writer of rural life and lands*a3e in the language. &/(/ aul lent Arthur his old sAuash ra*2et. E1)< His death will lea1e o large ga3 in the English literar, s*ene. E15< Ale)ander o3e was a most enigmati*al 3ersonalit,. E1"< @ohn treated the whole affair as a Bo2e. E1>< Alwa,s keep this one thing in mind. E18< D,lan Thomas died in New Yor2 at the end of /D9(. E19< 0ornflowers ma2e

s3lendid 3ot 3lants. E+0< E1er,one *alled @ohn Crown a fool. E+1< 5nfortunatel,, the e)3eriment was no su**ess. E++< ;ar, !ought herself a new English di*tionar,. E+,< She wears her hair long these da,s. E+)< ;rs :o!inson is wonderful. &'9/ 0homs2, sees his theor, os su3erior to that of De Saussure.

Ad;un5ts?

3 .!.10 PREDICATI#E AD0UNCTS $n te7t ,%)%9 *e h'4e seen the e7' ple? E9>< Willi' do&n the ro'd% &'l/ed slo&ly

E1<

Critain has *hanged dramati*all, in the 3ast two de*ades. E+< The, set him an almost im3ossi!le tas2. E,< You-re ma2ing ;umm, 1er, unha33, !, diso!e,ing. E)< George allegedl, *heated at Har1ard. E5< eter and his dog ore great friends. E"< His 3arents taught him the fa*ts of life. E>< His wife-s death left him a !ro2en man. E8< Agri*ulture and fishing ha1e !e*ome this

(lo0ly is ' :*8Ad;un5tG it o55urs inside :*% $ts 2un5tion is th't o2 e7pressin# the 'nner o2 &'l/in#% We sh'll no& loo/ 't so e 5'ses in &hi5h ' :*8 Ad;un5t 'lso h's ' non8 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion% 1r'5/et 5onstituents in the 2ollo&in# senten5es% 9ry to deter ine &hi5h :*8 5onstituents 're Co ple ents 'nd &hi5h 're option'l

-10!. Ks K((9heyL K(((h'4e p'inted K(((the houseL K V% t redL L L Wh't is the GF o2 the N* the house1 Wh't is the 2un5tion o2 red1 @b4iously% red s'ys so ethin# 'bout the '5ti4ity o2 3p'intin#3( but in 'ddition it predi5'tes so ethin# o2 the N*J@d? the house is red 's ' result o2 the p'intin# 3? thus red is used both 'd4erbi'lly 'nd predi5'ti4ely% -5he 'ti5'lly( &e 'y represent the intern'l rel'tions inside the :* o2 E98< 's 2ollo&s? E105< p'int K ( ( t h e houseL KAdlt%redL 6d

Ad1er!ial redi*ati1 e -tru5tures li/e E105< 're 4ery si il'r to the p'ttern introdu5ed 2or 5o ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erbs su5h 's set ... "ree Esee ,%)%"<? E10"< KAdip2reeL 6d Ad1er!ial set K ( ( t he prisonersL

redi*ati1e

K E11,< return

NPIohn 1ro&nL
K

$NP
L

E110< 'ppoint
theirne& 'n'#erL

NPhi

ICCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCI @d Ad4erbi'l *redi5'ti4e A#'in the p'ttern rese bles th't o2 5o ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erbs li/e set, "ling 'nd call 63.3.$89 c". They called /ohn )ro0n a "ool. $n e7' ple E109<( ho&8e4er( the N* their ne0 manager is not obli#'tory 'nd ust be l'belled *CA( r'ther th'n *5CA5% Co p're?

88 Dunctions Dunctions 89

$s there 'ny di22eren5e bet&een E105< 'nd E10"<= 9he only di22eren5e is th't "ree is non8o issible 6FThe go2ernment set the prisoners8, &hile r ed 5'n be o itted &ithout 'lterin# the sense o2 paint too u5h 6They ha2e painted the house8. As &e h'4e seen E,%)%"<( the Ad;* "ree in E10"< h's the GF o2 *5CA5% 9he 5ontr'st 5'n 'lso be obser4ed in the 2ollo&in# p'r'8phr'ses? E10>'< 9hey h'4e p'inted the house( 'nd E ore spe5i2i5'lly< they p'inted it red% E10>b< U9he #o4ern ent set the prisoners( 'nd E ore spe5i2i5'lly< they set the 2ree% @bser4e 'lso the 2ollo&in# 5ontr'st? E108'< $2 they h'4e p'inted the house red( they h'4e p'inted the house% E108h< U$2 the #o4ern ent set the prisoners 2ree( they set the prisoners% 9his e'ns th't the di22eren5e bet&een E105< 'nd E10"< is ini 'l 'nd rel'tes entirely to the type o2 :? set reAuires 'n Ad;* Eor ' **<( &hile paint does not need the Ad;un5t% Ad;un5ts li/e red in paint the house red, &hi5h 're both predi5'ti4e 'nd 'd4erbi'l( but &hi5h 're option'l( 're 5'lled redicati+e Ad6uncts& 9hey 're l'belled >A& $t is 5le'r( ho&e4er( th't *CA E105< 'nd *5CA5 E10"< 're other&ise 4ery u5h 'li/e% $n e7' ple E99< 'bo4e &e 2ind ' si il'r p'ttern% $2 &e br'5/et the &e #et? E109< Ks9hey K%&h'4e 'ppointed KNpIohn 1ro&nLKNPtheir ne& 'n'#erLL L 9he 2irst N* in the :* is 'n @d( the se5ond 'n Ad;un5t? They ha2e appointed /ohn )ro0n is 'lso ' #ood senten5eG ho&e4er( their ne0 manager h's ' double rel'tion? it spe5i2ies the 'ppointin#( 'nd it predi5'tes so ethin# o2 the @b;e5t? 3Iohn 1ro&n is their ne& 'n'#er3?

E111< 9hey 5'lled these t&o en 2ools% E11+< 9hey h'4e 'ppointed these t&o en their 'n'#ers%
9he 2'5t th't there is nu ber '#ree ent in both 5'ses sho&s th't there is ' predi5'ti4e rel'tion bet&een the t&o N*s in E111< 'nd E11+<? t0o men!"ools, 'nd t0o men!their managers. Apply the s' e 'n'lysis to the e7' ples E100< 'nd 61G38 'bo4e% E10,< is interestin# in th't the 4erb return t'/es 'n @d 'nd 'n @i 's &ell 's ' *CA? K(Phis o# od Ad4erbi'l *redi5'ti4e l%et us 'lso loo/ 't E101<? (he married young. 9his senten5e br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s? E11)< Ks-he K(( 'rried KAd(Pyoun#L 2 L 9he Ad;* young ust be 5onsidered to be option'l? '2ter 'll( (he married is ' possible senten5e( 'lthou#h perh'ps so e&h't unusu'l% .ou 5'n p'r'phr'se the senten5e by F-he &'s youn# &hen she E#ot< 'rried3( or -he E#ot< 'rried &hile still youn#3( $n other &ords( young is 'n Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5t EA<% $t spe5i2ies the ti e o2 the F 'rryin#3% 1ut young 'lso 's5ribes ' property to the -ub;e5t? thus young is 'lso predi5'ti4e% -5he 'ti5'lly? E115< Ks-he K(%( 'rried KAd(Pyoun#L L L ust be lettersL '#punopenedL

5lose to th't 2ound &ith 5opul's? E11"< -he &'s youn#%

&

here young is ' Co ple ent 'nd predi5'tes so ethin# o2 the -ub;e5t? '

*redi5'ti4e 9he Ad;* young predi5'tes so ethin# o2 the -ub;e5t N*( 'nd e7presses the ti e o2 the '5ti4ity o2 the 4erb? it is predi5'ti4e 'nd 'd4erbi'l 't the s' e ti e? ' *CA% 9his p'ttern is( o2 5ourse( 4ery

90 Dunctions Dunctions 91 E1+9<

S, 06; S

N Tns S $

$ S.

5le'rer &ith the Ad;* una0are o" the danger in E118J 1 + 0 < 'bo4e% 9he predi5'ti4e 2un5tion o2 this phr'se is 2'r ore ob4ious th'n its 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion% $ts 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion is less pro inent( 2or e7' ple( th'n th't o2 young in (he married young. $n spite o2 this di22eren5e( &e sh'll 'lso 5'll the Ad;*s in E11>< 'nd E118< *CAs( be'rin# in ind th't in so e 5'ses the predi5'ti4e 2un5tion 'y be ore do in'nt th'n the 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion% E9his is p'rti5ul'rly 5le'r &hen Ad;*s su5h 's angry 0ith his 0i"e or una0are o" the danger o55ur initi'lly in the senten5e%< 3 .! .1 0 .1 E)(*+,s( Identif, the redi*ati1e AdBun*ts & SAs% in the following senten*es. How are the SAs realisedL

*5% 9he 5ru5i'l di22eren5e is th't in E101J115< young is not obli#'tory 6marry does not reAuire the Ad;*<( &hile &ith the 5opul' be in E11"< the Ad;* is needed% Also 5onsider the 2ollo&in# senten5es? E11>< He le2t the house 'n#ry &ith his &i2e%

E118< Dn'&'re o2 the d'n#er( he &'l/ed into the

roo % 9he 'n'lyses o2 E11>< 'nd E118< 're 's 2ollo&s?

E1< E+< E,< E)<

E119<

Ks

K(t(HeL K4ple2t KNpthe houseL K% di p'n#ry &ith his &i2eL L L

&9/ sound. &</ After '9 ,ears in the 5nited States @ohn returned home a millionaire. E>< Enthusiasti* a!out his new Bo!, Cill rang his wife. E8< Green with en1,, she hit him in the fa*e. Note" see also se*tion (.8.//.( for an alternati1e anal,sis of the senten*es a!o1e.

They 3ointed the door green. She married the rin*e of +ales ,oung. 0urious, he o3ened the letter. Lord Soames died a 0atholi* at the age of 49. ;, friends from New Yor2 hove arri1ed safe and

E1+0< Ks Ks'it(Dn'&'re o2 the d'n#erL K N((heL K(%((&'l/ed

K((((into the roo L L L 9he 2un5tion o2 the N* the house in E119< is th't o2 @d% Wh't is the 2un5tion o2 Ad;* angry 0ith his 0i"e1 $t does not see to be ' Co ple ent( sin5e it 5'n e'sily be le2t out? <e le"t the house. It is 'n Ad;un5t in :*( indi5'tin# both ho& he le2t the house( 'nd E ore i port'ntly( perh'ps< &h't st'te o2 ind Fhe3 &'s in &hen he le2t the house% 9he Ad;* h's ' du'l 2un5tion? it is 'd4erbi'l( 'nd it is predi5'ti4e% $2 you 5o p're E119< 'nd E115< 6(he married young8, you &ill 2ind th't the lin/ bet&een the Ad;* 'nd the : is stron#er in E115< th'n in E119<% $n E119< the predi5'ti4e 2un5tion o2 the Ad;* see s ore i port'nt th'n its 'd4erbi'l 2un5tion% 9his is e4en

3.!.1 1 COMPLEX SENTENCESD FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSES 3.!.11.1 F,;,&( C9<$s(s -o 2'r &e h'4e only loo/ed 't si ple senten5es( 'nd &e h'4e identi2ied the 4'rious GFs 'sso5i'ted &ith N*( **( Ad;* or Ad4*% We ust no& 'lso 5onsider &h't 2un5tions 5'n be re'lised by e bedded 5l'uses% 9he 2ollo&in# senten5es 2ro te7t ,%)%9 'bo4e 5ont'in e bedded 5l'uses? E1+1< He 2elt th't he should disli/e the little #irl intensely%

E1++< He de5ided th't he should ne4er

eet her '#'in%

E1+,< He belie4ed sin5erely th't ' 2riendship &ith her &ould be

e75itin#% -enten5e E1+1< 5'n be 'n'lysed 's 2ollo&s?

E1+)<

Ks

K(((HeL K((2elt th't he should disli/e the little #irl intenselyL L

K%oo/ 5're2ully 't the stru5ture o2 the :*? in 'ddition to ' : 6"elt8, it 5ont'ins ' th't85l'use( &hi5h is s'id to be e bedded in the :*% Re e ber th't &e h'4e br'5/eted su5h th't85l'uses 's -s E-8b'rsG i%e% 5o ple entisers C -<? E1+ 1+5< 8-8 C@M*8-

E1+"< 2

th't K she should disli/e the little #irl intenselyL L

9he GF o2 the th't85l'use is th't o2 Dire5t @b;e5t% -in5e i t is 'n @d( i t should be possible to '/e it the -ub;e5t o2 ' p'ssi4e senten5e% Consider? E1+>< That he should disli4e the little girl intensely &'s 2elt by Willi' % 9his 'y not be ' 4ery ele#'nt senten5e( but it is #r' 'ti5'l% A #ood &'y o2 i pro4in# the senten5e &ould be by e'ns o2 the pro5ess 5'lled ite7tr'position3 Esee )%)%1<% 9his &ould #i4e? E1+8< $t &'s 2elt by Willi' th't he should disli/e the little #irl intensely% We 2ind then th't -ub;e5ts 'nd @b;e5ts 'y be re'lised not only by N*s hut 'lso by 5l'uses E-J-u or -G @d<% An'lyse senten5es E1++< 'nd E1+,< 'bo4e in the s' e &'y% 9he 2ollo&in# tree di'#r' 'lso represents the stru5ture o2 E1+1<? He felt intensel, that he should disli2e the little girl

92

Dunctions

9he intern'l stru5ture o2 -( Ethe e bedded 5l'use< is 's 2ollo&s? E1,0< Ks6 & E1+9<?
)*s A+.s I,.-,/ d#s,#'that he s0o+,d

9he det'ils o2 E1,0< 5'n be 'dded to tree di'#r'

NP VP

$ &onder i2 he still re e bers th't d'y in April% 9h't Iohn should h'4e done su5h ' thin# is r'ther &orryin#% 9h't he &ill propose to her soon is unli/ely% $ doubt &hether he &ill e4er -o eone 5'lled to Willi' 'n'#e to 2inish the boo/% E bedded 5l'uses 4ery o2ten 2un5tion 's Ad;un5ts EA<% For e7' ple? E1)0< 0hen he &'s &'l/in# do0n the ro'd% E1)0<
$ &ill

eet you 't the st'tion i" 1 can. 1r'5/et the N* 'nd :* in the 'in 5l'use o2 E1)0< 'nd E1)1<% $n e'5h 5'se the :* 5ont'ins 'n e bedded -% For e7' ple? Dunctions 93
!O(P NP

9ree di'#r' E1,1< 5ont'ins( ' on# other thin#s( t&o -s E&hi5h h'4e been #i4en the subs5ripts 1 'nd + to distin#uish the < 'nd one -% -( is the 'in 5l'useG the node -( do in'tes 'll the 5onstituents o2 the senten5e% -( is the e bedded -% $n this senten5e it 2un5tions 's the Dire5t @b;e5t o2 the 4erb "eel. $n other &ords( -( is 'n @b;e5t 5l'use% -( is C@M*8-+( 'nd the ele ent that in C@M* ser4es 's ' subordin'tor% E'5h - h's its o&n -ub;e5t N* 'nd :*% 9he He'd o2 the :* in -( is "eel, 'nd in -( disli4e. 1oth 4erbs 're onotr'nsiti4e( reAuirin# 'n @d 's their Co ple ents% Dr'& si il'r tree di'#r' s 2or senten5es E1++< 'nd E1+,< 'bo4e% $denti2y e bedded 5l'uses in senten5es E1,+<8E1,9<% 1r'5/et the -ub;e5t N* 'nd the :* o2 the 'in 5l'use% Wh't is the 2un5tion o2 e'5h e bedded -= Note th't the C@M* slot 'y be 2illed by that, 0hether or i2% E1,+< @ne e4enin# he 's/ed her &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her%

E1,,< His 'unt 2e'red th't he i#ht 5't5h so ethin#% E1,)< His un5le s'id th't e4il 5o
uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nners%

9ns V

VP

E1,5< Iohn belie4es th't -ue is ' #ood student%

E1)+< KsK-o eoneL K 5'lled to KWilli' L K&hen he &'s &'l/in# %%%L L L

% :* sp s3 9he 0hen!clause 6(0hen8 is option'l 'nd ser4es to e7press the ti e o2 the '5ti4ity o2 F5'llin#3% !( !0hen is 'n A( r'ther th'n ' :erb Co ple ent% $t is 'lso ' :*8Ad;un5t( r'ther th'n ' -enten5e Ad;un5t( 's the 2o5usin# 'nd &h8Auestion tests sho&% $t is possible to 2o5us on ( 0hen9

'nd -enten5e Ad;un5ts EE'< 2o5usin# 'nd Eb< &h8Auestionin#< 5'n '#'in be 'pplied% For e7' ple? E'< 2o5usin#? it is not possible to 2o5us on -'? 93 Dunctions E1" < E1" < E1" < E1"

E1 U$t is 's 2'r 's $ /no& th't Iohn &ill 5o e b'5/ soon% )9 Eh< &h8Auestionin#? -'s cannot be Auestioned &ith &h8ite s? E1 50 When &ill Iohn 5o e b'5/= F+s "ar as I 4no0. 3.4.1 1.2 N6;A8,;,&( <;5 Verbless
2urther e7' ples o2 4erbless @b;e5t 5l'uses Eit'li5ised<G rephr'se e'5h senten5e( usin# ' 2inite th't85l'use 'nd ' non8 2inite in2initi4e 5l'use% E15"< $ &'nt the dress ready by "i2e o cloc4.

E1),< it &'s &hen he &'s &'l/in# do&n the ro'd th't so eone
5'lled to Willi' % And it is possible to 's/ ' &h8Auestion 'bout , 0hen9

E1))< %hen did so eone 5'll to Willi' =

9he 'n'lysis in E1)+< is thus 5on2ir ed by these t&o tests% $denti2y :*8Ad;un5ts re'lised by e bedded 5l'uses in the 2ollo&in# senten5es?

E1)5< When Mrs C'rey p'ssed the dissentin# inisters in the street(
she stepped o4er to the other side o2 the street%

E1)"< $2 there &'s not ti e 2or this she 2i7ed her eyes on the
p'4e ent% 9he 2ollo&in# senten5es 5ont'in e7' ples o2 -enten5e Ad;un5ts E-'s< re'lised by e bedded 5l'uses? E1)>< Iohn &ill 5o e b'5/ soon( 's "ar as 1 /no&%

E1)8< *hilip does not li/e it here( i" 1 am not mista4en.

9he it'li5ised 5l'uses 'bo4e 2un5tion 's -'s( not :*8Ad;un5ts Esee ,%)%9<% 9he t&o tests used 'bo4e to distin#uish bet&een :*8Ad;un5ts

K t h e prisoner to be inno5ent the prisoner inno5ent L Althou#h the strin# the prisoner innocent 5ont'ins no 4erb( &e sh'll tre't it 's ' 5l'use( sin5e there is ' predi5'te rel'tionship bet&een the N* the prisoner 'nd the Ad;* innocent. -u5h ' strin# is 5'lled ' +er,less 5l'use or ' s 'll 5l'use El'belled - o<% 9he strin# the prisoner innocent is re#'rded 's ' 4erbless 5l'use by 'n'lo#y &ith the 5l'uses in senten5es E151< 'nd E15+<% $nside the 4erbless 5l'use the prisoner is the -u 'nd innocent the *5( ;ust 's in E151< 'nd E15+<% $n E15"<8E1",< &e #i4e so e

E15>< He e7pe5ts me in his

o""ice at 12.

E158< He 5onsidered the girl a

good student.

E159< He thin/s the decision

2ery un0ise.

Co p're the three 4'ri'nts in?

E151< Iohn belie4es that

the prisoner is innocent.

E15+< Iohn belie4es the

prisoner to be innocent.

E15,< Iohn belie4es the

prisoner innocent. E7' ple E151< 5ont'ins ' 2inite @b;e5t 5l'use( 'nd E15+< ' non82inite one% $n E151< 'nd E15+< the prisoner is the N*J-u o2 the e bedded 'nd the Ad;* innocent in both 5'ses in the *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent E*5< in the :* o2 the e bedded 5l'use% 9he stru5ture o2 E15+< 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s?

inno5ent% -enten5e E15,< is 'l ost identi5'l &ith E15+< % 9hey h'4e the s' e e'nin#? the strin# the prisoner innocent is ' redu5ed 2or o2 the prisoner to be innocent5 it h's the s' e GF? @d o2 belie2e9

$n ,%)%" &e h'4e dis5ussed 5o ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erbs( su5h 's set in?

'doptin# su5h 'n 'n'lysis is the p'r'llelis &ith senten5es 5ont'inin# non82inite 8in#8 5l'uses su5h 's?

E1")< 9hey Kupset K(( the

prisonersL
KAdo(

2reeL L

E1"8< 9hey K((set Ks((( K * the

prisonersL K 4p&or/in# on ' ne& t's/L L L 9he 4erbless 5l'uses 'bo4e 're used 's @d% :erbless 5l'uses 'y 'lso be used( 2or e7' ple( 's *rep5 o2 0ith9

E155< Iohn belie4es

A55ordin# to the 'n'lysis proposed there( set t'/es 's its Co ple ents E'< 'n N* 2un5tionin# 's @d( 'nd Eb< 'n Ad;* 2un5tionin# 's *5CA5? E1"5< set9 E HHHHN*8Ad;*L An 'ltern'ti4e 'n'lysis &ould be to tre't the seAuen5e N*8Ad;* in E1")< 's one 5onstituent? ' 4erbless 5l'use Eor s 'll 5l'use<?

E1"9< With Kso Iohn in

hospit'lL &e 5'nnot #o out% Co p're E1"9< &ith E1>0< belo&( &here * t'/es 'n N* 's its Co ple ent?

E1""< 9hey Kupset Kso K(G(the

prisonersL K Edip 2reeL L L set is then s'id to t'/e 's its Co ple ent 'n -o?

E1>0< With Kypthis sort o2

&e'therL &e 5'nnot #o out% -enten5e E1"9< 5'n be 'n'lysed 's 2ollo&s?

E15)< Iohn belie4es K Kthe

prisonerL K stto be Kinno5entL L L 9he &hole 5l'use E< is the Dire5t @b;e5t o2 belie2e9 &h't does Iohn belie4e= 9h't the prisoner is

E1">< set9 E.

(o N $nside -o the N* the prisoners is the -uG the Ad;* "ree is a *5% @ne re'son ?or

E1>1<

K**

With Kso

NKIohnL / i n hospit'lL L L &e 5'nnot #o out% %ith 'y 'lso t'/e ' non8

2inite 5l'use 's its *rep5?

E1>+< With Ksi(#hi bein#

so slo& no&'d'ysL &e3ll ne4er #et there%

9$ Dunctions Dunctions 9&

(.8./ /.( Em3t, Su!Be*ts in Non#finite and $er!less 0lauses Co p're the 2ollo&in# p'irs o2 senten5es? E1>,'< When he 0as 0aiting "or the train, Iohn noti5ed th't he h'd lost his ti5/et% E1>,b< %hen 0aiting "or the train, Iohn noti5ed th't he h'd lost his ti5/et% E1>)'< %hene2er he 0as in trouble, 1ill r'n# his #irl82riend% E1>)b< %hene2er in trouble, 1ill r'n# his #irl82riend% -enten5es E1>,'< 'nd E1>)'< 5ont'in 2inite e bedded 5l'uses Eit'li5ised< 2un5tionin# 's A? the e bedded 5l'uses 're option'l 'nd they e7press the ti e o2 the '5ti4ities e7pressed by notice 'nd by ring in the 'in 5l'use% 9he Eb<8senten5es 're 5le'rly redu5ed 4ersions o2 the 5orrespondin# E'<8senten5es% $t is by 'n'lo#y &ith the 2inite 5l'uses in E1>,'< 'nd E1>)'< th't &e 'lso re#'rd the it'li5ised strin#s in E1>,b< 'nd E1>)b< 's 5l'uses% 9he 0hen!clause in E1>,"< is non82inite( 'nd the 0hene2er!clause in E1>)"< is 4erbless% $n both 5'ses( the subordin'te 5l'use l'5/s 'n o4ert -ub;e5t( but the -ub;e5t 5'n usu'lly be in2erred 2ro the rest o2 the senten5e or the 5onte7t% We 'ssu e th't non82inite 'nd 4erbless 5l'uses o2 this type do 5ont'in ' -ub;e5t position( but th't this position is Fnot le7i5'lly re'lised3? the open -ub;e5t positions in E1>,b< 'nd E1>)b< 're interpreted 's FIohn3 'nd F1ill3 respe5ti4ely E52% he in E1>,'< 'nd E1>)'<<% 9he underlyin# stru5tures o2 E1>,b< 'nd E1>)b< 'y thus be represented 's 2ollo&s?

!i/e 0aiting in E1>><( arrested in E1>9< is non82inite( but 0aiting is '5ti4e 'nd arrested is p'ssi4e E52% the 5orrespondin# 2inite E'<8 senten5es<% 9he &'itin#85l'use 6(ing8 'nd the 'rrested85l'use E-ed< in E1>>< 'nd E1>9< 're p'rti5iple 5l'uses &ith e pty -ub;e5ts% $n2initi4e 5l'uses 'y 'lso h'4e e pty -ub;e5ts% For e7' ple?

E1>5< E1>"<

When E < &'itin# 2or the tr'in( Iohn noti5ed th't he h'd lost his ti5/et% Whene4er E < in trouble( 1ill r'n# his #irl82riend%

We sh'll s'y th't the -ub;e5t o2 the 'in 5l'use 6/ohn, )ill8 5ontrols the e pty -ub;e5t position o2 the subordin'te 5l'use Esee Ch'pter 5<% $n senten5e E1>>< belo& &e sh'll re'd you into E <?

E1>>< E1>8<
l'&yer%

When E < &'itin# 2or your tr'in( t'/e 5're o2 your 'y 'lso be p'ssi4e? When he h'd been 'rrested by the poli5e( he r'n# up his When 'rrested by the poli5e( he r'n# up his l'&yer%

lu##'#e% Non82inite 5l'uses

E1>9<

E$-@< Iohn de5ided E < to study En#lish% E181< Geor#e pro ised M'ry E < to le'4e% $n the 4erbless 5l'use 0hene2er in trouble E1>)b<( the ** in trouble 2un5tions 's *5( ;ust 's in E1>)'<% Co p're? El58+'< K-hene4er Ks KNF(su heL /*&'s Kp((p5in troubleL I 1 L E18+b< K8(8&hene4er Ks KN ((sQE <L K*p(p( troubleL 11

$n ,%)%" &e h'4e proposed the 2ollo&in# 'n'lysis? E189< 9hey Kupset K(G (odthe prisonersL KAdi*(*VCA52reeL L $n 4ie& o2 the pre5edin# dis5ussion o2 4erbless 5l'uses( &e 5onsider the 2ollo&in# 'n'lysis? i#ht 'lso

E18,< 9he boo/s &ill he sent i" a2ailable. E18)< He 'rried her 0hen a student at <ar2ard.
An'lyse the it'li5ised 4erbless 5l'uses in the s' e &'y 's 0hene2er in trouble E52% E18+'< 'nd E18+b< <% Wh't ele ent 5ontrols the -ub;e5t position in i" a2ailable 'nd in 0hen a student at <ar2ard1 Wh't is the GF o2 '3 ailahle 'nd o2 a student at <ar2ard1 $n ,%)%10 &e h'4e introdu5ed the GF o2 *CA% For e7' ple( in?

E185< 9hey K4*h'4e p'inted KNp(odthe houseL K Ad>*(*%CA redL L E18"< -he K(( 'rried K A di * G *% % A youn#L L
An 'ltern'ti4e 'n'lysis &ould be( ho&e4er( to 5onsider su5h Ad;*s 's red 'nd young in E185< 'nd E18"< 's 5onstituents o2 4erbless 5l'uses &ithout le7i5'l sub;e5ts? E18>< 9hey K((h'4e p'inted K( (p%o;the houseL KG4 A K N p% s ( ( E < L KAdM*? *oredL L L 9he 4erbless 5l'use itsel2 h's the GF o2 A E:*8Ad;un5t<% $nside the 4erb8less 5l'use( the -ub;e5t position is not le7i5'lly re'lised 'nd it is 5ontrolled by the N*J@d the house E3the house is red3<% 9he Ad;* red is ' *5( '#'in inside - o% -i il'rly( there is 'n 'ltern'ti4e 'n'lysis 2or E18"<? E188< KNe(su-heL K(( 'rried Ks0JA KN*JsuE<L KAdi*J*5youn#L LL

C'te#ory Fun5tion

Art -pe5i2ier

EAd;*< *re o d%

Noun He'd

E**< *ost od%

E1< E+<

:erb phrases9 &ill C'te#ory Fun5tion *res -pe5i2ie r

sho& :erb He'd

the #irl N*

his p'intin#s N*

'2ter dinner E**< Ad;un5 t

Co ple ents

E,< 98 Dunctions Dunctions 99

..

+dIecti2e phrases9 4ery C'te#ory Fun5tion EAd4< -pe5i2i er

2ond Ad; He'd

o2 her

619G8 They N2pset K-p(odthe prisonersL KsoJA5 [NPisu( )] KAd;*i*52ree; L l Free is here 'n Ad;* &hi5h 2un5tions 's ' *5 inside ' 4erbless 5l'use% 9he 4erbless 5l'use itsel2 l'5/s ' le7i5'l -ub;e5tG E < is 5ontrolled by N*J@d the prisoners. As ' &hole the 4erbless 5l'use h's the GF o2 A5? it is ' Co ple ent to the : set. 3 . " GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS IN PHRASESD A BRIEF SUR#EY $n se5tion +%) &e h'4e loo/ed in so e det'il 't the intern'l stru5ture o2 phr'ses in En#lish% Noun phr'ses 're 5onstituents he'ded by 'n N( 4erb phr'ses by ' :( et5% $n this se5tion &e sh'll pro4ide ' brie2 sur4ey o2 the intern'l stru5ture o2 e'5h phr's'l type% Di'#r' s E1<8E5< pro4ide in2or 'tion 'bout E'< the type o2 5onstituent 2ound inside the phr'se( Eb< the order o2 the 5onstituents( E5< the 2un5tion o2 the 5onstituent inside the phr'se? *oun phrases9 the

Co ple ent

2i4e

Fren5h

studen ts

2ro *'ris

E)<

+d2erb phrases9 Auite C'te#ory EAd4<

une7pe5tedly Ad4erb

3hrase#t,3es, and define the differen*e !etween 3hrases and douses. C, what t,3e of *ategor, is the G7 of Su realised in the following e)am3lesL

Fun5tion -pe5i2ier He'd

E5<

Prepositional phrases9 ri#ht on EAd4< -pe5i2 ier * He'd

the spot N* Co ple ent

C'te#ory Fun5tion

$2 &e loo/ 't the stru5tures 'bo4e ore 5losely( &e see th't there is ' de#ree o2 p'r'llelis bet&een 'll the phr'se stru5tures? E'< e'5h phr'se type h's ' He'dG EN the He'd 'y be pre5eded by -pe5i2iersG E5( the He'd 'y he 2ollo&ed by Co ple ents 'nd by option'l 5onstituents EModi2iers in N* 'nd Ad;un5ts in :*<% $t is thus possible to #i4e ' ore 'bstr'5t s5he ' o2 phr'se stru5ture &hi5h #i4es us ' #ener'l represent'tion 2or 'll phr's'l 5'te#ories? T8phr'se? -pe5i2ier8He'd8Co ple ent8 N ModR &here T st'nds 2or N( :% et5% Ho&e4er( this 'bstr'5t s5he ' h's to be 'd;usted 2or the indi4idu'l phr'se types% $n N*s( 2or e7' ple( Modi2iers EAd;*s< 'y 'lso pre5ede the He'd% :*s( Ad;*s 'nd **s h'4e Co ple ents( but not N*s 'nd Ad4*s% Further ore( the -pe5i2ier is re'lised in Auite distin5t &'ys dependin# on the 5'te#ory? in N*s( 2or e7' ple( -pe5 is re'lised by Det( &here's in :*s -pe5 is re'lised by tense( od'l( et5% E52% 'lso Ch'pter ><% ,%5%1 ETERC$-EDis*uss in greater detail the generol differen*es !etween

&/% &'%

101

1GG Dunctions &/ % &'% &(/ &8% &9/ III Workers angr, a!out 3a, is Bust the situation that the *om3an, wanted to a1oid. 5nder the !ed is a *os, s3ot. Singing *om3rehensi!l, in English is almost as hard for foreigners as writing idiomati*all,. 7rom London to aris is a long wa,. 5nwonted is a terri!le wa, to feel.

! PROCESSES

!.1 INTRODUCTION $n Ch'pter , &e h'4e #i4en ' sur4ey o2 the b'si5 senten5e p'tterns in En#lish( loo/in# 't str'i#ht2or&'rd senten5es in &hi5h the b'si5 p'tterns des5ribed by the phr'se stru5ture rules 're le2t 4irtu'lly undisturbed% -enten5e E1< belo&( 2or e7' ple( is su5h ' 3b'si5 senten5e3? E1< I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% -t'rtin# 2ro ' set o2 *- rules E+'<( 'nd '2ter insertion o2 the 'ppropri'te le7i5'l 'teri'l E5hosen 2ro the set in E+b<<( &e 'rri4e 't the underlyin# stru5ture or deep stru5ture E+5<? E+'< - 8888t%N*NDetHNR 8:* N* 8:* 888 9ns8:8N*8**8** 9ns 888V *'st ** - - 1 0 *8 N* E+h< N ? -'turd'y( 1ill( I'ne( boo/ Det? this : ? #i4e * ? on( to
Ks

Identif, non#finite and 1er!less *lauses in the senten*es !elow. +hat is their G7L +hat is their internal stru*tureL

The !od, of Sir Tre1or, a 3lasti* !og held !, an elasti* !ond o1er his head, was found on Tuesda, morning !, his *hauffeur. It all started, as o lot of things do, on o *ou*h in a hotel room, one sunn, afternoon with the *urtains drawn, the door lo*2ed and most of m, *lothes hanging on the 3eg !ehind the door. E,< The daughter of a !o)er, ;oe +est first set foot on a stage when +illiam ;*Kinsle, was sitting in the +hite House. E)< Hu*2le!err, 7inn was a ,oung wa,farer who 2new how to stret*h the truth when in the right *om3an,. E5< The *olla3se of *u!ism left :om!erg stunned.

E+5<

KI'ne

K4( 9rn

K *'stL K4 #i4eL KN (this boo/L Kpolo KVp1il1L L

Kppon K((p-'turd'yL L L L All &e need to do no& is to ensure th't the p'st tense 'r/er ends up on the ri#ht o2 the 4erb gi2e, produ5in# ga2e. 9he step 2ro the underlyin# stru5ture E+5< to E1< is the oper'tion o2 ' orpholo#i5'l rule &hi5h ensures proper 'tt'5h ent o2 '22i7es% $t is possible( ho&e4er( to 4'ry the b'si5 p'tterns o2 senten5es by per82or in# 'ddition'l oper'tions on the underlyin# or deep stru5ture%

-t'rtin# 2ro E+5< on5e '#'in &e p'tterns? E'< by 2or in# ' Ces!*o Auestion?

'y 'rri4e 't Auite di22erent

Did I'ne #i4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y=

1G2 Processes Processes 10, Te.t )%+% + @ne ornin# the elder #irl hun# b'5/ in y roo % -he h'd so ethin# to s'y% -he s'id? 3-h\ll!sho&H8ou% yHrudeHd6\&inW 3 $ &'s interested% -he sho&ed e the dr'&in#s? ' 5hild3s 4ie& o2 un5lothed dolls% $ &'s #re'tly o4ed% -he s'id? FDoHHHHHHHHHHHyou li/e y rude dr'&in#s=Pl li/e your dr'&in#s( .4onne%Pl &ill sho& you so e ore to orro&% Would you li/e to /eep ese=3 3$3d r'ther you /ept the ( .4onne%3 FNo( you 5'n h'4e these% $ WH 5'n 'l&'ys do so e 2or ysel2%3 :%-% N'ip'ul( The ,imic ,en.

'22i7<( but o2ten ore dr'sti5 5h'n#es &ill o55ur E52% E'<8E2< 'bo4e<% -5he 'ti5'lly our des5ription is or#'nised 's 2ollo&s? E'< underlyin# stru5ture *R@CE--EN./ sur2'5e stru5ture

Eb<

!et us return on5e ore to e7' ple E1<% $nste'd o2 insertin# Ns 'nd Det E's in E+b<< into the N* slots #ener'ted by the *- rules E+'<( &e 'y 'lso 5hoose to insert pro82or s? E,'< Ks !yp-$1eL /i( K9ns*'stL K((#i4eL 1 K( itN Kp(to !tiphi L L K eon -'turd'yL 11 E,'< is '#'in 'n underlyin# stru5ture% A2ter 'tt'5hin# the p'st tense '22i7 to :( &e 'rri4e 't the sur2'5e stru5ture E,b<?

Eb<

by 2or in# ' &h8Auestion? Wh't did I'ne #i4e to 1ill on -'turd'y= 9o &ho did I'ne #i4e this boo/ on -'turd'y=

E5< Ed<

by 2rontin# the Ad;un5t **? @n -'turd'y I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill% by p'ssi4isin# the senten5e? 9his boo/ &'s #i4en to 1ill Eby I'ne< on -'turd'y% 1ill &'s #i4en this boo/ Eby I'ne< on -'turd'y%

Ee<

by 5le2tin#? $t &'s I'ne &ho #'4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% $t &'s to 1ill th't I'ne #'4e this boo/ on -'turd'y% $t &'s on -'turd'y th't I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill%

E2<

by pseudo85le2tin#? Wh't I'ne did &'s #i4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y%

E7' ple E1< 's &ell 's the e7' ples listed under E'<8E2< 'bo4e 're 'll rel'ted to the strin# E+5<% Dnderlyin# stru5tures 're de2ined 's stru5tures resultin# 2ro le7i5'l insertion E+b< in the stru5tures des5ribed by the *- rules E+'<% -ur2'5e stru5tures result 2ro 'pplyin# one or ore oper'tions to the underlyin# stru5tures% $n 5'ses li/e e7' ple E1< only one orpholo#i5'l oper'tion h's been per2or ed E'tt'5h ent o2 the

E,b<

-he #'4e it to hi

on -'turd'y%

$nsertin# prono in'l ele ents r'ther th'n 2ull le7i5'l N*s is re2erred to 's prono in'lis'tion% 8.' LE7T+A:D ;6$E;ENT" wh#;6$E;ENT AND :ELATED T:ANS76:;ATI6NS !.2.1 EUESTIONSD DIFFERENT TYPES $n Ch'pter + &e h'4e noted th't En#lish h's 4'rious types o2 Auestions% We h'4e distin#uished bet&een? 6a8 Ces!*o Auestions( e%#%? Did you e'sure the dist'n5e= Eh< Wh8Auestions( e%#%? e'sure it= Why did you 'nd bet&een?

E5< Dire5t Auestions( e%#%?

M'y $ #o ho e &ith you=

Ed< $ndire5t Auestions( e%#%?

@ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her% All these interro#'ti4e senten5es 're rel'ted to b'si5 de5l'r'ti4e stru5tures( e%#% Cou measured the distance, I may go home 0ith you, et5% $n the 2ollo&in# se5tions &e sh'll 5onsider three 'in oper'tions &hi5h rel'te Auestions & b'si5 senten5e p'tterns% 9he three oper'tions 're? (ubIect!+u.iliary In2ersion, do!insertion 'nd 0h!mo2ement. !.2.2 SUB0ECTAAUXILIARY IN#ERSION $n the 2ollo&in# te7t you &ill 2ind three inst'n5es o2 dire5t Ces!*o Auestions% $denti2y the %

1G3 Processes Processes 105 E1< E+< E,<

M'ry h's been sunb'thin# 'll '2ternoon% 1ill &'s &'shin# his h'ir &hen the phone r'n#% Iohn h'dn3t seen his 2riend so 'n#ry be2ore% I'ne h'sn3t le2t ho e yet% I'ne h's not le2t ho e yet% As you 5'n see( the tr'ns2or 'tion '22e5ts only the tensed 'u7ili'ry% $2 ' 5ontr'5ted ne#'tor !n t is 'tt'5hed to the tensed 'u7ili'ry( it ust be o4ed 'lon# to the le2t Esee E10< 'nd E11< 'bo4e<% 9he orphe e ! n it is not 'n independent &ordG it ust 'tt'5h to the 'u7ili'ry% 9he un5ontr'5ted 2or not, on the other h'nd( is independent 'nd does not o4e 'lon# &ith the 'u7ili'ry Esee E1+< 'bo4e<% 9he oper'tion des5ribed 'bo4e is #ener'lly re2erred to 's (ubIect! +i. In2ersion, or (+I 2or short% % de5l'r'ti4e? K( K s r i L K(%(( Ksh'll L Ksho& you y rude dr'&in#sL y rude dr'&nin#sL L

9he dire5t Ces!*o Auestions in the te7t 're? -h'll $ sho& you Do you li/e you li/e to /eep these= Wh't distin#uishes the 2ro the b'si5 p'tterns to &hi5h they 're rel'ted is the order o2 the 2irst t&o ele ents in the senten5e? the 'u7ili'ry 'nd the -ub;e5t N*% Co p're E1< 'nd E,< &ith E)< 'nd E5< belo&? E)< $ sh'll sho& you n'y rude dr'&in#s% E5< .ou &ould li/e to /eep these% y rude dr'&in#s= y rude dr'&in#s= Would

9he oper'tion &hi5h 5h'n#es the order o2 ele ents in ' senten5e E2or e7' ple( to #et 2ro E)< to E1< or 2ro E5< to E,<< is 5'lled ' tr'ns8 2or 'tion% 9he 5h'n#e 2ro E)< to E1< 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s?

interro#'ti4e? Ks K-h'll L KF*$L /psho& you C*resent

Con E+< We

$n order to 2or Ces!*o Auestions li/e E1< 'nd E,< &e o4e the 2irst 'u7ili'ry to the le2t 'nd pl'5e it in 2ront o2 the -ub;e5t% 9he o4ed 'u7ili'ry 'y be ' od'l 'u7ili'ry 6shall, 0ill, must, 5'n( et5%<( per2e5t ha2e, pro8 #ressi4e be, or p'ssi4e be5 'll these 'u7ili'ries 're 'r/ed 2or either present or p'st tense% 9he 2ollo&in# is ' ore 'bstr'5t 2or ul'tion o2 the rule in4ol4ed in Ces! No Auestion 2or 'tion% 9he o4e ent tr'ns2or 'tion &or/s on b'si5 p't8 terns 's 2ollo&s? 'u7 En3t< N* underlying structure: K- K L N1e : %%%VV K C9ense surface structure: :%%%L l 9he 'bbre4i'tion F'u73 is used 2or F'u7ili'ry3 Esee +%)%,%,<% *rodu5e Ces!*o Auestions 2ro the 2ollo&in# de5l'r'ti4e senten5es by 'pplyin# the 'bo4e tr'ns2or 'tion?

E1,<

$n E tens stru

E1)<

$n s inse t&o E'< 2ron Eb<

E"<

Geor#e 5'n spe'/

Ger 'n 'nd Fren5h% E>< 9he post 'n h's been 'tt'5/ed by our nei#hbour3s do#%

We h'4e seen th't -A$ '22e5ts the 2irst 'u7ili'ry 'nd the present or p'st tense ele ent 'sso5i'ted &ith it% $2 there is no 'u7ili'ry in the senten5e( -A$ '22e5ts only tense( &hi5h( 's &e h'4e seen E+%)%,%,<( is 'lso 'n 'u7ili'ry ele ent% 1ut it is 5le'r th't in su5h 5'ses &e 5'nnot stop '2ter -A$( or else &e &ould end up &ith 'n isol'ted tense '22i7 in 2ront o2 the -ub;e5t N*?

809 $rocesses

Processes 1G&

E15<

Ks

K9enseL KQ youL K4pli/e

y rude dr'&in#sL L

9ense 5'n ne4er o55ur on its o&nG it ust 'l&'ys be 'tt'5hed to ' 4erb or 'n 'u7ili'ry% @ne &'y o2 3s'4in#3 this isol'ted Eor stranded8 tense8 'r/er is to insert ' prop8&ord( &hi5h h's the 2un5tion o2 carrying tense? this support8&ord is the 'u7ili'ry do Estep Eb< 'bo4e? do8 insertion<% Bo!insertion 'tt'5hes do to the str'nded tense ele ent%

E1"<

Ks KD@ L K%((((youL KFNli/e y rude dr'&in#sL L C9ense -A$ E2ollo&ed by do8insertion i2 ne5ess'ry< 5'n 'lso o55ur in 5'ses li/e the 2ollo&in#? E1>< No sooner had he entered the house th'n the poli5e 'rri4ed%

E18< E19<

Ne4er did I su22er

ore th'n on th't un2ortun'te d'yM

-It-s the little things. Do ,ou 2now whot ha33ens when one of ,our tail lights failsL 3 -Yes, a light flashes on the dash!oard to tell me.-That-s true, !ut did ,ou 2now ,ou *an re3la*e the !ul! from inside the !ootLI *onfessed that I didn-t and made the 3oint that su*h news was hardl, li2el, to start a rush on <#*,linder $ol1os. 1A02 !ut it should.I told him he was 3rea*hing to the *on1erted and turned off the stereo, as it was e1ident m, 3assenger wanted to tal2. -Tell me, do ,ou e1er dri1e reall, fastL I ho3e ,ou don-t mind m, as2ingL- He grinned li2e a !o,. -+ell, sin*e ,ou-re reading engineering and not low, I *onfess that there ha1e !een times when I ha1e gone o1er =E m3h. 6n the 0ontinent, of *ourse, and in the 3resen*e of a trained nurse.Ad pted from $ol1o ad1ertisement, Punch, '/ No1em!er /D=D.

@n no '55ount 0ill he do su5h ' thin# '#'in%

-A$ 'nd do8insertion 're triggered by the presen5e o2 ne#'ti4e :*8 Ad;un5ts su5h 's no sooner, ne2er 'nd on no account. )%+%,%1 E7er5ise In te)t 8.'.(./ ,ou will find instan*es of dire*t 5es-.o Auestions. Identif, them and dis*uss their formation.

!ext 2(2(3(8 It was a !itterl, *old morning and I was than2ful for the $ol1o-s effi*ient heating s,stem. I had sli33ed ;o?art-s *larinet *on*erto into the stereo and was loo2ing forward to a 3leasant dri1e when I sow the hit*hhi2er. His 3la*ard read" 0am!ridge # $ol1o 3referred. It intrigued me and !rea2ing the ha!it of a lifetime, I sto33ed. He sli33ed into the 3assenger seat, 3la*ing his !ag *arefull, at his feet. 3 Than2 ,ou 'er mu*h sir, for slo33ing. 3 -I was intrigued !, ,our sign. flattered I su33ose,- I re3lied. 3 6h, I admire $ol1os 1er, mu*h. I 3m reading engineering and I 2now what goes into them.-+hat e)a*tl, is it that ,ou admireL-

)%+%) WH8M@:EMEN9 -o 2'r &e h'4e loo/ed 't 8 Ces!*o Auestions 'nd the t&o oper'tions in4ol4ed in 2or in# the E-A$ 'nd do8insertion<% !et us no& 5onsider the 2or 'tion o2 &h8Auestions% $n te7t )%+%) you &ill 2ind se4er'l inst'n5es o2 su5h &h8Auestions% Te.t 3.2.3 $ &'s brou#ht up in Corn&'ll% @n one s'd ni#ht durin# the &'r ' sentry o2 the Ho e Gu'rd shot &h't he too/ to be 'n interloper% At the subseAuent enAuiry his 5o 'ndin# o22i5er s'id? 3Did you 5h'llen#e hi =3 3.es( sir%3 3Wh't did you s'y=3 3Who #oes there=3 3Wh't did he s'y= 3 3Friend( sir%3 3Wh't did you do=3 3$ shot hi ( sir%3 39hen &hy did you shoot hi =3 3$2 it h'd been ' re'l 2riend( he3d h'4e s'id FPDon3t be sillyP( 'nd $3d l'4e let hi Port. p'ss%3 Ad'pted 2ro the te7t 're? Christi'n 1r'nn( Pass the

We sh'll s'y th't &h8 o4e ent 'lso 'pplies here( but sin5e 0ho 'lre'dy 'ppe'rs 't the be#innin# o2 the senten5e( the rule is s'id to 'pply +acuously& As &e sh'll see( do8insertion is not reAuired in this 5'se% For &h8Auestions 2ro the 2ollo&in# senten5es( repl'5in# the it'li5ised ite by ' &h8phr'se% For e7' ple? Iohn put his oney in the top dra0er o" his des4. be5o es? 108 Processes " %here did Iohn put his oney= E+) 9he &eddin# is to t'/e pl'5e on 13 +pril. < E+5 -us'n &ill be &e'rin# her blue dress toni#ht% <% E+" + man 0ith red hair &'s &'itin# 2or I'ne% E+> E+8 E+9 < E,0 E,1 $ he'rd the telephone, not the door!bell. 9hese 're -harles s shoes% Iohn hit 1ill because he hated him. Geor#e #ot here by train. 9he terrorists 'ss'ssin'ted the ambassador. E+0< 'nd E+1< 'bo4e% @ur 'r#u ent is l'r#ely b'sed on the sub85'te#oris'tion o2 le7i5'l 4erbs E52% ,%)%><% -ub5'te#oris'tion 2r' es 5'n be seen 's pro4idin# the slots into &hi5h to insert the 4erb% +ssassinate, 2or e7' ple( EE,1< 'bo4e< h's the 2ollo&in# 2r' e?

N 63

$2 yo #e

E,

1 po

E,

9&o &h8Auestions 2ro

E),< E))< K4*

23P

E+0< E+1<

Wh't did you s'y= Who #oes there= $n &h't 2ollo&s &e sh'll 'r#ue th't the

stru5ture underlyin# E+0< is rou#hly?

E++<

Ks K%5p.ouL K+(*'st s'y KNp&h'tL L L L

LLL

E,+<

'nd th't le2t&'rd o4e ent o2 0hat, 's &ell 's -A$ 'nd do8insertion 're reAuired to #i4e us E+0<% 9he underlyin# stru5ture o2 E+1< is 's 2ollo&s?

E+,<

Ks

K((WhoL K( *resent #o KAd((thereLL

)%+%)%1 -ub5'te#oris'tion Fr' es 'rid %h!mo2ement We ust 2irst ;usti2y our 5hoi5e o2 E++< 'nd E+,< 's the stru5tures under8lyin#

'ss'ssin'te C:( EHHHHHHHHN*L

9his e'ns th't 'ss'ssin'te is ' 4erb &hi5h is sub5'te#orised 's t'/in# 'n N &

E,,<

K( K(*9h5 terroristsL !p'ss'ssin'ted K( G*the ' b'ss'dorL L L Noti5e th't ' 2r' e must he 2ully re'lised% @ther&ise the senten5e &ill be un#r' 'ti5'l ?

i *the ' b'ss'dorL L

K(p'ss'ss in'teL C&ry $t &ould be 4ery une5ono i5'l to de4ise t&o sep'r'te 2r' es 2or 'ss's8 sinate9 one 2or E)1< 'nd one 2or E)+<( 's 2ollo&s? N * C

W H Fr' e E),< su##ests th't 'ss'ssin'te reAuires 'n obli#'tory N*J@d( &here's E))< i plies th't the s' e 4erb reAuires no Co ple ent% @b4iously( E)1< and E)+< 're rel'ted stru5tures% Ho& 5'n &e e7press the

E,)<

U Ks K ( ( 9 he terroristsL K4p'ss'ssin'ted KGV* $n b'si5 senten5es in En#lish the N*J@d typi5'lly 2ollo&s the 4erb% ConseAuently( E,5< belo& is un#r' 'ti5'l?

@2 5ourse( E,9< is not #r' 'ti5'l% We ust 5on5lude th't the @b;e5t position in E,8< is so eho& 'lre'dy o55upied% And indeed &e 5'n e'sily pro4ide ' 2illerG the senten5e8initi'l &h8 phr'se &hoE < 5'n 2ill the position? E)0< Ks KsG* 9he terroristsL K4p'ss'ssin'ted &hoE <L $L C&n Dnder 0ho6m8 you no& see the sy bol KCWHL% 9his is s'id to be ' "eature o2 the &h8phr'se? 0ho6m8 is ' &h8 N* Ehere 'n interro#'ti4e pronoun<% Co p're no& '#'in E)1< 'nd E)+< belo& Esli#htly si pli2ied<?

E,5<
K4*

U Ks KN*9he terroristsL K ( ( t he ' b'ss'dorL 'ss'ssin'tedL L $2 you 2or ' Ces!*o Auestion 2ro The terrorists assassinated the ambassador, you &ill 2ind th't the senten5e is #r' 'ti5'l only i2 the N*J @d 2ollo&s the 4erb( 's stipul'ted by the sub5'te#oris'tion 2r' e 2or assassinate. For e7' ple?

E)1<

E,"<

KsDid K ( ( t h e terroristsL K4p'ss'ssin'te K(Gpthe ' b'ss'dorL L L

KO*9he terroristsL !*'ss'ssin'ted 2 F P &hoE <LL AWFG

E)+<
K(* WhoE < L did KF*the terrorist sL

110 Processes
Processes 111

princess gi2e the money1, &e st'rt 2ro stru5ture? E5,< KC(G((HL K-9he (rincess ast #i4e the

the 2ollo&in# underlyin#

K E)5< E55<

rel'tionship bet&een E)1< 'nd E)+<= Ho& 5'n &e '/e ' #ener'lis'tion 'bout the t&o p'tterns= !et us 'ssu e th't 'ss'ssin'te 'l&'ys h's the 2r' e? N CWH We st'rt 2ro E)1<?

oney -(( to &ho L L HWH Appli5'tion o2 &h8 o4e ent( -A$ 'nd do8insertion to this underlyin# stru5ture #i4es us E5)<?

E5)<

-(( 9o &ho L /id the prin5ess #i4e the HWH

oney - (---? ?

E)"<

K 9he terroristsL K((**'st 'ss'ssin'te 2 = * &hoE <L L L HWH We 5'n o4e the &h8phr'se KF 4tsL 2ro its ori#in'l position% 'nd pl'5e it in 2ront o2 the senten5e% Assu e th't it is pl'5ed in ' spe5i'l slot 'r/ed 's KCWHL( &hi5h o55urs in 2ront o2 -?
Ks O=

E)><

2A &, (H4 K5%%%L

9he o4e ent o2 the &h8phr'se to the CWH slot Ei%e% 0h!mo2ement8 'y be represented s5he 'ti5'lly 's 2ollo&s?

E)8<

K1* WhoE <L Ksthe terrorists *'st 'ss'ssin'te 89e l AWH 1 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

A2ter the o4e ent ' #'p is le2t behind( &hi5h is 'r/ed here by d'shes 888% We 5'n 2ind its ori#in'l 2iller in the spe5i'l senten5e8initi'l slot% A2ter this 2irst oper'tion &e #et? E)9< Who the terrorists 'ss'ssin'ted 888% @2 5ourse( this is not ' &ell82or ed Auestion% 9o '/e this ' 5orre5t Auestion( &e need t&o 'ddition'l oper'tions E-A$ 'nd do8insertion<? E50< Who the terrorists *'st 'ss'ssin'te 888= E51< Who *'st the terrorists 'ss'ssin'te 8 88= E-A$< E5+< Who did the terrorists 'ss'ssin'te = Edo8insertion< H'4in# dis5ussed &h8Auestion 2or 'tion &ith re#'rd to 4erbs su5h 's assassinate E&hi5h reAuires 'n N*J@d 's Co ple ent<( let us no& turn to ' 4erb li/e gi2e. )o deri4e the senten5e To 0hom did the

9he o4ed 5onstituent here is ' K^&HL( &hi5h 't5hes ' #'p 'r/ed **% We sh'll s'y th't the &h8phr'se 't the &h8slot in 2ront o2 - 't5hes or hinds the #'p% -u in# up( &e h'4e seen th't &h8Auestions 're 2or ed by E'< o4in# ' 5onstituent 5ont'inin# ' &h8&ord into the CWH slot in 2ront o2 the senten5e( 'nd by Eb< -A$( &ith or &ithout do8insertion% @per'tion E'< is the tr'ns2or 'tion 5'lled *)-mo+ement& $t typi5'lly le'4es ' #'p 8 8 8 bound by ' &h8&ord% 9he &h8&ord is 5'lled t)e ,inder or the *)-o(erator& 9he #'p 'r/s the ori#in'l position Ei%e% the e7tr'5tion site< o2 the &h8&ord% -A$ is tri##ered here by the presen5e o2 the &h8&ord in 2ront o2 -% 8.'.8.' E)er*ise The following interrogati1e senten*es all start with a wh#3hrase. Indi*ate the ga3 *orres3onding &6 86* !ound !,% the 3hrase" 0here did ,ou go offer the filmL 0ho did ,ou meet thereL 0hat did ,ou drin2L +ow good o president was @.7.K.L +ho did ,ou so, @ohn introdu*ed ,ou to after the 3la,L 0here did ,ou sa, ;ar, 3ut the dust!inL 0hat did ,ou so, ;ar, wants to !u, for @ohnL +ow for awa were ,ouL 0h did ,ou measure itL 0ho do the thin2 is s3,ing an them all the timeL 8.'.8.( re3ositional hrases in +h#Auestions Consider the 2ollo&in# Qecho!Huestion3 5ont'inin# ' K*&HL? Iohn bou#ht the ne5/l'5e Kpp 2or &ho L= H:H lt(3h8 o4e ent 5'n oper'te in t&o &'ys? E'< it 'y '22e5t the &hole **? E5"'< KCWHFor &hoE <L Ksdid Iohn buy the ne5/l'5e Kpp888L L Eh< it 'y '22e5t only the &h8&ord 0hom, &hi5h is 'n N*?

both 5'ses the o4ed 5onstituent 't5hes the type o2 #'p E** or N*<% $n Eb< it is only the N* 2ollo&in# the preposition th't is o4ed% 9he prepo8 sition le2t behind is s'id to 2ollo&in# stranded& $n E'< the o4ed &h8&ord 60ho6m88 tr'ils the preposition 'lon# &ith it% $2 o4e ent '22e5ts ore th'n ;ust ' &h85onstituent( &e s'y th't the other ele ents 're (ied(i(ed& ied-(i(ing is usu'lly option'l &ith **s E52 +%)%)<% $n so e 5'ses n'ti4e spe'/ers 2eel th't pied8pipin# is obli#'tory% 9ry( 2or e7' ple( to produ5e &h8Auestions 5orrespondin# to E5><8E59< belo&?

E5"b< KC(((HWhoE <L Ksdid Iohn buy the ne5/l'5e Kpp2or K F*888L L L $n

112 Processes Processes 11,

E"5<

KC&HWh'tL K sIohn &ill send 888 to M'ryL

E5>< He o22ended her in &h't &'y= E"8< .ou #ot ho e by &h't ti e= E59< -he 's/ed you to pi5/ her up 't &h't st'tion= *reposition str'ndin# yields p'rti5ul'rly '&/&'rd senten5es &hen the **s 're Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5ts o2 ti e or pl'5e( 's in E59<? =%hat station did she as4 you to pic4 her up at1 Cert'in prepositions Ee%#% during, not0ithstanding8 ne4er 'llo& str'ndin#? U %hich holiday did he meet her during1

9he presen5e o2 &h't tri##ers -A$?

E""<

Wh't &ill Iohn send to M'ry=

We sh'll s'y th't the slot 'r/ed 2or &h8&ords 't the be#innin# o2 the senten5e to#ether &ith the 2ollo&in# - '#'in 5onstitute 'n ( 6(!bar85 see +%,% A2ter &h8 o4e ents the &h8phr'se &ill o55upy the slot l'belled CWH? 8.'.8.8 +h#mo1ement of Su!Be*ts Nor 'lly( 's &e h'4e seen( &h8Auestion 2or 'tion in4ol4es? E'< &h8 o4e ent Eh< -A$( &ith or &ithout do8support% With -ub;e5t &h8phr'ses( ho&e4er( this is not true% Consider( 2or e7' ple? Q -in5e ' -ub;e5t &h8phr'se o55upies ' senten5e8initi'l position( &e sh'll s'y 2or the s'/e o2 #ener'lity th't &h8 o4e ent t'/es pl'5e here 's &ell( but th't its e22e5t is not 4isible% Wh8 o4e ent is s'id to 'pply +acuously here% IR

E" ><

E"1<

K L Ks KQ(&hoL 34

E")<
&indo&=

Whi5h boy

K*'st le'4eL L 3 4

did you s'y h's bro/en the

E"+<

K(((&hoL Ks Kh(888L K*'st le'4eLL 567, 9here is no -A$% E4iden5e th't the N*J-u is indeed '22e5ted by &h o4e ent 5'n be 2ound in 5ert'in 5o ple7 senten5es% !oo/ 2or the #'p 5orrespondin# to the &h8 phr'se in the 2ollo&in# e7' ples? E",< %ho did you s'y h'd le2t the #'r'#e open=

%ho is the -ub;e5t o2 had le"t the garage open, 'nd 0hich boy is the -ub;e5t o2 has bro4en the 0indo0. We sh'll return to e7' ples li/e these belo&% 8.'.8.9 +h#mo1ement and S We h'4e so 2'r de4eloped ' s5he ' 2or &h8Auestion 2or 'tion( &hi5h is b'sed on the 'ssu ption th't in underlyin# stru5ture su5h

senten5es 5ont'in 'n interro#'ti4e &h8ele ent 'nd 're pre5eded by ' slot 2or &h8 ite s% Wh8 o4e ent e7tr'5ts the &h8phr'se 2ro its ori#in'l position in -( le'4es ' #'p 'r/ed by 888( 'nd o4es the &h8phr'se into the slot 'r/ed 2or re5ei4in# it?

8.'.9 INDI:E0T J5ESTI6NS 8.'.9./ Indire*t Yes#No Juestions We h'4e seen th't Auestions 'y be dire5t or indire5tG te7t +%+%+%A( 2or e7' ple% 5ont'ins the 2ollo&in# indire5t Auestion Eit'li5ised<? E"8< @ne e4enin# he 's/ed her 0hether he might go home 0ith her. !et us loo/ 't the stru5ture o2 E"8<% First( &e note th't the phr'se one e2ening h's been 2ronted% $t is 'n Ad;un5t( &hose nor 'l position &e h'4e 'ssu ed is '2ter <e as4ed her Eor e4en 't the end o2 the senten5e<? E"9< He 's/ed her one e4enin# &hether he ho e &ith her% i#ht #o

h e r L K p p o n e e 4 e

n i n # L K- &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith herL L L Od 9he 5onstituent 0hether he might go home 0ith her is 'n @b;e5t 5l'use? it is

E>0<

He 's/ed her &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her one e4enin#% E' bi#uous< 1r'5/etin# E"9< 2or 'in 5l'use 5onstituents yields the 2ollo&in#?

E>1<
A

KsK-u HeL K4('s/ed Ko (

11) Processes Processes 115 V

E>8<
p'ttern?

M'ry &ondered &h't Iohn &'s doin#%

Dnderlyin# this e7' ple &e sh'll 'ssu e the b'si5

the Dire5t @b;e5t o2 as4ed. $n +%, &e h'4e 'r#ued th't 0hether Eli/e that or i2< o55upies the C@M* slot in -? E>+'< He s'id Ks K5uQ*th'tL Ks%%% L

E>9<
KNF&h'tL L $L

M'ry &ondered K5 K5oupL KsIohn K4%*&'s doin#

E>+b< He 's/ed her Ks K5o(1(*i 2L Ks%%% E>+5< He 's/ed her Ks K5o (&hetherL K s%%%

&here the N* 0hat is the Dire5t @b;e5t 'nd 2ollo&s the 4erb do. As you see( the C@M* slot is le2t un2illed here% 9he &h8phr'se &hi5h &e 2ind inside the subordin'te 5l'use in E>9< is o4ed out o2 - into C@M*? Dnli/e that, the 5o ple entisers 0hether 'nd i" indi5'te th't the sub8 E80< $ndire5t Auestions Ei%e% subordin'te 5l'uses< introdu5ed by 0hether 5orrespond to dire5t Auestions o2 the Ces!*o type% Co p're?

l:h8

E>,'<

He 's/ed her? _FM'y $ #o ho e &ith you=3

5o ple entiser 60hether or i"8 si#n'ls th't the subordin'te 5l'use is ' Auestion% 8.'.9.' Indire*t +h# Auestions 9e7t )%+%,%1( 's &e h'4e seen( 5ont'ins the 2ollo&in# 5o ple7 senten5e? E>5< Do you /no& 0hat happens 0hen one o" your tail lights "ails1 9he it'li5ised strin# is 'n indire5t &h8Auestion( 5orrespondin# to the dire5t Auestion? E>"< Wh't h'ppens &hen one o2 your t'il li#hts 2'ils=

E>,b<

He 's/ed her N i#ht #o ho e

2 he t h e r l he &ith her%

$n )%+%+ &e h'4e seen th't dire5t Ces!*o A`estions under#o -A$% $ndire5t Ces!*o Auestions( on the other h'nd( 're not sub;e5t to -A$% Consider?

E>)<

%%% K K 5o((( *&hether KsheL K((((( i#htL #o ho e &ith herL L 9he nor 'l -u8Au7 &ord order is preser4ed here( 'nd the presen5e o2 the

Ho& do &e 2or stru5tures &ith indire5t &h8Auestions= !et us 'ssu e th't &e st'rt 2ro the b'si5 senten5e p'tterns 's des5ribed in ,%)%>% Assu e th't &e h'4e ' senten5e su5h 's? E>>< M'ry &ondered? FWh't is Iohn doin#=3 9he strin# &ith Auot'tion 'r/s is 'n e7' ple o2 dire5t spee5h or thou#ht? &e report M'ry3s thou#hts or &ords dire5tly% Ho&e4er( &e 'y 'lso de5ide to report the indire5tly by e'ns o2 'n e bedded senten5e?

C@M*% With dire5t Auestions( 's &e h'4e seen( &h8 o4e ent is 2ollo&ed by -A$% 9here is no -A$ in e bedded &h8AuestionsG re e ber th't there &'s no -A$ in e bedded Ces!*o Auestions either% E7pl'in &h't &e e'n by s'yin# th't in e7' ples li/e E>5< 0h o4e ent 'pplies F4'5uously3 E52% )%+%)<% *ro4ide the 'n'lysis o2 E>5<( 'nd indi5'te the di22eren5e bet&een E>5< 'nd E>8<% We h'4e seen no& th't &h8 o4e ent 'nd -A$ 'y be used to#ether to 2or &h8 Auestions( but -A$ 'nd &h8 o4e ent 5'n 'lso o55ur independently? they 're ele ent'ry oper'tions &hi5h 're not ne5ess'rily lin/ed% For e7' ple( -A$ o55urs on its o&n in? Ces!*o Auestions? Bid you measure it1 De5l'r'ti4e senten5es &ith 2ronted ne#'ti4e Ad;un5ts? *e2er had he "elt so happy. Wh8 o4e ent o55urs &ithout -A$ in? $ndire5t Auestions ? (he 0ondered 0hat he &'s

doing. E75l' 'ti ons? %hat "ools they h'4e beenP Note th't neither &h8 o4e ent nor -A$ is ne5ess'rily lin/ed &ith Auestion 2or 'tion? -A$ o55urs &ith 2ronted ne#'ti4e Ad;un5ts in de5l'r'ti4es 'nd &h8 o4e ent o55urs &ith e75l' 'tions%

8.'.9.( Long +h# mo1ement !et us loo/ 't the senten5e? ( E81< Who do they thin/ is spyin# on the 'll the ti e=

9his is( o2 5ourse( ' &h8 Auestion% Wh8 o4e ent h's put the &h8&ord in 2ront position% Where does &ho 5o e 2ro = @b4iously( it is not the -ub;e5t o2 the 'in 5l'use? they is the -ub;e5t N* o2 the thin/85l'use% Dnderlyin# the senten5e &e 'ssu e the b'si5 p'ttern E8+< belo&?

11" Processes Processes 11>

2irst= )%+%" RE!A9$:E 9hey thin/ K8a KC@M*L Ks&ho is spyin# on the 'll the C!AD-ERe'd the te7t belo&% First identi2y Auestions? 're there 'ny Ces!*o Auestions= And &h8Auestions= !o5'te the #'p 5orrespondin# to the 0h! &ord% .ou &ill 2ind se4er'l e7' ples o2 subordin'te 5l'uses introdu5ed by ' &h8&ord &hi5h 're not Auestions( but rel'ti4e 5l'uses Esee +%)%+%)<% Te.t 3.2.$ 9he d'y on &hi5h !'&lessness re'red its u#ly he'd 't 1l'ndin#s C'stle &'s one o2 sin#ul'r be'uty% 9he sun shone do&n 2ro ' s/y o2 5orn82lo&er blue( 'nd &h't one &ould re'lly li/e &ould be to des5ribe in

E8+<
ti eL L

9he 5l'use 6that8 0ho is spying on them all the time is subordin'teG it is 'n @b;e5t 5l'use o2 thin4. Wh8 o4e ent '#'in t'/es out &ho 'nd o4es it 2irst to the C@M* o2 the e bedded 5l'use E-<( 'nd then in ' se5ond o4e to ' C@M* slot in 2ront o2 the 'in 5l'use? E8,<
K5oM*WhoL

Kdo they thin/

K5o pL 'll the ti eL L L

K8888 is spyin# on the

As you see( the 2rontin# o2 0ho 'lso tri##ers -A1 E&ith do8insertion< in the 'in 5l'use? they thin4 be5o es do they thin4. E7' ples E8)<8E8>< belo& 're 2urther inst'n5es o2 lon# &h8 o4e ent? the d'shes lo5'te the 4'5'ted position Ethe #'p bound by the &h8phr'se<? E8)< Who did Iohn s'y he et 888 on the bus=

E85< E8"< E8><

888=

%ho did M'ry tell you she h'd seen 888 on the tr'in= %ho did 1ill s'y 888 &'s 's/in# 2or e the other d'y=

+t 0hat time do they thin/ the t'7i &ill re'5h the 'irport

!on# &h8 o4e ent 's in the senten5es 'bo4e need not he restri5ted to only one 5l'use8le'p? the &h8ele ent 'y o4e o4er ore th'n one 5l'use? E88< %ho did Iohn s'y th't 1ill thou#ht th't M'ry &'nted to see 888= here 're so e 2urther e7' ples o2 lon# &h8 o4e ent( in &hi5h you 're 's/ed to si#n'l the #'p by d'shes? E89< Where did you s'y 1ill h'd 2ound the boo/= E90< C'n you 's/ $ris &ho she thin/s &ill 'rri4e

b leisurely det'il the s ooth #reen l'&ns on &hi5h it shone% 1ut those &ho re'd thrillers 're 'n i p'tient r'5e% 9hey 5h'2e 't s5eni5 rh'psodies 'nd &'nt to #et on to the rou#h stu22% 9hey 's/? &hen did the dirty &or/ st'rt= Who &ere i7ed up in it= W's there blood= Ho& u5h blood &'s there= And ost p'rti5ul'rly? &here &'s e4ery8body 'nd &h't &'s e4erybody doin# 't the ti e o2 the 5ri e= 9he 5hroni5ler &ho &ishes to #rip his 'udien5e ust supply this in2or 'tion 't the e'rliest possible o ent% 9he &'4e o2 5ri e &hi5h &'s to ro5/ one o2 -hropshire3s st'teliest ho es to its 2ound'tions bro/e out to&'rds the iddle o2 ' 2ine su er '2ternoon( 'nd the persons &ho it in4ol4ed &ere 'll li4in# there 't the ti e% Ad'pted 2ro *%G% Wodehouse( Oord #ms0orth and ;thers. 9he N*s listed belo& 'll 5ont'in% ' post odi2yin # Eor rel'ti4e< 5l'use 'nd 're thus 5o ple7? the GF o2 *ost odi2ier is re'lised by ' 5l'use?

$n e'5h 5'se the *ost odi2er is re'lised by 'n - 5onsistin# o2 ' 0h! phr'se 2ollo&ed by ' senten5e &ith ' 't5hin# #'p%

E91< E9+<
7

9he d'y on 0hich Oa0lessness reared its ugly head at )landings -astle 9he s ooth #reen l'&ns on 0hich it shone 9hose 0ho read thrillers 9he 5hroni5ler 0ho 0ishes to grip his audience 9he &'4e o2 5ri e 0hich 0as to roc4 one o" (hropshire s stateliest homes to its "oundations 9he persons 0hom it in2ol2ed

E9,<

E9)< E95< E9"<

We h'4e seen E+%)%+%5< th't 5o ple7 N*s h'4e the 2ollo&in# stru5ture? C'te#o ry Fun5ti on Det -pe 5 9he 9he Ad;* *re od h'ndso e N He'd poli5e 'n *ost od &ho dire5ted us to the st'tion &ho #'4e e this boo/

9he N*s E91<8E9"< 'bo4e 'll h'4e the s' e stru5ture 's The @erman girl 0ho ga2e me this boo4. 9he He'd noun girl is post odi2ied by 'n -? 0ho ga2e me this boo4. An'lyse E91<8E9"< '55ordin# to this p'ttern%

118 Processes Processes 119 Ho& should &h8 o4e ent be 5'rried out here= *ied8pipin# is obli#'tory P ost odi24in# Erel'ti4e< 5l'uses 'y help to identi2y the re2erent o2 the

in this 5'se( 2or &e 5'nnot ;ust

o4e 0hose, 0hich, et5% here% For

e7' ple?

-uper2i5i'lly( the p'ttern o2 the post odi2yin# is si il'r( but not Auite identi5'l( to th't o2 indire5t &h8Auestions Esee )%+%5%+<% Co p're? E9>< 1 &onder 0ho6m8 /ohn tal4ed to.

E109< Uthe &o 'n 0hose I li4e in 888 house

We ust pied8pipe in one o2 the 2ollo&in# t&o &'ys?

E110< the &o 'n in 0hose house $ li4e 8

E$ l 1< the &o 'n 0hose house $ li4e in 888 Wh't is the di22eren5e bet&een E110< 'nd E111<= @ur dis5ussion so 2'r h's sho&n th't the s' e tr'ns2or 'tion o2 0h! o4e ent 5'n be 'pplied to 2or both &h8Auestions 'nd post odi2yin# 5l'uses in N*s% We h'4e seen th't 's 2'r 's pied8pipin# is 5on5erned( &h o4e ent inside 5o ple7 N*s irrors e7'5tly th't in &h8Auestions% As in the 5'se o2 &h8Auestions( &e sh'll 'ssu e th't &h8 o4e ent 'lso oper'tes on -ub;e5t &h8phr'ses( 'lthou#h there is no ob4ious #'p in the sur2'5e stru5ture? it oper'tes 4'5uously% @n the 'n'lo#y o2 &h8 Auestions( &e sh'll 'ssu e th't the underlyin# stru5ture E11+< belo& be5o es E11,<( 's ' result o2 &h8 o4e ent in the N*? E11+< K ( ( t he 'n Ks K5o&l K( K( &hoL 5'rried the #unL L L 'n K8( K.Estp&hoL 2s NNe###T 5'rried the #unL L L

E98<

the #irl 0hom8 /ohn tal4ed to

@n the 'n'lo#y o2 &h8Auestions( &e 'ssu e th't E98< h's the 2ollo&in# underlyin# stru5ture?

E99<

KN 9he #irl

N*,tI T KsIohn t'l/ed to &ho L L L o4ed to. the C@M* slot in 2ront o2 -( 'nd to is

9he 5le ent 0hom is str'nded?

E100< N ( ( 9 h e #irl NS K*ow(&ho L KsIohn t'l/ed to 8 88L L L

Who binds the #'p 't the site o2 e7tr'5tion 888% Note th't 0h o4e ent is obli#'tory% 9he presen5e o2 ' &h8&ord inside 'n N* 'l&'ys tri##ers &h8 o4e ent? Fthe girl /ohn tal4ed to 0hom is un#r' 'ti5'l% $t is 'lso i port'nt to obser4e th't -A$ does not oper'te inside post odi2yin# 5l'uses% in &h8Auestion 2or 'tion( 's &e h'4e seen( there is ' 5hoi5e &ith respe5t to the o4e ent o2 0h!PPs9 one 5'n either str'nd the * 'nd e7tr'5t the N* only( or one 5'n pied8pipe the *% $n the e7' ple 'bo4e &e h'4e str'nded the *G &e 5ould 'lso h'4e pied8piped% Co p're? E101< $ &onder to 0hom /ohn tal4ed

E1 1%,< KX the

We h'4e seen th't the post odi2yin# in ' 5o ple7 N* is lin/ed to the He'd N by ' &h8&ord% 9he &h8&ords &hi5h rel'te the subordin'te 5l'use 'nd the He'd( 're rel'ti4e pronouns% 9he rel'ti4e pronoun in 2ront o2 - is s'id to bind ' #'p inside the rel'ti4e 5l'use% Apply &h8 o4e ent to the it'li5ised &h8&ords in the senten5es belo&% Apply indi5'tes C@M*<? E10,< house Iohn li4es in 0hich boo/ E10)< -ue is &'itin# 2or 0hich E105< the #irl Iohn is in lo4e &ith 0hom $n E10,<8E105< 'bo4e pied8pipin# is option'l% Consider no& the 2ollo&in# N s: E10"< the &o 'n $ li4e in

E10+< the #irl to 0hom /ohn tal4ed

T'( 86 F 7 < M <

E10>< E108<

the

'n

et &hose d'u#hter 2or the 2irst ti e l'st ye'r the 5'rdin'l &'s urdered on the steps o2

the &hi5h

E118< 9he 2il &hi5h &e s'& 't the A1C l'st &ee/ h's been
1+0 Processes Processes 1+1 E1+,< 9he N&ho R 0 E1+8< the 'n th't &hoE < &e li/ed 888 so
0X

b'nned 2ro 'll o22i5i'l pro#r' es% E119< 9he 'n &ho you see o4er there is the o&ner o2 the
'n

5o p'ny% 9he rel'ti4e pronoun in these senten5es 5'n be deleted% We sh'll use the sy bol 0 to 'r/ the deleted ele ent( 'nd 5'll it the :ero rel'ti4e pronoun? E1+0< 9he 2il 0 &e s'& 't the A1C l'st &ee/ h's been b'nned %%% Deletion o2 the &h8&ord is i possible? E'< i2 it 2un5tions 's the -ub;e5t o2 the e bedded senten5e( e%#%? E1+1'< 9he 'n &ho is st'ndin# o4er there is the *ri e Minister o2 *'/ist'n% E1+1b< U9he 'n 0 is st'ndin# o4er there is the *ri e Minister o2 *'/ist'n%

u5h

He'd noun? they 'y n'rro& do&n the re2eren5e o2 the He'd% For e7' ple( in? the man 0ho li2es ne.t door, the rel'ti4e 5l'use O2ho li2es ne.t door indi5'tes &ho e7'5tly the spe'/er is t'l/in# 'bout% 9hle 5l'use pro84ides in2or 'tion th't is essenti'l 2or the identi2i5'tion o2; the re2erent% Rel'ti4e 5l'uses o2 this /ind are ne5ess'ry i2 it is not 5le'r 2rotFn the 5onte7t &ho the spe'/er is re2errin# to% 9heyG're s'id to be restricti+e& Here 're8so e 'ddition'l e7' ples o2 restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses Eit'li5ised<? E11)< Wh't is the n' e o2 the 2il 0hich is no0 sho0ing at the +)-1

E115< 9he boo/s 0hich I ordered h'4e 2in'lly 'rri4ed% E11"< 9he 'n 0ho sa0 the accident &'s not prep'red to testi2y%
-ee 'lso e7' ples E91<8E9"<( E98<( E10,<8E108<( et5% Rel'ti4e 5l'uses 'y 'lso be non8 restri5ti4e( 's in?

E11>< 9he *ope( &ho &'s e7pe5ted to 4isit *ol'nd '#'in this
su er( de5ided to #o to Fr'n5e inste'd% Cl'uses o2 this /ind 're s'id to be non8restri5ti4e be5'use no 2urther identi2i5'tion o2 the re2erent Ethe *ope( in this 5'se< is needed% 9hese odi2yin# 5l'uses pro4ide 'ddition'l( non8essenti'l in2or 'tion 'bout the He'd o2 the N*% We sh'll turn to non8restri5ti4e 5l'uses in )%+%"%" belo&% $t is &orth notin# th't the distin5tion bet&een restri5ti4e 'nd non8 restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses 'lso 'pplies to other types o2 post odi2i5'tion 'nd pre odi2i5'tion% 8.'.<.( Deletion in :elati1e 0lauses Consider?

Eb< i2 it is pre5eded by ' preposition( e%#%? E1++'< 9he 'n 2or &ho &e &ere 'll &'itin# did not 5o e% E1++b< U9he 5o e% Co p're? 'n 2or 0 &e &ere 'll &'itin# did not

5o ple entiser that here 'lso lin/s the He'd noun 'nd the e bedded -% -in5e in other l'n#u'#es 'nd in Middle En#lish one 5'n 'lso 2ind strin#s o2 ' 0h&ord 2ollo&ed by that Eliter'lly( 2or e7' ple?

&e &ere 'll &'itin# 2or 888 did not 5o e% i2 the preposition is str'nded( the o4ed &h8&ord on its o&n 5'n be deleted% Noti5e the use o2 the 6ero rel'ti4e pronoun in -ub;e5t position in stru5tures o2 the type? There is a gentleman at the door G 0ishes to see you E52% )%)%,< 'nd o2 the(type? It is /ane G ga2e the boo4 to )ill 6c". 3.'.18. 8.'.<.8 !hat in :elati1e 0lauses @ne 'lso o2ten 2inds the 5o ple entiser that inste'd o2 0ho6m8 or 0hich 't the be#innin# o2 restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses% Consider( 2or e7' ple? E1+)< 9he youn# #irl th't pl'ys the 4iolin so &ell is E#ypti'n%

E1+5< 9he 'n th't &e li/ed so u5h turned out to be ' re'l 5roo/%
9he GF o2 *ost odi2ier is re'lised by 'n e bedded 5l'use pre5eded by that9

E1+"< K(th't K(pl'ys the 4iolin so & e l l ( E1+>< K(th't K(&e li/ed so u5hL L
9he senten5e E-< to#ether &ith that is 'n -% 9here is ' #re't de'l o2 si il'rity bet&een these -s 'nd restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses% For e7' ple?

E'< both o55ur inside 'n N*% Eb< both 're restri5ti4e *ost odi2iers to the He'd( E5< in both 5'ses there is ' #'p inside the -( e%#%?
that. 0ho6m8 'nd 6ero 're thus l'r#ely inter5h'n#e'ble( e75ept th't 2or stylisti5 re'sons 0ho6m8 'y be pre2erred% We 'ssu e( then( th't the

1++ Processes Processes 1+,

61298 9he do# &hi5h th't &e s'& yesterd'y 'nd not the re4erse<( &e sh'll 'ssu e th't the C@M* slot h's t&o positions? E1,0< E'< CWH 6h8 that

Rel'ti4e 5l'uses li/e these( &hi5h l'5/ ' re'l He'd noun( 're 5'lled "ree relati2e clauses. $n stru5ture these 5l'uses rese ble 2ull N*s 5onsistin# o2 'n e pty He'd noun 'nd ' post odi2yin# 5l'use% For e7' ple( 0hate2er you 0ant 'y be 'n'lysed 's 2ollo&s?

E1,9<

1FpG K9&h'te4er Ksyou &'nt 888L L L

C@M* is thus reser4ed 2or &h8ele ents E'< 'nd 2or 5o ple entisers Eb<% 9o 2or ' rel'ti4e 5l'use &e no& h'4e Auite ' 2e& options% 9'/e the 2ollo&in# underlyin# stru5ture?

8.'.<.< Non#restri*ti1e :elati1e 0lauses Consider no& the 2ollo&in# senten5es?

E1)0< 9he *ope( &ho &'s e7pe5ted to 4isit *ol'nd '#'in this su
de5ided to #o to Fr'n5e inste'd%

er(

E1,1< 9he &o 'n Ks K5o&E'< Eb<L Ks&e in4ited &ho to our p'rtyL L
Mo4e 0hom to position E'< in C@M*?

E1)1< 9his 5'r( &hi5h $ bou#ht only t&o ye'rs '#o( is 'lre'dy
be#innin# to sho& si#ns o2 disrep'ir% 1r'5/et the N*s &ith rel'ti4e 5l'uses( 'nd underline the He'd nouns% 9he post odi2yin# 5l'uses 'bo4e do not restri5t the re2eren5e o2 the He'd noun% 9hus( the 5l'use 0ho 0as e.pected to 4isit Poland '#'in this rummer is not e'nt to identi2y the *ope( sin5e the re2eren5e is su22i5iently 5le'r% Dnder nor 'l 5ir5u st'n5es( there 5'n be h'rdly 'ny isunderst'ndin# bet&een spe'/er 'nd he'rer 'bout the identity o2 the re2erent% 9he 'bo4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses 're s'id to be non-restricti+e Esee )%+%"%+<% they pro4ide e7tr'( non8essenti'l in2or 'tion( 'nd 5'n be le2t out &ithout 5h'n#in# or obs5urin# the re2eren5e o2 the He'd% $n non8restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses deletion o2 the rel'ti4e pronoun is not possible? E1)+< F9he *ope( 0 &'s e7pe5ted to 4isit *ol'nd '#'in this su er( %%% Nor does the 5o ple entiser that nor 'lly o55ur here? F9he *ope( th't &'s e7pe5ted to 4isit *ol'nd '#'in this su er(

E1,+< 9he &o 'n &ho Eb< &e in4ited 888 to our p'rty%
We 'y delete 0hom9

E1,,< 9he &o 'n 0 Eb< &e in4ited 88888 to our p'rty% We 'y 'lso
insert the 5o ple entiser that 't position Eb< in C@M*?

E1,)< 9he &o 'n E'< th't &e in4ited 888 to our p'rty%
$n present8d'y En#lish( senten5es li/e E1+9< 're un#r' 'ti5'l% Modern En#lish h's ' rule th't the C@M* slot 'y be 2illed by one ele ent only( either ' &h8&ord or the 5o ple entiser that. 8.'.<.9 Ad1er!ial :elati1e and 7ree :elati1e 0lauses 9he rel'ti4e 5l'uses belo& Eit'li5ised< 'lso 5ont'in &h8ele ents% $denti2y the &h8ele ents( 2ind the #'p in e'5h e bedded -( 'nd deter ine the 2un5tion o2 the o4ed &h8ele ent? E1,5< 9his is the 4ill'#e 0here I spent my youth.

E1),<
%%%

E1,"< Did they tell you the re'son 0hy they all le"t1
Rel'ti4e 5l'uses introdu5ed by 0here, 0hy, 0hen, et5% 're 5'lled ad+er,ial relati+e clauses& $n so e 5'ses( the He'd noun see s to er#e &ith the &h8&ord or that into one ele ent%

9he inton'tion o2 non8restri5ti4e 5l'uses is di22erent 2ro th't used 2or restri5ti4e 5l'uses% ($n print( non8restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'uses 're usu'lly 'r/ed o22 Epre5eded and 2ollo&ed< by 5o 's% 8.'.<.= E7er5ises Insert o restri*ti1e relati1e *lause into the following &in*om3lete% senten*es, The *lauses should 3ostmodif, the itali*ised Head nouns"

E1,> E1,8

Any person &hoR /no&s hi h'tes hi % Whoe4er 'nythin# th't $ sh'll #i4e &h't you &'nt% &h'te4er

1 2 4

Processes

P ro c e s s e s 1+5 I& :'6@. &'<& 0 :'6-@. :',+' &'<& 0 *(9<&,3( +9<$s(sD :'6 :'6@ -3. G92 T'( @<; T'( @<; I:',+' I0 +6@( &6 5,;;(* &'<& C6;s,5(* &'( 86996:,;? ()<@%9(s 68 +6@%9() NPs +6;&<,;,;? *(s&*,+&,3(

-2. :( s<:

T'( 766>

I *(<5 9<s& ;,?'&

E1)5< 9he ru our th't the *rin5ess o2 W'les is pre#n'nt '#'in h's
not been 5on2ir ed by Court o22i5i'ls%

E1)"< 9he story th't 1ill et Anne se5retly behind the 5he istry
buildin# h's been 'de up 2ro be#innin# to end%

E1)>< 9he 2'5t th't the *ri e Minister &'s in4ol4ed in ' dru#s
s5'nd'l &'s 'n e b'rr'ss ent to the Go4ern ent% E1)8< 9he 'ssu ption th't Iohn is 5o in# b'5/ soon see s un2ounded% Wh't is the stru5ture o2 the 'bo4e N*s= -uper2i5i'lly( the 5o ple7 N*s in the 'bo4e senten5es h'4e the 2ollo&in# stru5ture?

5(<9s :,&' &',s %*679(@ :( <*( 966>,;? -!. -/. T'( 766> T'( @<; :( <*( 966>,;? 86* -7.

T'( 766> 86* :( <*( 966>,;? -/. T'( 766> :( <*( 966>,;? 86*

%+%> A**@-$9$:E C!AD-E7

-pe5

1".

T'( @<; 86*

:' 6 @ :' 6 I: ',+ ' I&' <&

Consider the 2ollo&in# senten5es 5ont'inin# 5o ple7 N*s? E1))< 9he ne&s th't Iohn h'd le2t his &i2e 5' e 's ' sho5/ to us 'll%

:'6@. I:',+' &'<& 0 I:'6-@. :',+' I&'<& .0 :'6-@. :',+' &'<& -0 O; &'( 7<s,s 68 ()<@%9(s 9,>( &'6s( <763( 5(3,s( < s(& 68 *$9(s :',+' <5(J$<&(9= 5(s+*,7(s &'( $s( 68 :'6 :'6@ which, that <;5 :ero ,; E;?9,s' *(s&*,+&,3( *(9<&,3( +9<$s(s. T*= <;5 86*@$9<&( =6$* *$9(s ,; &(*@s 68 &'( +6;&*<s&s 2HH$@<;4K9AH$@<;2 2HS$7L(+&.K-AS$7L(+&- <;5 2H ,@@(5,<&(9= %*(+(5(5 7= PIK2A ,@@(5,<&(9= %*(+(5(5 7= P I. D,s+$ss &'( 5,88(*(;+( ,; s&*$+&$*( 7(&:((; &'( &:6 +6@%9() NPs ,; &'( s(;&(;+(s 7(96: -,&<9,+,s(5.D -1 2 W( 966> 86*:<*5 &6 the da when :( +<; stop working for that idiot( -2. I s'<99 86996: =6$ where'er ou ?6. )

IMI

H * o st o d i2 ie r ( 6 ! t h a t C < the ne&s K th't KsIohn h'd le2t his &i2eL L An'lyse E1)5<8E1)8< in the s' e &'y% $s the post odi2yin# 5l'use ' rel'ti4e 5l'use= We h'4e s'id th't rel'ti4e 5l'uses 're pre5eded by ' rel'ti4e pronoun &hi5h binds the #'p inside the rel'ti4e 5l'use( 'nd &e h'4e s'id th't the 2un5tion o2 lin/in# the He'd 'nd the e bedded - 'y 'lso be 2ul2illed by t hat . For e7' ple? WhoE < E1)9< the 'n 0 you s'&

888 there th't C'n you lo5'te si il'r #'ps in E1))<8E1)8<= .ou &ill 2ind th't the 'ns&er is? No% Co p're these e7' ples &ith those in E150<88E15)< belo&? E150< 9he ne&s th't Iohn told his &i2e #'4e her ' sho5/%

E151< 9he ru our th't

Anne spre'd in to&n &'s terrible%

E15+< 9he story th't Mr

Ad' s &rote 2or his 5hildren h's re5ently been published in ' 5olle5tion% E15,< 9he ne&s th't the *ri e Minister #'4e the reporters did not sur8prise 'nyone% E15)< 9he 'ssu ption th't he b'ses his theory on 'y be 2'lse% $n E150<8E15)< &e 2ind the e7pe5ted #'p in the e bedded -( &hile in (144)-(14S) there is no #'p% O:e ust 5on5lude( then( th't (144)-(148) 're not rel'ti4e 5l'uses% Wh't 're they= Consider the He'ds o2 the -ub;e5t N*s in E1))<8E1)8<? in so e o2 the

12$ Processes Processes 12&

&// &'% &(% &8% &9% &<%

*ost od

to 'rri4e 't the pl'5e o2 the 5ri e to li4e in 'n pl'5e

e7' ples the He'd noun rel'tes to ' 4erb 6report85 in other 5'ses it h's so ethin# to do &ith F ess'#es3 6ne0s, story, .. .8, i%e% 5o uni5'tion% $n 2'5t( the th't85l'use #i4es the 5ontent o2 the 5o uni5'tion% For ( 1 4 4 ) , 2or e7' ple( the ne&s &'s? FIohn h's le2t his &i2e3% *'r'phr'se ( 1 4 5 ) - ( 1 4 8 ) in the s' e &'y% Note th't 0hich 5'nnot repl'5e that here( 'nd th't that 2ul2ils no #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tion Ee%#% -ub;e5t or @b;e5t< in the 5l'useG oreo4er( that is obli#'tory here 'nd this use o2 that 5'n 'lso o55ur be2ore non! restricti2e 5l'uses Ee%#% Cour assumption, that there is no li"e on other planets, is un"ounded8. $n 'll these respe5ts( the th't85l'uses in ( 1 4 4 ) - ( 1 4 8 ) di22er 2ro rel'ti4e th't85l'uses% 9h't85l'uses li/e those in E1))<8E1)8<( &hi5h #i4e the 5ontent o2 nouns su5h 's "act, report, ne0s, et5%( 're 5'lled a((ositi+e clauses& Appositi4e 5l'uses 'y 'lso be introdu5ed by the 5o ple entiser 0hether 6e.g. I ha2e no idea 0hether they 0ill appreciate our help8. 4.2.7.1 Exercises I Add a restri*ti1e or non#restri*ti1e a33ositi1e *lause to the itoli*ised Head Ns !elow. Then !ra*2et the N s.

The theor, that men are su3erior to women is !latantl, false. The fa*t that @ulia is Irish is a33arent the moment one sees her. The stor, that @ohn told his friends sur3rised man, of them. ;ar, herself s3read the rumour that she was 3regnant. +here did I 3ut the letter that I re*ei1ed last wee2L How did she rea*t to the message that she had inherited a fortuneL He has an intriguing theor, that the dinosaurs were wi3ed out !, their ,oung. I ha1e no idea whether this is true. Sum u3 the differen*es !etween relati1e *lauses and a33ositi1e *lauses. III The N s in m neigh,our ;ohn are said to !e a33ositi1e N s. How would ou define an a33ositi1e relationshi3L Is the relationshi3 !etween the N s m neigh,our and @ohn restrictive or non-restrictive! And what bo"t the $rime %inister, %rs Thatcher? 4.2.8 REDUCED RE !"I#E C !USES

E155< 9he 2irst 'n to 'rri4e 't the pl'5e o2 the 5ri e &'s our lo5'l
poli5e o22i5er%

E15"< 9he l'st 'n to t'l/ to in su5h 5ir5u st'n5es is your 2'ther%

The ,elief was unfounded. The fact s3ea2s for itself. Her announcement distressed him 1er, mu*h. !he claim was later shown to !e false. The theor is diffi*ult to a**e3t. He was gi1en o warning( II Identif, relati1e *lauses and a33ositi1e *lauses in the following senten*es. The mone, that @ohn left his wife *ome in 1er, useful. The idea that @ohn has left home for good is de3ressing.

E15>< $ &'nt ' tool to 2i7 the sin/ &ith% E158< We 'll &'nt ' de5ent pl'5e to li4e in% E159< 9he 2irst tr'in to le'4e 2ro pl't2or , is the "%0, 2or Re'din#%
1r'5/et N*s in these senten5es 'nd deter ine their GF in the senten5e% 9he stru5ture o2 these N*s is 's 2ollo&s? -pe5 the 2irst $ ' $ *re od de5ent

redu5ed rel'ti4e 5l'uses( i%e% not 2illed by o4ert le7i5'l Co p're( 2or e7' ple( E155< &ith its 2ull 4ersion E155'<?

'teri'l%

9he to85onstru5tions 'bo4e ser4e 's *ost odi2iers 'nd 5'n be 5h'n#ed into 2ull rel'ti4e 5l'uses% e%#%? E1"0< 9he 2irst 'n &ho 'rri4ed 't the pl'5e o2 the 5ri e %%% 9he to85onstru5tions used in E155<8E159< 're 5'lled reduced relati+e 5l'uses% E7p'nd E15"<8E159< into 2ull rel'ti4e 5l'uses% Full rel'ti4e 5l'uses( introdu5ed by 0ho, 0hich, etc., 're 2inite% The post odi2yin# strin#s in E155<8E159<( on the other h'nd( 're non82inite Eto8in2initi4e< 5l'uses% Redu5ed rel'ti4e 5l'uses 'y 'lso h'4e 'n !ing or !ed :*? E1"1< 9he tr'in 'rri4in# 't pl't2or > is the >%0, 2ro Re'din#%

E1"+< 9he #uy &e'rin# those odd 5lothes is I'ne3s husb'nd% E1",< None o2 the #uests in4ited by Iohn turned up% E1")< Ess'ys h'nded in '2ter 1st Iuly &ill not be 'r/ed until the
be#innin# o2 ne7t ter % 9he non82inite 5l'uses 'bo4e 're restri5ti4e% Here 're t&o e7' ples o2 non8restri5ti4e non82inite 5l'uses?

E1"5< 9he *ope% &'rned not to #o to *ol'nd( de5ided to 4isit Fr'n5e

inste'd%

E1""< 9he *rin5ess o2 W'les( h'unted by the press( 2ound it ore 'nd
ore di22i5ult to le'd ' nor 'l li2e% !et us no& 5onsider the stru5ture o2 redu5ed rel'ti4e 5l'uses in ore det'il% We 2ind th't 5ert'in synt'5ti5 positions &hi5h in 2ull rel'ti4e 5l'uses 're usu'lly o55upied by le7i5'l 'teri'l 're le2t e pty in

Eb< E155e< '2ter &h8 o4e ent? the 2irst 'n 0

5o%ti1*

No& let us 5onsider E15"<% Here( too( &e 'y try to b'se the stru5ture o2 E15"< on the 'n'lo#y &ith its 2inite 2ull 4ersion? (15'() 9he l'st 'n th't you should t'l/ to in su5h 5ir5u st'n5es %% % $t is i edi'tely 5le'r th't there is ' #'p inside both E15"< 'nd E15"'< 'nd th't the preposition to is str'nded? Kppto 888L% $n E15"'< the 5o ple entiser that Ein C@M*< binds the #'p 'nd rel'tes the rel'ti4e 5l'use to the He'd NG in (15') there is no o4ert ele ent in C@M*% !et us thus 'ssu e th't '#'in there is ' non8o4ert ele ent 0 in C@M*% Ho&e4er there is 'nother proble no&% Wh't is the -ub;e5t o2 the rel'ti4e 5l'use in E15"'<= Cle'rly( it is you $n E15"< the non82inite rel'ti4e

s
1*
to

1.28 Processes E155< 9he 2irst E155'< 9he 2irst 'n to 'rri4e 't the pl'5e o2 the 5ri e %%% 'n &ho 'rri4ed 't the pl'5e o2 the

5ri e %%% 9he underlyin# stru5ture o2 E155'< is 's 2ollo&s?

E'< be2ore &h8 o4e ent?

E155b< K((Gtithe 2irst 'n K - C@M* Ks&ho K(%('rri4ed %%%L L L L

Eb< '2ter -&h8 o4e ent o2 the N*J-u?

E1555< KO(((the 2irst 'n Ky&ho Ks88 K4p'rri4ed %%%L L1L

9he #'p 888 is bound by the o4ed &h8&ord 60ho8. For the redu5ed 5l'use E155< &e sh'll 'ssu e 'n 'n'lo#ous underlyin# stru5ture( but inste'd o2 ' 2inite :* there is ' non82inite :*? E'< be2ore &h8 o4e ent? E155d< K ( ( t he 2irst KyC@M* Ks 'n #to 0 K((t(to 'rri4e %%%L L L L E155< di22ers only ini 'lly 2ro E155'<?

E1< E+<
in

the :* in E155< is non82inite( th't in E155'< is 2inite the -ub;e5t &h8&ord in E155'< is 'n o4ert ele ent 60ho8, th't

E155< is non8o4ert( i%e% not le7i5'lly re'lised 'nd here indi5'ted $%

&. We 'ssu e no& th't the o4ert &h8&ord 's &ell 's the non8o4ert ele ent @ o4e 2ro the -ub;e5t position into C@M*( le'4in# ' #'p 888%

Processes 1+9 5l'use l'5/s 'n o4ert -ub;e5t( $u) &e 'y interpret the -ub;e5t 's re2errin#( 2or e7' ple( to you, 's represented in (15'$)* (15'') 9he l'st 'n Ky2or Ks you to t'l/ t o i l We sh'll thus h'4e to s'y th't (15') 'lso h's ' non8o4ert -ub;e5t( &hi5h &e sh'll indi5'te by E <% We 'ssu e then th't be2ore &h8 o4e ent E15"< h's the stru5ture? E15"5< K the l'st C@M*
s

The girl who @ohn met on the train lost wee2 Eb< N s with non#restri*ti1e relati1e *lauses, e.g." The o3e, who was e)3e*ted to 1isit oland this summer E5< N s with o33ositi1e *lauses, e.g." The news that @ohn and Susan had s3lit u3

Ed< N s with redu*ed relati1e *lauses, e.g."

'n

2or

E< !

to t'l/ to 0 I

to 'nd th't &h8 o4e ent E15"d< the l'st N*

o4es the non8o4ert ele ent 0 into C@M*?

'n F 0 2or E < V3to t'l/ to 888 5o s

$n En#lish( the seAuen5e "or ... to is un#r' 'ti5'lG "or ust be deleted% Essenti'lly the redu5ed rel'ti4e 5l'use in (15') thus h's ' non8o4ert -ub;e5t 's &ell 's ' non8o4ert rel'ti4e ele ent in C@M* E'2ter o4e ent< indi5'ted by 0 ( &hi5h binds ' #'p indi5'ted by 888% -ee Ch'pter 5% All these non8o4ert positions 're 'ssu ed on the b'sis o2 5orrespondin# o4ert positions in other p'r'llel 5l'uses% 9ry to 'n'lyse E15><8E159< in the s' e &'yG you &ill 2ind th't E15>< 'nd E158< p'ttern li/e E15"<( &hile E159< is ore li/e E155<% )%+%8%1 E7er5ises Anal,se,the following senten*es in the same wo, as senten*es 99% and &/9<% a!o1e"

E1< E+< E,< E)<

El

I-m loo2ing for a 3la*e to sta, o1er 0hristmas. ;, new 3et was the most re1olting !ird to loo2 at. This is a diffi*ult 3ro!lem to sol1e. The Auestion for all of us to *onsider now is whether we *on afford su*h e)3enses. :ead the following te)t *arefull,, It *ontains se1eral instan*es of 0om3le) N s. Tr, to identif, the following t,3es" E'< N s with restri*ti1e relati1e douses, e.g."

4.8 PA99IVI9A)ION
! . 3. 1 T H E P R O C E S S

13G Processes Processes 131

!ext 8.'.D./ The ne)t moment, the little man-s *om3anion was hitting him with her um!rella. Some!od, in the row !ehind Bum3ed on his !a*2. And in -a!out a Auarter of a minute the a*tion had !e*ome general. I *ould see a sort of *onfused !lur, with the 1oi*e of the Cattler 3ro*eeding from the middle of it. *ommissionaires and others !egan to arri1e, and 3oli*emen in !e1ies, and all was o1er. Ne)t da,, the Cottler was hauled u3 !efore the maBest, of the low and senten*ed to fourteen da,s in the *oo3 without the o3tion. 6n the morning of the fifteenth da, I was waiting at the 3rison gates, and out he *ome, trained to a hair. Ado3ted from .G. +odehouse, <ord =msworth and -thers,

The girl wearing the green s2irt In the *ase of relati1e *lauses lo*ate the ga3 *orres3onding to the wh#word. +hat is the G7 of the wh#3hroseL !ext 8.'.4. 8 In ;s Segol-s arti*le -E1en A**ountants +ill Cu, It-, whi*h ,ou 3u!lished on 7e!ruar, 4, Durham is Auoted as one of a grou3 of uni1ersities who 3e)3e*t ,ou to *on*entrate on one or 3erha3s two su!Be*ts from the da, on whi*h ,ou start there until ,our final e)ams-. This is ina**urate and 3rofoundl, misleading. Juite a3art from the fa*t that Durham offers the degree of CA in General Studies, whi*h is a three su!Be*t degree in all three ,ears, and the CS* in Natural S*ien*es, in1ol1ing o1er three ,ears a minimum of three and a ma)imum of fi1e su!Be*ts, a high 3ro3ortion of other degree *ourses offered !, Durham ma2e it 3ossi!le for *andidates to in*lude more than two su!Be*ts in their degree *ourses. To gi1e !ut one further e)am3le, *andidates ta2ing honours *ourses in the So*ial S*ien*es ha1e to read three different su!Be*ts in their first ear( There is *onsidera!le fle)i!ilit, within the Durham s,stem for *hanges in *ourses after the end of the first ,ear. Indeed a!out 'E 3er *ent of *andidates graduate with a degree whose title is different from the one for whi*h the, first registered on entr,. Ado3ted from >uordian, '' 7e!ruar, =D4(, 3. /9.

!.2.BAFRONTING -o 2'r &e h'4e seen th't 'u7ili'ries( tense 'nd &h8 phr'ses 'y be o4ed le2t&'rds% Ho&e4er( other 5onstituents 'y 'lso be preposed% For e7' ple? E1">< -oon '2ter bre'/2'st M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es% (oon a"ter brea4"ast h's been 2ronted? it is ' **JA%

be 2ronted Esee Ch'pter "<% For e7' ple? E1>0< He 5' e out%

E 1 > 1 <
@ u t h e

E1"8<

M'ry Ann 5
3

K(((brou#ht in 9he 9i es N soon '2ter bre'/2'stLL Co p're 'lso?

' e % E 1 > 1 ' <

E1"9'< $ h'4e ne4er be2ore et ' et ' 'n li/e Iohn% 'n li/e Iohn% E1"9b< Ne4er be2ore h'4e $

Frontin# o2 ne2er be"ore in this 5'se tri##ers -A$% *'rti5les o2 phr's'l 4erbs E1>0< 'nd **s E1>1< 'y 'lso

E1>1b< $nto the #'r'#e he H e & ' l / e d i n t o t h e # ' r ' # e % &'l/ed% !.2.B.1 E)(*+,s( Identif, fronted *onstituents in the following te)t. :estore them to their original 3osition.

Re'd the 2ollo&in# te7t% 1r'5/et the ';or 5onstituents in e'5h senten5e( 'nd underline the He'd o2 the :*% Assi#n GFs%

be'ten 4ery 2ine? it 5'n 'l ost be blo&n '&'y% No&'d'ys $ndi'n 2ood is estee ed 'll o4er the &orld% Ad'pted 2ro A % H o s ' i n ' n d % * ' s r i 5 h ' ( o o 4 i n g t

Te.t 3.3.1 9he e'tin# h'bits o2 the $ndo8*'/ist'n sub8 5ontinent 're in2luen5ed by histori5'l 'nd #eo#r'phi5'l 2'5tors% -in5e the e'rliest ti es the sub85ontinent h's been in4'ded by 'ny tribes 2ro the North% !'ter on it &'s o55upied by the 1ritish% @nly re5ently &'s the re#ion di4ided into the t&o independent 5ountries o2 $ndi' 'nd *'/ist'n% 9he in2luen5e o2 'll the di22erent in4'sions 5'n be 2ound in the 5ulture 'nd the e'tin# h'bits o2 the sub85ontinent% $ndi'n 'nd *'/ist'ni 2ood 're 4ery si il'r( but re#ion'l 'nd reli#ious in2luen5es 5'n be obser4ed% 9he 5onsu ption o2 bee2 is 2orbidden to the Hindu( 'nd the 5onsu ption o2 por/ is not 'llo&ed 2or Musli s% 9he 'rt o2 the present'tion o2 2ood &'s 'lso de4eloped in these 5ountries% -il4er or #old le'2 is o2ten used 2or de5or'tion% 9he et'l is

h e I n d i a n % a 9his te7t 5ont'ins se4er'l inst'n5es o2 p'ssi4e senten5es% *'ssi4e senten5es h'4e the 2ollo&in# p'ttern?
E1<

y .

KG E,,by ...1P . For e7' ple?

:!ed

132 Processes Processes 1,,

E"'< E"b<

The ne0spapers are t'/en %%% Is the ne0spaper t'/en %%%=

628

Es K ( ( 9 he e'tin# h'bits o2 the $ndo8*'/ist'n sub85ontinentL K&'re in2luen5ed KQby histori5'l 'nd #eo#r'phi5'l 2'5torsL L L

9he tests 5on2ir th't in E5b< the ne0spaper is the N*J-u% 9he shi2t o2 the @b;e5t N* into -ub;e5t position is '55o p'nied by

E,<

Es

KQ-in5e the e'rliest ti esL K(((the sub85ontinentL K2(h's been in4'ded K((by 'ny tribes %%% L L L

$denti2y other p'ssi4e senten5es in te7t )%,%1% Nor 'lly ' (assi+e senten5e h's ' 5orrespondin# '5ti4e senten5e% 9he '5ti4e senten5e is seen 's the underlyin# stru5ture( 2ro &hi5h the p'ssi4e senten5e is deri4ed% 9he '5ti4e senten5e 5orrespondin# to E+<( 2or e7' ple( is E)<? E)< Ks K((Histori5'l 'nd #eo#r'phi5'l 2'5torsL !%*in2luen5e

K(Qthe e'tin# h'bits o2 the $ndo8*'/ist'n sub85ontinentL L L -enten5e 638 5ont'ins ' tr'nsiti4e : 6in"luence8, &hi5h reAuires 's its Co ple ent 'n N* 2un5tionin# 's @d% 9he stru5ture o2 the senten5e is? N*J -u K:8N*J@dL% $2 &e 5o p're the p'ssi4e senten5es 2ro te7t )%,%1 &ith their '5ti4e 5ounterp'rts( &e see th't the '5ti4e strin#s 5ont'in 'n @b;e5t N*% 9he pro5ess o2 p'ssi4is'tion 5ru5i'lly in4ol4es o4in# the @b;e5t N * E@d or @i< 2ro the '5ti4e :* into the -ub;e5t position% Consider 'lso?

E5'< E5b<

9he #'rdener t'/es the ne&sp'per to Mr Ellis% 9he ne&sp'per is t'/en to Mr Ellis by the #'rdener%

1r'5/et the -ub;e5t 'nd the @b;e5t N* in E5'<% No& br'5/et E5b<% $2 &e 5o p're E5'< 'nd E5b<( &e 2ind th't the @b;e5t o2 E5'<( the ne0spaper, is o4ed to the le2t( 'nd ends up in -ub;e5t position in E5h<% 9he @b;e5t N* is 'ssu ed to le'4e ' #'p 888 in the underlyin# '5ti4e senten5e '2ter p'ssi4is'tion% -in5e this #'p is not rele4'nt to our dis5ussion( &e sh'll si pli2y 'tters 'nd '4oid re2eren5e to it here% $n order to 4eri2y the -ub;e5t st'tus o2 the N* the ne0spaper in E5b< &e 5'n 'pply 4'rious tests( in5ludin# the '#ree ent test E'< 'nd the -A$ test Eb<?

'nother oper'tion? the -ub;e5t o2 the '5ti4e senten5e is re o4ed 2ro its ori#in'l position 'nd 'y end up 's the A#ent by8phr'se in the p'ssi4e senten5e? by the gardener E4ery o2ten the A#ent by8phr'se is deleted<% $n the '5ti4e senten5e E5'< the role o2 A#ent is 'ssi#ned to the -ub;e5t N*% $n the p'ssi4e senten5e E5b< the A#ent role is 'ssi#ned to the by8phr'se% $n 'ddition( p'ssi4is'tion 5on4erts ta4es into is ta4en9 the 'u7ili'ry be is 'dded 'nd the 4erb is 5h'n#ed into ' p'st p'rti5iple% 9he 5h'n#e 2ro '5ti4e to p'ssi4e 4erb 2or 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s? E>'< present8t'/e ? ta4es E>h< 2ollo&s? E-'< E-b< L L or E9'< K-KN*9he #'rdenerLK 4%*t'/esKN*the ne&sp'perLK(*to Mr EllisLLL KsKN*9he ne&sp'perLK4(is t'/enK(G*to Mr EllisLK**hy the #'rdenerL ore 'bstr'5tly? '5ti4e? Ks ! N * $L KF($(: K (N*GL L L present8be8t'/en? is ta4en -5he 'ti5'lly p'ssi4is'tion &or/s 's

by8phr'se in E11<% We #et so ethin# li/e E1+<( &hi5h is un#r'

'ti5'l?

U888 di4ided the re#ion into the t&o independent 5ountries only re5ently% 9he A#ent o2 the '5tion denoted by the 4erb 6di2ide8 is not e7pli5itly entioned( 'lthou#h in this 5'se &e /no& th't the Funderstood3 A#ent is

E1+<

E9h<

p'ssi4e? KsK43Ebe:!ed ERby

NNNN

!.3.2 THE BYAPHRASE Consider '#'in the l'st senten5e o2 the 2irst p'r'#r'ph o2 te7t )%,%1?

E10<

@nly re5ently &'s the re#ion di4ided into the t&o independent 5ountries o2 $ndi' 'nd *'/ist'n%

;nly recently is ' 2ronted Ad4*( ori#in'tin# in :*% 9he 2rontin# h's #i4en rise to -A$% Co p're the &ord order o2 E10< &ith th't o2 E11<? 9he re#ion &'s di4ided into the t&o independent 5ountries only re5ently% 1r'5/et the 'in 5onstituents o2 E11< 'nd 'ssi#n GFs% 9ry to restore E11< to the '5ti4e% At 2irst si#ht( this see s i possible( sin5e there is no

E11<

1,) Processes Processes 1,5 N$<

prob'bly so ethin# li/e The )ritish @o2ernment, et5% E52% the $ndi'n $ndependen5e A5t( 19)><% -enten5e E1+< reAuires 'n e7pli5it -ub;e5t E52% the *- rule? - 8 C N * 8 : * < ( other&ise it &ill be un#r' 'ti5'l% $2 one does not /no& pre5isely &ho the A#ent o2 the '5ti4ity is( or i2 it is irrele4'nt or unne5ess'ry to spe5i2y &ho per2or ed the '5ti4ity( one 'y 5hoose to use ' p'ssi4e senten5e( sin5e in p'ssi4es the A#ent by8phr'se is option'l% *'ssi4is'tion 'llo&s us to suppress the A#ent% Re'd throu#h te7t )%,%1 on5e ore( 'nd deter ine &hether 'll p'ssi4e senten5es 5ont'in 'n A#ent by8phr'se( :ery o2ten the e22e5t o2 p'ssi4is'tion is th't the te7t be5o es ore i person'l 'nd 2or 'l% +gent!less p'ssi4es 're espe5i'lly 5h'r'5teristi5 o2 the style o2 o22i5i'l do5u ents( te7tboo/s( s5ienti2i5 'rti5les( instru5tions( rules( et5% E7' ples?

,our mone,. The rental rates whi*h ore shown in this !oo2 in*lude $AT at the rate in o3eration at the time when the !oo2 was issued. Ada3ted from >ranada Showroom $a ment ,ook, /D4/.

8.8 ;6$E;ENT T6 7605S )%)%1H lTJ ET9RA*@-$9$@N Re'd the te7t belo&% 1r'5/et the th't85l'uses%

6SITI6N

E1,< E1)< E15< E1"<

.ou 're hereby #i4en le'4e to enter the Dnited Kin#do onths% 1i5y5les ust not be le2t in 2ront o2 the buildin#% - o/in# in this roo is prohibited%

2or si7

Contributions 're &el5o ed 2ro lin#uists in 'll 5ountries( 'nd not erely 2ro e bers o2 the !in#uisti5s Asso5i'tion o2 Gre't 1rit'in% )%,%, E7er5ise

5nderline the 3assi1e senten*es in the te)t !elow. Are there an, Agent !,#3hrasesL

!ext 2(3(3 $a ment information) >ranada tele'ision rental This !oo2 must !e gi1en to the *ashier ea*h time that 3a,ment is made. The to3 3art of a 3a,ment sli3 is remo1ed and the re*ei3ted stu! is left in the !oo2. That is the re*ord of ,our 3a,ment. ostal 3a,ments must !e mode !, *heAue or 3ostal order, Tear the to3 3art of the ne)t 3a,ment sli3 and send it with ,our mone,. If a re*ei3t is reAuired, send this 3a,ment !oo2 with

Te.t 3.3.1 $t 'rouses indi#n'tion th't so e ni#ht &or/ers 't 1ritish !eyl'nd3s Ro4er 2'5tory in -olihull 're in the re#ul'r h'bit o2 sleepin# 2or ' l'r#e p'rt o2 their shi2t% 1ut on &ho should the indi#n'tion be 4ented= Fro the be#innin# o2 ti e( it h's been '55epted th't en &ho 're on duty durin# the ni#ht &ill be te pted to sleep% $t is 'ssu ed th't nothin# but the ost dili#ent super4ision supported by #r'4e pen'lties &ill pre4ent the 2ro #oin# to sleep% 9he 2'5t th't it too/ ' ne&sp'per reporter to un4eil this p'rti5ul'r 'ni2est'tion o2 ' nor 'l hu 'n pheno enon to the !eyl'nd 'n'#e8 ent spe'/s 2or itsel2% $t is s'id th't the errin# &or/ers nor 'lly 2inish their 'ssi#n ent by , '% % 'nd th't they 're not due to 5lo5/ o22 until se4en% $t is possible th't 'n'#e ent h's #i4en the 2'r too little to do or u5h too lon# in &hi5h to do it% For the to re 'in 'lert 'nd idle 't their posts 2or 2our solid hours e'5h ni#ht si ply out o2 piety to -ir Mi5h'el Ed&'rdes &ould 'r#ue 'n 'l ost per4erted sense o2 duty% Ad'pted 2ro Baily Telegraph, 13 No4e ber 19&9. 4.4.1.1 I.--:/;<&os#/#o* #* *'ssi4e -enten5es on p'ttern in the te7t 'bo4e is the

E5<

%%% e4eryone h's '55epted th't en &ho 're on duty durin# the ni#ht &ill be te pted to sleep%

A 4ery 5o

2ollo&in#? It C p'ssi4e 4erb C th't85l'use% $n the se5ond p'r'#r'ph( 2or e7' ple( &e 2ind? Fro the be#innin# o2 ti e( it h's been '55epted th't en &ho 're on duty durin# the ni#ht &ill be te pted to sleep% E+< $t is 'ssu ed th't nothin# but %%% &ill pre4ent the 2ro #oin# to sleep% Wh't is the -ub;e5t o2 E1< 'nd E+<= 9he -ub;e5t o2 the 'in 5l'use is ob4iously it( sin5e -A$ '22e5ts the order o2 it 'nd the 'u7ili'ry has or is? E,< <as it been '55epted th't %%%= E)< Is it 'ssu ed th't %%%= -in5e the 4erb is in the p'ssi4e 6has been accepted, is 'ssu ed<( &e should be 'ble to re5onstru5t the underlyin# '5ti4e strin#% $ndeed( the '5ti4e senten5es 5orrespondin# to E1< and 628 'y be so ethin# li/e?

1," Processes Processes 1,>

te pted to sleepL K4ph's been '55eptedLL 2ro #oin#

E"<

@ne 'ssu es th't nothin# but %%% &ill pre4ent the to steep%

9he 5hoi5e o2 the ite s e2eryone 'nd one 's underlyin# -ub;e5t N*s in E5< 'nd E"< is 2'irly 'rbitr'ry( o2 5ourse? so e other #ener'l N* &ould 'lso h'4e been possible here% $n 'ny 5'se( the -ub;e5t N*s o2 E5< 'nd E"< 're 'bsent 2ro the 5orrespondin# p'ssi4es E1< 'nd E+< 'bo4e% 1r'5/et the 5onstituents in the 'in 5l'uses o2 E5< 'nd E"<% Wh't is the GF o2 the th't85l'use in E5< 'nd E"<= We represent the stru5ture o2 E5< 's 2ollo&s? &=% Ns... Kh(i(e4eryoneL K4ph's '55epted Kyth't en &ho %%% &ill be te pted to sleepL L L

9he th't85l'use E-< is ' Co ple ent o2 the :( 'nd 2un5tions 's @d% -en8 ten5e E>< h's the s' e stru5ture 's si ple senten5es su5h 's E8<

E8<

Ks K (E4eryoneL K4ph's '55epted K(%(the 2'5tL L L

*seudo85le2tin# be'rs out the 'n'lysis o2 E5<( sho&in# th't the th't8 5l'use is inte#r'ted in the :*? E9< Wh't e4eryone h's done is Ks(p'55ept th't en &ho 're on duty durin# the ni#ht &ill be te pted to sleepL $t is 'lso possible to use the 'u7ili'ry ha2e 's ' substitute 2or the &hole :*( 's E10< illustr'tes?

E10<

E4eryone h's '55epted th't en &ho 're on duty durin# the ni#ht &ill be te pted to sleep( but Iohn h'sn3t E'55epted th't en &ho %%%<

$2 the th't85l'use is the @d o2 E5<( then under p'ssi4is'tion it should be5o e the -ub;e5t o2 the p'ssi4e senten5e% And this is indeed &h't h'ppens?

E11<

That men &ho are on duty during the night 0ill be tempted to sleep h's been '55epted Eby e4eryone<% -enten5e E11< 5'n be #i4en the 2ollo&in# 5onstituent stru5ture? E1 1'<
Ks

K(((p9h't

en &ho 're %%% &ill be

Ho&e4er( E11< is not ' 4ery ele#'nt senten5eG there is so ethin# &ron# &ith the b'l'n5e bet&een -ub;e5t 'nd *redi5'te% 9he -ub;e5t is he'4y 'nd the :* 2ollo&in# it rel'ti4ely short% We #et r'ther ' lot o2 in2or 'tion 't the be#innin# o2 the senten5e( &hile in En#lish the focus o2 'ttention in ' senten5e is usu'lly to&'rds the end o2 the senten5e% $t is 2or this re'son th't E11< should pre2er'bly be 5on4erted into E1+<?

senten5es sho&in# the s' e pro5ess% For e7' ple?

E1)<

$t 'rouses indi#n'tion th't so e ni#ht &or/ers %%% 're in the re#ul'r h'bit o2 sleepin# 2or ' l'r#e p'rt o2 their shi2t% !.!.1.3 I&A()&*<%6s,&,6; :,&' N6;A8,;,&(
& 9 /

E1+<

$t h's been '55epted th't &ill be te pted to sleep%

en &ho 're on duty durin# the ni#ht

-o 2'r( &e h'4e 5on5entr'ted on e7tr'position in4ol4in# 2inite -ub;e5t 5l'uses% Ho&e4er( it8e7tr'position 'y 'lso o4e non82inite 5l'uses% $n the l'st p'r'#r'ph o2 the te7t &e 2ind?

(&

D & / E

$n this se5tion &e sh'll de'l &ith the rel'tions &hi5h hold bet&een stru5tures su5h 's E11< 'nd E1+< 'bo4e% Consider '#'in? E11< 9h't en &ho %%% &ill be te pted to sleep h's been '55epted%

E15<

1,8 Processes

E1+<
E1+<?

$t h's been '55epted th't

en &ho %%% &ill be te pted to

$2 &e br'5/et the senten5e 5onstituents( &e #et the 2ollo&in#?

sleep% 9&o

'in oper'tions 're in4ol4ed in 5on4ertin# E11< into

E15<

2 s 2 F*ltL K4p'rouses KNpindi#n'tionL K(th't so e ni#ht &or/ers %%%L L L

E'< 9he -ub;e5t 5l'use E&ith th't< is shi2ted ri#ht&'rds to&'rds the end o2 the senten5e( le'4in# ' #'p 888? E1,< 8 8 8 h ' s been '55epted Ktth't en &ho %%% &ill be te pted to steepL

9he 2un5tion o2 the N* indignation is th't o2 @d( 's p'ssi4is'tion sho&s?

E1"<

K((G(($ndi#n'tionL is 'roused by Ethe 2'5t< th't so e ni#ht

&or/ers %%% Wh't is the GF o2 the th't85l'use= It supplies the 5ontent 2or it9

Eh< $t is inserted into the 4'5'ted -ub;e5t position% $t is ' du y ele ent( 2un5tionin# 's ' pl'5e8holder 2or the -ub;e5t( 'nd is 5'lled the grammatical or antici(atory $u,6ect" 's opposed to the notional $u,6ect Ethe th't85l'use<% 9he 'nti5ip'tory -ub;e5t &ill be l'belled su" to distin#uish it 2ro Fnor 'l3 -ub;e5ts E-u<% 9he stru5ture o2 senten5e E1+< 'y no& be su ed up 's 2ollo&s? $rJsu K: p'ss8- 8J-uL% $n E1+<( the o4ed th't85l'use #i4es 5ontent or e'nin# to itG the t&o 're lin/ed 'nd 're s'id to 2or ' c)ain& 9he o4e ent tr'ns2or 'tion &hi5h shi2ts the th't85l'use ri#ht&'rds in the senten5e is 5'lled e%tra(osition& 9he 5o bin'tion o2 e7tr'position 1 it!insertion is re2erred to 's it!e.traposition. 9ry to re5onstru5t the pro5ess o2 it8e7tr'position in E+< 'bo4e 'nd in other e7' ples o2 p'ssi4e senten5es &ith it8e7tr'position in te7t )%)%1% 8.8./.' It#e)tra3osition in A*ti1e Senten*es $t8e7tr'position is not 5on2ined to p'ssi4e senten5es su5h 's E1< 'nd E+< 'bo4e% $2 you re'd throu#h te7t )%)%1 '#'in( you &ill 'lso 2ind '5ti4e

E1><
in

Wh't 'rouses indi#n'tion is Ksth't so e ni#ht &or/ers %%% 're

the re#ul'r h'bit o2 sleepin# 2or ' l'r#e p'rt o2 their shi2tL $t in E1)< is the #r' 'ti5'l -ub;e5t( 'nd the th't85l'use the notion'l -ub;e5t% E1)< is 'nother inst'n5e o2 'n it8e7tr'position p'ttern% We 5'n( in 2'5t( undo the e22e5t o2 it8e7tr'position Auite e'sily? E'< re o4e it? Ks888 !% 'rouses indi#n'tion K -th't so e ni#ht &or/ers %%% 're in the re#ul'r h'bit o2 sleepin# %%%L L L

Eh< repl'5e the displ'5ed th't85l'use into its ori#in'l position? Kti K-9h't so e ni#ht &or/ers %%% 're in the re#ul'r h'bit o2 sleepin# %%%L KQ*'rouses indi#n'tionL L Here is 'nother e7' ple o2 it8e7tr'position 2ro the te7t? 2'r too little to E19<
Ks 5

Processes 1,9 K For Ksthe to re 'in 'lert 'nd idle 't their posts 2or 2our

solid hours e'5h ni#ht si ply out o2 piety to -ir Mi5h'el Ed&'rdesL L K(p&ould 'r#ue 'n 'l ost per4erted sense o2

E18<
do%

It is possible th't

'n'#e ent h's #i4en the

dutyLL As &e 5'n see( the -ub;e5t o2 this senten5e is re'lised by ' non82inite 5l'use E-<% 9he 5o ple entiser in this 5l'use is "or, 'nd "or 5'nnot be le2t out% -enten5e E19< h's not under#one it8e7tr'position% 9he e22e5t o2 ite7tr'position &ould be 's 2ollo&s? E'< e7tr'position? 8 &ould 'r#ue 'n 'l ost per4erted sense o2 duty K(2or Ksthe to re 'in 'lert 'nd idle 2or 2our solid hours e'5h

Wh't is the 'n'lysis o2 senten5e E18<= C'n you undo the e22e5t o2 it 8 e7tr'position Ei%e% 2irst re o4e it( then shi2t the th't85l'use b'5/ to its nor 'l position 't the be#innin# o2 the senten5e<= 9he e22e5t o2 it8e7tr'position is th't the he'4y -ub;e5t 5l'use is o4ed into 2o5us position 't the end o2 the senten5e%

ni#ht si ply out o2 piety to -ir Mi5h'el Ed&'rdesL L L

Eb< it8insertion?
Ks $t &ould 'r#ue 'n 'l ost per4erted sense o2 duty !s8 2or Ks the to %%% L L L

No& 'pply it8e7tr'position to the 2ollo&in# t&o senten5es? E+0< E+1< For e to be &ritin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5t &'s 'n irr'tion'l '5t%

9'l/in# to her &'s #re't 2un% !.!.L! E)(*+,s(

-ee 'lso Ch'pter 5%

5ndo the effe*t of it#e)tro3osition in the following e)am3les. it is o 3it, that he should ha1e told her that. it would !e 1er, unwise to gi1e in at this 3oint.

it is generall, assumed that hili3 is the !est *andidate. It was re1ealed last night that the unem3lo,ment figures ha1e risen again. it is not Auite *lear whether the trains will !e running on time tomorrow. It will !e announ*ed soon who will get the 3ri?e. it had ne1er ha33ened to her that she had trusted someone so !lindl,. It did not o**ur to me at the time that ,ou might !e interested. Is it *on*ei1a!le that the man was Bo2ingL It is e)3e*ted !, most e)3erts that the 3ound will !e de1alued.

E'< Eb< 1)0 Processes Processes 1)1

2oolish%

E+8<
4ery 2oolish%

9hey 5onsidered "or her to h'4e 'n a""air 0ith @eorge

Note" the non#e)tro3osed 1ersions of some of the senten*es a!o1e sound rather aw2ward. In su*h *ases it#e)tra3osition is said to !e 3refera!le st listicall ( There ore olso *ases whi*h ha1e no non#e)tra3osed 1ersion, i.e. where it#e)tra3osition is o!ligator,. 7or e)am3le" 3 That it would !e !etter if she went on her own was thought. This must !e*ome" It was thought that it would !e !etter if she went on her own. !.!.1." I&A()&*<%6s,&,6; ,; #(*79(ss C9<$s(s !et us no& loo/ 't the e7' ples belo&? E++< 9hey 5onsidered her '22'ir &ith Geor#e 4ery 2oolish%

$n E+>< the -ub;e5t o2 the 4erbless 5l'use is ' 2inite th't85l'useG in E+8< it is non82inite% 1ut '#'in E+>< 'nd E+8< sound 4ery '&/&'rdG they 5'n be i pro4ed i2 &e rephr'se the 's E+9< 'nd E,0<? E+9< 9hey 5onsidered it 4ery 2oolish that she had an a""air 0ith @eorge.

E,0<
0ith @eorge.

9hey 5onsidered it 4ery 2oolish "or her to ha2e an a""air

E+9< 'nd E,0< 're rel'ted to E+>< 'nd E+8< by it8e7tr'position% $n this 5'se( the do 'in o2 it8e7tr'position is the 4erbless 5l'use 2un5tionin# 's @d% 9he t&o 2' ili'r steps 5'n '#'in be des5ribed 's 2ollo&s? E'< e7tr'pose the -ub;e5t 5l'use o2 the @b;e5t 5l'use?

E+,<

9he 5o

ittee 2ound the propos'l un'55ept'ble%

1r'5/et the 5onstituents in the senten5es 'nd 'ssi#n GFs% 1oth e7' ples 'y he 'n'lysed 's 2ollo&s E52% ,%)%11%+ 2or 'n 'ltern'ti4e 'n'l<sis<?

E+)<

N*J-u K: K odN*J-u8Ad;*J*5LL

$n other &ords? consider hi E++< 'nd "ind in E+,< h'4e 's their Dire5t @b;e5t ' 4erbless 5l'use 6her a""air 0ith @eorge 2ery "oolish 'nd the proposal unacceptable8. 9he 4erbless 5l'uses in the sel4es 5ont'in ' -ub;e5t 'nd ' *redi5'ti4e Co ple ent( but there is no 4erb to lin/ the % Co p're E++< &ith E+5< 'nd E+"< belo&? E+5< 9hey 5onsidered her a""air 0ith @eorge to be 2ery "oolish.

E+"<
"oolish.

9hey 5onsidered that her a""air 0ith @eorge 0as 2ery

@b4iously% nothin# &ould pre4ent the -ub;e5t o2 the 4erbless 5l'use in E++< 2ro 'lso bein# re'lised by ' 5l'use( r'ther th'n by 'n N*% For e7' ple? E+>< 9hey 5onsidered that she had an a""air 0ith @eorge 4ery

9hey 5onsidered K,88 4ery 2oolish Ksth't she %%%L L Eh< insert it? 9hey 5onsidered Esit 4ery 2oolish Ksth't she %%%$L @r s5he 'ti5'lly? D%-%? N* K4*: K5 K5L <1((p5L L L N* K4*4 K5888 KAd$*? *5L 2s4 4 4 N* K(* : Ks it KAd(*J*5L K-L L L $n E+9< 'nd E,0<( it is the 2iller o2 the -ub;e5t position inside the 4erbless @b;e5t 5l'use% 9he notion'l -ub;e5t is the e7tr'posed -ub;e5t 5l'use% D%-% st'nds 2or 3underlyin# stru5ture 3 E52% )%1<% !.!.1./ 11A()&*<%6s,&,6; :,&' O7L(+& C9<$s(s Consider the 2ollo&in# senten5e? E,1< M'ry 5'lled Willi' 3s beh'4iour r'ther odd% 1r'5/et the 5onstituents in E,1< 'nd l'bel the % Assi#n GFs% $2 &e 'dopt the 'n'lysis proposed in ,%)%"( the 2ollo&in# p'ttern e er#es? E,+< N*J-u K:8N*J@d8Ad;*J*5CA5L 9he Ad;* re'lises the GF o2 *5CA5% E52% ,%)%"<% As &e h'4e seen( 'n @d 'y 'lso be re'lised by ' 5l'use E'n @b;e5t 5l'use<% For e7' ple?

E,,<

We K4pre#retted Ks%odth't she 'rri4ed so l'teL L

Consider no& 'lso? E,)< We K4%p5'lled Ks (th't she 'rri4ed so l'teL KAd$*V*5CA4ery re#rett'bleL L E,)< is( o2 5ourse( ' 4ery 5iu sy senten5e% $ts style 5'n be i pro4ed i2 &e re'rr'n#e it 's 2ollo&s? E,5< We 5'lled it 4ery re#rett'ble th't she 'rri4ed so l'te% E,)< 'nd E,5< h'4e the s' e e'nin#% $2 &e 5o p're their stru5tures( &e see th't E,5< is the result o2 it8e7tr'position% We h'4e '#'in 'pplied the t&o8step pro5edure &hi5h &e h'4e seen be2ore?

1)+ Processes E'< e7tr'pose the E@b;e5t< 5l'use( i%e% shi2t it to the ri#ht? E,"< We 5'lled 888 4ery re#rett'ble Ks1odth't she 'rri4ed so l'teL Eb< insert it in the 4'5'ted slot?

$n ,%)%11%, &e h'4e #i4en yet 'nother &'y o2 'n'lysin# e7' ples su5h 's E,1<% R'ther th'n tre'tin# the Ad;* rather odd in E,1< 's erely ' phr's'l 5onstituent o2 the entire -( &e h'4e proposed th't it i#ht be seen 's p'rt o2 ' 4erbless 5l'use?

E,><

We 5'lled it 4ery re#rett'ble K th't she 'rri4ed so l'teL

68 It is the pl'5e8holder 2or the e7tr'posed @b;e5t 5l'use? it is the #r' 'ti5'l or 'nti5ip'tory @b;e5t o2 called, 'nd the th't85l'use is the notion'l @b;e5t% 9he #r' 'ti5'l @b;e5t is l'belled od" to distin#uish it 2ro Fnor 'l3 @b;e5ts E@d<G 52% 'lso the distin5tion 'bo4e bet&een su 'nd -u E)%)%1%1<% 9he stru5ture o2 E,5< 'y be su ed up 's 2ollo&s? E,5'< N*J-u K:8itJod8Ad;*J*5CA58-J@dL Ho&e4er( in ,%)%11%+ 'nd ,%)%11%,( &e h'4e pointed out th't there 're 'ltern'ti4e 'n'lyses 2or senten5es &ith so85'lled 5o ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erbs% @ne su5h 'ltern'ti4e E52% ,%)%11%+< is to tre't E,1< 's 2ollo&s?

E,8<

M'ry K4p5'lled Kso?nd Kti(p(sVWilli' 3s beh'4iourL 2 < 5 , pK *Cr'ther oddL L L

'nd there is ' si il'r 'n'lysis 2or E,)< 'bo4e? E,9< We Ks%p5'lled Kso o2 Kt(sQth't she 'rri4ed so l'teL K( ip((4ery re#rett'bleL L L Dnder su5h 'n 'n'lysis E,5< &ould be ' str'i#ht2or&'rd e7' ple o2 it! e7tr'position o2 ' -ub;e5t 5l'use inside ' 4erbless 5l'use( si il'r to the 5'ses de'lt &ith in )%)%1%5? E)0< We K4p5'lled Kso 6 5 KNp(-DitL KVdN % p&ery re#rett'bleL Ks(sQth't she 'rri4ed so l'teL L L It is the pl'5e8holder Esu< 2or the e7tr'posed -ub;e5t 5l'useG the do 'in o2 it8e7tr'position is -o%

Processes 1), E)1< M'ry KF((5'lled K Qp(odWilli' 3s beh'4iourL Kso K ;t oL KAd1p(p(r'ther oddL L A#'in this &ould h'4e 5onseAuen5es 2or the 'n'lysis o2 E,5<( &hi5h &ould then h'4e the 2ollo&in# 'n'lysis? E)+< We K4p5'lled -"("od itL K s o E ( < K ( d i p Ks(odth't she 'rri4ed so l'teL L
$C

pro5edure?

E'< the **JA5 is 2ronted% Eb< the -ub;e5t is o4ed to the ri#ht%
-tep E'<( the 2rontin# E)%+%9< o2 the Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent( pre5edes 'nd tri##ers step Eb<( the in4ersion o2 the -ub;e5t 'nd the 4erb% -tep Eb< is

4ery re#rett'bleL L

!.!.2 SUB0ECTA#ERB IN#ERSION !et us 5onsider the 2ollo&in# te7t% Te.t 3.3.2 1l'5/st'ble &'s ' 2ishin# 4ill'#e% $t 5onsisted o2 ' hi#h street in &hi5h &ere the shops( the b'n/( the do5tor3s house( 'nd the houses o2 t&o or three 5o'lship o&ners% Round the little h'rbour &ere sh'bby streets in &hi5h li4ed 2isher en 'nd poor people% Ad'pted 2ro W% -o erset M'u#h' ( ;" <uman )ondage. We sh'll 2irst loo/ 't ' si pli2ied 4ersion o2 the l'st senten5e%

E),<

Round the little h'rbour &ere sh'bby streets%

$n &h't respe5t is E),< ' Fsi pli2ied 4ersion3 o2 the l'st senten5e o2 the te7t= 1r'5/et 'nd l'bel the 5onstituents in E),<% Assi#n GFs% $2 you h'4e proble s in deter inin# GFs it i#ht be use2ul to 5o p're E),< &ith E))< belo&? E))< 9he sh'bby streets &ere round the little h'rbour% 9his l'st senten5e h's the p'ttern N*J-uK:8**JA5l% 9he ** round the little harbour h's been 2ronted in E),<( 'nd the -ub;e5t 'nd the :erb h'4e 5h'n#ed pl'5es% E),< 'nd E))< 're both #r' 'ti5'l% 9hey h'4e the s' e e'nin#( 'nd 5ont'in identi5'l 5onstituents &ith identi5'l GFs( but the distribution o2 these 5onstituents is di22erent% 1y reor#'nisin# the senten5e( the 'uthor '5hie4es #re'ter e ph'sis on the -ub;e5t N*( sin5e this is no& in senten5e82in'l Ei%e% 2o5us< position% 9he re'rr'n#e ent is ' t&o8step

1)) Processes Processes 1)5

2NP
[ S

We repe't the stru5ture underlyin# the N* shabby streets in 0hich lived "ishermen and poor people9

E)8<
i L

sh'bby streets

- fis)ermen
NP

I 'nd poor peopleL li4ed 88 8

Ks2isher en 'nd poor people li4ed in & h i 5 h L L L 9he t&o re'rr'n#e ents &or/ 's 2ollo&s? E'< &h8 o4e ent o2 in 0hich E&ith pied8pipin#< results in?

AAA

li4ed 888
NP

2isher en 'nd poor p e o p l e

KNp E)9<

sh'bby streets

Ks%!* H W H

in &hi5h

5'lled $u,6ect-8er, In+ersion& !et us return to the ori#in'l senten5e in the te7t?

E)5<

Round the little h'rbour &ere sh'bby streets in &hi5h li4ed 2isher8 en 'nd poor people%

Wh't is the -u= M'/e sure you br'5/et the 2ull N*J-u% 9he 5onstituent order o2 E)5< is? A58:8-u( &hi5h is not ' b'si5 p'ttern E52% ,%1<% $2 you restore the senten5e to its b'si5 p'ttern( you &ill #et ' senten5e o2 the -u8:8A5 type( but &ith ' he'4y -ub;e5t N*? E)"<
Ks N*

K -h'bby streets in &hi5h li4ed 2isher en 'nd poor peopleL K(((&ere K** round the little h'rbourL L L

1y 2rontin# the ** round the little harbour 'nd o4in# the -ub;e5t N* shabby streets in 0hich li2ed "ishermen and poor people ri#ht&'rds( the senten5e is 'de u5h ore b'l'n5ed% !et us no& loo/ 't the post odi2yin# 5l'use in the -ub;e5t N*? in 0hich li2ed "ishermen and poor people. 9he 5onstituent order o2 this 5l'use is 's 2ollo&s?

E)><

K9G / i n &hi5hL Ks K44li4ed KN*2isher en 'nd poor peopleL L L L $s this ' b'si5 senten5e p'ttern= $2 it is not( &h't 'rr'n#e ents do you thin/ h'4e been 'de= @2 5ourse( one re'rr'n#e ent is due to &h8 o4e ent o2 in 0hich into C@M*% A se5ond re'rr'n#e ent o4es the -ub;e5t N* "ishermen and poor people to the ri#ht( pl'5in# it '2ter the 4erb li2ed E-ub;e5t8 :erb $n4ersion or -:$% 2or short<%

9his o4e ent is obli#'tory% Eb< -ub;e5t8:erb $n4ersion produ5es? Ksip N50< sh'bby streets ! in &hi5h S COMP !H : H

5on2ir ed by -ub;e5t8Au7 $n4ersion? E5+< Were there three 5h'pels in the 4ill'#e= Eb< the N* three chapels. -upport 2or this 5'n be 2ound in the 2'5t th't this N* 'nd the 4erb h'4e '#ree ent% Co p're?

9he in4ersion is not obli#'tory% 9here is 'nother e7' ple o2 &h8 o4e ent 'nd -:$ in te7t )%)%+ 'bo4e% C'n you 2ind it= -:$ o2ten #re'tly i pro4es the style o2 ' senten5e by 5re'tin# ' better b'l'n5e bet&een the be#innin# 'nd the end o2 the senten5e% 9he result is '#'in th't ' pro inent -ub;e5t is o4ed into the 2o5us position 't the end o2 the senten5e% $t is o2ten 5'lled ' Fstylisti5 in4ersion3% !i/e it8e7tr'position( -:$ shi2ts ' 5onstituent to&'rds the end o2 the senten5e% 9here is 'n interestin# di22eren5e bet&een -ub;e5t8:erb $n4ersion 'nd -ub;e5t8Au7 $n4ersion% -:$ 5h'n#es the order o2 -u 'nd : by o4in# -u ri#ht&'rds( pl'5in# it '2ter : in the :*( &here's -A$ reorders -u 'nd 'u7 by o4in# 'u7 EC tense< le2t&'rds out o2 the :*( pl'5in# it in 2ront o2 -u% Co p're? -:$? KsN*J-u KV% *% % % : %%%L L V Ks888 KV( *% % % : %%% N*J-uL L 9AI: K sN*J -u K(% *Au7EC9ns< : %%%LL iK sAu7 EC9ns< N*J-u [ y PV ...] ] 4.4.8 THE:E#INSE:TI6N Consider e7' ple E51<? E51< 9here &ere three 5h'pels in the 4ill'#e% 1r'5/et the 5onstituents 'nd identi2y the -ub;e5t% .ou &ill 2ind th't there 're t&o 5onstituents &hi5h see to be li/ely 5'ndid'tes 2or -ub;e5t st'tus? E'< the &ord there, &hi5h see s to o55upy the -ub;e5t position( 's is

1)" Processes Processes 1)>

E5>< E58<
stolen%

A 'n is &'itin# 2or you% 8 C 9 h e r e is '

'n &'itin# 2or

E5,<

9here &'s one s 'll 5h'pel in the 4ill'#e% ore 5're2ully(

you% p'ssi4e be9 -o e oney h's been stolen%8U9here h's been so e oney

H's this senten5e then #ot t&o -ub;e5ts= $2 &e loo/ 't it &e 2ind th't it 5orresponds to ' ore b'si5 p'ttern? E5)< 9hree 5h'pels &ere in the 4ill'#e%

9his is 'n -u K:8A5L senten5e% 1r'5/et the 5onstituents 'nd l'bel the % E51< 'nd E5)< 5'n be rel'ted by ' o4e ent oper'tion( &hi5h shi2ts the -ub;e5t N* in E5)< ri#ht&'rds E-:$< to the position '2ter be9 E55< 888 &ere three 5h'pels in the 4ill'#e% $nto the 4'5'ted slot &e then insert ' du y ele ent? there. There! insertion in E55< #i4es us E51< 'bo4e% !i/e it, there ser4es to 'nnoun5e th't the notion'l -ub;e5t is to 2ollo&% 9here8senten5es( 'lso 5'lled e7istenti'l senten5es( 're o2ten used to introdu5e ne& ele ents into the dis5ourse( 's the 2ollo&in# te7t illustr'tes? Te.t 3.3.3 9here &'s ' uni4ersity in Ne& En#l'nd &here the students oper'ted ' b'n/ o2 ter p'pers 'nd other ho e&or/ 'ssi#n ents% 9here &ere p'pers 2or e4ery need? there &ere p'pers 2or 'n A #r'de( p'pers 2or ' 1 'nd p'pers 2or ' C% $n this uni4ersity there &'s 'lso ' student &ho h'd spent the &ee/end on pursuits other th'n ho e&or/G he &ent to the h'n/% He dre& out ' p'per 2or C( retyped it( 'nd h'nded his &or/ in% $n due 5ourse he re5ei4ed it b'5/ &ith 5o ents in red in/ 'nd they &ere 's 2ollo&s? 3$ &rote this p'per ysel2 t&enty ye'rs '#o% $ 'l&'ys thou#ht it &orth 'n A( 'nd no& $ ' #l'd to #i4e it one% Ad'pted 2ro Christi'n 1r'nn( *'ss the Port. 9here8insertion is usu'lly only possible &ith inde2inite -ub;e5ts 'nd the 4erb used is nor 'lly be Eeither the le7i5'l 4erb he, or one o2 the 'u7ili'ry uses o2 be<? le7i5'l 4erb be?

E5"<

A ouse is in the /it5hen%8C9here is '

ouse in the /it5hen%

Espe5i'lly &ith the le7i5'l 4erb be the 4ersions &ith there sound 2'r better th'n those &ithout there. pro#ressi4e be?

9ry to per2or

there8insertion on the senten5es belo&? 9hree ore people 'y h'4e been in the &re5/%

E>+'< A ne& boo/ by *ro2essor Winters &hi5h de'ls &ith the sup8
pression o2 &o en in the 2i2teenth 5entury h's ;ust 'ppe'red%

E59< E"0< E"1< E"+<

H's 'nyone been to see her= Fi4e 5hildren h'4e been /illed% Ho& u5h oney h's been stolen=

E>+b< A ne& boo/ by *ro2essor Winters h's ;ust 'ppe'red &hi5h

de'ls &ith the suppression o2 &o en in the 2i2teenth 5entury% 1r'5/et N*s in the E'<8senten5es 'nd 'ssi#n GFs% No& 5o p're the E'<8

9here8insertion is 'lso possible &ith ' s 'll nu ber o2 other 4erbs( &hi5h usu'lly rel'te to the ide' o2 3bein#3( 35o in# into bein#3( Fe7istin#3( et5% Consider ho& there8insertion h's oper'ted in the 2ollo&in#? E",< 9here &ill 'rise ' lot o2 5on2usion '2ter the de'th o2 the *resident%

E")< E"5< E""< E">< E"8<

9here 5' e ' brie2 spell o2 be'uti2ul &e'ther% 9here 'ppe'red 'nother pi5ture on the l'r#e s5reen% 9here e7ist t&o 5opies o2 this edie4'l 'nus5ript%

9here o55urred 'nother '55ident the ne7t d'y% A2ter independen5e there 2ollo&ed ' period o2 #re't politi5'l unrest%

!.!.! EXTRAPOSITION FROM NP A 2urther ethod o2 b'l'n5in# the senten5e is by e7tr'position 2ro 'n N*% $n the se5tions 'bo4e &e h'4e seen th't he'4y -ub;e5ts 'y be o4ed to&'rds senten5e82in'l position% For e7' ple? E"9< $t is ' s5'nd'l th't they h'4e 'llo&ed this pr'5ti5e 2or so lon#%

E>0<

$n this 're' li4e 2isher en( p'inters( iron on#ers( 5o'l iners( 'nd uns/illed &or/ers%

9he tenden5y to o4e he'4y 5onstituents to the ri#ht is 4ery #ener'l in En#lish% We sh'll #i4e ' 2e& ore e7' ples belo&% Consider( 2or e7' ple( E>1< 'nd E>+<? E>l'< Did you see th't 'n &ith those 2unny 5lothes yesterd'y= E>1b< Did you see th't 'n yesterd'y &ith those 2unny 5lothes=

1)8 Processes

Processes 1)9

senten5es 'nd their Eb<84'ri'nts% $n the Eb<8senten5es p'rt o2 the N* h's been o4ed to the ri#ht? in E>1b< the oper'tion '22e5ts ' post odi2yin# *p( in E>+b< it '22e5ts ' post odi2yin# 5l'use% -u5h ' o4e ent is option'l( 'nd helps to 5re'te ' better b'l'n5e in the senten5e% Mo4in# 5onstituents out o2 'n N* is 'lso 5'lled e%tra(osition" ore spe5i2i5'lly e%tra(osition from N & $2 &e loo/ 't the e22e5t o2 this oper'tion in the Eb<8senten5es( &e see th't it splits up the N* into t&o p'rts? E>,< K((((th't 'n %%% Kpr(&ith those 2unny 5lothesL 9he ** 0ith those "unny clothes is not 'n independent 5onstituent? it 5'n8not be the 2o5us ele ent in ' 5le2t senten5e( 2or e7' ple% We 5'n thus s'y th't N*s 'y be discontinuous: their 5o ponents 'y be sep'r'ted by inter4enin# 'teri'l% $denti2y dis5ontinuous N*s in the senten5es belo&% Restore e'5h sen8 ten5e to its ori#in'l order &ith the *ost odi2ier i edi'tely 2ollo&in# the He'd o2 the N*% !'bel the inter4enin# 5onstituents% E>)< $ re5ei4ed 'n 'nony ous letter l'st &ee/ &hi5h r'ther sho5/ed e%

-H$F9

E>5<
A2ri5'%

9here li4es '

'n round the 5orner &ho &'s born in -outh

E>"< E>><

Did you he'r the ne&s the other d'y th't une ploy ent bene2its 're #oin# to be 5ut by 10 per 5ent= A 'n 5' e into our shop l'st &ee/ &ho told us he &'s N'poleon3s #re't8#r'ndson%

9o deter ine GFs in senten5es su5h 's E>)<8E>><( it is 'l&'ys best to restore the senten5e to its b'si5 &ord order 2irst( sin5e sep'r'ted 5orn 8 ponents o2 ' 5onstituent re'lly '/e up only one 5onstituent( &ith one GF% $n E>)<( 2or e7' ple( the @b;e5t N* in the b'si5 p'ttern is? E>8< KQR('n 'nony ous letter &hi5h r'ther sho5/ed eL )%)%5 HEA:. @1IEC98

shi2ted ri#ht&'rds to senten5e82in'l position% A#'in this is ' stylisti5 o4e ent% 9he N*J@d in Eb< is r'ther lon# 'nd he'4y( 'nd it is e7'5tly su5h lon# 'nd he'4y @b;e5t N*s &hi5h tend to be o4ed ri#ht&'rds% Here is 'nother e7' ple 2ro *%G% Wodehouse( Oord #ms0orth and ;thers9

E80<

*os/itt &'s ' 'n &ho brou#ht to the tee the t'5ti5s &hi5h in his youth h'd &on hi su5h 2' e 's ' h' er thro&er%

$n the 2ollo&in# e7' ples( too( the @d h's been shi2ted ri#ht&'rds% 1r'5/et the Dire5t @b;e5t N*% Note th't i2 you repl'5e the he'4y N* by ' short one Ee%#% ' pronoun<( there is no need to e7tr'pose it to the end o2 the senten5e%

1r'5/et the 5onstituents( 'nd 'ssi#n GFs% -enten5e E>9'< h's the 2ollo&in# p'ttern? N*J-u K:8 N*J@i8N*J@d8N*JAL% E>9b< is 4ery si il'r( but the Dire5t @b;e5t N* h's no& been

Write t&o ore e7' ples 2or e'5h o2 the 2i4e types o2 o4e ent ;ust entioned% Re5onstru5t the underlyin# b'si5 p'ttern 2or e'5h e7' ple 'bo4e 'nd 2or the e7' ples &hi5h you h'4e de4ised yoursel2%

E81< E8+< E8,<

9he butler re5'lled to y ind the o55'sion &hen y 'unt h'd le2t the house in her ni#ht#o&n% 9hey h'4e s5heduled 2or this onth three pl'ys 'nd t&o

usi5'ls% -he 'dded to the i7ture ' te'spoon o2 su#'r( t&o drops o2 'l ond essen5e 'nd ' hint o2 ru % )%)%" -DMM$NG D* We h'4e identi2ied 4'rious types o2 ri#ht&'rd o4e ent( &hereby 'n i port'ntJhe'4y 5onstituent #ets o4ed to&'rds the end o2 the senten5e% We h'4e de'lt &ith the 2ollo&in# 5'ses? E'< it8e7tr'position E)%)%1<( e%#%? It &'s ' s5'nd'l that there 0ere three chapels in the <igh (treet.

Eb< -ub;e5t8:erb $n4ersion E)%)%+<( e%#%?

Round the little h'rbour 0ere shabby streets in &hi5h li2ed "ishermen and poor people. E5< there8insertion E)%)%,<( e%#%? There &ere three chapels in the 4ill'#e%

Ed< e7tr'position 2ro N* E)%)%)<( e%#%?

No& 5onsider E>9'< 'nd E>9b<? E>9'< .ou &ill #i4e hi ' sleepin# t'blet e4ery ni#ht% E>9b < .ou &ill #i4e hi e4ery ni#ht t&o sleepin# t'blets( ' 5up o2 hot 5ho5ol'te( 'nd ' #l'ss o2 br'ndy%

150 Processes
t

Processes 151

!." CLEFTING AND PSEUDOACLEFTING : :C

e'
(

his birthd'y% $2 &e t'/e the be5'use85l'use 's the 2o5us ele ent( E"< be5o es E><? E>< $t &'s because it 0as his birthday th't I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% 'y be either 'n N* EE)< 'nd E5<<( ' ** EE+< 'nd E,<<

E+< E,< E)< E5<

Re'd te7t )%)%" E52% )%)%+<% $t is ' #ood e7' ple o2 ho& ri#ht&'rd o4e ent oper'tions 'y he used by 'uthors to '5hie4e 5ert'in e22e5ts% $denti2y the ri#ht&'rd o4e ents% Te.t 3.3.$ 1l'5/st'ble &'s ' 2ishin# 4ill'#e% $t 5onsisted o2 ' hi#h street in &hi5h &ere the shops(% the b'n/( the do5tor3s house( 'nd the houses o2 t&o or three 5o'lship o&ners? round the little h'rbour &ere sh'bby streets in &hi5h li4ed 2isher en 'nd poor peopleG but sin5e they &ent to 5h'pel they &ere o2 no '55ount% When Mrs% C'rey p'ssed the dissentin# inisters in the street she stepped o4er to the other side to '4oid eetin# the ( but i2 there &'s not ti e 2or this 2i7ed her eyes on the p'4e ent% $t &'s ' s5'nd'l to &hi5h the :i5'r h'd ne4er resi#ned hi sel2 th't there &ere three 5h'pels in the Hi#h -treet? he 5ould not help 2eelin# th't the l'& should h'4e stepped in to pre4ent their ere5tion% W%-o erset M'u#h' ( ;" <uman )ondage. #en 8.9./ 0LE7TING ; N Cle2tin#( 's &e h'4e noted( is ' de4i5e &hi5h is used to 2o5us on ' p'r 8 ti5ul'r 5onstituent in the senten5e% 9he pro5ess o2 5le2tin# in4ol4es e7tr'5tin# ' 5onstituent 2ro its b'si5 position in the senten5e 'nd puttin# it in ' ore pro inent position E52% 1%,%+<% Consider the &'ys in &hi5h 5le2tin# 5ould be 'pplied to senten5e E1<? E1< I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% 9he 5le2t 4ersions o2 E1< in5lude the 2ollo&in#? $t &'s on (aturday th't I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill% $t &'s to )ill th't I'ne #'4e this boo/ on -'turd'y% $t &'s this boo4 th'tJ&hi5h I'ne #'4e to 1ill on -'turd'y% $t &'s /ane th'tJ&ho #'4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% We 5ould e7tend senten5e E1< by 'ddin# 'n Ad;un5t 5l'use% For e7' ple? E"< I'ne #'4e this boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y be5'use it &'s

9he 2o5us ele ent

or 'n Ad;un5t 5l'use EE><<% As the e7' ples sho&( the 2o5us ele ent is surrounded by? It is/0as ... th'tJ&hoJ&hi5h85l'use% Althou#h these that/ &hoJ&hi5h85l'uses 're 4ery si il'r in 'ppe'r'n5e to rel'ti4e 5l'uses E)%+%"<( they 're not Auite the s' e% @ne di22eren5e is th't nor 'l rel'ti4e 5l'uses usu'lly ser4e to post odi2y He'ds o2 N*s( i%e% Ns( not **s or Ad;un5t 5l'uses% As &e h'4e seen( the rel'ti4e 5l'uses in 5le2t senten5es 5'n 3post odi2y3 **s 'nd Ad;un5t 5l'uses% Another di22eren5e is th't in the 5o on type o2 rel'ti4e 5l'uses the th'tJ&hoJ&hi5h8ele ent 5'nnot be le2t out i2 it is the -ub;e5t o2 the 5l'use( but in 5le2t senten5es that, 0ho, or 0hich 5'n be o itted in 5olloAui'l style i2 it is the -ub;e5t o2 the 5l'use% Co p're? E8'< 9he #irl &ho #'4e the boo/ to 1ill is y sister% E>b< U9he #irl #'4e the boo/ to 1ill is y sister%

it is not possible( 2or e7' ple( to '/e the 4erb the He'd o2 ' 5le2t 5onstru5tion% Ho&e4er( there is 'n 'ltern'ti4e &'y o2 2o5usin# on 5onstituents( &hi5h is 'ppli5'ble to 4erbs 'nd their Co ple ents% For e7' ple?

E9'< E9b<

$t is I'ne &ho #'4e the boo/ to 1ill% $t is I'ne 0 #'4e the boo/ to 1ill%

-ee 'lso )%+%"%,% 9he te7t belo& illustr'tes the use o2 5le2t senten5es% identi2y the 5le2t senten5es in the te7t% 9ry to re&rite the te7t &ithout the 5le2t senten5es% Te.t 3.'.1 .et no one 5'n 5l'i th't sin5e then !'bour3s di22i5ulties h'4e di inished 8 in 2'5t they h'4e in5re'sed 'nd ultiplied% $t &'s Mr% Foot &ho presided o4er( 'nd in 2'5t p'rtly pre5ipit'ted( the de2e5tion o2 ,0 !'bour M*s to the -D* 8 the bi##est split in !'bour3s history sin5e 19,1G it &'s Mr% Foot &ho tried 'nd 2'iled to in5lude Mr% 1enn in ' unity en5' p ent o2 the p'rty 8 ' 2'ilure o2 su5h di ensions th't ;ust o4er 1+ onths '#o he es5'ped by the erest h'ir3s bre'dth 2ro h'4in# hi 2oisted on hi 's his o&n deputyG it is Mr% Foot &ho( h'4in# st'ted l'st 'utu n th't there &ould be so ethin# 3in5onsistent3 'bout '5ti4e Milit'nt 9end'n5y supporters st'ndin# 's !'bour 5'ndid'tes( no& #i4es e4ery indi5'tion o2 '5Auies5in# in ei#ht or nine o2 the doin# e7'5tly th't% ;bser2er, 2& Febru'ry 198,% i l l! SE5D6#0LE7TING 5 $ '/in# 5le'r &h't you 're 2o5usin# on( but

8.9.' Cle2tin# is ' use2ul &'y o2

15+ Processes

Processes 15, E"< M'ry 'y buy her &eddin# dress in !ondon 'nd

E10< E11<

Wh't I'ne did &'s #i4e the boo/ to 1ill on -'turd'y% Wh't the &'iter did &'s open the beer8tins 2irst%

-he 'nd it 're person'l pronouns E52% +%)%+%+<G then is 'n 'd4erb repl'5in# ' ti e Ad;un5t% (he, it 'nd then 're e7' ples o2 pro82or s% $nterro#'ti4e pronouns 60ho, 0hat, 0hich8 'nd interro#'ti4e 'd4erbs Esu5h 's 0hen, 0here, 0hy, ho08 're 'lso used to repl'5e 5onstituents% 9'/e( 2or e7' ple? E,< Wh't did 1ill3s sister 'nnoun5e the d'y be2ore yesterd'y= 9he 'ns&er to this &h8Auestion 'y be? 9he ne&s o2 her 'rri'#e3% 9he 2or 'tion o2 su5h Auestions h's been dis5ussed in )%+%)% We h'4e seen

We 2o5us on the :* #i4e the hoo4 to )ill on (aturday, or open the beer!tins "irst by puttin# it senten5e82in'lly 'nd pl'5in# the strin#? 0hat *P/(u did &'s %%% be2ore it% 9his pro5ess is 5'lled (seudo-clefting& -o e ore e7' ples? E1+< Wh't 1ill &ill do is ha2e a Huic4 sho0er be"ore he lea2es.

E1,< E1)<

Wh't Anne did &'s open the bo. and ta4e out the gun. Wh't $ ' doin# is trying to clear up this mess.

*seudo85le2tin# is not only used 2or 2o5usin# on the :* 's ' &hole% @ther 5onstituents 5'n 'lso be 2o5used on by pseudo85le2tin#% For e7' ple? E15'< $ need ' 5i#'rette 'nd ' drin/ ost 't this ti e o2 the d'y%

E15b<
drin4.

Wh't I need most at this time o" the day is a cigarette and a

%hat ... day in E15b< is ' 2ree rel'ti4e 5l'use E)%+%"%5< 2un5tionin# 's -ub;e5t% $t 'y 'lso be ' Co ple ent E*5<?

E155<
day.

A 5i#'rette 'nd ' drin/ is 0hat I need most at this time o" the

!./ SUBSTITUTION BY PROAFORMS We h'4e seen th't 5onstituents 's ' &hole 'y 't ti es be repl'5ed by substitute 2or s( 'lso 5'lled (ro-forms& Consider? E1< 1ill3s sister 'nnoun5ed the ne&s o2 her yesterd'y% 'rri'#e the d'y be2ore

$n this senten5e the N* )ill s sister may be repl'5ed by sheG the ne0s o" her marriage by it5 the day be"ore yesterday by then9 E+< K- K-heL K( G*'nnoun5ed KitL KthenL L;

th't &h8pronouns 'lso ser4e to introdu5e rel'ti4e 5l'uses E5l'uses &hi5h post odi2y the He'd o2 'n N*<( 's in? E)< 9he #irl &ho 'nnoun5ed the ne&s &'s I'ne% 9his o55urren5e o2% &ho is 'lso \ pro82or % Re'd te7t )%" belo& 5're2ully% $denti2y 'll the pro82or s 'nd try to de5ide &h't 5onstituent e'5h pro82or is e'nt to repl'5e%

Te.t 3.$ 3.ou p'&ned your 'unt3s broo5h=3 3.es%3 And th't ende'red you to her=3 3$ &ill e7pl'in 'll th't l'ter% Me'n&hile( let e be#in 't the be#innin#% H'4e you e4er run '5ross ' 'n n' ed Ioe the !'&yer=3 FNo%3 -tout 2ello& &ith ' 2'5e li/e ' h'##is%3 3$34e ne4er et hi %3 Ende'4our not to do so( Cor/y% $ h'te to spe'/ ill o2 y 2ello& 'n( but Ioe the !'&yer is not honest%3 3Wh't does he do= *'&n people3s broo5hes=3 D/rid#e 'd;usted the #in#er8beer &ire th't held his pin5e8ne6 to his 2l'ppin# e'rs 'nd loo/ed &ounded% 9his is s5'r5ely the tone $ li/e to he'r in 'n old 2riend( Cor/y% When $ re'5h th't point in y story( you &ill see th't y p'&nin# o2 Aunt Iuli'3s broo5h &'s ' per2e5tly nor 'l( str'i#ht2or&'rd 'tter o2 business% Ho& else 5ould $ h'4e bou#ht h'l2 the do#=3 H'l2 &h't do#=3 3Didn3t $ tell you 'bout the do#=3 No%3 $ ust h'4e done% $t3s the nub o2 the &hole '22'ir%3 FWell( you didn3t%3 *%G% Wodehouse( Oord #rns0orth and ;thers. Another i port'nt repl'5i4e de4i5e &hi5h 'y be used to '4oid repetition is the strin# do so, 's in? E5< M'ry bou#ht her &eddin# dress in !ondon 'nd so did I'ne% 9he strin# do so substitutes 2or the :* bought her 0edding dress in Oondon. $2 the :* 5ont'ins 'u7ili'ries( these 'y 'lso be used 's substitutes 2or the entire :*? 'ne may too so may I'ne #

15) Processes Processes 1'' E,< E)< E5<

-us'n &ill sin# ' son# or Eshe8< &ill pl'y the pi'no% 1ill 'rri4ed 't ei#ht but Ehe< h'd to le'4e i 'y 'lre'dy h'4e le2t 'nd NAnne may ha2e too so may Anne edi'tely%

E><

-us'n

Find repl'5i4e uses o2 do or o2 other 'u7ili'ries in te7t )%"% $t is( o2 5ourse( possible to re&rite the te7t 'bo4e( supplyin# 2or e'5h pro82or the ele ents it repl'5es% Ho&e4er( this &ould '/e the te7t repetitious 'nd o4er8e7pli5it? there &ould be ' #re't de'l o2 redund'nt in2or 'tion% $t is ' 'tter o2 e5ono y to use substitute 2or s 2or ele ents or in2or 'tion 'lre'dy /no&n to the re'der or he'rer%

! . 7 ELLIPSIS $t is not ;ust pro82or s th't 're used to e5ono ise in l'n#u'#e% For e7' ple( spe'/ers o2ten redu5e redund'n5y by lea2ing out super2luous in2or 'tion( i%e% in2or 'tion &hi5h 5'n e'sily be re5o4ered 2ro the situ'tion or the 5onte7t% 9his pheno enon is 5'lled ellipsis% Ellipti5'l senten5es depend 2or their interpret'tion on &h't pre5edes the in dis5ourse% 9hus( in? E1< A? When did -us'n le'4e= 1? +t t0o o cloc4. We 'y 'ssu e th't in the Fresponse senten5e3 Eit'li5ised< the strin# -us'n le"t h's been o itted% $n the se5tions belo& &e sh'll loo/ 't so e e7' ples o2 ellipsis in En#lish% 8.=./ S5C@E0T DELETI6N Consider the 2ollo&in# senten5e? E+< D/rid#e 'd;usted the #in#er8beer &ire th't held his pin5e8ne6 to his 2l'ppin# e'rs 'nd loo/ed &ounded% 9he senten5e is 5o pound85o ple7? it 5ont'ins t&o 5oordin'ted 5l'uses( the se5ond o2 &hi5h is loo4ed 0ounded, but this is in5o plete 's it st'nds? loo4ed 0ounded is ' :* &ithout N*J-u% C'n you supply the issin# -ub;e5t= $ntuiti4ely( &e /no& th't the -ub;e5t o2 loo4ed 0ounded ust ,e L4ridge, or he9 ... and he loo4ed 0ounded. $t is 5h'r'5teristi5 o2 5l'uses 5oordin'ted by and or 'nd but th't the -ub;e5t o2 the se5ond 5l'use 'y be deleted i2 it is 5o8re2erenti'l to the -ub;e5t o2 the 2irst 5l'use E52% +%+%+<% @ther e7' ples 're? Iohn s't do&n 'nd Ehe< told us the ne&s%

8,=.' $E:C GA ING AND CA0K+A:D GA ING $n )%>%1 &e h'4e seen ho& the se5ond o2 t&o identi5'l -ub;e5t N*s 'y he deleted in 5oordin'te 5l'uses% -i il'rly( ' 4erb 'y he o itted i2 it is identi5'l &ith ' pre5edin# 4erb? E"< Iohn 0as eating 5orn2l'/es 'nd M'ry 0as eating porrid#e% $n 6$8 0as eating is repe'ted( but it 'y be deleted?

F.ou p'&ned your 'unt3s broo5h=3 F.es3

E><

Iohn &'s e'tin# 5orn2l'/es 'nd M'ry 888 porrid#e%

9his /ind o2 deletion is 5'lled 4erb #'ppin#% Note th't you 5'n only #'p o4er 'd;'5ent 5l'uses?

E8<

Iohn 0as 0riting 'n ess'y( 1ill 0as reading a no4el 'nd Anne ' short story%

$n E8< the #'pped : in the third 5l'use ust be 0as reading5 it 5'nnot be 0as 0riting. !et us loo/ 't 'nother e7' ple &ith su5h p'r'llelis s? E9< Iohn li/ed the 2il 'bout G'ndhi% 'bout G'ndhi 'nd M'ry disli/ed the 2il

Here the : di22ers( but the N*J@d is identi5'l? the "ilm about @handi. We 5'n repl'5e E9< by E10<? E10< Iohn li/ed( 'nd M'ry disli/ed( the 2il 'bout G'ndhi% -enten5e E10< is 'n e7' ple o2 #'ppin# in re4erse? the N*J@d is deleted in the 2irst 5l'use in 'nti5ip'tion o2 the identi5'l N*J@d in the se5ond 5l'use% 9his pro5esses 5'lled b'5/&'rd #'ppin#% Further e7' ples? E11< M'ry &rote( 'nd -us'n typed out( the ess'y%

E1+< E1,<

Ii

e'rned( 'nd his &i2e spent( the

oney%

M'ry bou#ht( 'nd *eter i

edi'tely sold( the sh'res%

Ap'rt 2ro redu5in# redund'n5ies Eidenti5'l @b;e5t N*s<( the pro5ess o2 b'5/&'rd #'ppin# 'lso thro&s li#ht on the 5ontr'st bet&een the 4erbs in the 5l'uses% 9he pro5ess o2 #'ppin# is not senten5e8bound? its do 'in is not restri5ted to one 5l'useJsenten5e( but 'lso in4ol4es the i edi'te 5on8te7t? it is dis5ourse8bound% 8.=.( 6THE: EXA; LES Consider?

E1"<

15" Processes Here Ces is ' reply to the Auestion F.ou p'&ned your 'unt3s broo5h=3% Ces e'ns F.es( $ p'&ned y 'unt3s broo5h3% Re'd throu#h te7t )%" on5e ore 'nd obser4e th't Ces 'nd No 'ns&ers 'l&'ys rel'te to entire senten5es in the pre5edin# 5onte7t% !et us no& loo/ 't the strin#? E1)< -tout 2ello& &ith ' 2'5e li/e ' h'##is% 9his is 'n N* E52% te7t )%" 'bo4e<% Wh't is its stru5ture= $2 &e try to 2it this N* into the 2r' e 5h'r'5teristi5 o2 N*s( &e sh'll 2ind th't it 5ont'ins no deter iner% Co p're it( 2or e7' ple( &ith?

9 NONAFINITE CLAUSESD RAISING AND

CONTROL

9./ INT:6D50TI6N in the pre5edin# 5h'pters &e h'4e seen th't senten5es 'y be e bedded inside other senten5es% $n E1<( 2or e7' ple( there is 'n @b;e5t 5l'use E-< inside 'n -? -1. Ks K(p9he :i5'rL K4(s'id Ksth't Kse4il 5o uni5'tions 5orrupted #ood 'nnersL L L L

E15<
-pe5 Det 9he

9he h'ndso e poli5e 'n &ith the sun8#l'sses% *re od Ad;* h'ndso e He'd N poli5e ' n 2ello& *ost od / ** &ith the sun8#l'sses &ith ' 2'5e li/e ' h'##is

$n E1< - is ' 2inite 5l'use% Ho&e4er( subordin'te 5l'uses 're not 'l&'ys 2inite% Co p're E+'< 'nd E+"<?

E+'< E+b<

-in5e "ello0 is ' sin#ul'r 5ount'ble N( &e e7pe5t there to be ' deter iner% For e7' ple? E1>< U9here is stout 2ello& &ith ' be'rd in the other roo % 9he deter iner h's been ellipted in E1)<? &e 5'n reinsert it Auite e'sily? E$-< A stout 2ello& &ith ' 2'5e li/e ' h'##is%

9he :i5'r belie4ed that e2il communications corrupted good manners. 9he :i5'r belie4ed e2il communications to corrupt good

manners. $n E+'< there is ' 2inite subordin'te 5l'use( 's in E1<% $n E+b< the subordin'te 5l'use is non82inite? its :* 5ont'ins ' to8in2initi4e% 9he 2un5tion o2 @b;e5t 'y 'lso he re'iised by ' 5l'use 5ont'inin# ' :* &ith ' b're in2initi4e( 'n !ing p'rti5iple or 'n !ed p'rti5iple? E,< $ he'rd ,ary sing carols.

$n te7t )%" the N* E&ithout ' Det< is used 's ' senten5e( be#innin# &ith ' 5'pit'l letter 'nd endin# &ith ' 2ull stop% 9his is% o2 5ourse( not in line &ith &h't &e h'4e s'id 'bout the stru5ture o2 senten5es? our *- rules pres5ribe 4ery ri#idly? - 8 N * 8 8 : * 'nd N*88tDet8N% Ho& do &e re5on5ile these rules &ith the e7' ple= A#'in &e sh'll &'nt to s'y th't the -ub;e5t N* 'nd the 4erb'l p'rt o2 :* h'4e been ellipted% We interpret the N* 's i2 it h'd the 2ollo&in# underlyin# stru5ture? E19< EHe is '< stout 2ello& &ith ' 2'5e li/e ' h'##is%

E)< E5<

$ he'rd ,ary singing carols. They 2ound their house occupied by sHuatters.

Fin'lly( 'n @b;e5t 5l'use 'y 'lso be 4erbless? in su5h 5'ses there is ' predi5'te rel'tionship bet&een the 5l'use ele ents? E"< $ 5onsider him guilty o" this crime. $n this 5h'pter &e sh'll loo/ ore 5're2ully 't the stru5ture o2 senten5es &ith subordin'te non82inite 5l'uses% 9.' 7INITE AND N6N#7INITE 0LA5SES ".2.1 INTRODUCTION

Re'd tent 5%+%1% $denti2y the 5o ple7 senten5es% Dr'& up ' list o2 5o ple7 15>

The hoo2

leprosy 5urse re'lly e7isted% 1ut people do not belie4e these thin#s to be re'l% 9hey 're thou#ht to be '5ts o2 i '#in'tion% $ used e ory 'nd sho&ed th't e ory &or/s% 1ut $ #ot one thin# &ron# in the boo/G 'nd $ &ish $ h'd not #ot it &ron#? th't &'s the Dyer in5ident( $ &rote th't Dyer 5o 'nded only &hite troops% $n 2'5t( there &ere $ndi'n troops too% Gener'l Dyer told his troops to 2ire on 'n un'r ed 5ro&d in the streets% $ did not intend the boo/ to be t'/en 's 'n or'5le boo/ either% $n 2'5t( people 2eel li/e th't 'bout the boo/( ho&e4er% 9he politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/ &ere intended to re4e'l 'ny thin#s &hi5h h'd been 2'lsi2ied% 9here see ed to e7ist ' 5onspir'5y in the 5ountry% *eople pre2erred 4ery u5h 2or these thin#s to be 2or#otten% 9he pro5ess o2 &ritin# &'s 4ery 5onsu in#% -o eti es $ thou#ht th't $ &'s 'd% $t &'s su5h 'n irr'tion'l '5t 2or e to be &ritin# ' hoo/ on this sub;e5t% Most o2 the ti e $ thou#ht it &ould not be published% Ad'pted 2ro :ogue, De5e ber 198+% 9.'.' 7INITE S5C6:DINATE 0LA5SES 9e7t 5%+%1 'bo4e 5ont'ins the 2ollo&in# senten5e? E1< 9he boo/ sho&s ho& 5hildren belie4e they 're responsible 2or e4erythin# in their li4es%

& (% *hildren !elie1e

CON1P ho N

Si

3P that $

158 *on!"inite -lauses senten5es &ith "inite @b;e5t 5l'uses( 'nd one o2 senten5es &ith non! "inite @b;e5t 5l'uses% Te.t '.2.1 $t be5' e 5le'r to e th't8 $ &'nted to &rite ' hoo4 b'sed on y 5hild8hood in 1o b'y% $2 you &'nt to &rite boo/s 'bout your 5hildhood( you ust de4elop so e sort o2 str't'#e % $ de5ided to t'/e ' 5hild3s 4ie& o2 the &orld% 9he boo/ sho&s ho& 5hildren belie4e they 're responsible 2or e4ery8thin# in their li4es% $ &'nted to re5ount y 5hildhood in th't &'y% 1ut $ did not &ish the boo/ to be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'% @2 5ourse( there is 'l&'ys the proble o2 4erisi ilitude? e4eryone thin/s th't you 're &ritin# str'i#ht 2ro li2e% 9hey 'll belie4e your p'rents &ere re'lly li/e th't% $n 2'5t( the house $ li4ed in &'s li/e the house in the boo/% 9he 5lo5/ to&er is still thereG the ser4'nt &ith the

1r'5/et the 'in 5onstituents in E1<% $s 2he senten5e si ple( 5o pound or 5o ple7= Wh't is the @d o2 sho0s1 $n E1< the @d is re'lised by ' &h8 5l'use% 9he &h8ele ent ho0 o55urs in C@M*% 9he subordin'te 5l'use itsel2 is 'lso 5o ple7? it 5ont'ins 'nother @b;e5t 5l'use? the @d o2 belie2e is?

*on!"inite -lauses 159 E+< KsEth't< Ksthey 're responsible 2or e4erythin# in their 'y be represented 's in

E5< the se5ond @b;e5t 5l'use? o2 belie2e9 (,.

An'lyse the 2ollo&in# senten5es 2ro te7t 5%+%1 in the s' e &'y 's E1< 'bo4e? use ' tree di'#r' E52% E+<< 'nd l'belled br'5/ets E52% E,<<? E4eryone thin/s th't you 're &ritin# str'i#ht 2ro li2e% 9hey 'll belie4e your p'rents &ere re'lly li/e th't%

li4esL L 9he stru5ture o2 senten5e E1< E+< or E,<? E+< s( N & -P T;sNA# C s

'6OPs 1T ; s N N 06; OI the,

s /

, ~v

N are AZN

X
Tnst$

A5LP

/N res3onsi!le ror e1er,thing in their li1es Ksl13he boo/ K(psho&s KGHho& K(( (5hildren K4pbelie4e K3GEth't< Ks,they K(p're responsible 2or e4erythin# in their li4esLLLLLLL( Goin# 2ro nodes? top to botto in tree di'#r' E+< you &ill 2ind three -

E'< the 'in 5l'use? -( Eb< the 2irst @b;e5t 5l'use? o2 sho&s? -(

... 'nd E$< sho&ed th't

Non-finite Clauses e ory &or/s% 'nded only &hite troops% -o eti es $

Eb< 9he :* o2 E1+'< is 2initeG th't o2 E1+b< is non82inite% E5< $2 &e insert ' pronoun in the -ub;e5t position o2 'n e bedded
2inite 5l'use( the pronoun &ill t'/e the -ub;e5t 2or ? E1,'< $ did not &ish th't they/she/he/it should %%% 1ut i2 &e use ' pronoun 's the -ub;e5t o2 ' non82inite 5l'use( the pronoun

% 'nd $ &ish $ h'd not #ot it &ron#% $ &rote th't Dyer 5o thou#ht th't $ &'s 'd%

Most o2 the ti e $ thou#ht it &ould not be published%

Wh't senten5es E)<8E10< h'4e in 5o on is th't the superordin'te 4erb in e'5h 5'se 6sho0, belie2e, thin4, 0ish, et5%< t'/es ' 2inite 5l'use 's @d% Finite 5l'uses 'l&'ys h'4e 'n e7pli5it -ub;e5t% We 'lso see th't the subordin'tor that 'y so eti es be deleted E52% E1<( E5<( E><( E10<<% 5 % + % , N@N8F$N$9E -D1@RD$NA9E C!AD-E- W$9H !ET$CA! -D1IEC9No& 5o p're E l l ' < 'nd Ell b<? E1 l'< 1ut $ did not &ish Eth't< the boo/ should be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'% E l l b < 1ut $ did not &ish E2or< the hoo/ to be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'% 1r'5/et the 'in 5onstituents in E1l'< 'nd E ll b<% Noti5e th't 0ish t'/es ' 5l'use 's its @d in both e7' ples( but in E1 l'< the @b;e5t 5l'use is 2inite E52% 5%+%+<( &hile in El lb< it is non82inite% $n E1+'< 'nd E1+b< &e sho& ho& the senten5es in E11< should be br'5/eted? E1+'< K K $L K did not &ish K 2 th'tR 9 `1 P VP o

K the boo/ should be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'LL s E1+h< K K $L K did not &ish KH 2 2orR 9 /#& VP $ o K the boo/ to be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'L L L L s 9he subordin'te 5l'uses in E1+'< 'nd E1+b< di22er in se4er'l respe5ts? E'< 9he 2inite subordin'te 5l'use in E1+'< is introdu5ed by the 5o ple 8 entiser that in -;,P. That is option'l E52% 0< % 9he non82inite sub8ordin'te 5l'use in E1+b< is introdu5ed by the 5o ple entiser "or, &hi5h is option'l%

*on!"inite -lauses 1"1 &ill t'/e the @b;e5t82or ? E1,h< $ did not &ish E2or< them/him/her/it to %%% 1y 'n'lo#y( the boo4 in E1+'< is 'ssu ed to be in the -ub;e5t 2or ( 'nd the boo4 in E1+b< in the @b;e5t 2or % An'lyse the 2ollo&in# senten5es( 'll t'/en 2ro te7t 5%+%1( in the s' e &'y 's E l l b < 'bo4e( usin# both the tree di'#r' represent'tion 'nd the l'belled br'5/ets not'tion? E1)< *eople pre2erred 4ery u5h 2or these thin#s to be 2or#otten%

$n E1>'< the non82inite 5l'use is the -uG in E1>b< it is 'n e7tr'posed -u( lin/ed to the -ub;e5t position by it 6su8 E52% Ch'pter )<% $n E1>< the non82inite 5l'uses 're '#'in introdu5ed by "or in C@M*( but "or is not delet'ble here% E18'< UMe to be &ritin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5t &'s 'n irr'tion'l '5t%

E18b<
sub;e5t%

U$t &'s 'n irr'tion'l '5t

e to be &ritin# ' boo/ on this

E15< E1"<

$ did not intend the boo/ to be t'/en 's 'n or'5le% 1ut people do not belie4e these thin#s to be re'l%

Repl'5e the non82inite 5l'uses by their 2inite 5ounterp'rts% 9he 5o ple entiser "or in E1)< is obli#'tory( &hile it is option'l in E15<? "or 'y be inserted% Ho&e4er( the non82inite @b;e5t 5l'use in E1"< 5'nnot t'/e "or9 E1"'< U1ut people do not belie4e 2or these thin#s to be re'l% @n the b'sis o2 these e7' ples &e 5'n dr'& the 2ollo&in# 5on5lusions? E'< -o e 4erbs( li/e pre"er, t'/e non82inite 5l'uses &ith the 5o ple8 entiser "or5 others( su5h 's belie2e, t'/e non82inite 5l'uses &ithout "or. $n the l'tter 5'se the C@M* o2 the non82inite 5l'use is e pty? E1"b< 1ut people do not belie4e K# Ksthese thin#s to be re'lL L Eb< 9he 5o ple entiser "or 'y be deleted i2 it is i edi'tely pre5eded by ' : su5h 's pre"er. $2 pre"er Eor ' si il'r : 'llo&in# "or8 is sep'r'ted 2ro the 5o ple entiser by inter4enin# 'teri'l E2or e7' ple by 'n Ad;un5t<( then "or is no lon#er delet'ble E52% E1)< 'bo4e<% 9he non82inite 5l'uses dis5ussed 'bo4e 'll o55ur 's Co ple ents o2 :sG they 're 'll @b;e5t 5l'uses% Non82inite 5l'uses 'y 'lso be -ub;e5ts? E1>'< For e to be &ritin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5t &'s 'n irr'tion'l '5t%

E1>b<
sub;e5t%

$t &'s 'n irr'tion'l '5t 2or

e to be &ritin# ' boo/ on this

1"+ *on!"inite -lauses *on!"inite -lauses 1$3

" . 2 . ! NONAFINITE CLAUSES WITHOUT LEXICAL SUB0ECTS No& 5onsider E19'< 'nd E19b< belo&% Wh't is the di22eren5e bet&een the = E19'< $ did not &ish E2or< the boo/ to be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'%

ust be 2iltered out% 9he 5o ple entiser "or ust not i edi'tely pre5ede to. 9he rule &hi5h dis'llo&s the strin# "or ... to is ore #ener'l th'n sho&n 'bo4e% 9'/e( 2or e7' ple( the senten5e?

E19b<

$ did not &ish to &rite ' 2' ily s'#'%

1oth 5l'uses h'4e 'n e bedded @b;e5t 5l'use( 'nd in e'5h 5'se the e bedded 5l'use is non82inite% $n E19'< the -ub;e5t o2 the e bedded 5l'use is le7i5'lly re'lised by 'n N*( the boo45 the 5o ple entiser "or is option'l% $n E19b<( on the other h'nd( the e bedded 5l'use l'5/s an o4ert -ub;e5t% 9he -ub;e5t position is not le7i5'lly 2illed( 'nd &e sh'll indi5'te this by p'rentheses E <% Further ore( the C@M* in E19b< ust not be 2illed by "or9

E195<

U$ did not &ish 2or to &rite ' 2' ily s'#'% 9he $ did not
E<

stru5ture o2 E19b< is indi5'ted in E+0<? E+0< &ish K5 K- K(%(to &rite ' 2' ily s'#'L L L

Wh't does E19b< e'n= @2 5ourse( it e'ns F$ did not &ish th't $ should &rite ' 2' ily s'#'3% E < in E+0< is to be interpreted 's We sh'll s'y th't the non8le7i5'l -ub;e5t position E < is controlled by the -ub;e5t o2 the hi#her 5l'use% We return to 5ontrol in 5%)% $t is not ;ust non82inite @b;e5t 5l'uses th't 'y be l'5/in# 'n o4ert le7i5'l -ub;e5t% -ub;e5t 5l'uses( too( 'y h'4e ' non8re'lised -ub;e5t? E+1'< 9o be &ritin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5t &'s irr'tion'l% Elib< $t &'s irr'tion'l to be &ritin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5t% '.2.' D;R ... T; FILTER Co p're E+1'< 'nd E+1b< &ith E1>'< 'nd E1>b<% @bser4e th't there is no o4ert -ub;e5t in the e bedded 5l'uses o2 E+l'< 'nd E+1b<( &hile there is one in the e bedded 5l'uses o2 E1>'< 'nd E1>b<% We 'ssi#n the -ub;e5t 5l'use o2 E+l'< the 2ollo&in# stru5ture? E++< Ks0 KsE < K4eto be &ritin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5tL L L

As in E19b<( the 5o ple entiser "or is not 'llo&ed to o55ur here% $n other &ords( the strin# K5o Mp2or E < toL is not 'llo&ed in En#lish? it

E+,'< .ou &ished 2or &hi5h boo/ to be5o e '

su55ess= $2 &h8 o4e ent 'pplies to this senten5e &e 'rri4e at E+,b<? E,b<

'ny thin#sL L L L K5 Ktip9he politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/L K4p&ere intended K5 K5888 to re4e'l 'ny thin#sL L L L

E+,b< UWhi5h boo/ did you &ish 2or 888 to be5o e ' su55ess=
but E+,b< is un#r' 'ti5'l( sin5e it 5ont'ins the strin# "or ... to5 "or ust be deleted? E+,5< Whi5h boo/ did you &ish to be5o e ' su55ess= -ee 'lso )%+%8% 5 % , RA$-$NG ".3.1 RAISING WITH PASSI#E #ERBS Consider El'< 'nd Elb<? El'< $ intended E2or< the politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/ to re4e'l 'ny thin#s% Elb< 9he politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/ &ere intended to re4e'l 'ny thin#s% 9he hi#her 5l'use in El'< is '5ti4e 61 intended85 th't in Elb< is p'ssi4e 60ere intended8. $n El'< the N* the political parrs o" the boo4 'ppe'rs 's the -u o2 the e bedded -? E+< K5$ intended K5 K- K%pthe politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/L K4p%%%

$n Elb< the N* the political parts o" the boo4 is the N*J-u o2 the hi#her 5l'use? it is the -ub;e5t o" 0ere intended E'pply the tests 2or -ub;e5t8hood des5ribed in ,%,%1 to 4eri2y this 5l'i < Further ore( it &ould see th't the e bedded - in Elb<( to re2eal many thin#s( l'5/s 'n o4ert -ub;e5t% Elb< is the p'ssi4e 5ounterp'rt o2 El'<% *'ssi4is'tion results in the suppression o2 the ori#in'l -ub;e5t o2 intend 6I8, 'nd the le2t&'rd o4e ent o2 the -u o2 the e bedded non8 2inite 5l'use Ethe political parts o" the boo48, &hi5h is no& pl'5ed in the -u8position o2 the hi#her 5l'use( le'4in# ' #'p 't its ori#in'l position? E,'< K-$ K4pintended K5 Ksthe politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/s to re4e'l

1") *on!"inite -lauses *on!"inite -lauses 1$'

A#'in "or ust not be present in E,b<( sin5e this &ould result in ' strin# "or to. !et us loo/ ore 5losely 't the properties o2 the N* the political parts o" the boo4 in E,b<% We h'4e seen th't it is the #r' 'ti5'l -ub;e5t o2 the hi#her p'ssi4e 4erb 60ere intended8. -e5ondly( it is 'lso rel'ted to the -ub;e5t position in the e bedded 5l'use? &e 5l'i th't p'ssi4is'tion tri##ers o4e ent o2 the N*J-u out o2 the e bedded 5l'use into the hi#her 5l'use( le'4in# ' #'p 888% We sh'll s'y th't the N*J-u o2 the hi#her 5l'use hinds the -ub;e5t position E ore spe5i2i5'lly the #'p< in the lo&er 5l'use( in the s' e &'y th't 'n 'nte5edent N* binds ' re2le7i4e pro8noun E52% +%)%+%+<% 9he oper'tion o2 o4in# ' -ub;e5t out o2 ' non82inite 5l'use into the -ub;e5t position o2 the ne7t 5l'use up is 5'lled r'isin#% !et us return on5e ore to E,b< 'bo4e 'nd 5onsider one 2urther proble % We /no& th't the 2un5tion o2 the N* the political parts o" the hoo4 is th't o2 -u o2 the hi#her 5l'use% No& &h't is the 2un5tion o2 the e bedded non82inite -? Ks888 to re2eal many thingsN1 $t is ob4iously not the -ub;e5t o2 0ere intended, thou#h it is rel'ted to the -ub;e5t by the #'p 888% -tru5tur'lly the non82inite 5l'use 'ppe'rs in the position o2 ' :erb Co ple ent( p'r'llel to 'n @b;e5t 5l'use E52% E,'<<% $t i#ht thus be ;usti2ied to tre't the 5l'use 's ' Fret'ined3 @b;e5t 5l'use? the non8 2inite 5l'use is ' re n'nt o2 the ori#in'l @b;e5t 5l'use% *'ssi4is'tion in this 5'se does not '22e5t the &hole @b;e5t 5l'use( but only the -ub;e5t o2 the @b;e5t 5l'use( le'4in# the rest o2 the 5l'use in its ori#in'l position 2ollo&in# the 4erb in the hi#her 5l'use% 9he p'ssi4es o2 4erbs su5h 's intend, thin4, e.pect, say et5% 'll tri##er r'isin# o2 ' N*J-u 2ro 'n e bedded non82inite -( 's 5'n be seen in the 2ollo&in# e7' ples? 9hey 're thou#ht to be '5ts o2 the i '#in'tion% Iohn is e7pe5ted to be b'5/ soon% 9hey 're s'id to be le'4in# 't d'&n% Anne &'s 2ound to be #uilty o2 hi#h tre'son% 9his &'s 2elt to be the only solution% -he &'s 5onsidered to be the best pl'yer in the te' % M'ry &'s seen to ste'l the oney%

Dse d'shes 888 to 'r/ the ori#in'l position o2 the -ub;e5t N*s in E)<8 E10< 'bo4e% $t is 4ery i port'nt to obser4e th't the #'p le2t '2ter o4e ent 5'nnot be 2illed by 'nother le7i5'l ele ent% Co p're the e7' ples in E11< 'nd E1+<?

E11'< 9he politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/ &ere intended 888 to re4e'l thin#s%

'ny

".3.2 RAISING WITH INTRANSITI#E #ERBS AND WITH AD0ECTI#ES $n 5%,%1 &e h'4e #i4en e7' ples o2 r'isin# tri##ered by p'ssi4e r'isin# 4erbs?

El lb< UP9he politi5'l p'rts o2 the boo/ &ere intended 4'rious 5h'pters to re4e'l 'ny thin#s% E1+'< Who did the terrorists 'ss'ssin'te 888=

E1+b< UWho did the terrorists 'ss'ssin'te the ' b'ss'dor= EC2%
)%+%)%1< Co p're 'lso E1,'< 'nd E1,b<?

E1,'< A 5onspir'5y &'s belie4ed to e7ist in the 5ountry% E1,b< 9here &'s belie4ed to e7ist ' 5onspir'5y in the 5ountry%
$n E1,'< the -ub;e5t position o2 the 'in 5l'use is o55upied by the N* a conspiracy. +s in the e7' ples dis5ussed 'bo4e( this -ub;e5t N* h's been r'ised out o2 the e bedded 5l'use( le'4in# ' #'p?

E1)'<

K(*A 5onspir'5yL &'s belie4ed KG Ks888 K((((to e7ist in the 5ountryL L L

$n E1,b< the GF o2 -u in the 'in 5l'use is re'lised by there. We sh'll 'ssu e( '#'in( th't there ori#in'tes in the lo&er 5l'use 's the -ub;e5t o2 e.ist, 'nd h's been o4ed into the 'in 5l'use -ub;e5t position?

E1)b<

9here &'s belie4ed K(Ks888to e7ist ' 5onspir'5y in the 5ountryL L

There hinds the #'p E888< in the subordin'te 5l'use% We h'4e seen be2ore E)%)%,< th't there 5'n only 2un5tion 's the -ub;e5t o2 e7istenti'l senten5es% $n E1)b< &e see th't su5h ' -ub;e5t o2 ' non82inite e7istenti'l senten5e 'y 'lso be r'ised% -o 2'r &e h'4e 5on5entr'ted on r'isin# 2ro non82inite 5l'uses &ith to!in2initi4es% 9he pro5ess 'lso 'pplies( ho&e4er( to 5l'uses &ith p'rti5iples in !ing 'nd !ed, 'nd to 4erbless 5l'uses E52% 5%1<? E15< M'ry &'s he'rd sin#in# 5'rols%

E1"< E1><

9heir house &'s 2ound o55upied by sAu'tters% He &'s 5onsidered inno5ent%

M'r/ the 4'5'ted -ub;e5t position in the subordin'te 5l'uses in E15<( E1"< 'nd E1>< by 88

there r'isin# 888 to beJe7istJ %%%

1$$ *on!"inite -lauses E18< Iohn is belie4ed b Ks888 to h'4e le2t 'lre'dyLL 9he p'ttern in E18< 5'n 'lso be 2ound &ith non8p'ssi4e( intr'nsiti4e 4erbs? E19< Iohn see s to h'4e dis'ppe'red% E19< 5orresponds to E+0<? E+0< $t see s th't Iohn h's dis'ppe'red% $n 62G8 /ohn is the -ub;e5t o2 the e bedded 2inite 5l'use that /ohn has disappeared $t8e7tr'position is obli#'tory here? U That /ohn has disappeared seems. $n E19< &e 'lso &'nt to rel'te /ohn to the -ub;e5t position o2 the sub8 ordin'te non82inite 5l'use% 9his 5'n be done i2 &e 'ssu e E's in E18<< th't the N* /ohn ori#in'tes 's the -ub;e5t o2 the subordin'te 5l'use 'nd is then r'ised to the -ub;e5t position o2 the 'in 5l'use?

A#'in &e 'y 's/ &h't the GF is o2 the non82inite - '55o p'nyin# seem in E19<% @n the one h'nd it is li/e ' -ub;e5t 5l'use( in th't it p'r'llels ' 2inite e7tr'posed 8VJsu E52% E+0<<% @n the other h'nd it is not the N*J-u o2 seem, sin5e the -ub;e5t position o2 this : is o55upied by 'n N* 6/ohn in E19< <( &hi5h h's been r'ised out o2 the non82inite 5l'use% A#'in( &e i#ht 5'll 888 to ha2e disappeared a Fret'ined3 5l'useG in this 5'se( it is the re 'inder o2 the ori#in'l non82inite -ub;e5t 5l'use( 2ro &hi5h the N*J-u h's been o4ed%

E19'< E19b<

88 8 see s K KsIohn to h'4e dis'ppe'redL Iohn see s 8 8 8 to h'4e dis'ppe'red%

-o e 5o ents 're ne5ess'ry here% E'< the e bedded 5l'use ust not be introdu5ed by the 5o ple entiser "or, be5'use this &ould #i4e rise to the seAuen5e "or ... to. EC2% 5%+%5 'bo4e%< Eb< E19'< 's it st'nds 5ould not t'/e it 's 'n 'nti5ip'tory N*Jsu% $2 seems t'/es ' non82inite 5l'use( it8e7tr'position is i possible 'nd r'isin# is obli#'tory% Con4ersely( i2 seems t'/es ' 2inite 5l'use( r'isin# is not possible 'nd it8e7tr'position is obli#'tory E52% E+0< 'bo4e<% E5< As in the 5'se o2 p'ssi4e r'isin# 4erbs E5%,%1<( the 4'5'ted -ub;e5t position o2 the non82inite 5l'use '55o p'nyin# seems 5'nnot be 2illed by le7i5'l 'teri'l? E+1< UIohn see s 1ill to h'4e dis'ppe'red% @ther 4erbs &hi5h beh'4e li/e seem 're appear, happen, turn out 6a phr's'l 4erb( 52% Ch'pter "<% E++< Iohn 'ppe'redJh'ppenedJturned out to h'4e le2t 'lre'dy%

*on!"inite -lauses 1"> Cert'in 'd;e5ti4es in En#lish E+,< 'y 'lso tri##er r'isin#% For e7' ple?

N4erbR 'd; E,0< 9here see J're li/ely 888 to be proble s% 'ny 5hildren &ith re'din#

Iohn is li/ely 888 to propose to M'ry%

Here /ohn is the #r' 'ti5'l -ub;e5t o2 is li4ely, &hi5h binds the -ub;e5t position o2 the subordin'te non82inite 5l'use% 9he 5l'use is interpreted 's 3Iohn &ill propose to M'ry3% $denti2y r'isin# 'd;e5ti4es in the e7' ples belo&? E+)< Iohn is 5ert'in to propose to her to orro&% E+5< 9he &e'ther is unli/ely to re 'in st'ble 2or lon#%

Re&rite e'5h senten5e &ith ' 2inite 5l'use 'nd it8e7tr'position% 9hese r'isin# 'd;e5ti4es h'4e 's their underlyin# -ub;e5t ' non82inite 5l'use Ee%#% /ohn to propose to ,ary89 &h't is li/ely is th't Iohn &ill pro8pose to M'ry3% $n E+,<( 2or e7' ple( /ohn h's been r'ised out o2 the non82inite 5l'use into 'in 5l'use -ub;e5t position% As &ith r'isin# 4erbs( it is i possible to h'4e 'nother -ub;e5t N* in the #'p '2ter r'isin#% For e7' ple? E+"< UIohn is li/ely 1ill to propose to M'ry% 5%,%, -DMM$NG D* We h'4e seen th't r'isin# 4erbs 'nd r'isin# 'd;e5ti4es sh're the 2ollo&in# #ener'l properties?

E'< R'isin# only 'pplies to the N*J-u o2 non82inite 5l'uses% Eb< 9here is ' #'p '2ter the : or Ad;( &hi5h 5'nnot be 2illed by '
le7i5'l N*? E+>< 9hey see J're li/elyJ're s'id 888 to h'4e le2t% E+8< U9hey see J'reJli/elyJ're s'id the 5hildren to h'4e le2t% 9he #'p is bound by the -ub;e5t N* o2 the 'in 5l'use%

E5< 9here is usu'lly ' p'r'phr'se &ith ' 2inite 5l'use 'nd it!e7tr' position? E+9< $t see sJis li/elyJis s'id (th't they h'4e le2tL Ed< $n r'isin# p'tterns the -ub;e5t there 'y be sep'r'ted 2ro e7istenti'l 4erb it #oes &ith by r'isin#? the

1 / 1 *on!"inite -lauses

*on!"inite -lauses 1"9 E1< -2.

-3. (4)

E,<

A99 &'( s(<&s :(*( 86$;5 6++$%,(5.

E5<

".3.! EXERCISES denti!y *<,s,;? 6%(*<&,6;s ,; &'( ()<@%9(s 7(96:. L6+<&( &'( ?<% ,; &'( s$76*5,;<&( +9<$s(. R(:*,&( (<+' s(;&(;+( <s < s(;&(;+( +6;&<,;,;? it <;5 an ()&*<%6s(5 8,;,&( S$7L(+& +9<$s(. F6* ()<@%9(D 06'; ,s 9,>(9= &6 36&( <?<,;s& &',s s+'(@(. 06'; ,s 9,>(9= A AA &6 36&( <?<,;s& &',s s+'(@(. I& ,s 9,>(9= &'<& 06'; :,99 36&( <?<,;s& &',s s+'(@(.

E1<
B<&'.

T:6 @(; <*( *(%6*&(5 &6 '<3( <&&<+>(5 6; (95(*9= :,56: ,;

T'(= <*( s<,5 &6 '<3( 7((; +<**=,;? ?$;s. T'(= :(*( &'6$?'& &6 7( ,; &'(,* @,5A&',*&,(s :(<*,;? 79$( L(<;s <;5 9(<&'(* L<+>(&s. O;( 68 &'(@ ,s &'6$?'& &6 '<3( 7((; ,;3693(5 ,; &'( <ss<$9& 68 < ""-year-old ?,*9 9<s& :((>. E5< T'(= <%%(<* &6 '<3( &<>(; ;6 @6;(= 8*6@ &'(,* 3,+&,@. E"< T'(= 6*( $;9,>(9= &6 *(@<,; ,; &'( <*(<. E>< T'(= <*( ()%(+&(5 &6 &*<3(9 N6*&' ,; < *(5 0<?$<*. E8< T'(s( @(; <*( +(*&<,; &6 7( 86$;5 s66;. E9< T:6 %69,+( 688,+(*s <*( 7(9,(3(5 &6 7( ,;3693(5 ,; &'( s(<*+'. II D(s+*,7( &'( %*6+(ss 7= :',+' &'( 86996:,;? &'*(( s(;&(;+(s 6*( 5(*,3(5D -1 Q T'(*( ,s 7(9,(3(5 &6 (),s& < +6;s%,*<+= ,; &'( +6$;&*=. G2. T'(*( s((@s &6 (),s& < +6;s%,*<+= ,; &'( +6$;&*=. -3. T'(*( ,s 9,>(9= &6 (),s& < +6;s%,*<+= ,; &'( +6$;&*=. I99 D,s+$ss &'( s=;&<) 68 &'( 86996:,;? s(;&(;+(s &<>(; 8*6@ 6;( ,ss$( 68 &'( >uardian (26 A%*,9 1B13.. I5(;&,8= &'( *<,s(5 NP <;5 96+<&( &'( ?<% ,; &'( s$76*5,;<&( +9<$s(. Is ,& <9:<=s %6ss,79( &6 *(:*,&( &'( s(;&(;+(s <s s(;&(;+(s +6;&<,;,;? it <;5 <; ()&*<%6s(5 8,;,&( +9<$s(? T'( s<9( ,s 76$;5 &6 %*636>( < 8*(s' +6;&*63(*s=. T'( +6$*&s &(;5(5 &6 <++(%& &66 (<s,9= &'( 9,+(;+( '695(*Is 5(8(;+( &'<& '( 5,5 ;6& >;6: &'( +$s&6@(* :<s < @,;6*. T'( G63(*;@(;& ,s $;5(*s&665 &6 7( +6;s,5(*,;? <@<9?<@<&,;? &'( (),s&,;? ;$+9(<* 765,(s $;5(* &'( +'<,*@<;s',% 68 S,* W<9&(*. M*. S&6&& :6s &'6$?'& &6 '<3( :6* 7= <76$& 10 36&(s. V A;<9=s( &'( 86996:,;? s(;&(;+(sD G1Q I :<s >(%& :<,&,;? 86* '6$*s. E+< H,s (9(+&,6; :<s +6;s,5(*(5 5,s<s&*6$s 86* &'( co#ntry.

E+< E,< E)<

@b;e5t 5l'use( &hose -ub;e5t is not le7i5'lly 2illed% We h'4e 'dopted the% 2ollo&in# 5on4ention 2or 'r/in# su5h non8le7i5'lly re'lised -ub;e5t positions? E+< $ did not &ish 2s 2 - . K((to &rite ' 2' ily s'#'L L L 'y h'4e '

5%+%) &e h'4e seen e7' ples li/e the 2ollo&in #? E1< $ did not &ish to

We h'4e 'lso seen th't non82inite subordin'te 5l'uses le7i5'l -ub;e5t% E,<

$ did not &ish KsE2or< Ksthe boo/ to be5o e ' 2' ily s'#'L L

9he 5o ple entiser " o r is 'llo&ed in E,<( but it is dis'llo&ed in E+<( be5'use the strin# " o r. . . to is not #r' 'ti5'l in -t'nd'rd En#lish% $n E1<( but not in E,<( 'n N* outside the subordin'te 5l'use 5ontrols the -ub;e5t position in the subordin'te 5l'use% 9he non8le7i5'l -ub;e5t is 5on8trolled by the 'in 5l'use -uJN* E$<? E < is interpreted 's 3$3% Re2le7i4is'tion 5'n be used to support the 'n'lysis proposed here% Consider( 2or e7' ple?

&rite ' 2' ily saga& We h'4e 'lre'dy pointed out th't su5h senten5es 5ont'in ' non82inite

E)<

$ &'nt K Es6 8 to en;oy

ysel2L L

$t is i port'nt to re'lise th't the 5ontroller N* in E5< 'bo4e is both the underlyin# 'nd the sur2'5e -ub;e5t o2 0 a n t 5 it is not the 5'se th't I h's been o4ed into th't -ub;e5t position by ' r'isin# tr'ns2or 'tion? &'nt( decide, 0ish, hope 're control +er,s" not r'isin# 4erbs% $n order to 4eri2y this 5l'i ( let us 5o p're senten5es li/e E1< 'bo4e &ith r'isin# p'tterns% We h'4e seen E5%,%+< th't intr'nsiti4e r'isin# 4erbs (seem, a p p e a r, et5%< 'y 'ppe'r in the strin#? * P ! s e e m ! ! ! to8 in2initi4e( &here 888 5'nnot be 2illed by ' le7i5'l N*? E>'< 9hey see 888 to h'4e le2t%

% self is ' re2le7i4e pronoun 'nd ust be bound &ithin its 5l'use E52% +%)%+%+<% We 'ssu e th't in E)< m self is bound inside the subordin'te 5l'use by E <( the non8le7i5'l -ub;e5t( &hi5h in turn is 5ontrolled by the hi#her -ub;e5t $% 9his 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s? $ &'nt K(E /===============t % to en;oy ysel2L Co p're E5< &ith E"<? E"< 1 &'nt syou to en;oy K 8oursel2 ysel2 5%)%+ CONTROL #S RAISING 5 & # C@N9R@! 5 %)%1 N@N8 !ET$CA ! -D1IEC 9- In

1>0 *on!"inite -lauses

E10<

*on!"inite -lauses 1>1 N*% there $ to ... 5-s *o

E>b<

U9hey see

the children to h'4e le2t%

-e5ondly( r'isin# 4erbs usu'lly h'4e ' p'r'phr'se &ith ' 2inite 5l'use 'nd it8e7tr'posit ion? E8'< 9hey see to h'4e le2t%

Wh't r'isin# 'nd 5ontrol h'4e in 5o on is th't both 'pply to non8 2inite 5l'uses? r'isin# oper'tes "rom non82inite 5l'uses( 'nd 5ontrol into non8

E8b<

It see s that they ha2e le"t.

And( thirdly( in there8senten5es the -ub;e5t there 'y be sep'r'ted 2ro its e7istenti'l 4erb 6be, e.ist, et5%<% 9his 5'n he '55ounted 2or by 'ssu in# th't there h's been r'ised( 'nd h's thus been o4ed '&'y 2ro the e7istenti'l 4erb% For e7' ple? 698 There see 8888 to be 'ny 5hildren &ith re'din# proble s% !et us see &h't h'ppens i2 &e 'pply the s' e three tests to the strin#? N*80ant!6 <8to88in2initi4e( &here the e pty -ub;e5t position E < is 5on8 trolled by the -ub;e5t N*% $n the 2irst pl'5e( &e o2ten h'4e the option here o2 2illin# or not 2illin# the e pty -ub;e5t slot? $ &'nt N you R to le'4e A le7i5'l -ub;e5t N* 'y o55ur in the subordin'te non82inite 5l'use% -e5ondly( there is no p'r'phr'se &ith it8e7tr'position? E$ l'< $ &'nt to #o% El lb< U$t &'nts th't $ should #o% And thirdly( there 're no seAuen5es li/e? 6128 U There &'nt E < to be 'ny 5hildren &ith re'din# proble s% 9'ble 5%)%+ su s up the results o2 these tests% 9he 2irst 5olu n #i4es the &'y in &hi5h the tests &or/ 2or r'isin# 4erbs li/e seem, the se5ond sho&s the results o2 'pplyin# the tests to 5ontrol p'tterns &ith 4erbs su5h 's 0ant9 9'ble 6(2,2 Nal (b( :aising le)i*al Su!Be*t in non#finite *lause it#e)tra3osition p r phr se ,es 0ontrol no ,es no

2inite 5l'uses% @nly non82inite 5l'uses Eindi5'ted by 888 or E <<%

'y l'5/ 'n o4ert N*J-u

E1,< E1)<

".!.3 SUB0ECT AND OB0ECT CONTROL He pro ised her to o& the l'&n%

9he type o2 4erb in the 'in 5l'use deter ines &hether the N*J-u or the N*J@i &ill be the 5ontroller% :erbs li/e promise h'4e -ub;e5t 5ontrol( &here's 4erbs li/e tell, order, as4, "orce, persuade, allo0, encourage h'4e @b;e5t 5ontrol% Here 're so e e7' ples o2 5ontrol p'tterns li/e E1"<?

Gener'l Dyer told his troops to 2ire on 'n un'r ed 5ro&d in the streets% 1oth senten5es h'4e the p'ttern -u K:8@i8@dL( unli/e senten5e E1<( &hi5h h's the p'ttern -u K:8@dL% Wh't is the di22eren5e bet&een E1,< 'nd E1)<= $n E1,< the non8le7i5'l -ub;e5t position in the subordin'te 5l'use is 5on8trolled by the -ub;e5t N* <e, not by the N*J@i her, &here's in E1)< it is the N*J@i his troops &hi5h is the 5ontroller( not the N*J-u @eneral Byer. E1,< 'nd E1)< 'y thus be br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s?

E1"< E1>< E18< E19<

He persu'ded her to buy so e

ore boo/s%

9he boys did not 'llo& the #irls to t'/e p'rt in the #' e% We en5our'#ed the 9hey 's/ed hi to try '#'in%

to resi#n%

E15<

K7KR1leL KFpro ised K herL KVE 1 . to o& the l'&nLLL I CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC s, %CCCCCCC HHHHHHHHHK K Gener'l DyerL K told K his troopsL K E < to 2ire on 'n /#P $ IOOOOOO=O / II un'r ed 5ro&d in the streetsL L L

$denti2y the 5ontrolled -ub;e5t position in these senten5es( 'nd the 5on8 troller% -enten5es li/e E1><8E+0< 5'n be p'ssi4ised? the N*J@i (her, the girls, the ( him8 5'n be 'de the N*J-u o2 the p'ssi4e senten5e% 9'/in# E1>< 's 'n e7' ple( the p'ssi4is'tion pro5ess 'y be des5ribed 's 2ollo&s?

E+0<

K K HeL K persu'ded K herL K E < to buy so e s /#P Ni3 sPI $% t ore boo/sL L L

&2 *on!"inite -lauses *on!"inite -lauses 1>, E+,<

".!." CONTROL AD0ECTI#ES 9here 're 'lso 5ontrol 'd;e5ti4es in En#lish( not ;ust 5ontrol 4erbs% 9hese 'd;e5ti4es 're 2ollo&ed by non82inite 5l'uses &ith 5ontrolled -ub;e5t positions?

*'ssi4is'tion tn'22e5ted? E++<

o4es the N*J@i her, 'nd le'4es the subordin'te 5l'use ore boo/sL L L

K K -heL K &'s persu'ded 888C E < to buy so e SN l $ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOSOT

E+9< E,0<

$'

eager is Es6 8 to 5o e to your p'rtyL L

He is reluctant Es Es6 8 to tell her the truthL L

We still h'4e ' 5ontrol stru5ture here( but no& the -ub;e5t she 5ontrols the -ub;e5t position o2 the subordin'te 5l'use% ".!.! INDEFINITE CONTROL

1y 'pplyin# the three tests entioned e'rlier( &e 5'n deter ine th't E+9< 'nd E,0< 're 5ontrol p'tterns( not r'isin# p'tterns% For e7' ple? E,1< $ ' e'#er 2or M'ry to be 't the p'rty too%

E,+< E,,<
're?

U$t is e'#er th't $ should 5o e to your p'rty% U9here is e'#er to be ' p'rty ne7t

En#lish 'lso h's 5ontrol p'tterns &hi5h h'4e no o4ert 5ontroller% 9'/e( 2or e7' ple? 9o &rite '5t% Writin# ' boo/ on this sub;e5t &'s 'n irr'tion'l

&ee/end% @ther e7' ples o2 5ontrol 'd;e5ti4es

E,)<
su55ess%

He is a n . i o u s 6 8 to

'/e his ne& business ' 2in'n5i'l

9he -ub;e5t o2 the non82inite subordin'te 5l'use is e pty% We 'n'lyse E+,< 's 2ollo&s? < -2!. *s9o &rite ' boo/ on this sub;e5tLL Writin#

E,5< E,"<

We 're delighted 6 8 to send you our p' phlets% -he is a"raid o2 E < hurtin# his 2eelin#s% &'s 'n irr'tion'l '5t%

".!./ EXERCISE 9he 5ontroller in this 5'se i#ht be so ebody entioned in the 5onte7t( or so eone un/no&n or inde2inite% We 5'll this indefinite control& @ther e7' ples o2 inde2inite 5ontrol 're? E+5< $s E < to s'y No to nu5le'r &e'pons ' de2en5e poli5y=

E+"<

@7brid#e3s #rip on the top r'n/s o2 the 5i4il ser4i5e should be bro/en by E < en5our'#in# students 't pro4in5i'l uni4ersities E < to 5o e

2or&'rd potenti'l 'nd'rins%

's

9he se5ond 5ontrol site in E+"<( unli/e the 2irst( is not ' 5'se o2 inde2inite 5ontrol% Wh't is the 5ontroller o2 th't se5ond 5ontrol site= As &e h'4e seen E,%)%11<( non82inite 5l'uses 'y h'4e 2un5tions other th'n @d or -u% 9hey 'y( 2or e7' ple( be Ad;un5ts or Modi2iers? E+>< $ &'nt to #o to *'ris t o buy some ne0 clothes.

E+8<

He re5ei4ed

' letter ordering him to lea2e the country. 1oth these non82inite 5l'uses l'5/ 'n o4ert le7i5'l -ub;e5t N*? the e pty -ub;e5t position in E+>< is 5ontrolled by I , 'nd th't in E+8< by a letter.

0onsider the following *ontrol senten*es, and insert round !ra*2ets in the right 3osition" I wish to go immediatel,. I intend to write another no1el soon. +e 3refer to lea1e now. i ho3e to see ,ou again soon. The 3risoner demanded to see his wife. I need a 2nife to *ut the !read with. I 3romise to return these !oo2s to ,ou !efore the end of this monthO I-ll tr, to *at*h the first train to Amsterdam. I find that I ha1e !rought into m, new *ir*le the 1er, 3erson I 3lanned to e)*lude. It would ne1er !e right to use, or to threaten to use, these wea3ons, or indeed an, other wea3ons of mass destru*tion. E11< Li*ensing Budges should !e a!le to grant a li*en*e

E1+<

E1,<

3ermitting adults to to2e their *hildren into a s3e*ified room in li*ensed 3remises until 4 3.m. to !e ser1ed non# al*oholi* drin2s. ;r Li1ingstone has urged *oun*il wor2ers io ado3t a radi*al a33roa*h in defending their Bo!s. ;rs That*her demonstrated on*e again ,esterda, her determination to

2ee3 the Go1ernment on its 3resent *ourse and, if 3ossi!le, her intention to se*ure a se*ond term. &/ 4) 7urther e1iden*e emerged yesterd y of the Go1ernment-s *ontinued attem3ts in the disarmament 3ro3aganda war to !ring senior *hur*hmen on its side.

Te.t $.2 ES te7t 1%+%)< -oon '2ter bre'/2'st M'ry Ann brought in The Times. Mr% C'rey sh'red it &ith t&o nei#hbours% He h'd it 2ro ten till one( &hen the #'rdener too/ it o4er to Mr% Ellis 't the !i es( &ith &ho it re 'ined till se4enG then it &'s t'/en to Miss 1roo/s 't the M'nor House( &ho( sin5e she
-". -/.

/ REANALYSISD A PROBLEM OF BRACKETING >.1 IN)?O@A!)ION $t so eti es h'ppens th't ' sin#le &ord or strin# o2 &ords 'y be 'n'lysed in t&o &'ys% We h'4e seen E+%)%,%)<( 2or e7' ple( th't the ele ents be 'nd ha2e 're stru5tur'lly ' bi#uous( in th't they 'y beh'4e li/e le7i5'l 4erbs or li/e 'u7ili'ries% Another inst'n5e o2 double stru5ture in En#lish is th't o2 :8@d strin#s li/e 4ic4 the buc4et, &hi5h in their liter'l sense 5'n re#ul'rly o55ur in the p'ssi4e 6The buc4et 0as 4ic4ed8, but not &hen they 're used in their idio 'ti5 sense 6F The buc4et 0as 4ic4ed by the old man > The old man died8. $t 'ppe'rs th't 4ic4 the buc4et, 's 'n idio ( is no lon#er ' :@d strin#( but h's been restru5tured into ;ust ' 5o posite intr'nsiti4e 4erb% A &ell8/no&n e7' ple o2 ' bi#uous p'tternin# is 'lso th't o2 strin#s su5h 's depend on, loo4 at, gi2e in to 'nd others( &hi5h 'y be stru5tur'lly interpreted 's intr'nsiti4e 4erbs 2ollo&ed by ' **( or 'ltern'ti4ely 's tr'nsiti4e 4erbs 2ollo&ed by ' Dire5t @b;e5t% 9hese /inds o2 stru5tur'l ' bi#uity result 2ro the pro5ess o2 reanalysis E'lso 5'lled 3restru5turin#3<% Re'n'lysis 5h'n#es the stru5ture o2 ' strin# o2 ele ents( so th't be2ore 'nd '2ter re'n'lysis the strin# &ill p'ttern di22erently% $n this 5h'pter &e sh'll 5o p're the properties o2 4erbCpreposition strin#s &ith those o2 so e other ulti8&ord 4erbs( 'nd e7' ine the indeter in'5y o2 their stru5ture% >.2 P?EPO9I)ION9 AN@ PA?)I!LE9 Re'd te7t "%+% $t is ' 2r'# ent 2ro ;" <uman )ondage &hi5h &e h'4e loo/ed 't be2ore% 9he senten5es h'4e been nu bered here 2or e'se o2 re2eren5e(

1>5

174 *on!"inite -lauses -1 ". II F<+(5 :,&' &'( B*,&,s' $9&,@<&$@ <;5 s((>,;? &6 +$& &'(,* 96ss(s &'*6$?' 8$*&'(* 5(9<=s ,; %*,+( 8,),;? @,;,s&(*s :(*( %*(%<*,;? 86* 8,;<9 ;(?6&,<&,6;s 9<s& ;,?'&. C6;s,5(* &'( 86996:,;? %<&&(*;sD

H( 7(9,(3(s M<*= &6 7( < s%=. H( %*(8(*s M<*= &6 9(<3(. H( <s>(5 M<*= &6 9(<3(. -!. H( %*6@,s(5 M<*= &6 9(<3(. <%%(<*s M<*= ,s 7(9,(3(5 &6 7( < s%=. M<*= :<;&s &6 9(<3(. A;<9=s( &'(s( s(;&(;+(s <;5 ,;5,+<&( &'( 5,88(*(;+(s 7(&:((; &'(@. W',+' <*( +6;&*69 %<&&(*;s <;5 :',+' <*( *<,s,;? %<&&(*;s? I99 T()& ".!./ +6;&<,;s 6 ;$@7(* 68 ;6;A8,;,&( +9<$s(s @6s& 68 :',+' +6;&<,; ;6 63(*& S$7L(+& NP. I5(;&,8= s$+' +9<$s(sS 5(+,5( :'(&'(* &'(= <*( ,;s&<;+(s 68 *<,s,;? %<&&(*;s AAA 6* 68 +6;&*69 %<&&(*;s - .. O&'(* ?<%s 9(8& 7(',;5 7= @63(5 (9(@(;&s <*( <9s6 @<*>(5 7= 5<s'(s AAA. R(@(@7(* &'<& ;6;A8,;,&( +6;s&*$+&,6;s @<= <9s6 7( *(5$+(5 R(9<&,3( +9<$s(s. Ass,?; GFs &6 &'( ;6;A8,;,&( +9<$s(s.

E1< E+< E,<

!ext 6(2 9 U -? ( 8 I :<s ,;3,&(5 86 %*(s(;& &'( %*,T(sI(& < ?,*9s s+'669. I& ,s <9:<=s 5,88,+$9& &6 &',;> 68 s6@(&',;? &6 s<= 6; s$+' 6+25s,6;sA D & ,DD D *F T'( ?,*9s '<%%(;(5 &6 +6@( $% ,; <?( ?*6$%s <;5 (3(;&$<99= &'( '(<5 ?,*9 +<@( $% &6 +699(+& &'( s(3(*<9 %*,T(s s'( '65 :6;. S'( &$*;(5 6$& &6 7( < ;,+( 966>,;? ?,*9 68 <76$& s(3(;&((;. I :6;5(*(5 :'<& &6 s<= &6 '(*. S$55(;9= I &'6$?'& &'<& <s &',s :<s '(* 9<s& &(*@ <& s+'669 ,& :6$95 7( <%%*6%*,<&( &6 <s> '(*D A;5 :'<& 56 =6$ %9<; &6 56 :'(; =6$ 9(<3( s+'669?I S'( 966>(5 <& @( 3(*= - 6 = , = < ;5 s<,5D I W(99 I 5,5 ,;&(;5 &6 ?6 sT, I?'& '6@( I A5<%&(5 8*6@ C'*,s&,<; B*6;; P<ss the $ort,

E>b<
1&$ Reanalysis Reanalysis 1>> brou#ht :*

!*K((4brou#ht inL 3 9he 9i esL L K@(K4brou#htL K inL K 9he 9i esL L

E>5<

4*

E)< E5<

E5b<
E55<

#ot it l'te( h'd the 'd4'nt'#e o2 /eepin# it% $n su er Mrs% C'rey( &hen she &'s '/in# ;' ( o2ten 's/ed her 2or ' 5opy to 5o4er the pots &ith% When the :i5'r settled down to his p'per( his &i2e put on her bonnet 'nd 0ent out to do the shoppin#% Ad'pted 2ro W% -o erset M'u#h' ( ;" <uman )ondage.

For the purpose o2 our dis5ussion &e here present s/eleton 4ersions o2 the senten5es E1< 'nd E5< 'bo4e? E1< M'ry brought in The Times '2ter bre'/2'st%

A55ordin# to E>'< in is ' *( t'/in# The Times 's its Co ple ent% A55ordin# to E>b< in is so eho& p'rt o2 the 4erb itsel2G brought 'nd in see to '/e up one unit &ith &ord8li/e properties% $n E>5< in is independent o2

E5'< E5b< E55<

9he :i5'r settled do0n to his p'per% His &i2e put on her bonnet. -he 0ent out.

$n e'5h o2 the senten5es 'bo4e( the le7i5'l 4erb is 2ollo&ed by 'nother ele ent th't is 5losely lin/ed &ith the 4erb? in, do0n, on, out. 9he Auestion is? &h't is the st'tus o2 in, do0n, et5%= Are they prepositions &hi5h t'/e ' *reposition'l Co ple ent E's in? in the 2icarage85 do these ele ents belon# to the :( or 're they perh'ps independent units= 9'/e e7' ple E1< 'bo4e% 9his 'y be br'5/eted 's 2ollo&s? E"<
Ks (%

K M'n8 AnnL KO%e rou#ht in 9he 9i es K =\2ter bre'/2'stLLL

9here 5'n be no doubt 'bout a"ter brea4"ast. $t is ' #enuine **? it 5onsists o2 ' preposition a"ter 'nd its Co ple ent *P brea4"ast. 9o#ether the *CN* '/e up one phr'se( ' **% +"ter brea4"ast is 'n option'l ele ent E'n Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5tG 52% Ch'pter ,<% 9here see to be three possible &'ys o2 br'5/etin# the re 'inder o2 the :* brought in The Times9

E>'<

K4* K4 brou#htL K(pin 9he 9i esL L

both brought 'nd o2 The Times. 9he three 'ltern'ti4es represented by the 2ollo&in# tree di'#r' s? E8'<

'y be

E85<
brou#ht in

!et us 5onsider the beh'4iour o2 a"ter brea4"ast, the option'l ** Ethe br'5/ets 'round the ** in E8'<8E85< 'r/ its option'lity<% Wh't 're the properties o2 this **= E$< We 5'n 2ront the ** Auite e'sily? +"ter brea4"ast M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es%

E$$<

9he **

'y ser4e 's the 2o5us ele ent T in '%5le2t

senten5e? $t &'s a"ter brea4"ast th't M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es%

1>8 Reanalysis Reanalysis 1>9 '2ter bre'/2'st% E$:< i n 7 The Times 5'nnot be Auestioned by ' &h8&ord? N FC:hen S U %here Nor do &e #et?

bre'/2'st%

E$$$<

i n 7 The Times 5'nnot be repl'5ed by then or there9

UM'ry Ann brou#ht Nthen R here 1 did M'ry Ann brin# '2ter bre'/2'st%

Eill<

9he ** 'y be repl'5ed by 'n 'ppropri'te Ad;un5t( here ' ti e Ad;un5t 6then89 M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es then. li/e 0hen, 0here or

E$:<

9he ** 'y be Auestioned by ' &h8ite 't 0hat time9 %hen did M'ry Ann brin# in 9he 9i es=

+t 0hat time did M'ry Ann brin# in 9he 9i es=

E:<

9he ** 'y be sep'r'ted 2ro the rest o2 the senten5e by 'n Ad;un5t EAd;un5ts 5'n only be inserted bet&een ';or 5on 8 stituentsG they thus 'r/ 5onstituent bound'ries<? M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es( 's usu'l( '2ter bre'/2'st%

9ests E1<8E:< sho& th't a"ter 'nd brea4"ast '/e up one 5onstituent% 9he t&o ele ents 5'nnot be sep'r'ted or in4erted( 's the 2ollo&in# un#r' 'ti5'l senten5es sho& Etests E:$<8E:$$$<<?

E:$< U )rea4"ast M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es a"ter. E:$$< U$t &'s brea4"ast th't M'ry brou#ht in 9he 9i es a"ter. E:$$$< UM'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es brea4"ast a"ter.
9hese three e7' ples sho& th't in this 5'se neither 2rontin# o2 ;ust the N*( nor 5le2tin# &ith the N* 's T( nor 5h'n#in# the &ord order is possible% !et us no& turn to the seAuen5e in The Times. An'lysis E8'< 'bo4e su##ests th't in7The Times '/e up ' **( ;ust li/e a"ter brea4"ast. $2 the 'n'lysis &ere 5orre5t( &e &ould e7pe5t so e de#ree o2 si il'rity bet&een the t&o **s% Noti5e( ho&e4er( &h't h'ppens i2 &e 'pply the tests E$<8E:< to in The Times9 E$< in7 The Times 5'nnot be 2ronted to#ether? FIn The 9i es M'ry Ann brou#ht '2ter bre'/2'st%

E$$<

Neither 5'n in7 The Times ser4e 's T in ' 5le2t

senten5e? U$t &'s in The Times th't M'ry Ann brou#ht '2ter

FIn 0hat i n 0hat ne0spaper did M'ry Ann brin#=

We 're no& le2t &ith the 5hoi5e o2 tre'tin# in 's ' p'rti5le &hi5h #oes &ith bring 68b8, or 's ' tot'lly independent 5onstituent E85<% As 2'r 's the

E:<

in7The Times 5'nnot be sep'r'ted 2ro the rest o2 the senten5e by 'n Ad;un5t? UM'ry Ann brou#ht( 's usu'l( in 9he 9i es '2ter bre'/2'st%

9ests E$<8E:< indi5'te th't in 'nd The Times 're not one 5onstituent% $2 they 're not one 5onstituent( it should be e'sy to sep'r'te the ele ents or to 5h'n#e the &ord order% 9his is indeed 5on2ir ed by the 2ollo&in# senten5es( 'll o2 &hi5h 're #r' 'ti5'l Etests E:$<8 E:$$$<<? E:$< The Times M'ry Ann brou#ht in% N %hat ne0spaper Wh't did M'ry Ann brin# in=

E:$$< $t &'s The Times th't M'ry Ann brou#ht in. E:$$$< M'ry Ann brou#ht The Times in '2ter bre'/2'st%
Note% in5ident'lly( th't in ust nor 'lly 'ppe'r in the position on the ri#ht o2 the @b;e5t N* i2 the N* is ' person'l pronoun? M'ry Ann brou#ht it in% UM'ry Ann brou#ht in it% Co p're this &ith? M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es '2ter it% UM'ny Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es it '2ter% -u in# up the tests( &e see th't a"ter7brea4"ast 'nd in7The Times p'ttern di22erently in the senten5es? Tests a"ter7 in7 The E$< Front to#ether yes no E$$< Cle2t to#ether yes no E$$$< Repl'5e to#ether yes no E$:< Buestion to#ether yes no E:< Ad;un5t insertion yes no E:$< Front N* no yes E:$$< Cle2t N* no yes E: Ch'n#e order no yes 9he tests sho& th't 'n'lysis E8'< 'bo4e ust be &ron#? in The Times is not ' **%

Qi"8 Reanalysis Reanalysis 181

&/% &'% &(% ( 4) &9%

4erb bring 'nd a p'rti5le in. )ring in is ' ()rasal +er," &hi5h beh'4es li/e 'n ordin'ry tr'nsiti4e 4erb% We propose the 2ollo&in# br'5/etin#% E1>< K#Mrp $ N M'ry AnnL K K4brou#ht inL KN9 he 9i esL Kp\2ter bre'/2'stL L L

me ani ng o2 the senten5e is 5on5erned bring in is 2elt to be ' le7i5'l unit( Me'nin# so ethin# li/e 3deli4er3% $s there 'ny 2or 'l support 2or this intuition= $n other &ords? do bring 'nd in beh'4e 't 'll 's i2 they &ere one 5onstituent= 9o see this( let us 2irst 5onsider the 2ollo&in# senten5es? E9< Iohn re'ds 9he 9i es 'nd -us'n re'ds the Gu'rdi'n% We h'4e t&o 5oordin'ted 5l'uses here( e'5h &ith the 4erb read. $n En#lish( there is 'n oper'tion 5'lled ga((ing" &hi5h deletes the se5ond o55urren5e o2 ' le7i5'l 4erb in ' 5oordin'ted p'ttern? E10< Iohn re'ds 9he 9i es 'nd -us'n J J J J J J J the Gu'rdi'n% 9here is ' #'p 't the pl'5e o2 the deletion% Note th't **s 're le2t int'5t i2 the 4erb is #'pped% E11< M'ry 5' e a"ter brea4"ast 'nd 1ill 5' e a"ter tea.

E1+< E1,<
El)<

M'ry 5' e a"ter brea4"ast 'nd 1ill J J J J a"ter tea. UM'ry 5' e a"ter brea4"ast 'nd 1ill i l l J J J J J J J J J J 1/

+"ter tea is a ** 'nd is not in4ol4ed in #'ppin# o2 :? tea. Consider no&? M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es 'nd *hilip brou#ht in the Gu'rdi'n% $2 &e 'pply 4erb #'ppin# here( &e ust 'lso delete in, not ;ust brought9

E15<

M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es 'nd 1ill J J J J J J J J J J J J J the Gu'rdi'n% 9he 2ollo&in# senten5e is un#r' 'ti5'l?

E1"<

UM'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es 'nd *hilip J J J J J J J J J in the Gu'rdi'n%

9his e'ns then th't in is not tot'lly independent? it is ti#htly lin/ed &ith bring. 9o#ether bring 'nd in '5t 's i2 they &ere one le7i5'l 4erb% 9his su##ests th't tree di'#r' E8b< 'bo4e is the best 'ltern'ti4e% We sh'll s'y th't bring 'nd i n '/e up one le7i5'l unit( 5onsistin# o2 '

$n te7t "%1 'bo4e( senten5e E5b< 'lso 5ont'ins ' phr's'l 4erb? put on. 9he 'n'lysis o2 th't senten5e is 's 2ollo&s?

E18<

EsE His &i2eL L(Fput onL K N## her bonnetLLL

No& t'/e senten5e E5'<? The :icar settled do0n to his paper. 1r'5/et the :*% $nside the :* you &ill 2ind th't : 6settle8 is 2ollo&ed by do0n. 9his strin# is '#'in ' phr's'l 4erb( but this ti e there is no N* 's Co ple ent inside the :*?

E19<

Ky KV* he :i5'rL K KF(settled do&nL K pto his p'perL L L

Ho&e4er( settle do0n reAuires the ** to his paper "or the e'nin# intended here E**JA5<% The :icar settled do0n does not e'n Auite the s' e% Another inst'n5e o2 ' phr's'l 4erb 5'n be 2ound in E-5<? (he 0ent out. 9he phr's'l 4erbs bring in and put up 're tr'nsiti4e( 'nd settle d o 0 n 'nd go out 're intr'nsiti4e% 9he phr's'l 4erb hand o2er in9 E+0< % -he h'nded o4er the p'per to the :i5'r% is ditr'nsiti4e% 9ry 4erb #'ppin# in 5oordin'ted stru5tures &ith put on, settle do0n, go out, 'nd hand o2er to sho& th't they 5onstitute one unit% For e7' ple? E+l'< Mrs C'rey put on her bonnet 'nd Mr C'rey put on his h't% E+1b< Mrs C'rey put on her bonnet 'nd Mr C'rey J J J J J his h't% @ther e7' ples o2 phr's'l 4erbs 're? sit do0n, ta4e o"", s0itch on, loo4 up, c all o"", call up, 0rite do0n. bring up, gi2e bac4, gi2e in, et5% "%+%1 ETERC$-EI In the following e)am3les ,ou find *oordinated stru*tures *ontaining senten*es with identi*al 1er!s, !ut not all of them are 3hrasal 1er!s. 5se the 1er! ga33ing test to determine whi*h of the following senten*es *ontain 3hrasal 1er!s. ;ar, threw out her old !oo2s and Cill threw out his old re*ords. ;ar, ate the *a2e and Cill ate the 3udding. The 3oli*eman too2 down m, address and his assistant

too2 down the registration num!er of m, *ar. I am going to ;adeira and @ae is going to $eni*e. The left wing of the 3art, won o1er the women 1oters, the right wing won o1er the men. E"< @oan 1oted for the Li!erals and Cill 1oted for the 0onser1ati1es. E>< Sue tra1elled !a*2 on Thursda, and Cill tra1elled !a*2 on 7rida,. E8< +e *an 3ut u3 three more guests, and m, 3arents *an 3ut u3 two. PDH Cill ga1e u3 al*ohol and his father ga1e u3 smo2ing. 0I6% ;, father has Bust resigned from the Critish A*adem, and m, !rother has Bust resigned from the So*ial S*ien*es :esear*h 0oun*il. Identif, 3hrasal 1er!s and one#word 1er!s with following te)t" s in the

18+ Reanalysis

Reanalysis 18,

-1.

-2. -3.
P *P

E+< h's the stru5ture Esee E8h< in "%+<? $n this se5tion &e sh'll de'l &ith strin#s li/e pray "or, loo4 "or, hope "or 'nd rely on 6c". senten5es E)<( E5<( E>< 'nd E10< o2 E7er5ise $$$ in "%+%1<% !et us 5o p're the 4erbs in the 2ollo&in# three e7' ples? M'ry Ann 'rri4ed '2ter bre'/2'st% -he brou#ht in 9he 9i es% 9he :i5'r 5'n
$ $
7*(<>8<s&
(

rely on M'ry Ann% We h'4e seen th't a"ter in E1< #oes &ith brea4"ast r'ther th'n &ith arri2ed 'nd &e h'4e est'blished th't in in E+< stru5tures &ith brought r'ther th'n &ith The Times 6c". the tests in "%+ 'bo4e<% E1< 5orresponds to the stru5ture Esee E8'< in "%+<?

<**,3(

<8&(*

N Tns

$ T

!ext 9(2(8 $ooching eggs Us( < @(5,$@ s,T( %<;. P6$* ,; 76,9,;? :<&(* &6 < 5(%&' 68 1 ,;+'. A55 :,;( :',+' s%((5s $% +6<?$9<&,6;. B*(<> (<+' (?? ,;&6 < +$%. B*,;? &'( :<&(* &6 6 ?(;&9( s,@@(*. S9,5( ,; &'( (??s 6;( 7= 6;(. P66+' 86* &'*(( @,;$&(s. L,8& 6$& &'( (??s :,&' < s%66; <;5 s(*3( &'(@ :,&' 7<>(5 %6&<&6(s. III W( '63( s((; &'<& &'(*( ,s 6 s(& 68 &(s&s <3<,9<79( :',+' +<; '(9% $s 5(+,5( &'( s&*$+&$*( 68 s&*,;?s s$+' <s after@,reakfast <;5 in@!he !imes( B*<+>(& #Ps ,; &'( 86996:,;? s(;&(;+(s <;5 ,;5,+<&( &'(,* s&*$+&$*(. Us,;? &'( (,?'& &(s&s ?,3(; <763( --I.A-#III.. &*= &6 5(+,5( ,; %<*&,+$9<* 6; &'( s&*$+&$*( 68 &'( ,&<9,+,s(5 s&*,;?s. Y6$ :,99 s(( &'<& s6@( 68 &'(s( s&*,;?s '<3( <; ,;5(&(*@,;<&( s&*$+&$*(. U;5(* +(*&<,; &(s&s &'(= 7('<3( <s ,8 &'(= <*( +6;s&,&$(;&s <;5 $;5(* 6&'(*s &'(= 7('<3( <s ,8 &'(= <*( ;6&. T*= %<ss,3,s,;? &'( s(;&(;+(s.

E1< E+< E,< E)< E5< E"< E>< E8< E9< E10<

M<*= A;; <**,3(5 after ,reakfast( S'( %,+>(5 up the newspaper( T'( #,+<* 5,5 (3(*=&',;? for $hilip( T'( #,+<* %*<=(5 for peace( T'( #,+<* :<s 966>,;? fora new assistant( T'( s&$5(;&s 8,99(5 in the forms( M6s& %(6%9( '6%( for nuclear disarmament( H( 86$;5 '(* <55*(ss in the director ( M<*= 9,3(s 6; the third floor( T'( #,+<* +<; *(9= on M<*= A;;. / . 3 PREPOSITIONAL #ERBS

S NP
P

E$$< 'nd E:$$< 1oth on ,ary +nn 'nd ,ary +nn 'y ser4e 's the 2o5us ele ent T in ' 5le2t senten5e? E-'< $t is on ,ary +nn th't the :i5'r 5'n rely% E-b< E$$$< $t is ,ary +nn th't the :i5'r 5'n rely on% ;n ,ary +nn 5'nnot be repl'5ed by the pro82or there Ebut ,ary +nn 5'n be repl'5ed by her89 U9he :i5'r 5'n rely thenR there 9he :i5'r 5'n rely on her. ;n ,ary +nn 5'nnot be Auestioned by ' &h8ite li/e 0hen or 0here Ebut ,ary +nn 5'n be Auestioned by 0ho6m889 U %hen/0here 5'n the :i5'r rely= %ho6m8 5'n the :i5'r rely on= ;n ,ary +nn 'y be sep'r'ted 2ro the rest o2 the senten5e by 'n Ad;un5t? 9he :i5'r 5'n rely &hole8he'rtedly on M'ry Ann% U9he :i5'r 5'n rely on &hole8he'rtedly M'ry Ann% then or

$n so e respe5ts rely7on beh'4es li/e arri2e, &here's in other respe5ts it beh'4es li/e bring in. 9o see this( let us 'pply tests E$<8 E:$$$< 's &ell 's the 4erb #'ppin# test to E,< Ethese tests h'4e been 'pplied 'bo4e to distin#uish bet&een :C** strin#s 'nd phr's'l 4erbs<?

E"'< E"b<
E$:<

E>'< E>b<
6:8

E$< 'nd E:$< 1oth on ,ary +nn 6PP8 'nd ,ary +nn EN*< 5'n be 2ronted? 63a8 ;n ,ary +nn the :i5'r 5'n rely% 63h8 ,ary +nn the :i5'r 5'n rely on%

E8'< E8b<

E:$$$< 9he &ord order o2 on ,ary +nn 5'nnot be 5h'n#ed into ,ary +nn on9

18) Reanalysis Reanalysis 18'

E9< result?

U9he :i5'r 5'n rely ,ary +nn

on. :erb #'ppin# #i4es the 2ollo&in#

El0'< 9he :i5'r 5'n rely on M'ry Ann 'nd Mrs% C'rey 5'n rely on *hilip% Elob< 9he :i5'r 5'n rely on M'ry Ann 'nd Mrs% C'rey J J J J J on *hilip% E105< U9he :i5'r 5'n rely on M'ry Ann 'nd Mrs% C'rey J J J J J J *hilip% 9he 5on5lusion is th't the stru5ture o2 the :* &ith rely on is di22i5ult to deter ine? '55ordin# to 5ert'in tests the strin# rely on8N* is li/e ' one8&ord 4erb 2ollo&ed by ' ** E52% tests $( $$( :$$$ 'nd #'ppin#<( &here's '55ordin# to other tests it is li/e ' t&o8&ord 4erb 2ollo&ed by 'n N* E52% tests $$$( $:( :$( :$$<% $n other &ords( the stru5ture o2 su5h :8*8:* strin#s is indeter in'teG it 'y he either E1 l'< or E1 lb< belo&? E11'< El lb< K(F( K4relyL Kppn N*L L KF(pK(rely onL KN*L L

9r'dition'lly( strin#s su5h 's rely 7 on 're 5'lled preposition'l +er,s& 9hey sh're #r' 'ti5'l 5h'r'5teristi5s &ith : C ** strin#s 's &ell 's &ith phr's'l 4erbs% @ther e7' ples o2 preposition'l 4erbs 're? l o o 4 at, loo4 "or, loo4 a"ter, call on, call "or, deal 0ith, account "or, stare at, 0ait "or, e t c . $n so 2'r 's preposition'l 4erbs 're t&o8&ord 4erbs they rese ble Etr'nsiti4e< phr's'l 4erbs su5h 's bring in, call up, et5% @ne i port'nt 5h'r'5teristi5 &hi5h they sh're is th't both types o2 4erb 'llo& p'ssi4is'tion?

9he du'lity o2 the stru5ture o2 rely on ... 'y he 5'ptured by 5o binin# t&o stru5tures into one% 9hus( the stru5tures represented by E11'< 'nd E l l b< 're 5o bined in tree di'#r' E115<? E115< :** II rely : :* on N M'ry Ann :*

E1+'< M'ry Ann brou#ht in 9he 9i es% E1+h< 9he 9i es &'s brou#ht in by M'ry Ann% E1,'< 9he :i5'r 5'n rely on M'ry Ann% E1,b< M'ry Ann 5'n be relied on by the :i5'r% Moreo4er( both types o2 4erb 'llo& &h8Auestion 2or 'tion &ith 0hat or 0 h o Enot 0hen or 0here, as &e h'4e seen<% For e7' ple? E1+5< Wh't did M'ry Ann brin# in= E1,5< Who 5'n the :i5'r rely on= Ho&e4er( there 're 'lso so e i port'nt di22eren5es% @ne point( 's &e h'4e seen( is th't the p'rti5le o2 ' phr's'l 4erb 'y be pl'5ed be"ore or a"ter the N*( &here's the preposition o2 the preposition'l 4erb 5'n only o55ur be"ore the N* Etest :$$$ 'bo4e<% Co p're E1+'< 'nd E1,'< &ith E1+d< 'nd E1,d<? E1+d< M'ry Ann brou#ht 9he 9i es in% El,d< U9he :i5'r 5'n rely M'ry Ann on% 9his is one re'son &hy &e h'4e 5'lled in ' p'rti5le in 5'ses li/e E1+d<( 'nd o n a preposition% Another di22eren5e( 's &e h'4e seen( bet&een preposition'l 4erbs 'nd phr's'l 4erbs is th't it is usu'lly 2'irly e'sy to insert 'n Ad4erbi'l Ad;un5t i edi'tely be2ore the preposition( but not i edi'tely be2ore the p'rti5le% Co p're? E1+e< UM'ry Ann brou#ht e'rly in 9he 9i es% E1,e< 9he :i5'r 5'n rely &hole8he'rtedly on M'ry Ann% A third di22eren5e is th't in rel'ti4e 5l'uses the p'rti5le o2 the phr's'l 4erb ust not pre5ede the rel'ti4e pronoun( &here's the preposition o2 the preposition'l 4erb 'y( but need not( pre5ede the rel'ti4e pronoun% Co p're? E1+2< 9he ne&sp'per &hi5h M'ry Ann brou#ht in E1+#< U9he ne&sp'per in &hi5h M'ry Ann brou#ht 888%

for +illiam-s e)traordinar, !eha1iour. 18$ Reanalysis &'% &(% ) E < &9% &<% &=% &4% &D% &1E% The ;inistr, turned down our 3ro3osal. You *an alwa,s rel on hili3. The !o,s waited 3atientl, for their mothers. You will ho1e to allow for a slight loss of Aualit, in the 3ro*ess. Doroth,3s mother will look after the !o!, while she is awa,. No one hod reckoned with +illiam-s o33osition to the 3ian. He looked up all the diffi*ult words in his di*tionar,. ;rs. 0are, put on her ni*est dress. !he *ould think of no !etter solution.

i 2

>.4 P4?A9ALP?EPO9I)IONAL VE?B9 AN@ P?EPO9I)IONAL I@IO(9 *hr's'l8preposition'l 4erbs 're 5o bin'tions o2 phr's'l 4erbs 'nd preposition'l 4erbs% E7' ples 're? catch up 0ith, come up 0ith, cut do0n on, gi2e in to, 4eep up 0ith, loo4 do0n on, put up 0ith, et5% !i/e phr's'l 'nd preposition'l 4erbs( they 'y under#o p'ssi4is'tion% For e7' ple? El'< We h'4e put up &ith Willi' 3s rude beh'4iour too lon#% Elb< Willi' 3s rude beh'4iour h's been put up &ith too lon#% We 'ssu e th't the :* o2 El'< h's the s' e du'l stru5ture 's E,< in "%, 'bo4e E52% E115<<? En#lish 'lso h's so85'lled (re(ositional idioms& 9hey 5onsist o2 ' 4erb 2ollo&ed by 'n N* 'nd ' preposition% E7' ples 're? ma4e mention o", ma4e use o"
33

E+<

1 4

E1,2<

9he #irl &hoE < the :i5'r 5'n rely on 888%

E1,#< 9he #irl on &ho the :i5'r 5'n rely 888

"%,%1 ETERC$-E +hi*h of the senten*es below *ontain 3hrasal 1er!s a n d whi*h 3re3ositional 1er!sL I l l No one *an account

pay attention to, ta4e ad2antage o", set "ire to, etc. 9hese

Wh't is the stru5ture o2 the :* ta4e ad2antage o" her goodness1 Where( in p'rti5ul'r( do the N* ad2antage 'nd the preposition o" belon#= 9he stru5ture o2 this strin# i#ht be E)'<( E)b< or E)5<?

e)am3les. 0on ,ou 3ossi1ise themL Is it alwa,s 3ossi!le to ha1e two 3assi1esL 0onsider the !eha1iour of the strings if ,ou a33l, the tests dis*ussed a!o1e &<.'%" Her mother loo2 *ore of the !a!,. The students 3aid no attention to the 3rofesso r3 s warning. The *hildren mode fun of the old lad,. You *annot 2ee3 3a*e with all the re*ent de1elo3ments in the theor,. The go1ernme nt ought to 3ut an end to *rimes of this nature. Terrorists set fire to the

E)'<

!* KFtoo/L

Ky'd4'nt'#eL K[l2 her #oodnessL L

E)b<

K4p K( too/ 'd4'nt'#eL Kp(o2 her #oodnessL L

E)5<

K4* 4

K too/ 'd4'nt'#e

o2L K(*er #oodnessL L As &ith preposition'l 4erbs 'nd phr's'l8preposition'l 4erbs( the 4'rious tests support 'n'lysis E)'<( or E)b<( or E)5<% -o( '#'in( the stru5ture o2 the :* is indeter in'te% 9ry so e o2 the tests E2rontin#( 5le2tin#( &h8Auestion 2or 'tion( 4erb #'ppin#( et5%< to see &hether you '#ree &ith our 5on5lusion th't there is support 2or 'll three 'n'lyses% /.!.1 EXERCISE Identif, 3re3ositional idioms in the following

em!ass, !uilding. +e must ne1er lose sight of the ideals of this enter3r ise. This firm ma2es use of the latest 3rintin g te*hniA ues. The 3oli*e 2e3t *lose ta!s on the student leaders . The *onfer en*e too2 3la*e in a large *ountr, house.

188

Oe2els o" (tructure 189 6'8 +d2erb phrase Ad4* +d2 4ery 5le4erly
* *1 * *( E"<

7 !E:E!- @F -9RDC9DRE

C. 1 IN )? O@ A! )I ON

$n the pre4 ious 5h' pter s &e h'4 e loo/ ed 't 5ons titue nts

't 4'ri ous le4e ls? &e h'4 e intr odu 5ed clau sal con stit uen ts Ethe sent en5 eJ5l 'use <G &e h'4 e dis5 usse d phr' s'l 5'te #ori es( i%e% N*( :*( Ad; *( **( Ad4

*G 'nd &e h'4e dis5ussed le7i5'l 5'te#ories su5h 's N( :( Ad;( *( Ad4% *hr's'l 5'te#ories &ere dire5tly rel'ted to le7i5'l 5'te#ories in th't &e 'r#ued th't e'5h phr's'l 5'te#ory h's 's its He'd ' le7i5'l 5'te#oryG 2or e7' ple? 'n N* h's 'n N 's its He'd% *hr's'l 5'te#ories 're so eti es s'id to be pro;e5tions o2 le7i5'l 5'te#ories% 1elo& &e repe't the phr's'l 5'te#ories% We h'4e it'li5ised the le7i5'l 5'te#ory 2un5tionin#

's the He'd? E1< *oun phrase9 Det Ad;* ( Ad;* (*

We h'4e 'lso sho& n ho& the 5onst ituen ts insid e the phr's e h'4e di22e rent GFs? phr's es 5'n be des5r ibed by the 2ollo &in# s5he '?

re'li sin# -pe5 ( Mod 'nd A in the e7' ple s 'bo4 e% $n this 5h'p ter &e sh'll loo/ ore 5lose ly 't the inter n'l stru5 ture o2 phr' ses% C. 2 N O A N P4 ?A 9E 9 7.2. 1

FLA T STR UCT URE S AND LAY ERE D STR UCT URE S $n +%)%

+%5 &e h'4 e des5 ribe d N*s '55 ordi n# to the 2oll o&i n# di'# r' ? E$< :P9

T* 8% -pe58 T8 N Mo dR A

$denti 2y the 5'te# ories

C'te#ory GF

De t -p e5 thes e1

Ad;*% Ad;*( Mod E*re odi2ier< ni5e Fren5h

N He' d studen ts 1

**1 Mod E*ost odi2ier< o2 En#lish

e7tre ely &orried ** 'bout the 2uture

these ni5e Fren5h students o2 En#lish 2ro *'ris

628

:erb phrase9 9ns : *'st N* buy l'st &ee/ ' 5'r

N*

A di'#r' su5h 's E1< see s to su##est th't i2 &e &ere to use ' tree di'#r' represent'tion( the stru5ture o2 the N* &ould loo/ 's 2ollo&s?

$n other &ords( the stru5ture loo/s F2l't3G N*s 're 'de to loo/ 's i2 they 're ;ust strin#s o2 ele ents &ith 4'rious GFs% 9ree di'#r' E+< su##ests th't the N students t'/es 2our Modi2iers? 19 Oe2els o" (tructure 0 E' Ad;*( nice < Eb Ad;*( Fren5h E5 **1 o" #nglish Ed **+ "rom Paris e'n in#< su5h ' repre sent' tion is 5le'rl y in'de Au'te ( sin5e the N* these nice Dren ch stude nts o"

)#22..
*.c. D ;*&.*

P .

E)<

+dIecti2e phrase9 Ad4* +dI

'nd th't 'll 2our Modi 2iers 're o2 eAu'l r'n/% Ho& e4er( se ' nti5' lly Ei%e% &ith respe 5t to

#ng lish "ro m Pari s does not e' n th't thes e stud ents &er e E'< ni5e ( 'nd Eb< Fren 5h( 'nd E5< o2 En#l ish 'nd Ed< 2ro *'ri s% R'th er( the N* e' ns th't thes e stud

ents &ere E'< stud ents o2 En#l ish( Eb< th't Fthe se stud ents o2 En#l ish3 &ere Fren 5h( E5< th't Fthe se Fren 5h stud ents o2 En#l ish3 &ere 2ro *'ri s( 'nd th't Ed< Fthe se Fren 5h stud ents

o2 En#lish 2ro *'ris3 &ere ni5e% 9here is thus 'n intern'l hier'r5hy ' on# the Modi2iersG o" #nglish, 2or e7' ple( is u5h ore 5losely 'sso5i'ted &ith the N students, th'n Drench9 the strin# students o" #nglish is one unit( &hi5h is odi2ied by Drench. $n its turn( the strin# Drench students o" #nglish is odi2ied by "rom Paris, 'nd 2in'lly the strin# Drench students o" #nglish "rom Paris is odi2ied by ni5e% 9his hier'r5hy is 5on2ir ed

by the 2'5t th't the order o2 Ad;*( 'nd Ad;*( 'nd th't o2 **1 'nd **+ is 2'irly 2i7ed? E,< = 9hese Fren5h ni5e students o2 En#lish 2ro *'ris% U9h

build 8up? E"<

) p
,

2 L E n # l i s h L L or in ' tree di'# r' repr esen t'tio n? L E><

F K
N

r e n

( t h e s e

5 h

E)<
Fren5h

ese ni5e students 2ro *'ris U9h o2 En#lish%

K 7 p
'

2 r o

E5<
ni5e

s t u d

ese Fren5h students 2ro *'ris o2 En#lish% Dsin# l'belled br'5/etin# &e 'rri4e 't the 2ollo&in#

n i 5 e

e n t s

* ' r i s

$s there 'ny 2urther oti4'tion to support ' hier'r5hi5'l stru5ture su5h 's th't in E"< 'nd E><= Re e be r th't one type o2 'r#u ent put 2or&'rd 2or 5onstituent stru5ture is th't o2 substitution ? pro82or s substitute 2or 5onstituents % $n En#lish there is one type o2 substitution &hi5h typi5'lly 'y '22e5t 5onstituents intern'l to N*s( 5'lled onesu,stitutio n& Consider( 2or e7' ple( E8'< 'nd E8b<? E8'< thes e ni5e

Fren5h students 'nd those ni5e En#lish ones%

E8b<
e ni5e Fren5h

thes

students 'nd those '&2ul ones% $n E8'< ones st'nds 2or students, 'n N% @b4iously( le7i5'l 5'te#ories 're 5onstituents Ei%e% units< 't so e le4elG they 're the ini 'l 5onstituents o2 synt'7% $n E8b<( on the other h'nd( ones st'nds 2or Drench students, i%e% the seAuen5e KAd;*8NL% -in5e one8 substitution '22e5ts this

strin #( it 'y 'lso be 5onsi dere d ' 5onst ituen t% *r o4isi on'll y( &e 'y s'y th't one subst itutes 2or eithe r' He'd N( or ' He'd N 'nd one or ore Modi 2iers% As E8b< sho& s( one8 subst itutio n 'y(

but need not( '22e5 t Ad;* s% -i il 'rly( one8 subst itutio n 'y( but need not( '22e5 t **s E&ith one ';o r e75e ption &hi5 h &e sh'll 5o e to i e di'tel y<? E9< these ni5e stude nts 2ro Fr'n 5e 'nd those '&2u l

ones 2ro $t'ly 6on es > stud ents <% ! et us re tu rn o n5 e or e to th e e7 ' pl e in E1 <( re

nu be re d he re 's E1 0< ? E1 0< 9 he se ni 5e Fr en 5h st ud en ts o2 E n# lis h

2ro *'ris% @ne8 substitution( 's &e h'4e seen( 'y '22e5t 5onstituents 't ore th'n one le4el in the represent'ti on% For e7' ple( i2 E10< is 5on;oined &ith E10'<8 E10d< belo&( &e 2ind th't in e'5h 5'se one6s8 re2ers to ' 5onstituent 't ' di22erent le4el E52% E>< 'bo4e<?

'&2 ul ones 6one s9 Fren 5h stud ents o2 En#l ish 2ro *'ri sS T*(< El@5< 'nd thos e inter estin # ones 2ro 1ou lo#n e 6one s9 Fren 5h stud ents

o2 En#li sh S T*,< E10d< 'nd those e75it in# $t'li'

n ones 6one s9 stude nts o2 En#li sh S T*(<

E10'<

'nd those ones 6ones9 ni5e Fren5h students o2 En#lish 2ro *'ris S
T*

1)

'nd thos e

19+ Oe2els o" (tructure Oe2els o" (tructure 19,

E10'<8E10d< sho& th't the le4el &hi5h one8substitution '22e5ts is not 2i7ed% Ho&e4er( 5onsider the un#r' 'ti5'l E10e<? El0e< U'nd the e75itin# Gree/ ones o2 'the 'ti5s 2ro Athens% $n the l'st e7' ple ones is e'nt to repl'5e only the He'd N students, le'4in# the ** 1 un'22e5ted% 9his 'pp'rently is i possible? ** 1 ust be '22e5ted by one8substitution% Ho&e4er( it &ould not be 5orre5t to 5l'i th't the 2irst ** '2ter the He'd N is 'l&'ys '22e5ted by one8substitution either? E11< the students 2ro *'ris shirts 'nd the ones 2ro Gree5e in the &hite in the blue shirts%

stru5ture pro4ision'lly posited in E><( 2ollo&s?

'y no& be represented 's

$n E11< ones only '22e5ts the He'd N students. @n the b'sis o2 the e7' ples 'bo4e it see s th't one8substitution '22e5ts the He'd N 'nd option'lly one or ore o2 'ny odi2iers in the N*( but 'lso th't it obli#'torily '22e5ts 5onstituents o2 ' 5ert'in /ind su5h 's **1 in E10<% $2 &e return on5e ore to the e7' ple &e see th't **1 o" #nglish in 2'5t is not 'n ordin'ry *ost odi2ier% ** 1 r'ther '5ts li/e ' Co ple ent% 9he N* students o" #nglish 5orresponds to the :* study #nglish, &here #nglish is ' 5o ple ent o2 :% !i/e :s( Ns 'lso 'y t'/e ' Co ple ent( 'nd this Co ple ent Ehere re'lised by ' **< is u5h ore 5losely lin/ed to the N th'n the Modi2iers% Dnli/e :erb Co ple ents( ho&e4er( Noun Co ple ents 're synt'5ti5'lly option'l% >%+%, !A.ER$NG @n the b'sis o2 one8substitution &e 'y 'ssu e th't there 're #ood # rounds 2or distin#uishin# t&o types o2 ** '2ter the He'd N? E1< the ordin'ry *ost odi2iers( E+< the Co ple ent8li/e ele ents &hi5h 're 5losely lin/ed to the N( li/e sub5'te#orised 5'te#ories in :*% ;ne! substitution obli#'torily '22e5ts the He'd N 'nd 'ny Co ple ent8li/e ele ent% @ne8substitution 'y( but need not( in4ol4e 2urther *re odi2iers 'nd *ost odi2iers% 9he unit 5onsistin# o2 ' He'd N 'nd its Co ple ents ET*( 'bo4e< is o2ten indi5'ted 's N EN8b'r< or N3 EN8pri e<% c is the 2irst (ro6ection o2 N% N 'y 2urther 5o bine &ith other Modi2iers 'nd 2in'lly &ith DetJ-pe5 to 2or hi#her le4els o2 stru5ture indi5'ted by N% 9he

EP. AdFP:

)0-s-

*#c-

7;-*c0

s/+d-*/s

o. E*G,#s0

c 'nd c 're pro;e5tions o2 NG the hi#hest N is 5'lled the ma%imal (ro;e5tionG other le4els bet&een N 'nd the '7i 'l pro;e5tion 're 5'lled inter edi'te pro;e5tions% 9ree di'#r' E1+< 5'n he 5on4erted into ' l'belled br'5/etin#? E1,< K t h e s e K#ni5e 2ro KGFren5h Ktistudents o2 En#lishLL

*'risL L L >%+%) @NE8W@RD *HRA-E-

@2 5ourse( not 'll N*s h'4e *re odi2iers or *ost odi2iers( or N8 Co ple ents% Ho&e4er( &e h'4e sho&n E+%)%+%,< th't sin#le8&ord phr'ses 6chocolate, mil4, et5%< 're 'lso to be tre'ted 's N*s% 9hese one8&ord phr'ses 5'n thus 'lso he #i4en ' l'yered stru5ture? E1)< N

Det N

5ho5ol'te

19) Oe2els o" (tructure Oe2els o" (tructure 195

C.4 P?EPO9I)IONAL P4?A9E9 1y 'n'lo#y( the distin5tion bet&een le4els o2 pro;e5tion in N* 'nd :* 5'n 'lso be e7tended to **s% A#'in &e i#ht distin#uish the le4el o2 * C Co ple ent Ei%e% *< 2ro ' hi#her le4el o2 pro;e5tion in &hi5h 2urther Ad;un5ts or Modi2iers 're in5luded E*<% 9'/e( 2or e7' ple( the ** in E1<? E1< Kp2urther Kpinto the roo L th'n 1illL

3
C.8 VE?B P4?A9E9 7.3.1 LAYERING I N #PS 9he su##estion put 2or&'rd 2or l'yerin# N*s 5'n be e7tended to :*s% Here '#'in &e distin#uish bet&een the le4el 5o prisin# the He'd 'nd its Co ple ents E:< 'nd hi#her pro;e5tions 5o prisin# : 'nd 'ny option'l Ad;un5t phr'ses E:<% For e7' ple( the :* bought a car last 0ee4 h's the 2ollo&in# stru5ture? E1< Tns

's in @eorge 2entured "urther into the room than )ill. $n E1< the room is the *rep5( into is the He'd *( 'nd the dis5ontinuous strin# "urther ... than )ill 'y be t'/en 's ' redu5ed 2or o2 "urther ... than )ill 2entured, &ith ellipsis o2 2entured. $2 &e t'/e "urther 's ' -pe5i2ier pre5edin# *( then than )ill is dire5tly lin/ed to this -pe5( 'nd is 5le'rly less inherently lin/ed to * th'n the N* the room is% We i#ht present the intern'l stru5ture o2 the ** 's 2ollo&s?
7 . 3 . 2 FORMAL E#IDENCE

$s there 'ny 2or 'l e4iden5e to support the stru5ture 'bo4e= With respe5t to N*s &e used one8substitution 's e4iden5e 2or intern'l l'yerin#G 2or :*s &e 'y( by 'n'lo#y( use do!so substitution to 5on2ir the stru5ture% A#'in do!so substitution ini 'lly '22e5ts the : C Co ple entEs<% Consider? E,< E)< E5< Iohn bou#ht ' 5'r l'st &ee/ 'nd M'ry did so the &ee/ be2ore% 6did so? bou#ht ' 5'r< Iohn bou#ht ' 5'r l'st &ee/ 'nd M'ry did so too% 6did so9 bou#ht ' 5'r l'st &ee/< UIohn bou#ht ' 5'r l'st &ee/ 'nd M'ry did so ' be2ore% EUdid so? bou#ht<
# P<s& 7$= < +<*

otor bi/e the &ee/

or in l'belled br'5/etin#? E+<

NP

KF%*'st

K4buy ' 5'rL l'st &ee/L L

NP

E +<

so e *( or 2or 'n -% A#'in &e i#ht 5onsider Ad!C sub5'te#orised ** 's Ad;( 'nd tre't 2urther Modi2iers or -pe5i2iers 's Ad;8ele ents% $n the Ad;*s belo& the Ad; is it'li5ised( 'nd 2urther ele ents 're Ad;ele ents? E,< E)<
E> < E8< E9< Ad;*s E10<

su22i5iently a0are o" the danger to do so ethin# as a"raid o" nuclear 0ar as her 2'ther $n >%5%1 'bo4e &e h'4e introdu5ed dis5ontinuous strin#s in Ad;*s% 9hese 're ele ents &hi5h belon# to#ether( but &hi5h 're sep'r'ted by inter4enin# 'teri'l% $n the 2ollo&in# e7' ples su5h dis5ontinuous strin#s 're it'li5ised? He is too ni5e to do such a thing. -us'n is more ' bitious than her brother. 9his boy is less intelli#ent than his younger

E1

E1

8$*&'(*

,;&6

9he tree di'#r' is e'nt to su##est th't "urther 'nd than )ill 2or dis5ontinuous unit( 'nd 're to be interpreted to#ether%

'

9he stru5ture 'y be represented in ' tree di'#r' Esi pli2ied<?

C.H A@DE!)IVE P4?A9E9 7.".1 COMPLEMENTS OF ADIS We h'4e seen th't Ad;s( li/e :s( t'/e Co ple ents% Dnli/e :8 Co ple ents( Ad;8Co ple ents in En#lish 5'nnot be N*s( but ust be re'lised by **s or -s% For e7' ple? El'< U'&'re the d'n#er Elb< El5< 19" E+'< E+b E+5< '&'re o2 the d'n#er '&'re th't she &'s in d'n#er Oe2els o" (tructure U'2r'id nu5le'r &'r '2r'id o2 nu5le'r &'r '2r'id th't they i#ht st'rt ' nu5le'r &'r
UHe is ' too nice to do such a thing U.ou &ill not 2ind a more ambitious 'n%
Ad<

Ad 4

Ad 2

(u22i5ientiy

'&'re

E5<

Note th't the non82inite 5l'use l'5/s ' le7i5'l -ub;e5t 'nd 'lso l'5/s the 5o ple entiser "or9 6 8 is ' -ub;e5t 5ontrolled by so e other ele ent in -% For e7' ple?

E1+< E1,<

than (usan #irl% Ho&e4er( it is possible to 2ind the 2ull Ad;* 's ' *ost odi2ier?

9he Ad;s 'bo4e 5'n be s'id to sub5'te#orise 2or ' ** introdu5ed by

sister. 'y E"< M'ry &'s be split up su22i5iently '&'re o2 the d'n#er E < to do so ethin#% by the N HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH they 1 odi2y? 7.".2 DISCONTINUOUS He is too nice a STRINGS such a thing.

'n to do

C.> A@VE?B P4?A9E9 $t &ould be di22i5ult to e7tend the 'n'lysis proposed here to Ad4*s sin5e( 's &e h'4e seen in +%)%"( they l'5/ ' Co ple ent% C.C 9A((INI AP: LAEE?E@ 9)?A!)A?E $n Ch'pter , &e h'4e su##ested th't one &'y o2 t'l/in# 'bout phr's'l -pe5i2iers? 5'te8 #ories is to set up ' #ener'l s5he ' in &hi5h T* st'nds 2or 'ny 5'te#ory o2 the phr's'l le4el( 'nd T 2or the le7i5'l He'd o2 the phr'se?

; We see no& th't the s5he ' i#ht he e7p'nded 'nd re2ined by introdu5in# the b'r not'tion 2or inter edi'te pro;e5tions? phr'ses h'4e di22erent pro;e5tions?

E'< the T8le4el

i edi'tely do in'tes He'ds 'nd their Co ple ents? Eb< the T8le4el i edi'tely do in'tes T 'nd Modi2iersJAd;un5ts 'nd S 7

T * p e 5 8 T 8 M o d 2 A d 7 C o p l e e n l E s <

1 9 8

6 r

i
O e 2 e l s

r
o "

u l e

( t r u c t u r e

s "

E'< X &S3e*%#X## &PIodH%

&!% X # X#0om3lement&s%.

7 .1 EXER CISE

Dis*uss the stru*ture of the 3hrases !elow.

E1< E+<

@ohn - s une)3e*tedl, se1ere *riti*ism of the 3la, the re*ent otta*2s on Ceirut !, the re1iew of the 3la, !, that famous author from 7ran*e whi*h a33eared in the Sunda, Times :em!rondt-s famous 3ainting of Israel

E,< E)<
Sas2ia

E5< E"< E>< E8<

the man with a s*ar who *ame to dinner last wee2 the !est Dut*h *lassi*al musi* of the se1enteenth *entur, suffi*ientl, aware of the 3ro!lem to ad1ise us what to do waiting for his wife in the hotel lounge after the re*e3tion &DH too e)*ited a!out the tri3 to remem!er to ta2e his 3ass3ort &/E% the Ameri*an in1asion of 3ea*eful Grenada in the autumn of /D4(

*lause /'' affi) 8, /E/, /E', /E9 agent /4, <<, /((, /(8 agent#less 3assi1e /((, /(8 agreement <D, =/, =' analog, 8 ante*edent 8 anti*i3ator, o!Be*t &od% /8' anti*i3ator, su!Be*t &su% /(= a33ositi1e *lause 8/. /'8#< arrow // arti*le (<. 94 au)iliar, 8=, 8D. 9E. 9D. /E8, /E9. /(E. /((, /(<. /=9 au)iliar, element 8=, <D, /E9 !a*2ground ' !a*2ward ga33ing /99 !ar D/. /D= !are infiniti1e ((, /9= !ase D, <E !inder I / l !inding 8. (D, / //. //4, //D, /<8 !ound (D. ///, /<D !ra*2eting =, 4 !ran*h // !,#3hrase /((, /(8 *ase (, () *ase# assignment (

INDEX
199

a**e3ta!ilit, '', '( a*ti1e senten*e /4. /(', /(( a*ti1it, /4, $$ adBe*ti1e &AdB% 9(, 98, %&' $0. /<= adBe*ti1e 3hrase &AdB % (=, 9(. 98, D4, I44,/D9#= adBun*t 8<, =/, 4I, 4(, DD, //(, /=4, /D= ad1er! &Ad1% 99. 9<, <E ad1er! 3hrase &Ad1 % 9(. 99. 9<. =9, D4, /4D, /D= ad1er!ial =9 ad1er!ial adBun*t &A% 49, 4D, /49 ad1er!ial *om3lement &A*% =9, =D, 4' ad1er!ial relati1e

*ategor, ( *ategor, la!el 4 *entral determiner (= *hain /(= *lausal *onstituent /44 *lause 9#D, //, /9, '=, 'D, <8. D8, /44 *left senten*e /= *lefting /<#/4, /E', /9E, /9/ *losed set 8E *oinde)ing (, 8

06; &slot% (E, ((, </, D/, //8#/<, /'' *om3arati1e degree <E *om3eten*e 9< *om3lement D, 8(, 89, 8<, 9/, 9(, </, <9, =/, 4/, DD, /D', /D= *om3lementation ( *om3lementiser ((, </, D/, //8, I''. /<E#' *om3le) senten*e '=, 'D *om3le) transiti1e 1er! 89, =D, 4'. D9 *om3ound senten*e '<, '=, 'D *om3ound#*om3le) senten*e '4, /98 *onBoin '=, '4 *onBun*tion </ *onstituen*, test /9, '/, '8. 8E *onstituent 9, /E, //, /(, /9, /=. /D, '/, '8, '4, 4/, D4, /44 *onstituent stru*ture (, 8, /E, '/. *4 *onte)t /8, 94, /98 *ontrol D<, /<', /<4#=( *ontrol adBe*ti1e /=( *ontrol 1er! /<D *oordinate *lause <, '=. '4 *oordinator <. 4, '=, '4, </ *o3ula 89. =/, =', =9, 4' *o#referential /4, (&' /98 dati1e#mo1ement <= de*larati1e senten*e '9. '<, 84. /E(, /E8 dee3 &D#% stru*ture '#8, /E/ degrees of *om3arison <E deletion '4, 'D, (/, /'E,

/'/, /99. /</, /4E demonstrati1e 3ronoun (=, 8E determiner &De&% D, (=, DD dire*t o!Be*t &6d% =', =( dire*t Auestion /E( dis*ontinuous N /84 dis*ontinuous string /D< dis*ourse /8 dis*ourse grammar /8 distri!ution ($' 9=, 94 ditransiti1e 1er! 89, =(, =8, 4' do#insertion 4&. 9E, /E9#= dominan*e //, /(, <= dumm, element 8D, /(=, /8< e*ho#Auestion /// -ed 3arti*i3le ((, /9= elli3sis <8, /98#< em!edded senten*e /', '=, D/#(, D<, //8, /'/ em3t, 3osition (, D<, /ED em3t, su!Be*t &$' /<<

2GG Inde. Inde. +01

E-982r' e&or/ +8) e7istenti'l senten5e 1)" e7p'nsion 10( $$ e7tr'5tion site 111 e7tr'position ,( 1,> e7tr'position 2ro N* 1)>( 1)8 2e'ture $09 2inite ,,( )" 2inite 5l'use "9( 1+>( 1588"0 2inite 4erb Ephr'se< )( ,,( )> 2irst 'u7ili'ry )8( )9 2l't stru5ture 189891 2o5us 1,> 2o5usin# 85( 9, 2o5us8position 1,>( 1,8( 1), "or E's 5o ple entiser< 1"0( 1"+( 1",( 1"9( 19" "or... to 2ilter 1+9( 1"+( 11,,( 1"" 2or 1" 2ree rel'ti4e 5l'use 1+, 2rontin# 1"( 19( 10+( 1,0 2un5tion see #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tion #'ppin# 155( 180 #ender ,8 #eniti4e 9( ,> #erund ,) #r' 'r 15 #r' 'ti5'l 5'te#ory 5 #r' 'ti5'l 2un5tion )( 5% ""8 100 #r' 'ti5'l sub;e5t Esu< 1,>% 1,8 he'd EH< ,"( ,>( )1% )+% )8% 51( 5,( 55( "0( "1( 99( 19> he'4y ob;e5t8shi2t 1)8( 1)9 i edi'te 5onstituent 10% 15 i edi'te do in'n5e .." 1,( ">( "8 inde2inite 5ontrol 1>+ indire5t ob;e5t E01< "8( >,( >) indire5t Auestion 10,(

11,81" indire5t &h8 Auestion 11)% 115 indire5t yes!no Auestion 11,( 11) 8M# p'rti5iple ,,( 15> inter edi'te pro;e5tion I!3" $9> interro#'ti4e 'd4erbs 15+ interro#'ti4e pronouns )( 15+ interro#'ti4e senten5e +5% +"( 10,( 10) intr'nsiti4e 4erb )5( >)( >>( 8+ in4ersion )8( )9 it8e7tr'position 91% .3#-#3" 1"" in '5ti4e senten5es 1,>% 1,8 in p'ssi4e senten5es 1,58> in 4erbless 5l'uses 1)0( 1)1 &ith non8 2inite 5l'uses 1,8( 1,9 &ith ob;e5t 5l'uses 1)18, /ernel o2 the N* )+ l'belled br'5/etin# 8810( +5 19+( 19, l'yerin# 1 1

non8ter in'l node 11 nor8insertion )9 notion'l ob;e5t E@d< 1)+ notion'l sub;e5t E-u< 1,>% 1,5( 1)" noun EN< ,( 9( ,"% 58 noun phr'se EN*< "% 9% 15( ,58 8( )1% )+% 98( 11>% 1+5( 1+>( 15"( 188% 18989, nu ber 3B" 58( "9 nu er'l ,> ob;e5t )( ,9( >,( 1,+ ob;e5t 5ontrol 1>1 o issibility 81 one8substitution .!." 19+ one8&ord phr'se )0( 19, open85l'ss ele ent ,>( )0 o4ert ele ent 1+8 p'r'#r'ph +1 p'rsin# 1 p'rti5ip'nt "" p'rti5le 1,0( 180( 185 p'ssi4e senten5e 18( 1,18) p'ssi4e 4oi5e )>( )8

1 1 le2t&'rd o4e ent+8)( le4els o2 stru5ture .A" 188 le7i5'l 5'te#ory 188( 191 le7i5'l ite ,( 11 le7i5'l 4erb 50( 59( "5( "9( 1>5 le7i5on +8) lin#uisti5 5o peten5e 5" lo#i5'l 2or +8) lon# &h8 o4e ent 115( 11" 'in 4erb 59 'r/ed +, 't5hin# 5ondition , '7i 'l pro;e5tion 19, e'nin# 1"( "5 e'nin# o2 rel'ti4e 5l'uses 119( 1+0 od'l E'u7ili'ry< )>( 50( 99( 10) odi2ier EMod< 3&, 8)( 99( 159( 190( 19+( 19> onotr'nsiti4e 4erb )5( >,( 80( 8+ orphe e 588 o4e ent , ne#'tion )9( 50 noe $$( 159 non82inite 5l'use ,,( ,)( 9"( 1+>( 1"08+( 1>0( 1>1 non8le7i5'l sub;e5t 1"8( 1"9 non8o4ert ele ent 1+8 non8restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'use 1+0( 1+,( 1+>

p'ssi4is'tion ,( 1"( 18( ,0( >,( 10+( 1,$8)% 1",( 1") p'st tense 9( )" p'tient 18( "" per2e5t 'spe5t )> phoneti5 2or +( , phr's'l 5'te#ory 188% 19> phr's'l 4erb "5( 1,0% 180( 181( 18)8" phr's'l8 preposition'l 4erb 18"( 18> phr'se 588( ,5 phr'se stru5ture rule E*- rule< +( ,( 1081,( 101( 198 pied8pipin# 111% 11-% 119 plur'l 9% ,8% 58( "9 possessi4e pronoun ,>( )0 postdeter iner E*ostdet< ,> post odi2ier E*osh8nod< )1( 11>( 19+( 19> postposition 5+( "1 pr'# 'ti5s ) predeter iner E*redet< ,> predi5'te E*red< ")( >0 predi5'ti4e 'd;un5t E*8i8A< 8"88 predi5'ti4e 5o ple ent E*5< >1% >+( >9 pi8 odi2ier E*re od< ,>% 19+ preposin# 19 preposition E*< 51( "1( 1 11( 11+% 1>"% 18" preposition str'ndin# 111( 11+% 118( 1+1 preposition'l 5o ple ent E*rep5< 51% 1>" preposition'l idio 18" preposition'l phr'se E**< )1% 51% 5+( "1( 85( 99% 111% 11+( 1>"( 1>>( 188% 195 preposition'l 4erb 18+8> present tense )"( )8 pri e 19+ pro5ess 1"% 1>% 10+ pro2orrn ,8% ),( $0+( 15+ pro#ressi4e 'spe5t )>( )8 pro;e5tion 188% 19+( 19> pro;e5tion prin5iple ) prono in'lis'tion 1"% 18% 19% ,0% 10, pronoun 18% ,>% ,8

proper noun 58 pseudo85le2tin# 1"818( ,0% 10+( 151% 15+ Auestion "9% 10+( 10,( 11) Auestion 2or 'tion 50( 10+( 115 r'isin# ,( 1",88 &ith intr'nsiti4e 4erbs 'nd &ith 'd;e5ti4es 1"58> &ith p'ssi4e 4erbs 1",85 re'n'lysis 1>5 redu5ed rel'ti4e 5l'use 1+"89 re2erent ,"( 1+0( 1+, re2le7i4e pronoun )( 3!" 1"9 re2le7i4is'tion 1"9 rel'ti4e 5l'use )1% 1$"8+5( 1+>( 185 rel'ti4e pronoun )( )1( ..!" 1+0% 1+5( 185

restri5ti4e rel'ti4e 5l'use 1+0( 1+1( 1+)( 1+> restru5turin# 1>5 ret'ined 5l'use 1")( 1"" role 18 -8stru5ture +8) se 'nti5s ) senten5e E-< 589( 11( 1,815( +1( +)89( >0( 1+1( 1,> senten5e 'd;un5t E-'< >0( 85( 9, senten5e #r' 'r 1) senten5e stru5ture 5% "( 9( 10% +1 si ple senten5e +9 sin#ul'r ,8( 58( "9 s 'll 5l'use see 4erbless 5l'use spe5i2ier E-pe5< ,"% ,>( )>( )8( 5+( 99( 19> str'nded tense8 'r/er 10" sub5't5#oris'tion 2r' e )( )5( "5( ""( >)( >8( 108 sub;e5t E-u< )% ,9( ")( "8( >1% 9"% 10)( 1,,( 1,"( 1,> sub;e5t8'u7 in4ersion E-A1< ,( "9% 10,85( 115( 118% 1)5 sub;e5t 5ontrol 1"+% 1>1( 1>+ sub;e5t deletion $5) sub;e5t84erb in4ersion E-:$< 1),85 subordin'te 5l'use 1,% +>% +8( 9"% 11)( 15>8"1 subordin'tion 1181, subordin'tor +8% ,0( "1 substitution )( 18% >0( 15+8) su22i7 9( )>( )8( "0 superl'ti4e de#ree "0 sur2'5e stru5ture )( 10+( $0) synt'5ti5 5'te#ory , synt'7 i( +( 5% "% 1,815( +,

t'# 2or 'tion 50 t'# Auestion 50 tense 'r/in# #6" 10" ter in'l node 1 1 te7t .#" 15% +1 te7t #r' 'r 1) that 's 5o ple entiser ,0( ,1( "1% 11)( 1+1( 1+, in 'ppositi4e 5l'uses 1+5( 1+" in rel'ti4e 5l'uses 1++% 1+, there8 insertion 1)58> thet' 5riterion , to8in2initi4e ,,( 15> tr'5e theory , tr'ns2or 'tion ,( 10) tr'nsiti4e 4erb )5( >>( 8+% 1,+ tree di'#r' 1081,( +5( ")( 159( 1>>( 18) tri'n#le , tri##ered pro5esses .A6" $$$( $ $-% 1,0( 1),( 1")( 1">