Electronics is an engineering discipline that involves the design and analysis ofelectronic circuits.

Originally, this subject was referred to as radio engineering. An electronic circuit is a collection of components through which electrical current can flow or which use electromagnetic fields in their operation. The electronic circuit design and analysis rests primarily on two Kirchoff's laws in conjunction with Ohm's law modified for AC circuits and power relationships. There are also a number of network theorems and methods (such as Thevenin, Norton, Superposition, Y-Delta transform) that are consequences of these three laws. In order to simplify calculations in AC circuits, sinusoidal voltage and current are usually represented as complex-valued functions called phasors. Practical circuit design and analysis also requires a comprehensive understanding of semiconductor devices, integrated circuits and magnetics. Here you will also find electricity and magnetism reference, basic electrical engineering formulas, calculators, and other related information. Also see: Electrical Engineering Reference: circuit laws and theorems; Search online degree programs and courses from accredited schools; The guides to distance learning and online schools.
FORMULAS FOR THE BASIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS IMPEDANCE CIRCUIT ELEMENT RESISTANC E INDUCTANC E CAPACITAN CE VOLT-AMP EQUATIONS RMS values for sinusoidal signals Vrms=IrmsR Vrms=Irms2fL Vrms=Irms/(2fC) ENERGY (dissipated on R or stored in L, C) E=Irms2Rt E=Li2/2 E=Cv2/2

comple instantaneou absolute x s value form values R 2fL 1/(2fC) R jL 1/jC v=iR v=Ldi/dt i=Cdv/dt

Notes: R- resistance in ohms, L- inductance in henrys, C- capacitance in farads, f - frequency in hertz, t- time in seconds, 3.14159; =2f - angular frequency; j - imaginary unit ( j2=-1 ) Euler's formula: ejx=cosx+jsinx

EQUATIONS FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS CIRCUIT SERIES PARALLEL

ELEMENT

CONNECTION

CONNECTION Rparallel= 1/ (1/R1+1/R2+.. .)

RESISTANC E

Rseries= R1+R2+...

INDUCTANC E

Lseries= L1+L2+...

Lparallel= 1/ (1/L1+1/L2+... )

CAPACITAN CE

Cseries= 1/ (1/C1+1/C2+ ...)

Cparallel= C1+C2+...

CALCULATIONS OF EQUIVALENT RLC IMPEDANCES CIRCUIT CONNECTION COMPLEX FORM ABSOLUTE VALUE

Z=R+jL+1/jC Series

Z= 1/(1/R+1/jL+jC) Parallel Note: you can download a reference sheet with these and other formulas in pdf file.

TRANSISTORS AND DIODES: THE BASICS

The properties of semiconductor devices are studied in college courses. The introduction to the circuits including operation of diodes and transistors and basic formulas can be found in various textbooks or handbooks, such as The Art of Electronics. Below are some highlights.

The I-V characteristic of a diode is approximated by the Shockley equation: I=Is(enVd/Vt-1), where Is - the reverse bias saturation current (~1015 to 1012 A for Silicon); Vd - voltage drop in volts; Vt - the thermal voltage (~0.026V at room temperature), n - the "ideality factor" (from 1 to 2). At a fixed current I, forward voltage drop changes by about -2 mV/oC. In a bipolar transistor collector current Ic in a linear mode is related to the base-emitter voltage by the same Shockley (also called Ebers-Moll) equation, except for n=1. The collector current relates to the base current IB by Ic=IBh21, where h21 - static current gain (typically 20-1000)). When Ic reaches a limit determined by the supply voltage and the net external impedance in the collector circuit, the transistor is saturated. MOSFET's behavior varies with the gate voltage Vg. When Vg<Vth, where Vth - gate threshold voltage, the MOSFET is in OFF state with drain current Id0. When Vg>Vth and the external load is such that Vd>Vg-Vth, the MOSFET is in an active region, in which Id is proportional to the (Vg-Vth)2 and practically does not depend on the Vd. Once Id reaches certain limit determined by an external circuit, MOSFET start acting as a nearly constant resistance. In this mode VdsIdRdson, where Rdson - the ON-state channel's resistance specified in data sheets as a function primarily of temperature and gate voltage. Power MOSFETs are usually used as switching devices which operate in either ON or OFF state.

Voltage: Enter the source nominal voltage. Use the larger voltage of the system. Example: For a 120/240V Use 240V Square Footage: easure the total s!uare footage of the occupancy using the outsi"e "imensions. #o not inclu"e open porches$ unuse" or unfinishe" spaces not a"apta%le for future use. Small Appliance Branch Circuits: Enter the num%er of small appliance %ranch circuits. &t least 2 are re!uire" for "'elling units.210(11)c*)1*Appliance Branch Circuit ( & %ranch circuit that supplies energy to one or more outlets to 'hich appliances are to %e connecte"$ an" that has no permanently connecte" lighting fixtures that are not part of an appliance. Laundry Branch Circuits: Enter the num%er of laun"ry %ranch circuits. &t least 1 is re!uire" for "'elling units. 210(11)c*)2* Fastened In Place Appliances: Use Volt &mps or +atts. ,hese are appliances you can not pic- up an" carry out of the house 'ithout using some -in" of tool. Examples of fastene" in place appliances: electric 'ater heater$ attic fan$ "isposal$ trash compactor an" "ish 'asher. #o not inclu"e electric ranges$ air con"itioners$ clothes "ryers or space heaters. Use the nameplate ratings. .orse po'er ratings shoul" %e converte" to &mps using ,4/0.140$ then converte" to V& %y multiplying %y the rate" voltage )i.e. 120 volts* Clothes Dryers:)optional* Enter the rating in volt amps. & clothes "ryer is not re!uire". 1f there 'ill %e no clothes "ryers then enter a 2ero. ,he minimum rating is 3000va so$ use 3000va or the name plate rating 'hich ever is larger. 1f your rating is liste" in -+ then multiply that rating %y 1000. for example 4-+ 5 4000va. ,he neutral loa" 'ill %e calculate" at 607 of the "ryer loa". !ousehold Coo"ing Appliances:)optional* Enter in "ilo #atts the househol" coo-ing appliances rate" over 1.63-+. Examples of .ousehol" coo-ing appliances are 8anges$ 9vens$ :oo-tops rate" over 1.63-+. 1f there 'ill %e no househol" coo-ing appliances over 1.63-' then s-ip this section. ,he neutral loa" 'ill %e calculate" at 607 of the total calculate" loa". !eating or Air Conditioning: Enter in volt amps the larger of either the ac or heating loa"s. For example you have central system comprising of an &: compressor)4000va*$ con"enser fan)240va*$ air han"ler)/43va* an" heat coils)13000va*. ;ou also have a space heater)/300va*. <o' 'hat is the largest loa" that 'ill %e running at any time= +ill it %e 'hen you run the heating or the &:= ;ou can eliminate one since you 'ill not %e using %oth at the same time. +hen the &: is %eing use" the compressor$ con"enser$ an" air han"ler 'ill %e running. ,his gives us a total &: loa" of $%&%va.

,he total heating loa" is the sum of the heat coils$ air han"ler an" the space heater 'hich in this case is '&&$%va. 1 'oul" enter 10043 an" select the .eater %utton. 1f your compressor also serves as a heat pump it shoul" %e a""e" to the heating loa". !eating or Air Conditioning (eutral: Enter the neutral loa" in Volt &mps. ,his is the same as the 120V loa". Example: &n &: system usually consists of a con"enser fan motor)200(240V*$ compressor motor)200(240V* an" a %lo'er motor)120V*. 1n this case 1 only nee" the Volt(&mps of the %lo'er motor. Use the nameplate ratings. .orse po'er ratings shoul" %e converte" to &mps using ,4/0.140$ then converte" to V& %y multiplying %y the rate" voltage )ie 120 volts*. & 1/2 horse motor is a large common %lo'er motor. ,he same is true 'ith heating fin" all the 120V loa"s in the system an" a"" them up. For this calculation +atts are the same as Volt(&mps. Largest )otor: Enter in volt amps the larges motor. 1n most cases this 'ill %e the &: compressor. 1f this motor is only liste" in horse po'er it shoul" %e converte" to &mps using ,4/0.140$ then converte" to V& %y multiplying %y the rate" voltage )ie 120 volts*. 1f this is a 120V motor chec- the neutral %ox.

MAGNETIC UNITS CONVERSION

DEFINITIONS, ONLINE CALCULATORS, EQUATIONS IN SI AND CGS

Magnetic field
is one of two components of the electromagnetic field. It is a region where forces acting on moving electric charges can be detected. Magnetic fields are created by moving electric charges or variable electric field. The charge movement that creates magnetic field may be macroscopic (currents in conductors), or microscopic (associated with spin and orbital motion of electrons, resulting in "magnetic materials"). The SI unit for magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). If the magnetic flux changes by 1 Wb over a time of 1s, then a voltage of 1 V is induced in a conductive loop encircling it: 1 Wb = 1 Vs. The SI unit for magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) B is tesla (T): 1 T = 1 Wb/m2 = 1 Vs/m2. Magnetic field with density of 1 T generates one newton of force per ampere of current per meter of conductor. When the magnetic fields generated by currents pass through some materials they produce magnetization in the direction of the applied field. In ferromagnetics it results in increased total field B. Quantity called magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force) H is a measure of the applied magnetic field from external currents, independent of the material's magnetic response. Quantity called magnetisation M defines the material's response- it is magnetic moment per unit volume of material. Flux density (magnetic induction) B describes the resulting field in the material. In power electronics it is the main magnetic quantity used in calculation of the minimum required crosssectional area of power transformer cores for given voltage and frequency (see also: engineering reference info on power transformer design). The table below provides magnetic formulas in both SI and CGS systems and conversion factors of magnetic units.

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY UNIT CONVERSION CALCULATOR

Top of Form

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGT CONVERSION CALCULAT

Top of Form

tesla [T]: gauss [Gs, G]: weber/square meter:

ampere/meter [A/m]: oersted [Oe]:

Bottom of Form

weber/square centimeter: maxwell/square meter: maxwell/sq. centimeter: line/square centimeter: gamma:

Bottom of Form

Calculators' data are courtesy of www.unitconversion.org

QUANTITY

SYMBO L

SI UNIT

SI EQUATION

CGS UNIT

CGS EQUATION

Magnetic induction

tesla (T)

B=o(H+M)

gauss (G)

B = H+4M

Magnetic field strength

ampere/meter (A/m)

H = NI/lc ( lc - magnetic path, m) = BAc (Ac - area, m2 ) M=m/V (m- total magnetic moment, V- volume, m3 )

oersted (Oe)

H = 0.4NI/lc (lc - magnetic path, cm) = BAc (Ac - area, cm2 ) M=m/V (m- total magnetic moment, V- volume, cm3 )

Magnetic flux

weber (Wb)

maxwell (M)

Magnetization

ampere/meter (A/m)

emu/cm3

Magnetic permeability of vacuum

newton/ampere2

o= 410-7

Inductance

henry

L=oN2Ac/lc (Ac- area, m2, lc - magnetic path, m) V=-Nd/dt

henry

L=0.4N2Ac/lc10-8 (Ac-area, cm2, lc - magnetic path, cm) V=-10-8Nd/dt

Emf (voltage)

volt

volt

Note: in the above equations: N- turns, I - current (in amps)

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CONTACT US

DISCLAIMER and TER

UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

It has been found experimentally that the intensity of various electrical effects is related to the amount of elec charge that passes by a certain region per unit time. Therefore this quantity I=Q/t, which is called the ele current, presents a special interest in EE.

Sponsore

In practice, the flow of the current is controlled by various electronic components. A network of interconne components that can accomplish a certain task is referred to as electronic circuit. The circuits can be use processing signals, information, or energy. A current can be measured by an instrument called anammeter. F current to flow continuously, the circuit should have an energy source and a closed path.

When a charged particle is placed in an electrical field, it experiences a force that depends on its position. S particle therefore has a potential energy associated with this position. When a particle moves from one poi another, the amount of work done by the electrical field equals the drop in its electrical energy, which is b converted into other forms of energy, such as mechanical motion, heat and light. The change in the elec energy of a particle per unit charge as it moves from one point to another is defined as voltage or pote difference between these two points: V=E/q. The power transfer is then equals to:P=E/t=Vq/t=VI. Note

only voltage differences rather than absolute voltages have direct physical meaning. The voltage between points can be measured by an instrument called a voltmeter. A voltmeter can be just an ammeter with a se connected high-value resistor through which the current proportional to the measured voltage is forced to For hobbyist electronic projects there are inexpensive digital multimeters that can measure voltage, current resistance.

IMPEDANCE

The V/I relationships for energy storage components (inductors and capacitors) are described by differe equations. In practical cases the handling of these equations quickly becomes unmanageable. That's why analysis of the networks with sinusoidal signals usually uses complex exponentialsmethod. With this me voltages, currents and impedances are represented by complex exponential functions (phasors) based on E relationship ejx=cosx+jsinx, where j is imaginary unit. The lenght of the phasor is proportional to the magn of the quantity it represents, and its angle represents a phase shift relative to some reference signal. This a turning differential equations into algebraic equations. In linear AC networks with single-frequency sinus voltage sources impedance Z is defined as the ratio of voltage phasor to the current phasor: Z=V/ magnitude is the ratio of the voltage amplitude to the current amplitude, and phase is the phase shift betwee current and the voltage.

Impedance in general is a complex number that can be calculate using formulas for series and parallel connections. With known complex impedance, current phasor is =V/Z. pie chart ("wheel") illustrates relationships between voltage, current, impedance and power in linear networks a sinusoidal input. These formulas are adaptations of Ohm's law and Joule's law for AC signals. In this "p wheel": V - rms voltage (volts); I - rms current (amps); Z - magnitude of impedance (ohms); S - apparent power (volt-amps).

By knowing any two values of V, I, Z or S, you can find the values of the remaining quantities. For a pure resistor Z=R, I=V/R, and S=P, where R - resistance, P - active power. For impedance calculations and I-V relationships between basic electrical parts see Electrical Formulas.

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Every circuit design involves the development of a schematic. A schematic diagram is a drawing w components are represented by graphical symbols and that can communicate information about a circu theory, the processes in electronic circuits could be described by Maxwell's equations and the physics describing properties of materials. However, in practical design and analysis engineers consider idea elements that reflect some essential aspects of the operation of the real devices. This allows describing operation of the circuit with simplified equations that use circuit theory terms.

The basis for most circuit analysis technique is Kirchoff's current and voltage laws in conjunction with Ohm's extended for AC. There are also a number of network theorems and methods (such as Thevenin, No Superposition, Y-Delta transform) that are derived from these three laws. The circuit design typically includes computer simulation, breadboarding and prototyping.

Electronic devices are normally assembled on printed circuit boards (PCBs) that mechanically support electrically interconnect parts by using conductive traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto an isol substrate.
BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REFERENCE INFORMATION

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM BASICS, CIRCUIT THEOREMS AND EQUATIONS

Electrical engineering
(EE) is a discipline that deals with electricity, magnetism and their applications. EE applications include electronics, power conversion, data communications, computer science, information technologies, and other. The term EE usually encompasses electronic engineering or electronics. Electronics involves the design and analysis of electronic circuits. In academia and electronic industry, the terms electrical and electronics engineer often are used interchangeably.
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In other industries, the term electrical engineer may refer to those who deal with utility and industrial power systems and other electric equipment. In any case, both disciplines are overlapping. The theoretical foundation for EE is electromagnetism. The theory of classical electromagnetism is based on Maxwell's equations (see below), which provide a unified description of the behavior of electric and magnetic fields as well as their interactions with matter. In practice however, circuit designers normally use simplified equations of electricity and magnetism and theorems that use circuit theory terms, such as Ohm's law modified for AC circuits, voltage and current Kirchoff's laws, and power relationships. This webpage is for those who already learned EE and needs a quick reference. Here you

will find electricity and magnetism basics, electronics reference as well as the career related information on the web. Also see: Electronic formulas and impedance calculations; Understanding the physics of electronic circuits; Distance learning, online degrees from accredited schools, salary surveys; Engineering Jobs

MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN FREE SPACE (in SI units)

LAW Gauss' law for electricity DIFFERENTIAL FORM INTEGRAL FORM

Gauss' law for magnetis m

Faraday's law of induction

Ampere's law

NOTES: E - electric field, - charge density, 0 8.8510-12 - electric permittivity of free space, 3.14159, k - Boltzmann's constant, q - charge, B - magnetic induction, - magnetic flux, J - current density, i electric current, c 299 792 458 m/s - the speed of light, 0 = 410-7 - magnetic permeability of free space, - del operator (ifV is a vector function, then
.

V is divergence of V,

V is the curl of V).

BASIC ELECTRICAL THEOREMS AND CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LAWS

THE LAW DEFINITION V=Z, where V and - voltage and current phasors, Z - complex impedance (for resistive circuits: Z=R and V=RI ) RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LAWS

aw extended for AC circuits gle frequency sinusoidal

Lorentz force law and Drude model for resistors

f's Current Law (KCL)

The sum of electric currents which flow into any junction in a circuit is equal to the sum of currents Conservation of electric charge which flow out The sum of the voltages around a closed circuit must be zero

f's Voltage Law (KVL)

Conservation of energy

that Kirchhoff's laws can be derived from Maxwell's equations under static conditions, although historically they eded Maxwell's equations. can download a reference sheet with the above equations in a pdf file.

ELECTRICAL NETWORK THEOREMS FOR AC CIRCUITS

THE THEOREM DEFINITION CALCULATION

Thevenin's Theorem

Any combination of a single frequency sinusoidal AC sources and impedances with two terminals can be replaced by a single voltage source V in series with an impedance Z.

V - open-circuit voltage phasor original circuit; Z - impedance between the two terminals with all voltage sourc shorted and all current sources opened.

Norton's Theorem

Any combination of a single frequency sinusoidal AC sources and impedances with two terminals A and B can be replaced by a single current source I in parallel with an impedance Z.

I - short-circuit current phasor o original circuit; Z - impedance between the two terminals with all voltage sourc shorted and all current sources opened.

Superposition Theorem

The current (voltage) phasor in any part of a linear circuit equals the algebraic sum of the current (voltage) phasors produced by each source separately.

To find an individual current (vo from each source, short all othe voltage sources and open all o current sources.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

A voltage source delivers maximum power to a adjustable when the source and the load impedances are complex conjugates of each other

Active components of the sourc load impedances should be eq and reactive components shou have equal magnitude but oppo sign.

Delta to Wye Transformation A delta network of three impedances can Za = ZcaZab / (Zab+Zbc+Zca) be transformed into a star (Y) network of Zb = ZabZbc / (Zab+Zbc+Zca) three impedances Zc = ZbcZca / (Zab+Zbc+Zca)

Star-Delta Transformation A star (Y) network of three impedances can be transformed into a delta network of three impedances Zab = Za + Zb + (ZaZb / Zc) Zbc = Zb + Zc + (ZbZc / Za) Zca = Zc + Za + (ZcZa / Zb)

LECTRONICS REFERENCE

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