IMPLEMENTATION OF DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIZER AD9850 USING ARDUINO UNO

B.Tech. Project Report

V.Mounika G.Ravali K.Sindhura V.Sindu

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)

HYDERABAD 500 090 2013

IMPLEMENTATION OF DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIZER AD9850 USING ARDUINO UNO

Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology In Electronics and Communication Engineering By

V.Mounika G.Ravali K.Sindhura V.Sindu

(09241A0484) (09241A0495) (09241A04A3) (09241A04A4)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)

HYDERABAD 500 090 2013

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)

Hyderabad 500 090 2013

Certificate
This is to certify that this project report entitled Implementation of direct digital synthesizer AD9850 using arduino Uno by V.Mounika (Roll No.09241A0484), G.Ravali (Roll No.09241A0495),K.Sindhura (Roll No.09241A04A3) and V.Sindu (Roll No. 09241A04A4), submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering of the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, during the academic year 2009-13, is a bonafide record of work carried out under our guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

(Guide) N.Ome Assistant Professor

(External Examiner)

(Head of Department) Ravi Billa

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is a pleasure to express thanks to Prof. N.Ome for the encouragement and guidance throughout the course of this project. We also express our sincere thanks to prof. Ravi Billa Head of the Department, G.R.I.E.T for extending his help. We wish to thank Mr. K.N.B. Kumar, Mr. Anantha Radhanand and Mr. V.H. Raju for their valuable suggestions during the course of our project. We wish to express our profound sense of gratitude to Prof. P.S.Raju, Director ,G.R.I.E.T for his encouragement and for all facilities to complete this project. Finally we express our sincere gratitude to all the members of faculty and my friends who contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the project successfully.

V.Mounika

________________________

G.Ravali

________________________

K.Sindhura

________________________

V.Sindu

________________________

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Abstract
Our project deals with the implementation of direct digital synthesizer AD9850 using Arduino. A digitally-controlled method of generating multiple frequencies from a reference frequency source is called Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS).The AD9850 is a highly integrated device that uses advanced DDS technology coupled with an internal high speed, high performance D/A converter and comparator to form a complete, digitally programmable frequency synthesizer and clock generator function. When referenced to an accurate clock source, the AD9850 generates a spectrally pure, frequency/phase programmable, analog output sine wave. This sine wave can be used directly as a frequency source, or it can be converted to a square wave for agile-clock generator applications. The AD9850s innovative high speed DDS core provides a 32bit frequency tuning word, which results in an output tuning resolution of 0.0291 Hz for a 125 MHz reference clock input. The AD9850s circuit architecture allows the generation of output frequencies which can be digitally changed (asynchronously) at a rate of up to 23 million new frequencies per second. Block Diagram

Hardware Required: ARDUINO UNO,DDS module,Protoshield Software Required: Arduino

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CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER-1:INTRODUCTION....1 1.1 MOTIVATION.....1 1.2 METHODOLOGY........1 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE ......1 1.4 OVERVIEW.....1 1.5 CONCLUSION.....2

CHAPTER-2:DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIZE..3 2.1 FUNDEMENTALS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY.3 2.1.1 OVERVIEW.......3 2.1.2 DDS DISADVANTAGES.3 2.1.3 THEORY OF OPERATION..3 2.1.4 PHASE ACCUMULATOR...7 2.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SAMPLE OUTPUT OF DDS DEVICE7 2.3 FREQUENCY/HOPPING CAPABILITY OF DDS..9 2.3.1 THE DDS CONTROL INTERFACE...10 2.3.2 PROFILE REGISTERS....10 2.3.3 THE EFFECT OF TRUNCATING THE PHASE ACCUMULATOR ON SPURIOUS PERFORMANCE..10 2.4 REFERENCE CLOCK CONSIDERATIONS.12

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2.5 CONCLUSION...............................................................................13

CHAPTER-3:AD985014 3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION..14 3.2 PIN DESCRIPTION..................................................................................................15 3.3 THEORY OF OPERATION AND APPLICATION..17 3.4 PROGRAMMING THE AD9850..19 3.5 PCB LAYOUT INFORMATION.....23 3.6 EVALUATION BOARDS...24 3.7 AB9850 EVALUATION BOARDS INSTRUCTION.....24 3.7.1 REQUIRED HARDWARE/SOFTWARE.....24 3.7.2 SETUP...25 3.7.3 OPERATION.25 3.8 CONCLUSION......25

CHAPTER4:ARDUINO....26 4.1 ARDUINO PIN DESCRIPTION..26 4.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS..28 4.1.2 SCHEMATIC & REFERENCE DESIGN..28 4.1.3 COMMUNICATION30 4.1.4 PROGRAMMING.....30

4.1.5 AUTOMATIC (SOFTWARE) RESET.30 4.1.6 USB OVERCURRENT PROTECTION31 4.1.7 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS31 4.2 CONCLUSION...31

CHAPTER-5 : IMPLEMENTATION OF DDS AD9850.32 5.1 BOCK DIAGRAM...32 5.2 ALGORITHM....32 5.3 FLOW CHART....33 5.4 PROGRAM.....34 5.5 CONCLUSION.......34

CHAPTER-6 : RESULTS..35 6.1 CONCLUSION....37

CHAPTER-7:APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE.....38 7.1 APPLICATIONS.....38 7.2 FUTURESCOPE...38 7.2 CONCLUSION.....38

CHRONOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY...39 APPENDIX-A40 vi

APPENDIX-B42

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1:Simple direct digital synthesizer........................4 Figure 2.2:Frequency-tunable DDS system.....................4 Figure 2.3:Signal flow through the DDS architecture.....6 Figure 2.4:Computation of the Phase register......................................7 Figure 2.5:Spectral analysis of Sampled output...8 Figure 2.6:Phase truncation Error and the phase wheel..................11 Figure 2.7:Reference clock edge uncertainty adversely effects DDS output signal quality...12 Figure 3.1:Pin discription........................15 Figure 3.2:Basic block diagram of DDS and Signal flow of AD985018 Figure 3.3:Output spectrum of a sampled signal.........18 Figure 3.4:Parallel Load Frequency/Control word functional assignment......................20 Figure 3.5:Master Reset Timing Sequence..21 Figure 3.6:Parallel load power-Down sequence/Internal operation..................................21 Figure 3.7:Parallel load power-Up sequence/Internal operation..........21 Figure 3.8:Serial Load enable sequence...................................................22 Figure 3.9:Pins 2 to 4 connections for Default Serial Mode Operation.22 Figure 3.10:Serial Load Frequency/Phase Update Sequence.......................22 Figure 3.11:Serial Load Power-Down Sequence..........................................................23 Figure 3.12:AD9850 I/O Equivalent Circuits...........................................23 Figure 4.1:ARDUINO UNO Pin Description...........................................................................................27 Figure 6.1:DDS Module35 Figure 6.2:Protoshield...35 Figure 6.3:ARDUINO UNO Board..36 Figure 6.4:Interfacing of modules.36 Figure 6.5:Final Output waveform37

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Motivation
A major advantage of a Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS) is that its output frequency, phase and amplitude can be precisely and rapidly manipulated under digital processor control. Other inherent attributes include the ability to tune with extremely fine frequency and phase resolution and to rapidly hop between frequencies. These combined characteristics have made the technology popular in various military radar and communication systems. Previously, DDS technology was used only in high-end applications as it was costly, difficult to implement, and required a discrete high speed D/A converter. Due to improved Integrated Circuit (IC) technologies, they now present a viable alternative to analog based Phase Locked Loop (PLL) based technology for generating agile analog output frequency in consumer synthesizer applications.

1.2

Methodology

We implemented this project using Arduino Uno, protoshield a DDS module with the code written on arduino software.

1.3

Significance

A direct digital synthesizer (DDS) provides many significant advantages over the PLL approaches. Fast settling time, sub-Hertz frequency resolution, continuous-phase switching response and low phase noise are features easily obtainable in the DDS systems. By programming the DDS, adaptive channel bandwidths, modulation formats, frequency hopping and data rates are easily achieved. This is an important step towards a "software-radio" which can be used in various systems. The DDS could be applied in the modulator or demodulator in the communication systems.

1.4

Overview

In chapter two, we discuss the fundamentals to understand DDS technology i.e., the basic theory of operation involved. In chapter three, we describe the

signal flow, programming the AD9850 and other necessary information related to its operation. Arduino, the easy-to-use hardware and software is discussed in chapter four. The implementation of the project and the results are discussed in chapter five and six respectively. Finally, we end up with chapter seven, where several applications and future scope of this project are discussed.

1.5

Conclusion

The motivation, methodology used in the implementing the project, significance and the overview is discussed in this chapter

Chapter 2 DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIZER

2.1. Fundamentals of DDS Technology
2.1.1 Overview Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) is a technique for using digital data processing blocks as a means to generate a frequency- and phase-tunable output signal referenced to a fixedfrequency precision clock source. In essence, the reference clock frequency is divided down in DDS architecture by the scaling factor set forth in a programmable binary tuning word. The tuning word is typically 24-48 bits long which enables a DDS implementation to provide superior output frequency tuning resolution. Todays cost-competitive, highperformance, functionally-integrated, and small package-sized DDS products are fast becoming an alternative to traditional frequency-agile analog synthesizer solutions. The integration of a high-speed, high-performance, D/A converter and DDS architecture onto a single chip (forming what is commonly known as a Complete-DDS solution) enabled this technology to target a wider range of applications and provide, in many cases, an attractive alternative to analog-based PLL synthesizers. For many applications, the DDS solution holds some distinct advantages over the equivalent agile analog frequency synthesizer employing PLL circuitry. 2.1.2 DDS advantages Micro-Hertz tuning resolution of the output frequency and sub-degree phase tuning capability, all under complete digital control. Extremely fast hopping speed in tuning output frequency (or phase), phaseContinuous frequency hops with no over/undershoot or analog-related loop setting time anomalies The DDS digital architecture eliminates the need for the manual system tuning and tweaking associated with component aging and temperature drift in analog synthesizer solutions. The digital control interface of the DDS architecture facilitates an environment where systems can be remotely controlled, and minutely optimized, under processor control. When utilized as a quadrature synthesizer, DDS afford unparalleled matching and control of I and Q synthesized outputs.

2.1.3Theory of Operation In its simplest form, a direct digital synthesizer can be implemented from a precision reference clock, an address counter, a programmable read only memory (PROM), and a D/a converter.

Fig 2.1 Simple Direct Digital Synthesizer

In this case, the digital amplitude information that corresponds to a complete cycle of a sine wave is stored in the PROM. The PROM is therefore functioning as a sine lookup table. The address counter steps through and accesses each of the PROMs memory locations and the contents (the equivalent sine amplitude words) are presented to a high-speed D/A converter. The D/A converter generate an analog sine wave in response to the digital input words from the PROM. The output frequency of this DDS implementation is dependent on 1.) The frequency of the reference clock, and 2.) the sine wave step size that is programmed into the PROM. While the analog output fidelity, jitter, and AC performance of this simplistic architecture can be quite good, it lacks tuning flexibility. The output frequency can only be changed by changing the frequency of the reference clock or by reprogramming the PROM. Neither of these options supports high-speed output frequency hopping. With the introduction of a phase accumulator function into the digital signal chain, this architecture becomes a numerically-controlled oscillator which is the core of a highly-flexible DDS device. As figure 1-2 shows, an N-bit variable-modulus counter and phase

Fig 2.2 Frequency-tunable DDS System

register are implemented in the circuit before the sine lookup table, as a replacement for the address counter. The carry function allows this function as a phase wheel in the DDS architecture. To understand this basic function, visualize the sine wave oscillation as a vector rotating around a phase circle. Each designated point on the phase wheel corresponds to the equivalent point on a phase wheel.
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cycle of a sine waveform. As the vector rotates around the wheel, visualize that a corresponding output sine wave is being generated. One revolution of the vector around the phase wheel, at a constant speed, results in one complete cycle of the output sine wave. The phase accumulator is utilized to provide the equivalent of the vectors linear rotation around the phase wheel. The contents of the phase accumulator correspond to the points on the cycle of the output sine wave. The number of discrete phase points contained in the wheel is determined by the resolution, N, of the phase accumulator. The output of the phase accumulator is linear and cannot directly be used to generate a sine wave or any other waveform except a ramp. Therefore, a phase-to amplitude lookup table is used to convert a truncated version of the phase accumulators instantaneous output value into the sine wave amplitude information that is presented to the D/A converter. Most DDS architectures exploit
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the symmetrical nature of a sine wave and utilize mapping logic to synthesize a complete sine wave cycle from cycles of data from the phase accumulator. The phase-to-amplitude lookup table generates all the necessary data by reading forward then back through the lookup table.

Fig 2.3 Signal flow through the DDS architecture

The phase accumulator is actually a modulus M counter that increments its stored number each time it receives a clock pulse. The magnitude of the increment is determined by a digital word M contained in a delta phase register that is summed with the overflow of the counter. The word in the delta phase register forms the phase step size between reference clock updates; it effectively sets how many points to skip around the phase wheel. The larger the jump size, the faster the phase accumulator overflows and completes its equivalent of a sine wave cycle. For an N=32-bit phase accumulator, an M value of 00000001(one) would result in the phase accumulator overflowing after 232 reference clock cycles (increments). If the M value is changed to 01111111, the phase accumulator will overflow after only 21 clock cycles, or two reference clock cycles. This control of the jump size constitutes the frequency tuning resolution of the DDS architecture. The relationship of the phase accumulator and delta phase accumulator form the basic tuning equation for DDS architecture: FOUT = (M (REFCLK)) /2N Where: FOUT = the output frequency of the DDS M = the binary tuning word REFCLK = the internal reference clock frequency (system clock) N = the length in bits of the phase accumulator Changes to the value of M in the DDS architecture result in immediate and phase-continuous changes in the output frequency. In practical application, the M value, or frequency tuning word, is loaded into an internal serial or byte-loaded register which precedes the paralleloutput delta phase register. This is generally done to minimize the package pin count of the DDS device. Once the buffer register is loaded, the parallel-output delta phase register is
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clocked and the DDS output frequency changes. Generally, the only speed limitation to changing the output frequency of a DDS is the maximum rate at which the buffer register can be loaded and executed. Obviously, a parallel byte load control interface enhances frequency hopping capability. 2.1.4 Phase Accumulator The phase accumulator uses simple arithmetic operations to calculate the lookup table address for each generated sample. It does this by dividing the desired frequency by the sample clock and multiplying the result by 248. This number is based on the bit resolution of the phase register. For NI signal generators, a 48-bit phase register is used for maximum precision. Of these, 34 bits are used to store the remainder phase, and 14 bits are used to choose a sample from the lookup table. Thus, the phase accumulator produces a 14-bit address that corresponds to the exact phase of the signal. For example, an address of 00000000000000 corresponds to 0. On the other hand, an address of 11111111111111 corresponds to 359.978. Thus, the signal generator can use this address to control the phase of the signal at any point in time. This is shown below:

Fig 2.4 Computation of the Phase Register

As the diagram suggests, the phase accumulator is able to represent the phase of the generated signal with 248 points of precision. However, because we only have 214 available points in our waveform, only the 14 most significant bits of the phase register are used in the lookup table. The remaining 34 bits are used to store the remainder of the phase increment. This remainder enables the DDS precision by ensuring that the lookup table will return the appropriate phase information after the phase register rolls over (once per period of the waveform). 2.2 Understanding the Sampled Output of a DDS Device An understanding of sampling theory is necessary when analyzing the sampled output of a DDSbased signal synthesis solution. The spectrum of a sampled output is illustrated in Figure 2-1. In this example, the sampling clock (fCLOCK) is 300 MHz and the fundamental output frequency (fOUT) is 80 MHz
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The Nyquist Theorem dictates that there is a minimum of two samples per cycle required to reconstruct the desired output waveform. Images responses are created in the sampled output spectrum at fCLOCK fOUT. The 1st image response occurs in this example at fCLOCK fOUT or 220 MHz. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th images appear at 380 MHz, 520 MHz, 680 MHz, and 820 MHz (respectively). Notice that nulls appear at multiples of the sampling frequency. In the case of the fOUT frequency exceeding the fCLOCK frequency, the 1st image response will appear within the Nyquist bandwidth (DC - fCLOCK) as an aliased image. The aliased image cannot be filtered from the output with the traditional Nyquist anti-aliasing filter. In typical DDS applications, a low pass filter is utilized to suppress the effects of the image responses in the output spectrum. In order to keep the cutoff requirements on the low pass filter reasonable, it is an accepted rule to limit the fOUT bandwidth to approximately 40% of the fCLOCK frequency. This facilitates using an economical low pass filter implementation on the output. As can be seen in Figure, the amplitude of the FOUT and the image responses follows a sin(X)/X roll off response. This is due to the quantized nature of the sampled output. The amplitude of the fundamental and any given image response can be calculated using the sin(X)/X formula. Per the roll off response function, the amplitude of the fundamental output will decrease inversely to increases in its tuned frequency. The amplitude roll off due to sin(X)/X in a DDS system is 3.92 dB over its DC to Nyquist bandwidth. As was previously shown in Figure 2.5, DDS architectures can include an inverse SINC filtering which pre-compensates for the sin(X)/X roll off and maintains a flat output amplitude ( .1 dB) from the D/A converter over a bandwidth of up to 45% of the clock rate or 80% of Nyquist.

Fig 2.5 Spectral Analysis of Sampled Output

It is important to note in the sin(X)/X response curve shown in Figure 2-1 that the amplitude of the 1st image is substantial: it is within 3dB of the amplitude of the fundamental at fOUT = .33 fCLOCK. It is important to generate a frequency plan in DDS applications and analyze
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the spectral considerations of the image response and the sin(X)/X amplitude response at the desired fOUT and fCLOCK frequencies. The other anomalies in the output spectrum, such as integral and differential linearity errors of the D/A converter, glitch energy associated with the D/A converter, and clock feedthrough noise, will not follow the sin(X)/X roll-off response. These anomalies will appear as harmonics and spurious energy in the output spectrum and will generally be much lower in amplitude than the image responses. The general noise floor of a DDS device is determined by the cumulative combination of substrate noise, thermal noise effects, ground coupling, and a variety of other sources of low-level signal corruption. The noise floor, spurs performance, and jitter performance of a DDS device is greatly influenced by circuit board layout, the quality of its power supplies, and the quality of the input reference clock. 2.3 Frequency/phase-hopping Capability of DDS Calculating the Frequency Tuning Word The output frequency of a DDS device is determined by the formula: FOUT = (M (REFCLK)) /2N Where: FOUT = the output frequency of the DDS M = the binary tuning word REFCLK = the internal reference clock frequency N = the length in bits of the phase accumulator The length of the phase accumulator (N) is the length of the tuning word which determines the degree of frequency tuning resolution of the DDS implementation. Lets find the frequency tuning word for an output frequency of 41 MHz where REFCLK is 122.88 MHz and the tuning word length is 32 bits (binary). The resulting equation would be: 41 MHz = (M (122.8 MHz)) /232 Solving for M M = (41 MHz (232))/122.8 MHz M= 556AAAAB hex Loading this value of M into the frequency control register would result in frequency output of 41 MHz, given a reference clock frequency of 122.8 MHz Determining Maximum Tuning Speed The maximum tuning speed of a DDS implementation is determined by the loading configuration selected, parallel byte or serial word, and the speed of the control interface. In some DDS applications, maximum output frequency tuning speed is desired. Applications such as GMSK and ramped-FSK modulation require maximum frequency tuning speeds to support spectrally-shaped transitions between modulation frequencies. When the tuning word is loaded by the control interface, the constraint to frequency update is in the speed of the interface port. Typically a DDS device will provide a parallel byte load which facilitates getting data into the control registers at a higher rate. Control data clocking rates of 100 MHz are typically supported for a byte-load parallel control interface. This means that a new tuning word can be present on the output of a DDS device every 10 nS. The phase-continuous output of DDS frequency transitions is well-suited for high-speed frequency-hopping applications. DDS devices also usually provide a set of registers that can be pre-programmed with tuning words. The contents of these registers are executed with an external pin on the device package. This provides for the maximum output frequency hopping speed between pre-programmed frequency values. This arrangement is especially suitable for FSK modulation applications where the mark and space frequencies can be readily pre-programmed. programmed
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registers, DDS output frequency hopping speeds of up to 250 MHz can be achieved with the latest technology devices.

2.3.1 The DDS Control Interface All of the functions, features, and configurations of a DDS device are generally programmed through the devices control interface port. The control interface for DDS devices is available in a variety of configurations. The common configurations are serial interface and byte-load parallel interface. The interface conventions range from a single 40-bit register that stores all of the functional control words, to a microprocessor-compatible a synchronous serial communications port. Control interface functionality and timing diagrams are detailed in the data sheets for the individual DDS devices. 2.3.2 Profile Registers Pre-programmed registers are typically available in a DDS device that allow enhanced frequency or phase hopping of the output signal. The data contained in these registers are executed via a dedicated pin on the package and allow the use to change an operating parameter without going through the control interface instruction cycle. Examples of the types of functions that can be pre-programmed are: Output frequency tuning word this allows the user to achieve the maximum frequency hopping capability with a DDS device. The availability of frequency select registers also facilitates using the DDS device as an FSK modulator where the input data directly steers the output to the desired mark and space frequencies. Phase of the output frequency this function allows the user to execute preprogrammed increments of phase delay to the output signal. The amount of delay resolution ranges from 11.5increments (5-bits) to .02increments (14bits). Phase-shift keying modulation (PSK) can readily be accomplished with the use of pre-programmed phase registers. In digital modulator and quadrature up converter implementations of DDS architectures additional functions can be pre-programmed in profile registers. These functions include FIR filter response, interpolation (up sampling) rates , and output spectral inversion enable/disable. 2.3.3 The Effect of Truncating the Phase Accumulator on Spurious Performance Phase truncation is an important aspect of DDS architectures. Consider a DDS with a 32-bit phase accumulator. To directly convert 32 bits of phase to corresponding amplitude would require 232 entries in a lookup table. Thats 4,294,967,296 entries! If each entry is stored with 8-bit accuracy, then 4-gigabytes of lookup table memory would be required. Clearly, it would be impractical to implement such a design. The solution is to use a fraction of the most significant bits of the accumulator output to provide phase information. For example, in a 32-bit DDS design, only the upper most 12 bits might be used for phase information. The lower 20 bits would be ignored (truncated) in this case. To understand the implications of truncating the phase accumulator output it is helpful to use the concept of the digital phase wheel. Consider a simple DDS architecture that uses an 8-bit accumulator of which only the upper 5 bits are used for resolving phase. The phase wheel depiction of this particular model is shown in Figure. With an 8-bit accumulator, the
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phase resolution associated with the accumulator is 1/256th of a full circle, or1.41(360/28). In Figure 2.6, the accumulator phase resolution is identified by the outer circle of tic marks. If only the most significant 5 bits of the accumulator are used to convey phase information, then the resolution becomes 1/32nd of a full circle, or 11.25(360/25). These are identified by the inner circle of tic marks. Now let us assume that a tuning word value of 6 is used. That is, the accumulator is to count by increments of 6. The first four phase angles corresponding to 6count steps of the accumulator are depicted in Figure 2.6. Note that the first phase step (6 counts on the outer circle) falls short of the first inner tic mark. Thus, a discrepancy arises between the phase of the accumulator (the outer circle) and the phase as determined by 5-bit resolution (the inner circle). This discrepancy results in a phase error of 8.46(6 x 1.41), as depicted by arc E1 in the figure. On the second phase step of the accumulator (6 more counts on the outer circle) the phase of the accumulator resides between the 1st and 2nd tic marks on the inner circle. Again, there is a discrepancy between the phase of the accumulator and the phase as determined by 5 bits of resolution. The result is an error of 5.64(4 x 1.41) as depicted by arc E2 in the figure. Similarly, at the 3rd phase step of the accumulator an error of 2.82(2 x 1.41) results. On the 4th phase step, however, the accumulator phase and the 5-bit resolution phase coincide resulting in no phase error. This pattern continues as the accumulator increments by 6 counts on the outer circle each time.

Fig 2.6 Phase Truncation Error and the Phase Wheel

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Obviously, the phase errors introduced by truncating the accumulator will result in errors in amplitude during the phase-to-amplitude conversion process inherent in the DDS. It turns out that these errors are periodic. They are periodic because, regardless of the tuning word chosen, after a sufficient number of revolutions of the phase wheel, the accumulator phase and truncated phase will coincide. Since these amplitude errors are periodic in the time domain, they appear as line spectra (spurs) in the frequency domain and are what is known as phase truncation spurs. It turns out that the magnitude and distribution of phase truncation spurs is dependent on three factors : 1. Accumulator size (A bits) 2. Phase word size (P bits); i.e., the number of bits of phase after truncation 3. Tuning word (T)

2.4 Reference Clock Considerations

Direct Clocking of a DDS The output signal quality of a direct digital synthesizer is dependent upon the signal quality of the reference clock that is driving the DDS. Important quality aspects of the clock source, such as frequency stability (in PPM), edge jitter (in ps or ns), and phase noise (in dBc/Hz) will be reflected in the DDS output. One quality, phase noise, is actually reduced according to: 20 LOG (Fout/Fclk). This means that a 10 MHz output signal will have 20 dB less phase noise than the 100 MHz reference clock that created it. The figure below illustrates how DDS processing is affected by phase noise and jitter of the input clock.

Fig 2.7 Reference clock edge uncertainty adversely affects DDS output signal quality 12

Figure 2.7 shows how phase noise, expressed in the time domain as period jitter with units of percent, is relative to the period of the waveform, and that absolute edge jitter is unaffected by changes in frequency or period. The DDS Reference Clock signals in Figure 5 -1 shows that edge jitter is a much higher percentage of the total period than the same edge jitter in the Squared-up Clock Output. This accounts for phase noise improvement through frequency division even though the same amount of edge jitter is present on both clock periods. Reference clock edge jitter has nothing to do with the accuracy of the phase increment steps taken by the phase accumulator. These step sizes are fixed by the frequency tuning word and are mathematically manipulated with excellent precision regardless of the quality of the clock. In order for the digital phase step to be properly positioned in the analog domain, two criteria must be met: Appropriate amplitude (this is the DACs job) Appropriate time (the clocks job) The Complete-DDS ICs from Analog Devices provide an appropriately accurate DAC to translate the digital phase steps to an analog voltage or current. But that is only half of the job. The remaining half involves accurate timing of these amplitude steps that constitute the output sine wave. This is where minimum clock edge jitter and low phase noise are required to support the precise capabilities of DDS. The phase noise improvement of the DDS output relative to the input clock becomes more apparent in the frequency domain. showing the phase noise of two different DDS reference clocks. The phase noise/jitter of 100MHz DDS clock source 1 is much more pronounced than that of clock source 2.Figure shows the 10 MHz DDS output response to the two clock sources. Output 1 shows a 20 dB (10X improvement) in phase noise relative to clock 1. Output 2 shows less phase noise than clock 2, although 20 dB is not apparent since the noise floor of the instrument is limiting the measurement. Notice the presence of low level output spurs on the skirt of output 2. These spurious signals are due to the necessary truncation of phase bits in the DDS phase-to-amplitude stage and the algorithm used to perform the transformation. These spurious signals are also present in output 1 but the signals excessive phase noise is masking their presence. This demonstrates why phase noise is important in maintaining good signal-to-noise ratio in radio and other noise-sensitive systems.

2.5 Conclusion
The fundamentals to understand DDS technology i.e., the basic theory of operation involved is discussed in this chapter.

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Chapter 3 AD9850
3.1 General Description
The AD9850 is a highly integrated device that uses advanced DDS technology coupled with an internal high speed, high performance D/A converter and comparator to form a complete, digitally programmable frequency synthesizer and clock generator function. When referenced to an accurate clock source, the AD9850 generates a spectrally pure, frequency/phase programmable, analog output sine wave. This sine wave can be used directly as a frequency source, or it can be converted to a square wave for agile-clock generator applications. The AD9850s innovative high speed DDS core provides a 32-bit frequency tuning word, which results in an output tuning resolution of 0.0291 Hz for a 125 MHz reference clock input. The AD9850s circuit architecture allows the generation of output frequencies of up to one-half the reference clock frequency (or 62.5 MHz), and the output frequency can be digitally changed (asynchronously) at a rate of up to 23 million frequencies per second. The device also provides five bits of digitally controlled phase modulation, which enables phase shifting of its output in increments of 180, 90, 45, 22.5, 11.25, and any combination thereof. The AD9850 also contains a high speed comparator that can be configured to accept the (externally) filtered output of the DAC to generate a low jitter square wave output. This facilitates the devices use as an agile clock generator function. The frequency tuning, control, and phase modulation words are loaded into the AD9850 via a parallel byte or serial loading format. The parallel load format consists of five iterative loads of an 8-bit control word (byte). The first byte controls phase modulation, power-down enable, and loading format; Bytes 2 to 5 comprise the 32-bit frequency tuning word. Serial loading is accomplished via a 40-bit serial data stream on a single pin. The AD9850 Complete DDS uses advanced CMOS technology to provide this breakthrough level of functionality and performance on just 155 mW of power dissipation (3.3 V supply). The AD9850 is available in a space-saving 28-lead SSOP, surface-mount package. It is specified to operate over the extended industrial temperature range of 40C to +85C.

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3.2 Pin Description

PIN FUNCTION DESCRIPTION

Pin Mnem No. onic Function 4 to 1, 28 to 25 5, 24 6, 23 7 8 D0 to D7 8-Bit Data Input. This is the 8-bit data port for iteratively loading the 32-bit frequency and the 8-bit phase/ control word. D7 = MSB; D0 = LSB. D7 (Pin 25) also serves as the input pin for the 40-bit serial data-word. Digital Ground. These are the ground return leads for the digital circuitry. Supply Voltage Leads for Digital Circuitry. Word Load Clock. This clock is used to load the parallel or serial frequency/phase/control words. Frequency Update. On the rising edge of this clock, the DDS updates to the frequency (or phase) loaded in the data input register; it then resets the pointer to Word 0. Reference Clock Input. This may be a continuous CMOS-level pulse train or sine input biased at 1/2 V supply. The rising edge of this clock initiates operation. Analog Ground. These leads are the ground return for the analog circuitry (DAC and comparator). Supply Voltage for the Analog Circuitry (DAC and Comparator).
15

DGND DVDD W_CL K FQ_UD

CLKIN

10, 19 11, 18

AGND AVDD

12

13 14

DACs External RSET Connection. This resistor value SET sets the DAC full-scale output current. For Normal applications (FS I out = 10 mA), the value for RSET is 3.9 k connected to ground. The RSET/IOUT Relationship is IOUT = 32 (1.248V/RSET). QOUT Output Complement. This is the comparators B complement output.
R

QOUT Output True. This is the comparators true output.

Inverting Voltage Input. This is the comparators negative input. 15 VINN 16 17 Noninverting Voltage Input. This is the comparators VINP positive input. DACB DAC Baseline. This is the DAC baseline voltage reference; L (NC) this lead is internally bypassed and should Normally be considered a no connect for optimum performance. Complementary Analog IOUTB Output of the DAC. Analog Current Output IOUT of the DAC. Reset. This is the master reset function; when set high, it clears RESET all registers (except the input register), and The DAC output goes to cosine 0 after additional clock cycles.

20 21 22

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3.3 Theory of operation and application

The AD9850 uses Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) technology, in the form of a numerically controlled oscillator, to generate a frequency phase-agile sine wave. The digital sine wave is converted to analog form via an internal 10-bit high speed D/A converter, and an on-board high speed comparator is provided to translate the analog sine wave into a low jitter TTL/CMOS compatible output square wave. DDS technology is an innovative circuit architecture that allows fast and precise manipulation of its output frequency under full digital control. DDS also enables very high resolution in the incremental selection of output frequency; the AD9850 allows an output frequency resolution of 0.0291 Hz with a 125 MHz reference clock applied. The AD9850s output waveform is phase continuous when changed. The basic functional block diagram and signal flow of the AD9850 configured as a clock generator. The DDS circuitry is basically a digital frequency divider function whose incremental resolution is determined by the frequency of the reference clock divided by the 2N number of bits in the tuning word. The phase accumulator is a variable-modulus counter that increments the number stored in it each time it receives a clock pulse. When the counter overflows, it wraps around, making the phase accumulators output contiguous. The frequency tuning word sets the modulus of the counter, which effectively determines the size of the increment ( Phase) that is added to the value in the phase accumulator on the next clock pulse. The larger the added increment, the faster the accumulator overflows, which results in a higher output frequency. The AD9850 uses an innovative and proprietary algorithm that mathematically converts the 14-bit truncated value of the phase accumulator to the appropriate COS value. This unique algorithm uses a much reduced ROM look-up table and DSP techniques to perform this function, which contributes to the small size and low power dissipation of the AD9850. The relationship of the output frequency, reference clock, and tuning word of the AD9850 is determined by the formula fOUT = ( Phase CLKIN)/232 where: Phase is the value of the 32-bit tuning word. CLKIN is the input reference clock frequency in MHz fOUT is the frequency of the output signal in MHz The digital sine wave output of the DDS block drives the internal high speed 10-bit D/A converter that reconstructs the sine wave in analog form. This DAC has been optimized for dynamic performance and low glitch energy as manifested in the low jitter performance of the AD9850.

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Fig 3.2 Basic DDS Block Diagram and Signal Flow of AD9850

AD9850 is a sampled signal; its output spectrum follows the Nyquist sampling theorem. Specifically, its output spectrum contains the fundamental plus aliased signals (images) that occur at multiples of the reference clock frequency the selected output frequency. A graphical representation of the sampled spectrum, with aliased images, is shown in Figure 3.3.

Fig 3.3 Output Spectrum of a Sampled Signal

In this example, the reference clock is 100 MHz and the output frequency is set to 20 MHz As can be seen, the aliased images are very prominent and of a relatively high energy level as determined by the sin(x)/x roll-off of the quantized D/A converter output. In fact, depending on the reference clock relationship, the first aliased image can be on the order of 3 dB below the fundamental. A low-pass filter is generally placed between the output of the D/A converter and the input of the comparator to further suppress the effects of aliased images. Obviously, consideration must be given to the relationship of the selected output frequency and the reference clock frequency to avoid unwanted (and unexpected) output anomalies. To apply the AD9850 as a clock generator, limit the selected output frequency to <33% of reference clock frequency, and thereby avoid generating aliased signals that fall within, or close to, the output band of interest (generally dc-selected output frequency). This practice eases the complexity (and cost) of the external filter requirement for the clock generator application. The reference clock frequency of the AD9850 has a minimum limitation of 1 MHz The device has internal circuitry that senses when the minimum clock rate threshold has been exceeded and automatically places itself in the power-down mode. When in this state, if the clock frequency again exceeds the threshold, the device resumes normal operation. This
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shutdown mode prevents excessive current leakage in the dynamic registers of the device. The D/A converter output and comparator inputs are available as differential signals that can be flexibly configured in any manner desired to achieve the objectives of the end system. The typical application of the AD9850 is with single-ended output/ input analog signals, a single low-pass filter, and the generation of the comparator reference midpoint from the differential DAC output.

3.4 Programming the AD9850

The AD9850 contains a 40-bit register that is used to program the 32-bit frequency control word, the 5-bit phase modulation word, and the power-down function. This register can be loaded in a parallel or serial mode. In the parallel load mode, the register is loaded via an 8-bit bus; the full 40-bit word requires five iterations of the 8-bit word. The W_CLK and FQ_UD signals are used to address and load the registers. The rising edge of FQ_UD loads the (up to) 40-bit control data-word into the device and resets the address pointer to the first register. Subsequent W_CLK rising edges load the 8-bit data on words [7:0] and move the pointer to the next register. After five loads, W_CLK edges are ignored until either a reset or an FQ_UD rising edge resets the address pointer to the first register. In serial load mode, subsequent rising edges of W_CLK shift the 1-bit data on Pin 25 (D7) through the 40 bits of programming information. After 40 bits are shifted through, an FQ_UD pulse is required to update the output frequency (or phase). The function assignments of the data and control words are shown in Table III; the detailed timing sequence for updating the output frequency and/or phase, resetting the device, and powering up/down, are shown in the timing diagrams of Figures 3.4 through 3.10. Note: There are specific control codes, used for factory test purposes that render the AD9850 temporarily inoperable. The user must take deliberate precaution to avoid inputting the codes listed in Table II.

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Fig 3.4 Parallel Load Frequency/Phase Update Timing Sequence Table III. 8-Bit Parallel Load Data/Control Word Functional Assignment

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Note: the timing diagram above shows the minimal amount of reset time needed before writing to the device. However, the master reset does not have to be synchronous with the clk in if the minimal time is not required.

Results of reset: frequency/phase register set to 0 address pointer reset to w0 power-down bit reset to 0 data input register unaffected
Fig 3.5 Master Reset Timing Sequence

Figure 3.6 Parallel Load Power-Down Sequence/Internal Operation

Fig 3.7 Parallel Load Power-Up Sequence/Internal Operation

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Fig 3.8 Serial Loads Enable Sequence

Note: for device start-up in serial mode, hardwire pin 2 at 0, pin 3 at 1, and pin 4 at 1 (See figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9 Pins 2 to 4 Connections for Default Serial Mode Operation

Figure 3.10 Serial Load Frequency/Phase Update Sequence

Table IV. 40-Bit Serial Load Word Function Assignment

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Figure 3.11 Serial Load Power-Down Sequence

Figure 3.12 AD9850 I/O Equivalent Circuits

3.5 PCB layout information

The AD9850/CGPCB and AD9850/FSPCB evaluation boards (Figures 15 through 18) represent typical implementations of the AD9850 and exemplify the use of high frequency/high resolution design and layout practices. The printed circuit board that contains the AD9850 should be a multilayer board that allows dedicated power and ground planes. The power and ground planes should be free of etched traces that cause discontinuities in the planes. It is recommended that the top layer of the multilayer board also contain an interspatial ground plane, which makes ground available for surface-mount devices. If separate analog and digital system ground planes exist, they should be connected together at the AD9850 for optimum results. Avoid running digital lines under the device because these couple noise onto the die. The power supply lines to the AD9850 should use as large a track
23

as possible to provide a low impedance path and reduce the effects of glitches on the power supply line. Fast switching signals like clocks should be shielded with ground to avoid radiating noise to other sections of the board. Avoid crossover of digital and analog signal paths. Traces on opposite sides of the board should run at right angles to each other. This reduces the effects of feed through through the circuit board. Use micro strip techniques where possible. Good decoupling is also an important consideration. The analog (AVDD) and digital (DVDD) supplies to the AD9850 are independent and separately pinned out to minimize coupling between analog and digital sections of the device. All analog and digital supplies should be decoupled to AGND and DGND, respectively, with high quality ceramic capacitors. To achieve best performance from the decoupling capacitors, they should be placed as close as possible to the device, ideally right up against the device. In systems where a common supply is used to drive both the AVDD and DVDD supplies of the AD9850, it is recommended that the systems AVDD supply be used. Analog Devices, Inc. applications engineering support is available to answer additional questions on grounding and PCB layout.

3.6 Evaluation Boards

Two versions of evaluation boards are available for the AD9850, which facilitate the implementation of the device for bench top analysis and serve as a reference for PCB layout. The AD9850/FSPCB is used in applications where the device is used primarily as a frequency synthesizer. This version facilitates connection of the AD9850s internal D/A converter output to a 50 spectrum analyzer input; the internal comparator on the AD9850 DUT is not enabled (see Figure 15 for an electrical schematic of AD9850/FSPCB). The AD9850/CGPCB is used in applications using the device in the clock generator mode. It connects the AD9850s DAC output to the internal comparator input via a single-ended, 42 MHz low-pass, 5-pole elliptical filter. This model facilitates the access of the AD9850s comparator output for evaluation of the device as a frequency- and phase-agile clock source (see Figure 17 for an electrical schematic of AD9850/CGPCB). Both versions of the AD9850 evaluation board are designed to interface to the parallel printer port of a PC. The operating software runs under Microsoft Windows and provides a user friendly and intuitive format for controlling the functionality and observing the performance of the device. The 3.5 inch floppy provided with the evaluation board contains an executable file that loads and displays the AD9850 function-selection screen. The evaluation board can be operated with 3.3 V or 5 V supplies. The evaluation boards are configured at the factory for an external reference clock input; if the on-board crystal clock source is used, remove R2.

3.7 AD9850 Evaluation Board Instructions

3.7.1 Required Hardware/Software IBM compatible computer operating in a Windows environment. Printer port, 3.5 inch floppy drive, and Centronics compatible printer cable. XTAL clock or signal generatorif using a signal generator, dc offset the signal to one-half the supply voltage and apply at least 3 V p-p signal across the 50 (R2) input resistor. Remove R2 for high Z clock input. AD9850 evaluation board software disk and AD9850/FSPCB or AD9850/CGPCB evaluation board. 5 V voltage supply.

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3.7.2 Setup 1. Copy the contents of the AD9850 disk onto your hard drive (there are three files). 2. Connect the printer cable from your computer to the AD9850 evaluation board. 3. Apply power to AD9850 evaluation board. The AD9850 is powered separately from the connector marked DUT +V. The AD9850 may be powered with 3.3 V to 5 V. 4. Connect external 50 clock or remove R2 and apply a high Z input clock such as a crystal can oscillator. 5. Locate the file called 9850REV2.EXE and execute that program. 6. Monitor should display a control panel to allow operation of the AD9850 evaluation board. 3.7.3 Operation On the control panel, locate the box called COMPUTER I/O. Point to and click the selection marked LPT1 and then point to the TEST box and click. A message will appear telling users if their choice of output ports is correct. Choose other ports as necessary to achieve a correct setting. If they have trouble getting their computer to recognize any printer port, they should try the following: connect three 2 k pull-up resistors from Pins 9, 8, and 7 of U3 to 5 V. This will assist weak printer port outputs in driving the heavy capacitance load of the printer cable. If troubles persist, try a different printer cable. Locate the MASTER RESET button with the mouse and click it. This will reset the AD9850 to 0 Hz, 0 phase. The output should be a dc voltage equal to the full-scale output of the AD9850.Locate the CLOCK box and place the cursor in the frequency box. Type in the clock frequency (in MHz) that the user will be applying to the AD9850. Click the LOAD button or press enter on the keyboard. Move the cursor to the OUTPUT FREQUENCY box and type in the desired output frequency (in MHz). Click the LOAD button or press the enter key. The BUS MONITOR section of the control panel will show the 32-bit word that was loaded into the AD9850. Upon completion of this step, the AD9850 output should be active and outputting the user's frequency information. Changing the output phase is accomplished by clicking on the down arrow in the OUTPUT PHASE DELAY box to make a selection and then clicking the LOAD button. Other operational modes (frequency sweeping, sleep, serial input) are available to the user via keyboard/mouse control. The AD9850/FSPCB provides access into and out of the on-chip comparator via test point pairs (each pair has an active input and a ground connection). The two active inputs are labeled TP1 and TP2. The unmarked hole next to each labeled test point is a ground connection. The two active outputs are labeled TP5 and TP6. Unmarked ground connections are adjacent to each of these test points. The AD9850/CGPCB provides BNC inputs and outputs associated with the on-chip comparator and the on-board, fifth-order, 200 input/output Z, elliptic, 45 MHz, low-pass filter. Jumpering (soldering a wire) E1 to E2, E3 to E4, and E5 to E6 connects the on-board filter and the midpoint switching voltage to the comparator. Users may elect to insert their own filter and comparator threshold voltage by removing the jumpers and inserting a filter between J7 and J6 and then providing a threshold voltage at E1. If users choose to use the XTAL socket to supply the clock to the AD9850, they must remove R2 (a 50 chip resistor). The crystal oscillator must be either TTL or CMOS (preferably) Compatible.

3.8 Conclusion
The signal flow, programming the AD9850 and other necessary information related to its operation is discussed in this chapter.

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Chapter-4 ARDUINO
Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible, easy-touse hardware and software. It's intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and anyone interested in creating interactive objects or environments. Arduino can sense the environment by receiving input from a variety of sensors and can affect its surroundings by controlling lights, motors, and other actuators. The microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring) and the Arduino development environment (based on Processing). The boards can be built by hand or purchased preassembled; the software can be downloaded for free. The hardware reference designs (CAD files) are available under an open-source license.

4.1 ARDUINO pin description

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as aUSB-to-serial converter.

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Figure 4.1ARDUINO UNO Description

Revision 2 of the Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode. Revision 3 of the board has the following new features: 1.0 pin out: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with the board that uses the AVR, which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin that is reserved for future purposes. Stronger RESET circuit. At mega 16U2 replace the 8U2. "Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.

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4.1.1 Characteristics

4.1.2 Schematic & Reference design Power

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The power pins are as follows:

VIN.

The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.

5V.

This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin
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of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.

3.3V.

A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.

GND.

Ground pins.

IOREF

This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.
Memory

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the boot loader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead()functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 ohms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions: Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip. External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt () function for details. PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function. SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library. LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality: TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire library. There are a couple of other pins on the board: AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference(). Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.
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4.1.3 Communication The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as

a virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, an .inf file is required. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For SPI communication, use the SPI library.
4.1.4 Programming

The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select "Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a boot loader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files). The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is available . The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU boot loader, which can be activated by: On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map of Italy) and then resetting the 8U2. On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.
4.1.5 Automatic (software) RESET Rather than requiring a low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer. One of the Hardware flow control lines (DTR) of theATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken that the boot loader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.

This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the boot loader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending this data. The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may
30

also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum thread for details.
4.1.6 USB over connection protection

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.
4.1.7 Physical characteristics

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"),not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins. Arduino programs are written in C or C++. The Arduino IDE comes with a software library called "Wiring" from the original Wiring project, which makes many common input/output operations much easier.

4.2 Conclusion
Pin description and its functioning and programming Arduino are discussed in this chapter.

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Chapter 5 IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT

5.1 Block Diagram

5.2 Algorithm
1. Start 2. Configuration of pins 3. Send 32 bit frequency 4. Dividing the given 32bit frequency in to 4bytes 3b.transfering a byte taking 1 bit at a time 4. Frequency update 5. Connect the output to the CRO. 6. Sine of desired frequency is obtained 7. End

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5.3 Flow chart

Start

Configuration of pins

Send 32 bit frequency

Dividing the given 32 bit frequency into 4 bytes

Transferring a byte taking one bit at a time

Frequency update

Connect the output to the CRO

Sine of desired frequency is obtained

End

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5.4 Program
#define W_CLK 8 // Pin 8 - connect to AD9850 module word load clock pin (CLK) #define FQ_UD 9 // Pin 9 - connect to freq update pin (FQ) #define DATA 10 // Pin 10 - connect to serial data load pin (DATA) #define RESET 11 // Pin 11 - connect to reset pin (RST). #define pulseHigh(pin) {digitalWrite(pin, HIGH); digitalWrite(pin, LOW); } // transfers a byte, a bit at a time, LSB first to the 9850 via serial DATA line void tfr_byte(byte data) { for (int i=0; i<8; i++, data>>=1) { digitalWrite(DATA, data & 0x01); pulseHigh(W_CLK); //after each bit sent, CLK is pulsed high } } // frequency calc from datasheet page 8 = <sys clock> * <frequency tuning word>/2^32 void sendFrequency(double frequency) { int32_t freq = frequency * 4294967295/125000000; // note 125 MHz clock on 9850 for (int b=0; b<4; b++, freq>>=8) { tfr_byte(freq & 0xFF); } tfr_byte(0x000); // Final control byte, all 0 for 9850 chip pulseHigh(FQ_UD); // Done! Should see output } void setup() { // configure arduino data pins for output pinMode(FQ_UD, OUTPUT); pinMode(W_CLK, OUTPUT); pinMode(DATA, OUTPUT); pinMode(RESET, OUTPUT); pulseHigh(RESET); pulseHigh(W_CLK); pulseHigh(FQ_UD); // this pulse enables serial mode - Datasheet page 12 figure 10 } void loop() { sendFrequency(10.e6); // freq while(1); }

5.5 Conclusion
The algorithm, flow chart and the program used for the implementation of the project are discussed in this chapter.

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Chapter-6

RESULT

Figure 6.1 DDS Module

Figure 6.2 Protoshield 35

Figure 6.3 ARDUINO UNO Board

Figure 6.4 Interfacing of Modules

36

Figure 6.5 Final output waveform

6.1 Conclusion
The results obtained finally are discussed in this chapter.

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Chapter 7
APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1 Applications
Frequency/PhaseAgile Sine Wave Synthesis Clock Recovery and Locking Circuitry for Digital Communications Digitally Controlled ADC Encode Generator Agile Local Oscillator Applications

7.2 Future scope

The DDS is better suited to base stations than to mobiles, because power consumption is high in the wide output bandwidth DDS. The scaling of the IC technologies constantly reduces power consumption in digital circuitry. The same benefit is however not easily achieved in analog circuits. Therefore, the DDS might also be suitable for the mobiles in the future.

7.3 Conclusion
Applications and future scope of this project are clearly discussed in this chapter.

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CHRONOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Comparative Study of PLL, DDS and DDS-based PLL Synthesis Techniques for Communication System by Govind Singh Patel & Sanjay Sharma.

[2]GRIET Arduino manual.

[3] DDS Design, By David Brandon, EDN, May 13, 2004. [4] A Technical Tutorial on Digital Signal Synthesis, Direct Digital 1999, Analog Devices, Inc. . [5] David Buchanan, "Choosing DACs for Direct Digital Synthesis," Application Note AN-237, Analog Devices, Inc. [6] David Brandon, "Direct Digital Synthesizers in Clocking Applications," Application Note AN-823, Analog Devices, 2006. [7] Richard J. Kerr and Lindsay A. Weaver, "Pseudorandom Dither for Frequency Synthesis Noise," U.S.

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Appendix A GLOSSARY OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMSRELATED TERMS

A/D Converter (also A/D or ADC) Short for analog-to-digital converter. This device converts real-world analog signals into a digital format that can be processed by a computer. Video-speed A/D converters are those able to digitize video bandwidth signals (greater than 1MHz): some are capable of sampling at rates up to 500 million samples- per-second (Msps) and beyond. The most common architectures for video-speed A/D converters are "flash" and "subranging." AC Linearity A dynamic measurement of how well an A/D performs. In an ideal A/D converter, a pure sine wave on the analog input appears at the digital output as a pure (sampled) sine wave. In the real world, however, spurious signals due to nonlinear distortion within the A/D appear in the digital output. These anomalies are usually combinations of harmonics of the fundamental and intermodulation products, produced when the fundamental and its harmonics beat with the sampling frequency. Only the spurious and harmonically-related signals that fall within the A/D's input bandwidth (half the sampling rate) are generally considered important. AC linearity is usually characterized in terms of harmonic distortion, signal-to-noise ratio, and intermodulation distortion performance. Acquisition Time This term relates to sampling A/D's which utilize a track/hold amplifier on the input to acquire and hold (to a specified tolerance) the analog input signal. Acquisition time is the time required by the T/H amp to settle to its final value after it is placed in the track mode. Active Filter An active filter is one that uses active devices such as operational amplifiers to synthesize the filter response function. This technique has an advantage at high speeds because the need for inductors (with their poor high-frequency characteristics) is eliminated. Aliased Imaging This is a technique, commonly applied to Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS), for using intentional aliasing as a source of highfrequency signals. The following spectral plot illustrates a DDS output with a clock frequency of 51MHz and fundamental output of 25.5MHz. Aliased images appear at 32MHz, 70MHz, 83MHz, etc., which can be used as signal sources when isolated with a bandpass filter. Aliasing In a sampled data system, the analog input must be sampled at a rate of FS>2FA in order to avoid loss of data (Nyquist Theorem). Adhering to the Nyquist Theorem prevents in-band "alias" signals, which are beat frequencies between the analog signal and the sampling clock that inherently occur at FSFA. As the Nyquist limit is exceeded, the aliased signals move within the band of the analog input (DC - FS/2) and create distortion. Likewise, high frequency noise can also be aliased into the input signal range which mandates low-pass filtering, or anti-alias filtering, on the input of a sampled system. See also Aliased Imaging. Analog Ground In high-speed data acquisition applications, system ground is generally physically separated into "analog" and "digital" grounds in an attempt to suppress digital switching noise and minimize its effect on noise-sensitive analog signal processing
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circuitry. Input signal conditioners, amplifiers, references, and A/D converters are usually connected to analog ground. Aperture Delay Time This term applies to A/D converters and Track/hold amplifiers and defines the time elapsed from the application of the "hold" (or "encode") command until the sampling switch opens fully and the device actually takes the sample. Aperture delay time is a fixed delay time and is normally not in itself an error source since the "hold" clock edge can be advanced to compensate for it. Aperture Jitter Uncertainty, or sample-to-sample of variation, in the aperture delay time. Aperture jitter is a source of error in a sampling system and it determines the maximum slew rate limitation of the sampled analog input signal for a given system resolution. D/A Converter (also D/A or DAC) Short for digital-to-analog converter, this is a device that changes a digitally-coded word into its "equivalent" quantized analog voltage or current. Just like the A/D device, there are very high-speed D/A's available, capable of converting at data rates up to 1GHz. Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) A process by which you can digitally generate a frequency agile, highly-pure sine wave, or arbitrary waveform, from an accurate reference clock. The digital output waveform is typically tuned by a 32-bit digital word which allows sub-Hz frequency agility. The DDS's frequency output is normally reconstructed with a high-speed, high- performance D/A to generate an analog output signal. The ability to add internal functions such as phase modulation, amplitude modulation, digital filtering, and I&Q outputs, are making DDS devices attractive for digital communication applications. They serve in capacities such as modulators, local oscillators, and clock detect/recovery circuits. Jitter Unwanted variations in the frequency or phase of a digital or analog signal. Nyquist Theorem This theorem says that if a continuous bandwidth-limited signal contains no frequency components higher than fC then the original signal can be recovered without distortion if it is sampled at a rate of at least 2 fC.. This theorem applies to A/D converter applications as well as data transmission density over limited bandwidth channels. Sin(X)/X The output of a D/A converter is a series of quantized levels that represent an analog signal whose amplitude is determined by the sin (X)/X response. At higher output frequencies, a D/A converter application may require a sin(X)/X compensation filter to normalize its output amplitude.

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Appendix B JITTER

Jitter Reduction in DDS Clock Generator Systems One of the most frequently asked questions regarding DDS clock generator applications is how to minimize clock edge jitter. Here are some basic steps in assuring best jitter performance: 1. Use a stable reference clock for the DDS 2. Filter the DDS output to reduce all non-harmonic spurs to at least 65 dBc. 3. Drive the comparator inputs differentially. 4. Provide plenty of comparator over-drive (at least 1 volt p-p). 5. Provide low Z inputs to the comparator to suppress high Z noise sources. 6. Use an external comparator or divider for very demanding applications. 7. Avoid using slow slew rate signals. 8. Use spur reduction techniques. Using a stable reference clock to the DDS is obvious since jitter in = jitter out. Filtering of the DDS output requires some elaboration. Bandpass filtering is best since spurs may reside well below and above the fundamental output. If wideband output is required, then a low pass filter is the only choice, but jitter performance will be compromised. To make filtering easier, keep the system clock frequency as high as possible to distance the image spurs as far as possible from the fundamental. Driving the comparator inputs with a low impedance, differential, 1 V p-p input signal is as good as it gets. The low impedance input discourages extraneous noise and comparator kick-back. The merits of differential inputs include common-mode noise rejection and 2X the input slew rate. A passive broadband 1:1 RF transformer is useful in changing from single-ended to differential configuration; however, it will not pass dc so some means of biasing to the comparator input range may be needed. Sufficient comparator input overdrive keeps output dispersion (variation in propagation delay) to a minimum and promotes decisive switching. Use of an off-chip comparator is recommended since the hostile (noisy) DDS environment degrades jitter performance. In choosing an external high-speed comparator, look for good PSRR specifications, proper output logic levels, low dispersion and single supply operation. 5 MHz and above: These are the easiest signals to handle due to their fast slew rates. A reason able jitter figure for these frequencies is about 75 ps p-p using the above techniques. Higher frequency signals have higher harmonic distortion. This is not bad until the harmonic is aliased back into the pass band to the comparator where it becomes a nonharmonically related product that will increase jitter. Aliased harmonics can be reduced by passing the filtered fundamental and spurs to a passive frequency mixer, up converting to a much higher frequency and then dividing down (example VHF divider is a Mitel SP8402) to your desired output frequency. The frequency division process does two very desirable things: 1. Reduces spurious components by 20LOG(N) where N is the division ratio. 2. Gives you a square wave output which may eliminate the need for a comparator if the divider has suitable logic levels.

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Below 5 MHz: Much more difficult to get good jitter performance due to the slow slew rate of the fundamental. Best results are obtained by outputting a much higher frequency than needed and then dividing down to your Desired output. The same benefits as 1 and 2 above will apply. This method of spur reduction is especially useful When extremely low frequencies with low jitter are needed. Depending on external frequency division ratios, jitter Levels approaching 75 ps p-p seem obtainable. Without frequency division, a 1 khz sine wave could produce 10 ns p-p jitter just due to the slow slew to the comparator.

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