Verbal Learing

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Verbal Learning
...the acquisition and retention of verbal information
In everyday terms, it’s like “memorization”.
Two Basic Tasks

Serial Learning: learning to reproduce the items in a
list in their original order (for example, learning the
letters of the alphabet).
Paired-Associate Learning: learning to make a verbal
response when a specific stimulus is presented (for
example, learning foreign language vocabulary:
stimulus = foreign word, response = English word).
Verbal Learning
Serial and paired-associate learning go on all the
time, often in the same situation, like memorizing
your sign-in name and password for an E-mail
account:
Sign-In Name
sniffy
Password
tarlautriv
Memorizing the letters of your password would be an
serial
example of ________________ learning.
Typing “sniffy” under Sign-In Name rather than
paired-associate learning.
“tarlautriv” is an example of ______________
Verbal Learning
Password
tarlautriv
How would you memorize this password? One

approach is simple repetition, or rote learning—
learning in a mechanical fashion without thinking
about the meaning of the information.
You would just keep saying t-a-r-l-a-u-t-r-i-v. In

terms of classical conditioning, t is paired with a, a
is paired with r, and so on. Associations may
eventually form through conditioning.
Verbal Learning
Password
tarlautriv
Another term for this shallow, unthinking strategy is

maintenance rehearsal. It’s best for maintaining
information in memory temporarily—just a few
seconds— not for long-term retention.
Verbal Learning
Password
tarlautriv
A better approach is to add meaning as you rehearse

the list. This is called elaborative rehearsal.
For example, you could imagine that the letters form 3

groups, tar lau triv, and memorize these 3 sounds.
Even better, when you look at the letters in reverse

order, you will find that they spell,
virtual rat
Verbal Learning
Password
tarlautriv
virtual rat
You can create a password by thinking of easy-to-
remember words like these, then writing them
backwards. When logging in, just remember the words
and type them in backwards.
These are examples of mnemonics, strategies people
use to improve memory by reorganizing information.
Mnemonics involve applying rules for putting
information into memory (encoding) and for getting it
out again (retrieval).
Verbal Learning
Serial or Paired-Associate Learning?

Hi, my name’s
Kelly.
Next time you see her, will you remember her name?
Paired-Associate Learning.
This is ____________
Stimulus = face Response = name

Verbal Learning

Boys and girls, who
Ch knows what sound
goes with these
letters?
Learning Word Recognition Skills:

Phonics (“Sounding the Word Out”)
Paired-Associate Learning.
This is ____________
Stimulus = letters Response = sound

Verbal Learning

Who can spell
nes s ac ar y ? the word,
“necessary”?
Learning to Spell
Serial
This is ____________ Learning.
The letters of a word are like items in a list.

Verbal Learning
Hermann Ebbinghaus
His book, On Memory
(1885), showed how
experimental methods
could be used to measure
the learning and retention
of verbal items arranged in
lists.
His methods applied the theory of learning developed

by “empiricist” philosophers, who said we acquire
knowledge by associating (connecting) things that
repeatedly occur closely together in time.
Verbal Learning
Ebbinghaus rigorously controlled the
timing, the order of presentation, and
number of practice trials, all key
factors in learning according to
associative theory.
Amazingly, he served as his own subject! But his
findings have been repeated countless times in
conventional experiments.
Rather than memorize poems, speeches, or other
writings, he created lists of artificial verbal units called
“nonsense syllables” like the ones on the left. Each
consisted of a consonant, then a vowel, then a
consonant.
Verbal Learning
He assumed he would be equally
unfamiliar with each nonsense syllable
at the beginning of practice. One list
would be like any other. This was a
form of experimental control.
We now know that his assumption was wrong.
Nonsense syllables, like words, have degrees of
meaning.
Researchers measure the “meaningfulness” of an item
in terms of how readily it reminds you of a word, like
how many words you can think of in 10 seconds.
The more meaningful items are, the faster they’re
learned and the longer they’re remembered.
Verbal Learning
Ebbinghaus directed his attention to
one nonsense syllable at a time, going
from one item to the next according to
a time schedule.
Here’s what it’s like. Look only at the nonsense

syllable that the arrow points to. Don’t let your
eyes wander to another one or you’ll lose
experimental control. You must go in order!
It’s hard to do. Researchers working in the
Ebbinghaus tradition developed methods that
showed subjects only one item at a time so they
could control the order and timing of
presentation.
Verbal Learning
Serial Learning
Anticipation Procedure
The first item the subject sees is an arbitrary
symbol, like *, then they see one item at a time for
a certain number of seconds...
jur
foh
bok
*
Verbal Learning
Serial Learning
From Trial 2 on, when subjects see a certain item,
they try to say the item that comes right after it;
they “anticipate” the next item.
Subject says...
jur
foh
* bokjur
foh
Verbal Learning
Serial Learning
Each item that appears provides feedback on the
previous response and acts as a cue for saying the
next response.
Subject says...
bok taw
Verbal Learning
Serial Learning
Complete-List Procedure
Cognitive researchers favor a procedure in which
subjects receive the complete list during a study
trial. They can look at any items in any order for
as long as they want.
Nonsense!
Right after the study trial there’s a test trial

where the subject tries to recite or write all the
items in their original order. They get no feedback
until the next study trrial.
Verbal Learning
Paired-Associate Learning
Hi there! Sure! How’s it

Remember me? going, Katie?
In paired-associate learning, when you see a

stimulus, you’re suppose to say the (correct)
response. In real life, when you say the
wrong response, it could be embarrassing.
Want to try again?
Just kidding,
Kathy!
Verbal Learning
Each pair of items is presented in a 2-step procedure.
In the first step, the stimulus is presented alone, and
and the subject tries to state the response that goes
with it. In the second step, the stimulus and response
items appear together. This gives the subject feedback
and another opportunity to learn the association.
Verbal Learning
Stimulus Response
bok
foh taw
jur
Verbal Learning
Study-Test Procedure
There are two kinds of trials. On a study trial, the
subject sees each complete pair of items. Then there
is a test trial in which the subject is presented the
first item of each pair and is asked to state the item
that goes with it.
Study Trial Test Trial
foh - jur foh -
bok - taw bok -
Verbal Learning
Free Recall
This procedure resembles serial learning. You are
given a list of words and immediately afterwards you
try to recall them. But it can be in any order. It
doesn’t have to be the original order like in serial
learning.
It’s like remembering a shopping list: cereal, apples,
milk, bread, cookies.
When you get to the store, it doesn’t matter what order

you remember them in as long as you remember them
all.
Verbal Learning
Measuring Learning (Acquisition)
Ebbinghaus counted the number of
study trials he needed to reach a
criterion of mastery: one recitation of
the list without an error.
The more trials it took to learn a list, the slower

would be the rate of learning.
Verbal Learning
Measuring Memory (Retention)
Ebbinghaus developed a measure

called the savings score.
After learning a list, he would wait a period of time

(the retention interval) and see if he could recite the
list without an error.
If he missed anything, he would practice the list until
he met the criterion again (relearning).
He then compared the number of trials to learn the
list with the number of trials to relearn it, using the
following formula:
Verbal Learning
Savings Score
Number of Trials to Learn – Number of Trials to Relearn

X 100
Number of Trials to Learn
(Multiplying by 100 makes the score a per cent.)
For example, suppose it took Ebbinghaus 12 trials

to learn a list. Then, 24 hours later it took him 4
trials to relearn it. The savings score would be
_____ ?
Verbal Learning
Savings Score
12 – 4
X 100
12
= 67%
This means that 67% of the original information
was retained during the interval between learning
and testing.

Verbal Learing

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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Two Basic Tasks

How would you memorize this password? One

You would just keep saying t-a-r-l-a-u-t-r-i-v. In

Another term for this shallow, unthinking strategy is

A better approach is to add meaning as you rehearse

For example, you could imagine that the letters form 3

Even better, when you look at the letters in reverse

Serial or Paired-Associate Learning?

Stimulus = face Response = name

Serial or Paired-Associate Learning?

Learning Word Recognition Skills:

Stimulus = letters Response = sound

Serial or Paired-Associate Learning?

The letters of a word are like items in a list.

His methods applied the theory of learning developed

Here’s what it’s like. Look only at the nonsense

Right after the study trial there’s a test trial

Hi there! Sure! How’s it

In paired-associate learning, when you see a

When you get to the store, it doesn’t matter what order

The more trials it took to learn a list, the slower

Ebbinghaus developed a measure

After learning a list, he would wait a period of time

Number of Trials to Learn – Number of Trials to Relearn

For example, suppose it took Ebbinghaus 12 trials

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